C O G N IT IO N A ND E M OT IO N , 1 9 9 7 , 1 1 (4 ), 3 5 1 ± 3 7 2
T h e E ffe cts o f M o o d o n th e S tru ctu re
o f th e S elf-c o n ce p t
D a v id A . D eS te n o a n d P e te r S a lo v e y
Y a le U n iv e r s ity , N e w H a v e n , U S A
Thi s ex pe rim e nt e x plore d the in¯ ue nc e of m ood on the org anis ati on of both
the s e lf -c o nc e pt and i nform ation about a know n othe r. M ul ti dim e n si onal
sc al ing te c hni que s w e re us e d to m ode l the struc ture of both re pre s e ntati ons
he ld b y indi v id uals e x pe rie nc i ng happy , sad, and ne utra l m oods . T he s e lf c onc e pt f e atu re s o f ne utral m ood partic i pants w e re prim aril y org anis e d along
ac hie v em e nt- and af® l iatio n-orie nte d di m e ns ions . In c o ntrast, the s e lf c onc e pts of happy and sad partic i pants w e re l e s s c om ple x ; se lf- fe ature s
w e re prim aril y org anis e d w ith re s pe c t to a si m pl e v ale nc e d im e ns io n. In
all thre e m ood c onditi on s, indi v id uals ’ c onc e ptions o f a know n othe r w e re
pre do m inantl y org anis e d w ith re s pe c t to a g e ne ral v ale nc e dim e nsi on; how e v e r, as w ith th e rep re s e ntatio n of se l f, the pre se n ce of a happ y or sad m ood
ac c e ntua te d the us e of the v al e nc e di m e ns ion for fe ature org anis ati on. The
im p lic atio ns of th is m o de ll ing proc e dure f or i nv e stig ating s e lf -c o nc e pt
struc ture and the e f fe c ts of m ood on c og ni tiv e org ani sation in g e ne ral are
dis c us se d.
IN T R O DU C T IO N
O f all the re pre s e n tati ons i n m e m ory , thos e c onc e rni ng the s e lf are am ong
the m os t i m po rtant for dai l y func tio nin g . B e s id e s prov i di ng a di s tin c t
pe rc e ptual and c onc e p tual ide nti ty ( Ne i s s e r, 1 9 9 2 ), the s e l f-c onc e p t
Re que s ts for re prin ts s hould be s e nt to e ithe r D av id A . D e S teno, w ho is now a t the
D e partm e nt of P s y c holo g y , O hio S tate U niv e rs it y , 1 8 8 5 N e il A v e nue , C olu m bus , O H
4 3 2 1 0 , U S A or P e ter S alo v e y , D epart m e nt of P s y c holo g y , Y a le U niv e rs i ty, P .O .B ox
2 0 8 2 0 5 , N e w H av e n, C T 0 6 5 2 0 ± 8 2 0 5 , US A .
W e w oul d l ik e to thank W il li am J. M cGuire , M ahz ari n R. B anaji , and A m y V ita le f or the ir
c om m e nts on e arli e r draf ts of this m anus c rip t. T hi s re s e arc h w as s upport ed by a N atio nal
S c ie nc e Fo unda tion G raduate Fe l lo w s hip to D av id D e S te n o an d by NIH C A 4 2 1 0 1 , A C S
P B R- 8 4 , NS F P re s id e ntia l Y oung Inv e s tig ator A w a rd B NS -9 0 5 8 0 2 0 , a nd f undi ng from the
M a c A rthur Fo unda tion P rog ram o n C ons c i ous and U nc ons c io us M e ntal P roc e s s e s to P e ter
S alo v e y . P ortio ns of thi s pa pe r w e re pre s e nted at the annual c onv e ntio n of the A m e ric an
P s y c holo g ic al S oc ie ty , W a s hin g ton, DC , July 1 9 9 4 , as ``M ood s tate in ¯ ue nc e s s e lf -c on c e pt
s truc ture ’ ’ .
Ó
1 9 9 7 P s y c holo g y P re s s , an im pri nt of E rlb aum (U K) T ay l or & Fran c i s L td
3 52
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
i n¯ ue nc e s m otiv ati on (Hig g in s , 1 9 9 0 ; M ark us & W urf, 1 9 8 7 ) an d e m otio n
(Hi g g i ns , 1 9 8 7 ; L inv il l e , 1 9 8 5 ; S e g al , 1 9 8 8 ; S how e rs & Kl i ng , 1 9 9 6 ). It
no t onl y g ui de s be hav io ur by prov id in g i nfo rm ati on c o nc e rni ng de s i re d
g o al s and dre ade d pos s i bi l iti e s (Hig g in s , 1 9 8 7 ; M arkus & Nurius , 1 9 8 6 ),
bu t al s o i n¯ u e nc e s af fe c ti v e i nte n s i ty (L i nv il l e , 1 9 8 5 ) an d ac ts , fo r s om e ,
as a d iath e s i s for d e p re s s i on (B e c k , S te e r, & E ps te i n, 1 9 9 2 ; Hig g in s , 1 9 9 0 ;
S e g al, 1 9 8 8 ; S how e rs, 1 9 9 2 ).
T he s e d is parate e ffe c ts of the s e l f-c onc e p t are the o ris e d to be m e di ate d
throug h c hron ic inte r-i ndi v id ual and te m porary i ntra- ind iv idu al al te rati ons
i n the re lati v e ac c e s s ib il i ti e s o f d iffe re nt pi e c e s of s e l f- i nform ation
(Hi g g i ns , 1 9 9 0 ; Ki hl s tro m & Kl e i n, 1 9 9 4 ; M ark us & W urf, 1 9 8 7 ). T hat
i s , m oti v ati on an d e m oti on are tho ug ht to be g re atl y af fe c te d by on e ’ s
c urre ntl y ac ti v e s e t of s e lf -i nform ati on , the w orking s e l f-c onc e pt (M arkus
& W urf, 1 9 8 7 ). A s m an y hav e s how n (e .g . Kl e i n & L oftus , 1 9 9 3 ;
M arku s , 1 9 7 7 ) , the c onte nts of the s e l f-c onc e pt are no t s tore d random ly
i n m e m ory ; rathe r, th e y are as s oc i ati v e l y li nke d fe atu re s that c o m pris e a
m e ntal re pre s e ntati o n (i.e . a c onc e pt) . C ons e q ue ntly , th e c o nte n ts of th e
w orki ng s e l f-c onc e p t, an d in turn, the re l ativ e ac c e s s i bi l iti e s of nonac ti v ate d s e l f-info rm ation , are pa rtly de te rm in e d by th e i di os y n c rati c org ani s ati on, or as s oc i ati on , o f s e l f-info rm ation po s s e s s e d by i ndi v id ual s. T hat
i s , the di ff e re n ti al probabi l iti e s that c e rtai n b its o f s e lf -i nfo rm ation w i l l
e nte r the w orki ng s e lf-c on c e p t are s om e fun c ti on of th e org ani s atio nal
s c h e m e , or s tru c ture , o f e ac h in div id ual’ s c on c e pt of s e lf (M arkus &
W urf, 1 9 8 7 ); the ac ti v atio n o f c e rtain bi ts of s e lf-re l e v ant info rm ation
s h oul d in c re as e the ac c e s s i bil i ti e s of hi g hl y as s oc i ate d o the r bi ts (c f.
Hi g g i ns , V an Ho ok, & Dorfm an, 1 9 8 8 ). T he re fore , an und e rs tan d in g o f
the org ani s ati on of the s e lf-c on c e p t, i n ad diti on to s ol e ly i ts c onte nts , is
fun dam e ntal to i nv e s tig ati ng its func tio nin g ; s uc h kn ow le dg e w i ll al l ow
us to pre di c t al te ratio ns i n the re l ati v e ac c e s s ib il i ti e s of c e rtai n ty p e s o f
s e l f-i nform ati on to c o ns c i ous n e ss , and the re by , m al l e abil i ty i n the p he no m e nol og ic al e x pe rie n c e of s e lf (c f. M ark us & Kund a, 1 9 8 6 ; M c Gui re
& M c Gui re , 1 9 8 8 ).
L i nv i l le (1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 7 ) and S how e rs (1 9 9 2 ) hav e s uc c e s s fu ll y us e d m u lti di m e ns i onal m o de ls of s e l f-c onc e pt org an is ati on to pred ic t dy s phoria and
s e l f-e s te e m . In e ac h of th e i r m o de ls , th e di ffe re ntial as s oc i ation s am ong
s p e c i® c ty pe s of s e l f-fe atu re s h av e be e n s how n to b e re l ate d to th e
e x pe rie nc e of e m oti on. Im po rtantl y , this re l ati on ho lds e v e n w he n c ontrol l in g for the v al e nc e of the fe atu re s , the re by de m on strati ng the uni qu e
i n¯ ue nc e o f s e l f-fe atu re org ani s atio n on the e x pe rie nc e of e m oti on. How e v e r, pre v i ous w ork e x am i ni ng the re lati on b e tw e e n se lf-c on c e p t s truc ture
and m ood has be e n prim ari l y c o rrel ati onal ; m ood has not b e e n m ani pul ate d
to e s tab l is h ® rm l y the di re c ti on o f c a us al ity . Inde e d, as S ho w e rs (1 9 9 2 ) has
no te d, th e i nte rre lati on of m ood and s e lf-c on c e pt org an is ati on m ay re pre -
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
35 3
s e nt bi di re c ti on al c au s al iti e s ; c og ni tiv e org ani s ati on m ay b e af fe c te d by , as
w e ll as i n¯ ue nc e , a ff e c tiv e e x p e rie nc e .
T he p urpos e of th e pre s e n t e x pe rim e nt i s to e x am i ne the p os s i bi l ity th at
alte ration s in af fe c ti v e s tate m ay i n¯ ue nc e the org ani s atio n o f the s e lfc onc e pt, and the re fore , th e m all e abi l ity of th e e x p e rie nc e of s e lf. T hat i s , as
the as s oc iati v e i nte rre lati ons am on g s e l f-fe atu re s ¯ uc tuate , the c om po si ti on
of the s p e c i ® c s e ts of fe atu re s that be c om e ac ti v e s h oul d al s o di ffe r as a
func tio n of the s e c h ang e s . In this e x pe rim e nt, w e s u g g e s t a te c hni que for
m o de ll i ng the org ani s ati on of s e lf-re l e v ant fe atu re s and the n e x am i ne the
i n¯ ue n c e of happy and s ad m ood o n fe atu re org ani s ati on.
S tructure o f th e S elf-con cept
M any m ode l s h av e b e e n s ug g e s te d to c h art the c o nc e ptual org anis ati on of
s e l f-fe atu re s (Kle i n & L o ftus , 1 9 9 3 ; M arkus & W urf, 1 9 8 7 ). C u rre n t
re s e arc h s ug g e s ts that the s e lf-c on c e pt i s c om pris e d of both s e m an ti c and
e pi s odi c in fo rm atio n, onl y s om e su bs e t of w hi c h i s ac ti v e at any o ne ti m e
(Kihl s trom & Kl e i n, 1 9 9 4 ). Im po rtantl y , as s o c iatio ns am o ng the s e s e lffe atu re s m us t be org ani s e d in a m eani ng ful w ay (c f. M e di n, 1 9 8 9 ; S m i th,
1 9 9 0 ); the as s oc iati v e l in ks am ong a s e t of trai ts and/or e x e m plars m us t
v ary i n s om e s y s te m ati c fas h ion , or the c o nc e pt o f s e lf w oul d no t be
c ohe re nt. Inde e d , thi s i de a form s the bas i s of w hat has b e e n te rm e d the
s e l f-sc he m a (Ke ll y , 1 9 5 5 ; M arkus , 1 9 7 7 ; M arkus & S m i th , 1 9 8 1 ; M arkus
& Z aj onc , 1 9 8 5 ).
A s T v e rs ky and his c ol l e ag ue s hav e s how n, the pe rc e iv e d s i m il ari ty of
any tw o ob je c ts is no t ® x e d, but rathe r i s a func ti on of the di m e ns io ns us e d
for c o m pari s on (Gati & T v e rsky , 1 9 8 4 ; T v e rsky , 1 9 7 7 ). T he re fore , as
S m ith and Z a rate (1 9 9 2 ) hav e arg ue d, the as s oc i ati on s am ong e x e m pl ars
m ay v ary as a func ti on of c o nte x t, m oti v ation , or s o c ial kno w l e dg e . For
e x am p le , w he the r a m al e A s i an profe s s or i s p e rc e i v e d as m ore s i m i l ar to a
nonA s i an, m ale profe s s or, or to a fe m al e A s ian de nti s t, de pe nds on the
di ffe ren ti al di m ens i on w e i g hts appl i e d to th e o c c u p a ti o n v e rs us r a c e
di m e ns io ns . W i thout s uc h di ffe re ntial w e i g hti ng s o f di m e ns io ns , any
tw o obj e c ts c oul d be arbi traril y s im il ar (M urphy & M e d in, 1 9 8 5 ). T h us ,
i n an y c o nc e pt, fe atu re s s ho uld b e l in ke d alon g di m e ns i ons that are
w e ig h te d d iffe re nti all y fo r im portanc e (M e di n, 1 9 8 9 ; M urphy & M e di n,
1 9 8 5 ). T h e e x ac t di m ens ion s us e d, an d the i r w e ig hts , de riv e from d e v e l opm e ntal e x pe rie nc e s and v ary bo th i nte rin di v i dual ly and as a fun c ti on of
s i tu ati onal c ue i ng (M e di n, 1 9 8 9 ; S m ith & Z a rate , 1 9 9 2 ). T hus , m all e abi l ity
of the s e l f-c onc e pt c oul d b e e x pl ain e d by the v ari e d u s e of c e rtain prin c ipl e s to bi nd tog e the r pi e c e s of s e l f-know l e dg e i n the w orki ng s e l f-c onc e pt.
For e x am pl e , the M c Gui re s hav e s how n that the c onte nts of the w orki ng
s e l f-c onc e pt obe y a princ i pl e of di s ti nc ti v e ne ss (M c Gui re & M c Gui re ,
3 54
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
1 9 8 8 ). T he re fore , as s oc i ati ons of s e l f-fe atu re s m us t be dy nam ic , fo r the s e t
of fe atu re s that di s tin g ui s h on e in c e rtai n e nv i ronm e nts c hang e s in o th e rs
(M c Gui re, M c Gui re , & C he e v e r, 1 9 8 6 ).
O ne o rg ani s atio nal m od e l of th e s e l f-c onc e pt, th e n, m ay be th oug h t of as
a s e t of s e l f- fe atu re s array e d i n an n -di m en s io nal s pac e , w ith the di s tan c e s
am ong th e i te m s be i ng s om e fun c ti on of the i r l e v e l s of as s o c i atio n. M ore ov e r, th e d iffe re nt di m e ns io ns c oul d v ary i n s al i e n c e as a f unc tion o f
di s p os i ti on al or s ituati onal i n¯ ue nc e s , the re by al te ring the inte r-fe atu re
di s tan c e s i n the c o n® g urati on. S u c h a m o de l w ould prov ide info rm ation
re g ardi ng not o nly th e c om ple x ity o f the s e l f, but al s o the re l atio n of e ac h
fe atu re both to the s ali e nt di m e ns i on s of org ani s ati on an d to e ac h othe r.
T h us , the w orki ng s e l f-c onc e pt w oul d c ons i s t of a c e rtai n s e t of as s oc i ate d
(i .e . c l os e in di s tan c e ) fe atu re s i n th e c on® g urati on; ho w e v e r, as di m e n s i on al sali e nc i e s c han g e , the c o m pos iti on o f the s e t of ac ti v e info rm ation
w i ll al s o, due to th e c hang i ng c on® g ural pos i tio ns o f th e s e l f-fe atu re s . W e
be l i e v e that c hang e s in m ood s tate m ay be on e s uc h s i tu ati onal v ari abl e
that i s c apabl e of i n¯ ue n c i ng s e l f-c onc e pt o rg ani sa tion.
M o od In ¯ u en ces on C o gn itiv e P ro cesses
Re s e arc h atte s ting to the in ¯ ue nc e of af fe c t on c og ni tiv e proc e s s e s c on tin ue s to g row (C l ore, S c hw arz , & C onw ay , 1 9 9 4 ; Forg as , 1 9 9 2 ; Ni e de nthal & Ki tay am a, 1 9 9 4 ). In an e x te ns i v e re v i e w o f re s e a rc h
i nv e s ti g atin g the e ffe c ts of m ood o n the s e l f, S e di kid e s (1 9 9 2 , p . 3 0 2 )
c onc lu de d that: `` . . . m ood has re l iab le e ffe c ts o n atte ntio n, m e m ory ,
j udg m e nts , e x p e c tati ons , an d be hav i ors re g ard ing th e s e lf.’ ’ In ad diti on,
S in g e r and S alov e y (1 9 8 8 ) s um m ari s e d how the e ffe c ts of m ood o n th e
re c al l of s e l f-re le v ant m ate rial re ¯ e c t a m o od-c ong rue nt b ias . A l th oug h
s o m e i nc on s is te nc ie s hav e be e n re porte d (P arrott & S ab ini , 1 9 9 0 ) , m os t
m ood re s e arc h ® nds that i ndi v i dual s e x pe rie n c ing a happy or s ad m ood
te nd to re c all a propo rtion ate l y hi g h e r num be r o f li ke -v al e nc e d s e l fattri bu te s , a ® ndi ng that c an b e re pl i c ate d w i th c l i ni c all y de pre s s e d in di v i du al s (Harte r & M arol d, 1 9 9 1 ; M att, V a z qu e z , & C am pbe l l , 1 9 9 2 ;
S alo v e y & S in g e r, 1 9 8 9 ) .
M ore re l e v ant to th e pre s e nt i s s ue , how e v e r, i s e v i de nc e s h ow i ng that
m ood af fe c ts the atte n ti on g iv e n to the he d oni c qual iti e s of info rm ation
(e .g . Forg as & B o w e r, 1 9 8 7 ; Hal be rstad t & Ne id e n th al , i n p re s s ; W e g e ne r,
P e tty , & S m i th, 1 9 9 5 ) an d s ti m ulus c ate g oris atio n (M ay e r, Gas c hke ,
B rav e rm an, & E v ans , 1 9 9 2 ; M urray , S uj an, Hi rt, & S uj an, 1 9 9 0 ). If
m ood inc re as e s the atte ntio n i ndi v i dual s g i v e to the he doni c qual i ti e s o f
i nform ati on, the n i t fol low s that for purpos e s of de te rm i ni ng pe rc e i v e d
s i m ilarity , or as s o c i atio n, am ong i nform ati on ite m s, th e he don ic di m ens ion
w i ll in c re as e in i m portanc e . In a c onv i nc i ng de m ons tratio n of th is e ffe c t i n
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
35 5
the are a o f fac e p e rc e p ti on, Hal be rstad t and Nie de nthal (i n pre s s ) s how e d
that i ndi v i dual s e x pe rie n c i ng a happy or s ad m oo d e v i de nc e d a g re ate r
re li anc e on the he do nic qu al i ty of fac e s (i .e . the i r e m oti onal e x pre s s i ons ) i n
de te rm i ni ng i nte r-fac e s i m i l ariti e s than di d ind iv id uals not e x pe rie nc in g a
he i g hte ne d m o od. T hi s e ffe c t, m ore ov e r, w as re pl ic ate d us i ng a v ari e ty of
s tim ul i and m ood-i nduc ti on proc e dure s , the re by atte s ti ng to its robus tne s s .
W e be li e v e that a s i m i lar phe no m e non m ay oc c ur w i th re s pe c t to the
fe atu re s c o m pris i ng the s e l f- c o nc e pt. Mo re s pe c i ® c al ly , the s al i e nc e o f the
he don ic di m e ns ion fo r org an is ati onal purpos e s m ay i nc re as e am o ng indi v i dual s e x pe rie nc i ng a he ig hte n e d m ood s tate . C ons e qu e n tl y , the as s oc iation of s e l f-fe ature s w oul d be bas e d prim aril y on the ir re s pe c ti v e he don ic
qual i ti e s , as oppos e d to oth e r m ore ® ne -g rai ne d c rite ria. S u c h a s i tu ati on
c oul d hav e g re at c ons e que nc e s for m oo d re g u lati on. For i ns tan c e , i f o ne i s
i n a ne g ati v e m ood , thi s m o de l w oul d pre di c t an i nc re as e in the am ou nt of
l ike -v al e nc e d s e l f-info rm ation be c om in g ac c e s s i bl e , re g ardl e s s of i ts re le v anc e to the c urre nt s i tu ati on; ne g ati v e s e l f-e x e m pl ars us u al l y n ot as s oc iate d in th e w orki ng s e lf-c onc e p t (e .g . fai l in g an e x am an d be i ng to ld one
i s u nattrac tiv e ) m ay s udde nl y be c om e l i nke d bas e d s o le l y on the ir v al e nc e .
Th e P re sent S tu dy
T he pre s e n t s tudy w as de s ig n e d to d e te rm in e w he the r m oo d in ¯ ue nc e s the
s truc ture of the s e l f-c o nc e pt. T o a c c o m pl i s h thi s g oal , w e e m plo y e d an
i ndi v id ual di ffe re nc e s c al in g (INDS C A L ) anal y s i s s i m il ar to the one us e d
by Hal be rstad t and Ni e de nthal (i n pre s s ) and S al ov e y (1 9 8 6 ). INDS C A L ,
be i ng a ty pe of m ul tidi m e ns i onal s c al in g (M DS ), i s de s ig ne d to unc ov e r the
l ate nt d im e ns i ons us e d to org a nis e a s e t of s ti m uli . How e v e r, as oppo s e d to
tw o-w ay s c al ing te c hni que s , i t all ow s di re c t c o m pari s o ns b e tw e e n the
m u lti di m e ns i onal c on® g uratio ns of d iffe re nt e x pe rim e n tal g roup s . M ore ov e r, it produc e s an n -di m e ns i onal c on® g uratio n of s tim ul i array e d al ong
s pe c i ® c , di ffe ren ti al ly w e ig hte d di m e ns i on s . T his c on® g urati on prov id e s an
e x c e l le nt analo g ue fo r the c o nc e ptual m ode l of s e l f- c o nc e pt org an is ati on
pre v i ous l y di s c us s e d.
T he M DS s o lu ti ons (i .e . th e n -d im e ns i onal c on ® g u rati ons of de s c ripti v e
fe atu re s ) w e re de riv e d from parti c ip an ts ’ rati ng s o f pe rsonal i ty trai ts and
phy s ic al attri bute s , tw o i m portan t ty pe s of i nform ati on c onta ine d i n the
s e l f-c onc e pt (M c Gui re , 1 9 8 4 ; Pre nti c e , 1 9 9 0 ). W e c o ll e c te d i ndi c e s of the
as s oc i atio ns of th e s e te rm s w i th re s pe c t to the s e lf, not s i m ply m e as ure s of
the ir s e m antic s im ilari ty . Partic i pants al s o rate d the s am e s e t of i te m s for
the ir de s c ripti v e n e s s of an oth e r pe rson , the n US P re s i de nt Ge org e B u s h.
T he u s e of a pre s i de nt as a targ e t fo r trait j udg e m e nts has be e n e m ploy e d
s uc c e s s fu ll y in pas t res e arc h (e .g . Ke e nan, Gol di ng , & B row n, 1 9 9 2 ); both
a pre s i de nt’ s pe rson ali ty and appe aranc e are s om e w h at fam il i ar to the
3 56
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
g e ne ral pu bl ic . T he Ge org e B us h tas k w as in c l ud e d for tw o purpos e s . Firs t,
i f the c on® g urati ons for s e l f and othe r di ffe re d, as w e e x pe c te d, w e c o ul d
be c on® d e nt th at the re s ul ti ng org ani s ation al patte rns w e re not due s ol e ly to
the s e m an ti c re l ati ons o f the te rm s , but rathe r to the i r re l ation s i n th e
c onte x t of the s e lf. S e c ond , di ffe re nt c on® g uratio ns w oul d s u g g e s t that
the s e l f m ay p os s e s s so m e uni que re pre s e ntati o nal prope rtie s (s e e P re ntic e ,
1 9 9 0 ).
In thi s s tud y , w e c o m pare d the M DS c on® g uratio ns of ind iv id uals in
happ y , s ad, and ne utral m oo ds . In ac c ord w i th the ® ndi ng s of Hal be rstad t
and Ni e de nthal (in pre s s ), w e e x pe c te d that ind iv id uals e x pe rie n c i ng a
happ y or s ad m ood state w oul d re ly m ore on a g e n e rali s e d he do ni c
di m e ns i on for s e lf-fe atu re o rg an is ati on than w ou ld thos e i n the ne utral
c ond iti on. In ad diti on, w e e x pe c te d that the Ge org e B us h M DS c o nfig uratio n w oul d be l e s s c om ple x than that for the s e lf (c f. P re ntic e , 1 9 9 0 ), but
w oul d s how a s i m il ar i nc re as e i n the us e of v ale nc e i n d e te rm ini ng fe atu re
org anis ati on in the pre s e nc e of a he ig hte ne d m ood s tate .
M E T HO D
P articip ants
S ix ty u nde rg radu ate s (2 3 m al e , 3 7 fe m al e ) re c rui te d from th e i ntrodu c tory
ps y c hol og y s ubj e c t pool and the uni v e rsi ty at larg e parti c i pate d in this
s tud y . A l l p arti c ip ants w e re b e tw e e n 1 7 and 2 3 y e ars of ag e (M = 1 9 ).
P arti c i pants re c rui te d th roug h the introdu c tory ps y c h olo g y s u bje c t p ool
re c e i v e d c re di t tow ard f ul® l li ng c ours e re q uire m e nts ; parti c ipa nts
re c rui te d throu g h uni v e rsi ty -w i de s ol i c itati o ns re c e i v e d $ 5 .0 0 . P arti c i pants w e re as s ig ne d rand om l y to e i th e r happ y (n = 2 0 ), s ad (n = 2 0 ), o r
ne utral (n = 2 0 ) m ood-i ndu c ti on c ondi tio ns .
M o od -ind u ction P roced ure
Fil m c l i ps w e re u se d to i nd uc e happy and s ad m ood s ; i n add iti on, a th ird
c l i p, de s i g ne d to hav e no appre c i ab le in ¯ ue nc e on m oo d, w as us e d as a
c ontrol c on di ti on. T he s e m ood-i nduc ti on s ti m u li w e re c re ate d by e di ting
s e g m e nts of p rofe s s i onal ly produc e d ® l m s in to s ho rt and c ohe re nt c l ip s o f
8 ± 1 4 m i nu te s . T he happy c li p c ons is te d of s e g m e nts from Liv e i n Wa s h in g to n , a pe rf orm anc e by c o m e di an De nni s M i ll e r. T he s ad c li p c ons is te d o f
s e g m e nts de pi c ti ng the li fe e v e nts a nd de ath o f a w om an w i th te rm i nal
c anc e r; the s e s e g m e nts w e re tak e n from the fe atu re ® l m Te r m s o f E n d e a r m e n t. T he n e u tral c l i p c ons i s te d of s e g m e nts de p ic tin g b us i ne s s trans ac tio ns draw n from the fe atu re ® l m Th e B o o s t. E ac h c l ip has pre v i ou s ly
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
35 7
produ c e d s tab l e and m ode rate l y in te ns e m oods in othe r e x pe rim e nts in our
l ab orato ry (e .g . Pal ® & S al ov e y , 1 9 9 3 ).
A t th e be g inn in g of the e x pe rim e ntal s e s s io n, s ub je c ts w e re re que s te d
s i m ply to w atc h th e ® l m c l ip s ; no m oo d-i nte n s i fy in g in s tru c ti ons w e re
prov i de d. T he c l i ps w e re pre s e nte d on a l arg e te le v is ion s c re e n i n a
darke ne d room . Im m e di ate ly af te r v i e w i ng the c l ip s , s ub je c ts c om ple te d
a m o od m an ip ulati on c he c k a nd the n be g an w o rk on the o the r m e as ure s
c om p ris i ng the e x pe rim e nt.
W e c hos e a ® l m m e thod of m ood i nduc tio n i n an e ffort to av o id di re c t
e ng ag e m e nt of p arti c i pants ’ s e l f-c onc e pts . If a m ood-i ndu c ti on proc e dure
that inv oke d au to bio g raphi c al m e m o rie s or pre s e nte d s pe c i ® c (al be i t fal s e )
e v alu ativ e in fo rm atio n w e re us e d , i t c oul d n ot be d e te rm ine d if any
s ubs e que nt s e lf-c o nc e p t m e as ure s w e re re g i s te ring c hang e s due prim aril y
to m oo d or to c og niti v e re s pon s e s to s al ie nt s e lf-re l e v ant in form ati on.
A l thou g h ® l m c li ps do not pre c lu de `` di re c t’ ’ c og n iti v e e ffe c ts o n the
s e l f-c onc e pt, the y s e e m l e s s prone to c aus i ng s uc h s y s te m atic i n¯ ue nc e s
than s e lf-foc us e d m ood-i ndu c ti on proc e du re s (S al ov e y & Rodi n, 1 9 8 5 ).
M easures
Mo o d Ma n ip u l a tio n C h e c k. In pre v io us s tudi e s inv olv in g h appy and
s ad m o od m ani pul ati ons , a s ho rt y e t re l ia ble m e as u re of m ood w as
obtai ne d by us i ng s ix i te m s p re s e nte d i n di re c tion all y c ounte rbal anc e d
orde rs on 7 - poi nt s c al e s (e .g . S al ov e y , 1 9 9 2 ; S al ov e y & B i rnbaum , 1 9 8 9 ;
S al ov e y & S i ng e r, 1 9 8 9 ). T h e s i x i te m s c om pris i ng th e m oo d m an ip ul ati on
c he c k i n the pre s e nt s tudy w e re h a p p y, e xh i l a r a te d , s a d , s a ti s ® e d , c o n te n t,
and d is a p p o i n te d . E ac h i te m w as s c ore d in the po s iti v e d ire c tio n. S c ore s
w e re the n su m m e d to produ c e a pos i tiv e m ood i nd e x .
Partic i pants c om pl e te d thre e s h ort an s w e r q ue s tio ns (e .g . Ho w m any
hours pe r w e e k do y ou w atc h te le v i s i on ? ) be fore tu rnin g to th e s i x ite m s of
the m oo d m ani pul ati on c he c k. T he s e i te m s s e rv e d to re du c e the as s oc i ati on
be tw e e n the ® l m c l i ps and th e m ood m ani pul ation m e asu re .
D e s c r ip ti v e n e s s o f Se l f a n d G e o r g e B u s h Me a s u r e s . T he s e tw o m eas ure s as ke d s ub je c ts to rate i te m s for the i r d e s c ripti v e ne s s w i th re s pe c t to
the se lf and to Ge org e B u s h. T he i te m s re pre s e nte d a c om b in ati on of
pe rson ali ty trai ts (e .g . i nte ll i g e nt, de pe nd able , n e rv ous ) and p hy s i c al attribute s (e .g . m usc ul ar, fat, fe e bl e ). T he pe rsonal i ty trai ts w e re d raw n from an
e x te n s i v e B i g Fiv e fac tor m ode l (John, 1 9 9 0 ); fou r hi g h-l oadi ng traits (tw o
pos i ti v e , tw o ne g ativ e ) w e re s e le c te d from e ac h fac tor. W e adde d 1 5 i te m s
that de s c ribe phy s ic al c h arac te ris tic s , re s ulti ng i n a 3 5 -i te m li s t. T w o
random ly s e l e c te d i te m orde rs w e re us e d.
3 58
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
Parti c ip ants ind ic ate d the de s c riptiv e n e s s of the ite m s w i th re s pe c t to
s e l f and to Ge org e B us h by pl ac i ng a m ark on a li ne be lo w e ac h ite m . T h e
l in e w as anc ho re d on the l e ft by `` do e s not d e s c ribe m e [ B us h] at al l’ ’ and
on the rig ht b y `` de s c ribe s m e [ B us h ] v e ry w e l l’ ’ . W e s c o re d the s e m e as u re s by as s i g ni ng a s ub je c t’ s s p ati al pl ac e m e nt o f a m ark on th e l ine a
c orre s p ondi ng num e ric al e qu iv ale nt ran g i ng f rom one to te n .
B i p o l a r R a ti n g Sc a l e s . In o rde r to aid i n di m ens i on i nte rpre tati on, w e
c ol l e c te d no rm ativ e rati ng s of the 3 5 de s c ripti v e i te m s o n a nu m be r of 8 po in t bi pol ar s c al e s (s e e Krus k al & W i s h, 1 9 7 8 ) from di ffe re nt s e ts o f
parti c ipants . E ac h s c ale as k e d h ow c harac te risti c e ac h ite m w as of a c e rtai n
ty pe of pe rson . T he bi pol ar s c al e s w hi c h w e e x pe c te d to be of re l e v anc e fo r
the p re s e nt s tudy w e re : c h arac te ris ti c o f a hi g h ac hi e v i ng p e rs on, c harac te ris ti c of a s oc i al pe rson , c harac te ris ti c of a s m al l /l arg e p e rso n (i .e . bod y
s h ape ), and c harac te ris tic of a fe m al e /m ale (i .e . g e nd e r-re l e v anc e ). In
addi ti on, rati ng s of th e ov e ral l de s i rabi l ity of e ac h de s c riptiv e ite m w e re
ob tai ne d. T he s e s c al e s w e re s e l e c te d b as e d upon o the r re s e arc h e x am in ing
the org ani s ati on of pe rsonal i ty fe atu re s (e .g . B l att & B l as s , 1 9 9 2 ; C an tor,
1 9 9 4 ; De S te no, 1 9 9 6 ; M c A dam s, 1 9 8 5 ; Ros e nbe rg , Ne l s on, & V iv e kananthan, 1 9 6 8 ).
P ro ced ure
O ne to four ind iv i du al s partic i pate d i n e a c h s e s si on . T he y w e re s e ate d in
priv ate boo th s . O n arriv al , the y w e re i nform e d that the y w ou ld be as ke d to
v i e w a s hort v i de o c l ip and c om ple te a batte ry of que s ti onnai re s . A fte r
c ons e nt w as ob tai ne d, the e x p e rim e nt be g an w ith the s ho w i ng of the ® l m
c l i p. A t th e c l ip ’ s c on c l us ion , th e e x pe rim en te r in struc te d the parti c ipa nts
to be g i n w orki ng on the batte ry of q ue s tio nnai re s and th e n le ft the room s o
as not to in ¯ ue nc e the ir m oo d s tate s . W h e n the parti c i pants ® ni s he d th e
qu e s ti on naire batte ry , the y broug ht it to the e x pe rim e n te r i n a s e parate
roo m an d w e re de brie fe d. S ub je c ts al w ay s c o m ple te d the que s ti onn aire s i n
the s am e se que nc e : the ® l le r i te m s , the m ood m an ip ulati on c he c k, the 3 5 i te m de s c ripti v e ne s s of s e l f m e as ure , and the 3 5 - ite m de s c ripti v e ne s s o f
Ge org e B us h m e as ure .
D ata A n aly sis
In orde r to e x am i ne the org ani s atio n of s e l f-re le v ant i nform ati on an d to
i nv e s ti g ate the pos s i bil i ty o f af fe c ti v e i n¯ ue nc e s on i t, w e s u bje c te d th e
data to an INDS C A L an aly s is . M ulti di m e ns ion al s c al in g atte m p ts to re v e al
the l ate nt di m e ns i on s that c harac te ris e th e i nte rre l atio ns am ong s tim uli. It
produc e s n -d im e ns i onal c on® g uration s th at s pati al l y re pre s e nt the s truc -
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
35 9
ture , or org a nis ati onal s c he m e , of the s tim ul us s e t (he re , the 3 5 pe rsonal i ty /
phy s ic al attri bute s ), the re by prov id in g a g li m ps e of ho w i ndi v i dual s c og nitiv e l y org an is e s e l f-re l e v ant i nfo rm ati on . T he c on® g uratio n, and i ts und e rl y in g d im e ns i ons , m us t the n be i nte rpre te d i n a m e ani ng ful w ay .
In th e p r e s e n ts tu d y , p a r tic ip a n tsra te d e a c h o f th e 3 5 ite m s fo r sim ila rity to
s e lf. U n lik e r a tin g e a c h ite m fo r its s im ila r ity b a s e d o n a u n id im e n s io n a l
c r ite r io n (e .g . th e c o lo u r r e d ), in d iv id u a ls m a d e s im ila r ity ju d g e m e n ts w ith
r e sp e c t to a m u ltid im e n sio n a la ttitu d eo b je c t, th e s e lf- c o n c e p t. T h e re fo r e ,th e
r e su ltin g c o n ® g u r a tio nsh o u ld n o t r e c o v e r th e sp e c i® c d im e n s io n ``lik e s e lf’ ’
(o r ``r e d n e s s ’’ ), b u t r ath e r r e c o v e r th e d im e n s io n s u s e d to e v a lu ate th e m u ltifa c e te d s e lf-c o n c e p t (c f. G o ld s to n e ,1 9 9 4 ). M o re im p o r tan tly ,h o w e v e r, th e
p r o x im ities s h o u ld n o t r e ¯ e c t s im p le a s s o c ia tio n s b a s e d u p o n th e s e m a n tic
r e latio n sa m o n g ite m s, b u t r a th e rre v e a l th e ir in te r r e la tio n sw ith r e s p e c t to th e
s e lf.
M ul ti di m e ns ion al s c ali ng (M DS ) re qui re s prox im i ty m atric e s as i nput.
T he re fore , w e c hos e to us e P e arso n c orre lati ons am on g the ite m s , a pro® le
s i m ilari ty in de x (K rus kal & W i s h, 1 9 7 8 ), as o ur prox im i ty m e as ure .
A d di ti onal l y , as M DS proc e d ure s re qui re the prox im ity data to b e e n te re d
i n the form of di s s i m i lari tie s , w e s u btrac te d the in te rc orre l ati ons am ong the
3 5 s e lf and B us h i te m s from one and u s e d the re s ul ting m atri c e s as i nput.
For both the s e lf and Ge org e B u s h anal y s e s , w e e n te re d a di s s i m i l arity
m atri x for e ac h m ood g roup. T h e re s ul ting INDS C AL c on® g uratio n, the
g roup c on® g urati on , is an n -di m e ns io nal m ap bas e d on the e ntire s e t of
m atri c e s . Group di ffe re n c e s in thre e -w ay sc ali ng s oluti ons are re ¯ e c te d by
di m e ns io nal w e ig h ts that ind ic ate the i m po rtanc e , or s al i e nc e , e ac h g roup
attac he d to e ac h di m e n s i on. T o produc e the c on® g urati on of a s pe c i ® c
m o od g roup, the ov e ral l c on® g uratio n is s tre tc h e d an d/or s hrunk al ong
s pe c i ® c di m e ns i ons b y a fac tor o f th e s quare root of the c orre s p ondi ng
w e ig h ts . C on s e que ntl y , the d is tan c e s b e tw e e n poi nts i n th e c o n® g urati on
c hang e , im pl y i ng an analo g ous c h an g e i n the pe rc e i v e d s i m il ari ti e s of the
c orre s pon di ng s tim ul us i te m s . T h e bi po lar ratin g s c ale s p rov i de d e m piric al
i nform ati on us e d to i nte rpre t th e di m e ns io ns of the re s ul ti ng c on® g uratio ns .
A l l s ubs e q ue nt anal y s e s w e re ai m e d at c harac te ris i ng the diffe re nc e s i n the
org ani s ati on of s e l f- an d othe r-s truc ture am ong the thre e m oo d g roups .
R E S U LTS
M oo d M an ip u latio n C he ck
A one -w ay an al y s is of v ari anc e c o nduc te d o n the m ood m ani pul atio n c he c k
re v e ale d a s i g ni ® c an t e f fe c t of m ood i nduc tio n c on diti on [ F (2 ,5 7 ) = 2 8 .8 0 ,
P < .0 0 0 1 ] . S u bs e que n t analy s e s e m pl oy i ng T uke y ’ s HS D m ul tip le
3 60
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
c om pari s on te s t ( a = .0 1 ) c on® rm e d th at e ac h of the thre e g roups o f
parti c ipants re p orte d re l i abl y diffe re nt l e v e ls of pos i tiv e af fe c t: parti c ip ants
i n the happy m o od g roup re po rte d the hig he s t p os i ti v e af fe c t (M = 3 1 .9 5 ,
S D = 4 .6 7 ), fol l ow e d b y parti c i pants in the ne utral m ood g roup (M = 2 3 .9 0 ,
S D = 6 .8 3 ), an d p arti c ip ants i n th e s ad m ood g roup (M = 1 8 .4 5 , S D = 5 .2 6 ).
S ca lin g An alysis for the S elf-solutio n
E ac h m ood g roup’ s di s s i m ilari ty m atri x w as e nte re d i nto the A L S C A L
m ul ti di m ens ion al s c al i ng alg o rithm , an d four s e parate thre e -w ay n onm e tric
s o lu ti ons w e re c o m pute d. T he tw o- throug h ® v e -di m e ns i on al c o nfig u ratio ns ac c o unte d for 4 1 .0 % , 5 1 .1 % , 5 5 .4 % , and 5 7 .9 % of the v ari anc e ,
re s p e c ti v e l y . W e us e d th e am ou nt of e x pl ai ne d v ari anc e and di m ens ion
i nte rpre tab il i ty as c rite ria fo r s e l e c ti ng the be s t s o lu ti on . C ons e qu e n tl y , w e
s e l e c te d the th re e -di m e ns i onal s o lu ti on for fu rthe r anal y s i s .
Fig u re 1 p res e nts the 1 3
2 di m e n si o n c ros s -s e c ti onal v ie w o f this
1
c on® g urati on for e as i e r e x am i natio n. In i nte rpre ti ng thi s s o luti on, i t is
i m p ortan t to n ote that the E uc l i di an d is tan c e be tw e e n any tw o poi nts in
the c on® g uratio n is an in de x of the ir pe rc e i v e d s i m i l arity and that this
c on® g urati on i s the ac ros s -m ood c ond iti on g roup s pac e ; e ac h m ood
g roup produc e s a uni que c on® g urati on due to its di ff e re n ti al di m ens ion
w e ig hts .
S tru ctu ra l O rgan isation of the S elf-co ncep t
B e fo re e x am i nin g d iffe re nti al di m e ns ion u sa g e am ong the m ood g roups , i t
w as ® rst ne c e s s a ry to i de nti fy the di m e ns i ons of the g roup s p ac e . B as e d o n
v i s u al i ns pe c tio n of the s ol uti on an d on othe r MDS re s e arc h e x am i nin g th e
s truc ture of p e rs on de s c riptors (e .g . De S te no, 1 9 9 6 ; R ose nbe rg e t al .,
1 9 6 8 ), w e fe l t th at fou r pos s ibl e l abe l s for the thre e d im e n s i ons m i g ht
be : g e ne rali s e d v al e nc e , ac h ie v e m e nt- re le v an c e , af ® li ation -re le v an c e , and
ph y s i c al s i z e . M ul tip le re g re s s i on anal y s e s w e re e m pl oy e d to e v al uate
e m pi ric al ly the ® t of the s e labe l s ; be ta- c oe f® c i e nts w e re u s e d as c rite ria
for de te rm i ni ng dim e ns i on id e nti ® c ati on (s e e Krus k al & W is h , 1 9 7 8 ).
Ini tial l y , w e w is h e d to de te rm in e if the ® rst di m e ns i on o f the s ol ution
re pre s e n te d g e n e ral v al e nc e or a m ore di s tin c t org an is ati onal c rite rion; as
pre v iou s l y note d, o th e r w ork has fo und the ® rst tw o di m e ns i ons of s i m ilar
c on® g urati ons to rep re s e nt ac hi e v e m e nt- and af ® l i ati on -o rie nte d the m e s .
1
B e c aus e onl y the ® rs t tw o di m e ns io ns of the s olu tio n are of prim ary in tere s t, only the
di m e ns io n 1 3 dim e nsi on 2 c ros s -s e c tio nal v ie w is dis play e d. T he full s e t of thre e -dim e ns i onal c oordin ate s are av ail able from the ® rs t author.
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
F IG . 1
D im e n si o n 1 3
36 1
d im e n s i o n 2 c ro ss - se c tio n al v ie w o f the IN D SC A L s e l f- c o n c e p t s o lu tio n
d e ri v e d fro m th e h ap p y, s ad , an d n e u tral m oo d g ro u ps.
Re g re s s in g the g e ne ral de s i rabi li ty rati ng s of e ac h fe atu re onto its di m e ns i on 1 , d im e ns i on 2 , an d di m en s io n 3 c oordi nate s re v e al e d that v ale nc e
w as al m o s t e qu all y pre di c te d b y the ® rs t tw o di m en s io ns but s how e d no
re lati on to di m e n s io n 3 ( b dim1 = 2 .6 3 , P < .0 0 1 , b dim2 = 2 .6 6 , P < .0 0 1 ,
2
b dim3 = 2 .0 2 , n.s., R = .9 1 ). C ons e qu e ntl y , w e ne x t e x am ine d the
pos s ibi l i ty that di m e ns io ns 1 and 2 re pre s e n te d af ® l i ati on- and/or ac h ie v e m e nt- orie nte d c rite ria. How e v e r, as one w oul d e x pe c t, th e ac hi e v e m e nt and
af ® l i ati on attri bute rati ng s w e re m ode rate l y c o rrel ate d (s e e De S te no , 1 9 9 6 ;
Ro s e nbe rg e t al ., 1 9 6 8 ); c e rtai n attri bute s are as i ndi c ati v e of s uc c e s s as
the y are o f s o c iab il i ty . T he re fore , i n orde r to p rov i de c le ar l ab e ls fo r the s e
tw o di m e ns i ons , w e re g re s s e d the fe atu re s’ di m e ns io n 1 an d di m e ns io n 2
c oordi nate s on to the ir ac hi e v e m e n t an d af ® l i ati on rati ng s . W e c hos e to
tre at the fe atu re s ’ ac hie v e m e nt and af ® l i ati on rati ng s as th e i nde pe nde n t
v ari able s i n the re g re s s i on m ode ls in orde r to p arti al e ac h for the o the r and,
the re by , all ow m ore pre c i s e e s ti m ate s of the u ni que c o ntribu ti on of the s e
tw o re l ate d v ari able s .
3 62
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
T hi s s e c ondary an aly s is rev e ale d th at, as e x pe c te d, d im e ns i ons 1 and 2
o r g a n ise d th e fe a tu r e s w ith r e s p e c t to a f® lia tio n -a n d a c h ie v e m e n t-r e le v an c e ,
re s p e c ti v e l y . Fe atu re s ’ di m e ns ion 1 c o ordi nate s w e re pre di c te d re l iab ly by
2
the i r af ® l i ati on-re l e v anc e ( b ach = .0 3 , n.s., b aff = 2 .6 0 , P < .0 2 , R = .3 3 );
di m e ns i on 2 c oo rdin ate s s how e d th e oppos ite patte rn ( b ach = 2 .4 7 , P < .0 2 ,
2
b aff = 2 .3 5 , n.s ., R = .6 0 ) . A s one c an s e e from the param e te r e s ti m ate s , th e
true be s t- ® t ac hi e v e m e nt and af ® l i ati on li ne s w ou ld not be orthog o nal, and,
as note d, th is m ak e s s e n s e . INDS C A L d im e n s i ons , how e v e r, are n ot rotatab l e . None the l e s s , the re g res s i on anal y s e s c on® rm that the c on® g uration
2
di m e ns i ons d o ac t as ac c e ptab le prox i e s for the s e tw o ob li qu e d im e ns i ons .
D im e n s io n3 w as th e p r im a ry p re d ic to ro f b o d y s iz e ( b dim1 = 2 .2 7 , P < .0 5 ,
2
b dim2 = .2 0 , n.s., b dim3 = .6 5 , P < .0 0 1 , R = .5 5 ). It ac te d to e x pl ai n re s id ual
v ari ation due to the inc l us ion of the ph y s i c al attribu te fe atu re s . It is
i m p ortan t to note , ho w e v e r, tha t the s e fe atu re s w e re al s o i nte g rall y re l ate d
to th e othe r tw o di m e ns io ns , but, as one w o ul d e x pe c t, s o m e res id ual
v ari ation re m ain e d af te r ac c o unting for the s e re lati ons to the ® rs t tw o
di m e ns i ons . T hi s v ari ati on s im ply re fe rre d to body si z e as d e v oi d from
any ty pe of e v al uation; di m e ns ion 3 w as not rel i abl y rel ate d to the g e ne ral
de s irabi l ity ratin g s of the fe atu re s . T hus , in ac c o rd w i th pre v i ous re s e arc h,
w e found that the as s oc i ation s of s e l f-fe atu re s i n the s e l f-c o nc e pt are
de te rm i ne d w i th re s pe c t to tw o p rim ary org ani s ati onal c rite ria: ac hie v e m e nt-re l e v anc e and af® l iati on-re l e v anc e .
M o od Effects on S e lf-co nce pt O rg an isatio n
In be g inn in g to e x am i ne th e dif fe re nc e s am ong the thre e m oo d g roup
c on® g urati ons , w e no ti c e d that the re w as a l arg e di s p ari ty i n th e ® t o f
the g roup c on ® g u rati on to the in div idu al m ood g roup c on® g uratio ns . M ore
s p e c i® c all y , the g roup s p ac e prov i de d an e x c e l l e nt ® t for the ne utral
g roup’ s c on® g uratio n; i t ac c ou nte d for 7 1 .7 % of i ts v aria nc e . How e v e r,
i t p rov i de d a p oore r ® t fo r the happ y an d s ad m oo d g roup c on ® g u rati ons ,
e x pl ai ni ng 4 9 .7 % and 3 1 .9 % of the i r v ari anc e s , res pe c tiv e l y . C on s e qu e n tl y , the g roup s pac e di d no t re p re s e nt th e th ree ind iv i du al c on fig u ratio ns e q uall y . Rath e r, th e ov e ral l s pac e w as m os t s i m i l ar to the ne utral
g roup’ s c on ® g u rati on, but n ot as re pre s e n tati v e of the happy an d s ad
2
S im ila r in te rpre tatio ns als o re s ult ed from e x am in in g the c orre latio ns of the dim e ns i on
c oordi nate s w ith the attri bute s ’ partia le d a c hie v e m e nt and af® lia tion ratin g s ; attrib utes’
ac hie v e m e nt ratin g s w e re partial e d for the ir a f® li atio n-re l e v anc e and v i c e v e rs a. A s
e x pe c ted, dim e ns i on 1 c orre l ated re li ably w it h the attrib ute s ’ re s i duali se d af® l ia tio n-re le v anc e (r = 2 .3 8 , P = .0 2 ), and dim e ns i on 2 c orre la te d w ith the attrib u tes ’ re s i dualis e d
ac hie v e m e nt-re le v anc e (r = 2 .3 0 , P = .0 8 ). In both c as e s , the c orre la tio ns of the attrib ute c oordin ates w i th the nonc orre s pondin g re s id uali s e d ratin g s w e re far fro m re l ia ble .
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
36 3
g roup s ’ c on® g uration s . A di s pari ty in ® t of th is s i z e s ug g e s ts one of tw o
s i tu ati ons . E i th e r th e h appy and s ad m ood g roup m atri c e s c ontai ne d hi g he r
l e v e l s of e rror v ari anc e as c o m pare d w ith the ne utral g roup ’ s m atri x , or the
i ndi v id uals in the s e tw o g roup s re li e d m ore he av il y o n di m e ns i ons not us e d
by i ndi v id uals i n th e ne utral g roup (A rabi e , C arrol l , & De S arbo, 1 9 8 7 ; s e e
als o C arrol l , 1 9 7 2 ). T he fac t th at th e re w as no s i m ilar d is parity i n the ® t
i ndi c e s am ong the d iffe re nt m ood g rou ps fo r the Ge o rg e B us h INDS C A L
s ol uti on (to be di s c us se d l ate r) s ug g e s te d that e rror v arianc e w as not the
c aus e . T he re fore , w e de c i de d to i nv e s ti g ate the p os s i bi li ty th at happy and
s ad partic i pants util i s e d one or m ore dim e ns i on(s ) not us e d by partic i pants
i n the ne utral m oo d g roup.
W e c ond uc te d a s e c on d INDS C A L a naly s i s u s i ng onl y th e h ap py and
s ad g roup m atri c e s . T hi s proc e du re re m ov e d the ov e rridi ng i n¯ u e n c e o f the
ne utral g rou p p arti c ip an ts on the res ul ti ng g roup c on ® g urati on, the re by
all ow i ng a c le are r e x am in ati on of the s ol uti on produ c e d as a re s ult of
he i g hte ne d aff e c ti v e s tate s . W e e x am in e d tw o-, thre e -, an d f our-di m e ns i onal s ol uti ons . T he pe rc e ntag e s of e x pl ai ne d v ari anc e for the s e s ol uti ons
w e re 4 3 % , 5 2 % , an d 5 6 % , re s pe c ti v e ly . B as e d on the am oun t of e x p lai ne d
v ari anc e an d i nte rpre tab i li ty , w e s e l e c te d the thre e -di m ens ion al s ol uti on
for fu rthe r anal y s i s .
W e ag ain e m p lo y e d m ul ti pl e re g re s s i on te c hni que s to in te rpre t the
di m e ns io ns e m pi ric all y . A s c a n be s e e n i n T ab le 1 , di m e ns ion 1 appe are d
to re pre s e nt the g e ne ral v a le nc e or he doni c tone of the fe atu re s ; it w as the
be s t p re di c tor of ac h ie v e m e nt- an d af ® li ati on -re le v an c e , as w e ll as of ba si c
de s i rabi li ty . Dim e ns i on 2 w as the p rim ary pre d ic tor of bo dy s hape ( b dim1 =
2
2 .3 4 , P < .0 5 , b dim2 = .4 5 , P < .0 0 1 , b dim3 = 2 .1 7 , n.s ., R = .3 3 ), and
di m e ns io n 3 rel i abl y p re di c te d g e nde r-re le v an c e ( b dim1 = .0 8 , n.s ., b dim2 =
2
.1 9 , n .s., b dim3 = .4 8 , P < .0 1 , R = .9 1 ).
In o rde r to i nde x the di ffe re nti al le v e ls of i m po rtanc e pl ac e d o n the
v al e n c e di m e ns io n v e rsu s the othe r tw o, w e e x am i ne d the w e i g ht ratio s of
3
the d im e ns i ons for both g roups . A s c an be s e e n in Fig . 2 , th e v ale nc e
di m e ns io n w as a m o re s al i e nt org ani s ati on al c rite rion than e i th e r b ody
s hape o r g e n de r-re le v anc e . T hus , the pre s e nc e of a he ig hte n e d m o od s tate
re s ul te d i n the e m e rg e nc e of a g e ne ral is e d v al e nc e d im e ns i on as the
prim ary org ani s atio nal c rite rio n for fe atu re s of the s e lf-c on c e p t. Rath e r
3
Indi v id ual IND SC A L w e i g hts c annot be c om pare d di re c tly am ong g roups be c au s e e ac h
m ood g roup’ s di s s im il a rity m atri x is norm ali s e d s e pa rate l y by the IN D S C A L al g orit hm
(M ac C allu m , 1 9 7 7 ). T he re fore , as M ac C a ll um (1 9 7 7 ) s ug g e sts , in trag roup w e ig ht ratio s
are use d as a m e as ure of dim e nsi on im portanc e for be tw e e n- g roup c om pari s ons . Fo r
e x am ple , the w e ig ht ratio d im e ns io n 1 /dim e ns io n 2 is us e d as a m e a s ure of the im portanc e
of dim e ns io n 1 v e rs us dim e ns i on 2 . It is al s o im port ant to note that the re is no a g re e m e nt on a
proc e dure to tes t the s tatis tic a l s ig ni® c an c e of w e ig h t dif fe re nc e s .
3 64
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
TA B LE 1
R e g re s sio n A n a ly se s for D im e n s io n 1
Id e n ti® ca tio n o f the H a p p y a n d S ad M o o d
G ro u p C o n ® g u ra tio n
b
P r e d ic tor
2
0 .8 5
D e s ir a b i li ty
D im e ns i on 1
D im e ns i on 2
D im e ns i on 3
2
0 .7 1 * * *
0 .5 5 * * *
0 .0 8
2
0 .6 4 * * *
0 .4 0 * * *
0 .2 4 *
0 .6 6
Ac h ie v e m e n t-r e l e v a n c e
D im e ns i on 1
D im e ns i on 2
D im e ns i on 3
Af® li a tio n -r e le v a n c e
D im e ns i on 1
D im e ns i on 2
D im e ns i on 3
Mo d e l R
2
0 .8 2
0 .6 6 * * *
0 .4 9 * * *
0 .3 2 * * *
* P < .0 5 , * * P < .0 1 , * * * P < .0 0 1 .
than bas i ng fe atu ral as s oc i atio ns u pon the m ore ® ne -g rai ne d c rite ria o f
ac hi e v e m e nt- and af ® l i ati on-re l e v anc e , tw o broad o rg ani s ationa l c rite ria
us uall y e m pl oy e d f or s truc tu ring s e l f-re le v ant i nform ati on (D e S te n o, 1 9 9 6 ;
Ros e nbe rg e t al ., 1 9 6 8 ), in di v idu als e x pe rie n c ing a pos i tiv e or ne g ativ e
m ood us e d th e m ore bas i c di m ens ion o f g e ne ral v a le nc e to de te rm i ne th e
re l ati ons am ong th e ir s e l f-f e atu re s .
S tru ctu ra l O rgan isation of In form atio n C on cernin g
a K n ow n O th er (G eo rg e B ush )
W e fo ll ow e d a s i m i lar anal y s i s p roc e dure for th e Ge org e B us h fe atu re
ratin g s . W e e x am i ne d the 2 - throug h 5 -di m e ns i on al s oluti ons ; the pe rc e n tag e s of e x pl ain e d v ari anc e w e re 4 6 % , 5 0 % , 5 4 % , an d 5 5 % , re s pe c tiv e l y .
B as e d on the am ount of e x pl ain e d v ari anc e and i nte rpretab i l ity , w e
s e l e c te d the thre e -di m e n si o nal s ol utio n fo r furthe r anal y s i s . Fig u re 3 pre 4
s e n ts the 1 3 2 c ros s -s e c ti onal v i e w of this c on® g urati on.
T he g rou p c on® g uration s how e d n o di s pari ti e s w ith re s pe c t to i ts d e g re e
of ® t w i th e ac h o f the thre e i ndi v id ual m ood g roup c on® g urati ons ; th e
pe rc e n tag e s o f e x pl ain e d v ari an c e for th e happy , s ad, and ne u tral g roup
c on® g urati ons w e re 5 0 .6 % , 5 2 .1 % , and 4 8 .3 % , re s p e c ti v e l y . T he re fore ,
4
A s note d pre v io us l y , the ful l s e t of thre e -dim e nsi onal c oordin ates i s av ail a ble from the
® rs t author.
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
F IG . 2
36 5
W e i g h t rati o s o f d im e n si o n im p o rta n c e fo r th e s e lf -c o n ce p t s o lu tio n d e ri v e d fro m the
h ap py an d sa d m o od g ro u ps . A w e ig h t ratio o f 1 i m p lie s an e q u al w e ig h ti n g o f th e d im e n s i o n s.
W e ig h t rati o s g re ate r th an 1 in d ic ate g re ate r i m po rtan c e o f th e d im e n si o n i n th e n u m e rato r; rati o s
l e ss th an 1 in di c ate g re ate r im p ortan ce o f th e d im e n sio n i n the d e n om in ato r.
unl i ke the s e l f-c onc e pt so l ution , it s e e m e d prob able that pa rtic ip ants i n
e ac h m ood g roup us e d the s am e p rinc i pal di m e n si o ns i n org ani s i ng i nform ati on about Ge org e B us h.
W e ag ain e m p lo y e d m ulti pl e re g re s s ion anal y s e s for di m en s io n i de nti® c ati on. A s op pos e d to the bas e l i ne s e lf-c on c e pt c on ® g u rati on, d im e ns i on
1 re pre s e nte d g e n e ral de s i rabi l ity , o r v ale nc e ( b dim1 = 2 .7 3 , P < .0 0 1 ,
2
b dim2 = .3 5 , P < .0 1 , b dim3 = 2 .1 2 , n .s., R = .8 2 ), n ot ac hie v e m e nt- or
af ® l i ati on-re l e v anc e . T hi s ® ndi ng su pporte d o ur pre d ic ti on that i nform ati on
3 66
F IG . 3
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
D im e n s i o n 1 3
d im e n s i o n 2 c ro s s -s e c tio n al v ie w o f th e IN DS C A L G eorg e B u sh s o lu ti o n
d eriv e d f ro m th e h ap p y , s ad , an d n eutral m oo d g ro u ps .
c ontai ne d i n th e s e l f-c onc e pt m ay be org ani s e d d iffe re ntl y than info rm ation
re pre s e n ti ng othe r i ndi v i dual s . B od y s h ape w as pre dic te d by b oth di m e n s i on s 1 and 2 ( b dim1 = 2 .5 5 , P < .0 0 1 , b dim2 = 2 .4 4 , P < .0 1 , b dim3 = .1 1 ,
2
n.s ., R = .4 8 ). W e lab e ll e d di m e ns io n 2 as bo dy s hape ; i n th e Ge o rg e
B us h s ol uti on, th is di m e n s i on d oe s n ot s i m ply c on s is t of re s id ual s i z e
i nform ati on, but als o i s re late d to de s i rabi l ity . Finall y , w e l abe l le d
di m e ns i on 3 as g e nde r-re le v anc e ( b dim1 = 2 .1 2 , n .s., b dim2 = .2 7 , n.s .,
2
b dim3 = .5 6 , P < .0 0 1 , R = .3 5 ).
In orde r to e x a m i ne the e ffe c t of m o od on the us e of the v al e nc e
di m e ns i on for org ani s ati on, w e ag ain c om p are d i ntrag rou p w e i g ht ratios
(s e e Fig . 4 ). P arti c i pants i n the ne utral m ood g roup s how e d a re lativ e ly
e qui v ale nt u se of al l thre e di m e ns i on s . Partic i pants in both th e happ y an d
s ad m o od g roups e m phas i s e d th e v al e nc e di m e ns io n m o re th an e i th e r th e
bo dy s hape or g e n de r d im e ns i ons . T hi s patte rn i s s i m i l ar to the one found
i n th e hap py and s ad m ood g rou p s e lf-c on c e p t s ol uti ons and s upp orte d ou r
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
F IG . 4
36 7
W e ig h t ratio s o f d im e n sio ns f o r th e G eo rg e B u s h s ol u tio n d e ri v e d fro m th e h ap py , s a d ,
an d n e u tra l m o o d g ro up s. A w e ig h t ratio o f 1 im p li e s an e q ual w e i g h tin g o f th e d im e n s i o n s. W e i g h t
rati o s g re ate r th an 1 i n d ic ate g re ate r im p o rtan c e o f th e d im e n s i o n i n th e n u m e rat or; ratio s l e s s th an
1 in d ic ate g re a te r i m p o rtan c e o f th e d im e n s i o n i n th e d e n o m i n ator.
pre di c ti on th at m oo d c aus e s a g re ate r re li anc e o n he do ni c in form atio n for
c og ni tiv e org a nis ati on. Inte re s ti ng l y , th e e m phas i s on the v al e nc e di m e ns i on, as c om pare d to the oth e r tw o, w as of a g re ate r m ag ni tu de in the
Ge org e B us h s oluti on than in the s e l f- c o nc e pt s o luti on, i ndi c ati ng that the
re pre s e ntati on s of o th e r in di v idu als m ay be m o re in ¯ ue nc e d by m ood s tate
than i s th at of the s e l f.
3 68
De S T E N O A N D S A L O V E Y
DIS C U S S IO N
T h is e x p e rim e nt prov ide s s upport for o ur tw o in iti al hy p othe s e s . First, th e
s truc ture of the se l f- c o nc e p t ap pe ars to d iffe r from that of know n othe rs.
T h at i s , i n ac c ord w i th the v i e w s of m any pe rsonal i ty the o ris ts (e .g . B l att &
B las s , 1 9 9 2 ; C antor, 1 9 9 4 ; M c A dam s , 1 9 8 5 ) and ® ndi ng s of pre v i ous trai t
s truc ture inv e s ti g ati ons (e .g . De S te no, 1 9 9 6 ; Ros e nb e rg e t al ., 1 9 6 8 ), w e
fou nd that s e lf-re l e v ant info rm atio n w as o rg ani s e d alo ng the tw o prim ary
di m e ns i ons o f ac h ie v e m e nt- and af ® l i ati on- re l e v anc e . A s s oc i ati ons am ong
the fe atu re s of a know n o th e r, the n US P re s i de nt Ge o rg e B u s h i n thi s c as e ,
w e re prim aril y bas e d on a m ore si m pl i® e d c rite rion, g e ne ral i s e d v ale nc e .
T h is ® ndi ng al s o i ndi c ate s that the re porte d M DS c on® g uratio ns d o not
s i m ply re pre s e nt th e s e m anti c i nte rre l ation s am ong the fe atu res , bu t that th e
re s u lti ng c on® g urati ons a re de riv e d from f e atu re j udg e m e nts w i th re s pe c t
to sp e c i ® c c on c e pts . In prov idi ng a fram e w o rk for fe atu re as s oc atio ns , th e
di m e ns i ons m ay be thoug h t of as de riv i ng from s c he m as (M arkus & Z aj onc ,
1 9 8 5 ) or the orie s (M e di n, 1 9 8 9 ), bo th of w hic h di re c t atte nti on to s p e c i® c
ty pe s o f info rm atio n. T he s e ® ndi ng s , how e v e r, do not de ® ni ti v e l y s how that
the re pre s e ntati on s of know n othe rs i s alw ay s l e s s c om pl e x th an that of th e
s e l f; as P re nti c e (1 9 9 0 ) has s how n, fam i li ari ty w ith the k now n othe r i s an
i m p ortan t m ode rator. T he l e v e ls of c om pl e x i ty , and di m e n s i ons us e d fo r
c onc e p t org ani s atio n, w i l l no do ubt di ffe r for pe rson c onc e pts as one m ov e s
al ong a g rad ie nt of the fam i l iari ty of th e s e in div id uals .
M ore i m portan tl y , how e v e r, our c e ntral pre di c tio n c onc e rni ng th e
e ffe c ts of he i g hte ne d m ood s tate s on the s tru c ture s of the s e c o nc e pts w as
c on® rm e d . A l thoug h i nd iv id uals i n the c o ntrol c ond iti on (i .e . ne utral
m ood) util i s e d af® l iati on- and ac h ie v e m e nt- rel e v anc e di m ens ion s to de te rm in e th e as s o c i atio ns am ong the fe atu re s of the i r s e l f-c onc e pts , in di v id uals
e x pe rie nc i ng a he i g hte ne d m ood s tate s i m pl y us e d g e ne ral v al e n c e as an
org anis in g prin c ip le . T hus , m uc h as happy and s ad i ndi v i dual s hav e b e e n
s h ow n to u s e s im pl e he doni c i nform ati on for th e c ate g oris ati on of fac e s to
a g re ate r de g re e than in div id uals i n a m o re ne utral m ood (Hal be rstad t &
Ni e d e nthal , i n pre s s ) , our ® ndi ng s s ug g e s t th at the s am e org ani s atio nal
e ffe c t m ay o c c u r w ith fe atu re s c om pris in g pe rs on c onc e pts .
A s pre di c te d, the e ffe c t of m ood on c og n iti v e org ani s atio n w as s i m ilar
ac ros s c on c e pts of s e l f and othe rs, i ndi c ati ng a g e ne ral e ffe c t of m ood on
c onc e p t s tru c ture . A ddi ti onal l y , as th e re li anc e on he don ic i nfo rm ati on w as
m ore pronou nc e d i n the re p re s e ntati on of the know n othe r, the s e ® ndi ng s
s u g g e s t that th e in ¯ ue n c e of af fe c t o n org ani s ati on m ay be g re ate r fo r le s s
c e rtain or l e s s fam i l iar i nfo rm ation . Ind e e d , S e d ik id e s (1 9 9 5 ) h as s ho w n
that al te rati ons i n m o od s tate af fe c t pe riphe ral in fo rm atio n in the s e l fc onc e p t to a m uc h l arg e r d e g re e than c e ntral i nform ati on (i .e . c ore fe atu re s
of th e s e l f).
M O O D AN D S E L F-C O N C E P T
36 9
A l thoug h c le ar and i ntrig ui ng , the ® nd ing s of th e c urre nt e x pe rim en t
m u s t be inte rpre te d in th e l i g ht of tw o prin c i pal l im i tati o ns . First, th e s e lfc onc e pt m ode l s p re s e nte d he re are ag g re g ate d re pre s e ntati on s ; the y are
g e ne ral is ati ons de riv e d from th e uni que s e lf-c on c e pts of m any parti c i pants . T he i r di m e ns i on al s truc tu re s and al te rati ons , h ow e v e r, re ¯ e c t, i n
all prob ab il i ty , c og ni ti v e phe n om e n a that are c om m on to e ac h of u s and,
the re fo re , are qui te te l li ng i n the i m pli c ati ons the y s ug g e s t for e m otion al
i n¯ ue n c e s on the dy nam ic o rg an is ati on of s e l f-re l e v ant info rm ation . S e c ond, th e M DS anal y s is te c h niq ue he re e m pl oy e d rel i e d on the e x pl i c it
rati ng s o f fe atu re s to de te rm ine the ir s truc tural i nte rre latio n. Im pl i c i t
m e as u res of org anis ati on prom i s e to p rov i de i nte res ti ng alte rnativ e w indow s in to the s tru c ture of th e s e l f-c onc e pt b y i nd e x in g m ore p rec is e l y
fe atu re as s oc i ation s i n m e m ory . A l th oug h in iti al w o rk e m ploy in g i m pli c i t
te c hn iq ue s to i nv e s ti g ate s e lf-c o nc e p t s tru c ture h as s up porte d th e us e of
ac hie v e m e nt an d af ® li atio n c rite ria in fe atu re org an is a ti on (De S te n o,
1 9 9 6 ), the s e te c hni que s hav e n ot y e t be e n us e d to i nv e s ti g ate the infl ue nc e
of m ood on c onc e p t s truc tu re .
No ne th e le s s , th e ® nd ing s pre s e nte d he re prov i de i ni ti al e v id e nc e th at
c hang e s in a ff e c ti v e s tate s m ay al te r the s tru c ture of the s e l f-c onc e p t
and, c o ns e que n tl y , that th e re latio n be tw e e n s e lf-c onc e pt org an is ati on
and af fe c tiv e e x pe rie nc e i s bi di re c ti on al . Jus t as i nc re as e s i n the as s oc iati ons am o ng li ke -v al e nc e d s e l f-fe atu re s hav e be e n s h ow n to re s ul t i n
i nte n s i® e d af fe c tiv e e x pe rie n c e s (S h ow e rs, 1 9 9 2 ), the re s ul ts of the
pre s e nt s tudy s ug g e s t tha t he ig hte ne d af fe c ti v e e x pe rie nc e s re s u lt i n a
re org ani s atio n o f s e l f-fe atu res b as e d p rim aril y upon v al e nc e . T hat is , i n
the pre s e nc e of a happy or s ad m ood s tate , in div id uals ’ s e l f-f e atu re s
c om e to be g rou pe d by v ale nc e as o ppos e d to oth e r c rite ria (e .g .
ac hie v e m e nt- re l e v anc e ).
S uc h dy nam ic as s oc i ati on s am ong s e lf-fe atu re s m ay m e di ate the m al le abi li ty of th e w o rki ng s e l f-c onc e p t. A s i nte r- fe atu ral as s o c iati ons c h ang e ,
the c o m pos iti on of the s e ts of s e l f-fe atu re s that are ac tiv e , and, the re fore ,
the re l ati v e ac c e s s ib il i ti e s of c e rtain othe r s e lf-fe atu re s , m ay ¯ u c tuate ,
re s ul ting in di ff e re nt phe n om e no lo g ic al e x pe rie nc e s of s e l f. S uc h v ari e d
org ani s ati onal p atte rns m ay be im portant to m ood re g ul ati on; d e pre s s e d
i ndi v id uals , for e x am p le , e v i de n c e h e ig h te ne d ac c e s s ib il i ti e s for al l ne g ativ e s e l f-i nform ati on (S e g al , 1 9 8 8 ), s ug g e s tin g th e us e o f v ale n c e as an
org ani s ati onal s c he m e . W e be l i e v e , the re fore , that th e s tudy of the s tru c ture
of the s e l f-c onc e pt, as oppo s e d to s ole l y its c on te nt, prom ise s to prov i de
i m portant i ns i g hts i nto both the fun c ti oni ng of th is m e ntal re p re s e ntati on
and its li nk s to m oti v atio n and e m o ti on .
M anus c rip t re c e iv e d 2 9 S e ptem be r 1 9 9 5
Re v is e d m anus c ri pt re c e iv e d 1 2 N ov e m be r 1 9 9 6
3 70
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