A SUPPLEMENTARY BOOK OF CHINESE MUSIC
FOR THE SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENT
D.M.A. DOCUMENT
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree Doctor of Musical Arts in the
Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
Nicole Marie Charles, M.Mus.
Graduate Program in Music
The Ohio State University
2010
D.M.A. Document Committee:
Professor Katherine Borst Jones, Advisor
Professor James Hill
Professor Udo Will
Copyright by
Nicole Marie Charles
2010
i.
ABSTRACT
Created by Toshio Takahashi and Shinichi Suzuki, Suzuki Flute School Volume 1
contains a variety of music for the beginner flutist. Children‘s songs, folk music, and
romantic and baroque music from Japan, France, America, and Germany provide
beautiful tunes for the students to learn. Furthermore, beautiful sound is taught through
tonalization, and beautiful character through strong relationships among the parent,
teacher, and child.
Having taught Suzuki flute classes at the Ohio Contemporary Chinese School
(OCCS) since 2003, I‘ve had the opportunity to learn about the beautiful Chinese culture.
But I have found that many children of Chinese descent have very little exposure to
traditional Chinese music and children‘s songs. Due to historical patterns in China of
disposing or recycling music, many of their parents do not know many Chinese songs (at
least those without political undertones). The Suzuki method itself does not contain any
Chinese songs.
The purpose of this document is to provide a supplementary book of Chinese flute
music for my students at the OCCS, one tailored to coincide with the pedagogical points
of Suzuki Flute School Volume 1. Not only will this supplementary book provide a
unique genre of music for my students, but it will also aim to preserve and promote
traditional Chinese music within the Chinese-American culture.
ii
Dedication
This document is dedicated to those who nurture first and teach second.
My life wouldn‘t be the same without you.
iii
Acknowledgments
My husband, you have given me so much support. You have been there every step of the
way, moving away from all your friends and family to come to Ohio, and never
complained once. I am beyond lucky to have you in my life. Mrs. Jones, you are the
reason I came to OSU. You inspire me every day to be a better teacher, performer,
leader, and warrior. Thank you for letting me make my own mistakes and being there to
guide me down the right path. I give many thanks to Professor Will for taking the time to
teach me about the dizi and Chinese music, and to help me form my ideas for my book. I
am still not that great at the dizi, but I will keep practicing! Thanks also to my committee
members Professor Haddock, Professor Hill, and Dr. Atkinson for guiding me throughout
the years. I would also like to thank Dr. Takeaki Miyamae for his continuous support of
my ideas and Suzuki training: you have taught me so much and I am so grateful to be
able to call you my friend. To Max Xu, you gave me the chance to teach when no one
else gave me the time of day. Sundays are my favorite days thanks to you. Lan Bloch,
Henry Yan, and all other OCCS administrators who have helped along the way—I am so
grateful for your support in times of need. Susan Davis, you inspired me to teach and
iv
you are one of the most loving people I know. Ted Richardson, my high school band
director, you were like a Dad to me. Mrs. Bilyeu, I can‘t believe what you had to put up
with during our lessons—you came into my life at just the right moment. Dr. Terry
Austin, I would not be here unless you had shown faith in my audition for Governor‘s
School. My world changed forever that day! Dr. Guerard, a copy of my diploma will be
in the mail shortly! To all of my students and parents, especially those who have helped
me with this journey: Ma Yun, Jack Yu and his family, Ji Zhang, Yan Zhou, and Ming
Yu. I know there are so many more, thank you all so much. Special thanks to Mitch
Imhoff and Uncle Bobby for your help in this endeavor with proofreading, and Ian Wei
and Fanghong Yu for your translating (often last minute!) abilities. To my friends Kim,
Jenny, Suzanne, and Jason….thanks for being a part of my life. Finally, thanks to my
parents and siblings—you all had to hear some good flute days and some not-so-good
flute days at one point or another…your love is with me always.
v
VITA
March 21, 1979 ..............................................Born----Monroeville, Pennsylvania
May, 2001 ......................................................B.M. Flute Performance, Virginia
Commonwealth University
June, 2004…………………………………...M.M. Flute Performance, The Ohio State
University
July 2003 ........................................................Suzuki Certification Book 1
August 2004 ...................................................Suzuki Certification Book 2
2004---Present ...............................................Suzuki Flute Class Teacher,
Ohio Contemporary Chinese School
July 2005 ........................................................Suzuki Certification Book 3
July 2006 ........................................................Suzuki Certification Book 5
2008---Present………………………………Applied Flute Teacher,
Muskingum University
Fields of Study
Major Field: Music
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv
VITA .................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTERS
CHAPTER 1: THE OHIO CONTEMPORARY CHINESE SCHOOL (OCCS) AND MY
SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENTS ........................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2: CHINESE MUSIC HISTORY .................................................................... 5
I. Legendary Period, ca. 27th-21st Centuries B.C. .................................................... 5
II. Xia Dynasty, ca. 21st-16th Centuries B.C. ........................................................... 9
III.The Beginning of Chinese Music: Shang Dynasty ca. 16th-11th Centuries B.C. 10
IV. Zhou Dynasty and the Warring States, 1075-256 B.C. ................................... 12
V. Qin Dynasty, 221-207 B.C. and Han Dynasty, 206 B.C.- 220 A.D. ................. 15
VI. China‘s Dark Ages: Three Kingdoms (220-265 A.D.), Jin Dynasty (265-420
A.D.), and Northern-Southern Dynasty (420-589 A.D.) ........................................ 18
VII. Reunification: Sui Dynasty (581-618 A.D.), Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.) . 21
VIII. Song Dynasties (960-1279 A.D.), The Rise of the Mongols, and the Yuan
Dynasty (1271-1368 A.D.) ..................................................................................... 24
vii
IX. The Last Golden Age: The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) and Qing Dynasty
(1644-1911 A.D.) .............................................................................................................. 27
X. The Republican Period (1912-Present) ............................................................. 30
XI. Modern China .................................................................................................. 33
CHAPTER 3: CHINESE WIND INSTRUMENTS ......................................................... 35
I. Air Reeds ............................................................................................................. 36
II. Reeds .................................................................................................................. 46
III. Free Reeds ........................................................................................................ 51
CHAPTER 4: THE DIZI .................................................................................................. 56
I. Function ............................................................................................................... 56
II. Performance Practice.......................................................................................... 59
CHAPTER 5: BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: A BRIEF SUZUKI FLUTE SCHOOL
VOLUME 1 OVERVIEW, CORRESPONDING SUPPLEMENTARY CHARTS, AND
FINDING CHINESE SONGS .......................................................................................... 63
I. A Brief Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Overview ............................................... 63
Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Chart Analysis ....................................................... 68
Chinese Supplementary Book Chart Analysis ........................................................ 69
II. Finding the Chinese Songs ................................................................................. 70
CHAPTER 6: CHINESE SONGS FOR THE SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENT .................. 75
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………103
viii
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 105
INTERNET RESOURCES ............................................................................................. 108
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Correlations of Instruments with Environment ................................................ 14
Table 5.1 Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Chart Analysis .................................................. 68
Table 5.2 Chinese Supplementary Selections Chart Analysis .......................................... 69
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 Excavated bone flutes, Henan Province, c. 7,000-9,000 years old ................. 37
Figure 3.2 Bangdi, the qudi, and the large dizi ................................................................ 39
Figure 3.3 Banpo Village Xun (4700-3600 B.C.) ............................................................ 40
Figure 3.4 6th century pai xiao from a Chu tomb in Xichuan .......................................... 43
Figure 3.5 Marquis Yi‘s pai xiao .................................................................................... 44
Figure 3.6 various xiao .................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.7 Bili .................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 3.8 Guanzi............................................................................................................. 47
Figure 3.9 Qing Dynasty Suona ........................................................................................ 49
Figure 3.10 Tang Dynasty Sheng ..................................................................................... 51
Figure 3.11 Bawu ............................................................................................................. 54
Figure 3.12 Hulusi ........................................................................................................... 55
Figure 6.1 Cover .............................................................................................................. 76
Figure 6.2 Table of Contents ........................................................................................... 77
Figure 6.3 Introduction, Page 1........................................................................................ 78
Figure 6.4 Introduction, Page 2........................................................................................ 79
Figure 6.5 China‘s Music History, Page 3 ....................................................................... 80
Figure 6.6 China‘s Music History, Page 4 ....................................................................... 81
xi
Figure 6.7 China‘s Music History, Page 5 ....................................................................... 82
Figure 6.8 China‘s Music History, Page 6 ....................................................................... 83
Figure 6.9 China‘s Music History, Page 7 ....................................................................... 84
Figure 6.10 China‘s Music History, Page 8 ..................................................................... 85
Figure 6.11 China‘s Music History, Page 9 ..................................................................... 86
Figure 6.12 The Chinese Flute and Some Great Chinese Music, Page 10 ...................... 87
Figure 6.13 Little Duckie and I Have a Pair of Little Hands, Page 11 ............................ 88
Figure 6.14 Going to School and Guessing Game, Page 12 ............................................ 89
Figure 6.15 Little Donkey, Page 13 .................................................................................. 90
Figure 6.16 Find a Friend and Throw a Handkerchief, Page 14 ..................................... 91
Figure 6.17 Little Rabbit and Embroidered Purse, Page 15 ............................................ 92
Figure 6.18 Mom is the Best!, Page 16 ............................................................................ 93
Figure 6.19 Purple Bamboo Flute, Page 17 ..................................................................... 94
Figure 6.20 In the Silver Moonlight and In the Land That is Far Away, Page 18 ........... 95
Figure 6.21 Wa Ha Ha!, Page 19 ..................................................................................... 96
Figure 6.22 Jasmine Flower, Page 20 .............................................................................. 97
Figure 6.23 Mud Doll, Page 21 ........................................................................................ 98
Figure 6.24 The Little Girl Who Picks Mushrooms, Page 22 .......................................... 99
Figure 6.25 Purple Bamboo Melody, Page 23 ............................................................... 100
Figure 6.26 Purple Bamboo Melody (cont‘d), Page 24 ................................................. 101
xii
Figure 6.27 Goodbye!, Page 25 ..................................................................................... 102
xiii
CHAPTER ONE
THE OHIO CONTEMPORARY CHINESE SCHOOL (OCCS)
AND MY SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENTS
For fifteen years, the Ohio Contemporary Chinese School (OCCS) has been a
center of education for the mainland Chinese community in the Columbus metropolitan
area. The OCCS is actually a culmination of many different ideas and hopes beyond the
average language class. While providing quality instruction in Mandarin language and
Simplified Chinese, it also instills and aims to preserve a sense of culture and
community.1
The OCCS was founded by a group of parents who wanted to educate their
children in Chinese language and culture. More and more Chinese mainlanders were
immigrating to the Columbus area but there was no place for their children to learn
Simplified Chinese writing. During the summer of 1994, Jim Wang and Aiping Shao
invited friends to their home to discuss the possibility of establishing a Chinese school in
1
Jason Ma, interview by author, Worthington, OH, March 8, 2009.
1
Columbus for this ever-increasing need. From there began a whirlwind of activity to
push forward and put plans into motion.2
The most powerful tool the founders of the OCCS had in creating a successful
school was the models of well-established Chinese schools and communities around the
country. Beginning in the 1980‘s the U.S. saw a surge in people from mainland Chinese
coming to live in the U.S. Larger cities like Chicago, Boston, D.C., and Detroit already
had Chinese schools established and provided models for the future OCCS. In 1995 the
first nationwide Chinese School Association in the U.S. was founded and its conference
was held in Columbus. Teachers from all over the country came to exchange ideas in
building a successful Chinese school and community. Questions on curriculum support
from the community, teachers, tuition, and most importantly, how to get a non-profit
status was addressed.
Attaining the non-profit status required the OCCS to be run by volunteers. For
that reason, there have been many challenges in maintaining and furthering growth. Most
difficulties came from a financial standpoint: since the school was new, the state would
not grant money. In fact, no money has ever been received from the government.
Obviously, a tuition-based school was the only sure course of action. Secondly, securing
a location was (and is to this day) a challenge. The first location, near the Lincoln
Towers at OSU, was great from the vantage point that it was free. However, there was no
2
Ibid.
2
room for growth and the building itself was not child-friendly. A move to Dominion
Middle School and eventually to North High School temporarily relieved this problem.
The OCCS moved out of the Columbus district and into Worthington via Perry
Elementary school in 2006. Since 2007, the OCCS is located at Worthington Kilbourne
High School, which offers a cafeteria, many classrooms, gymnasium, and auditorium for
special events.3
Fall 2009 began my sixth year as the OCCS flute teacher. In 2003 I was looking
for a place to hold some Suzuki classes as my apartment was ill-equipped for large
numbers of students. I contacted numerous churches and Sunday schools and finally
talked with Max Xu, the principal of the OCCS at the time and the only person who
replied to me. I set up in the cafeteria during registration and played duets with a high
school student. My first class had about twenty-two students. Although the class size
was initially a little intimidating, I really found a place that I loved. We played at all the
school functions, where I was first introduced to various types of Chinese performances.
After a few years, I began to wonder if programming only Suzuki repertoire fit
into the festivities. Thus began a quest to find a few short tunes for the children to
perform in addition to their Suzuki studies. However, I had no idea that it would be so
difficult to find simple Chinese children‘s songs. I asked all the parents, but only one at
the time could help. I then taught Find a Friend to all the students, but I was still puzzled
3
Ibid.
3
as to why none of the other parents could recollect any traditional Chinese songs. In fact,
it seemed that many of the parents had no desire to teach their children old Chinese
songs. Furthermore, I really did not understand why the Suzuki method had not a single
Chinese tune. To be fair, Dr. Suzuki was not an ethnomusicologist so it is understandable
that not every world culture can be represented in the Suzuki Method. How naïve I felt
after researching World War II!
After making a decision to base this document on finding acceptable Chinese
tunes to supplement Suzuki Flute School Volume 1, I sent out an email to all of the
parents at the OCCS. This time, more parents responded. I began to understand how the
Cultural Revolution played a part in so many lives, for many of the songs emailed to me
had political implications (I decided not to include them). Also, some of the songs had
Chinese verses but Western tunes (for example, ―Two Tigers‖ is to the tune ―Frère
Jacques‖). With the remaining titles, I began searching for the tunes on recordings and
YouTube to find the most basic structure possible for my beginner flute students.
The more I realized how recent history played a part in erasing a beautiful part of
the Chinese culture, the more I wanted to find songs for the children. Many of my
students are first generation Chinese Americans and speak both Chinese and English.
Their parents tell me often of how they want their children to appreciate what they have
in America but to never forget where they came from. Even though it is a small gesture,
it is my hope to preserve a small part of a vastly rich culture.
4
CHAPTER TWO
CHINESE MUSIC HISTORY
I. Legendary Period, ca. 27th-21st Centuries B.C.
The time before the Xia dynasty (c. 21ST-16th Centuries B.C.) is shrouded in
mythology. Scholars and commoners alike argue about the authenticity of the alleged
rulers of this Legendary Period, who were first documented in the Zhou dynasty4. Fuxi,
Nüwa, Shennong, Huangdi, Yao, and Shun are to this day commonly known among the
Chinese as ancient progenitors of their country. These rulers of ancient China have been
associated with folk tales but have also been identified on archeological artifacts of
ancient China.5
Legend or not, their stories pervaded musical history and were most influential in
creating an autocratically hierarchical culture. For thousands of years, Chinese society
was based upon mythical ancient rulers who were believed to be gods. Gods could not be
4
Mingyue Liang, Music of the Billion: An Introduction to Chinese Musical Culture (New York:
Heinrichshofen Edition, 1985), 34.
5
Ibid, 35.
5
questioned-- rulings from heaven could not be challenged within the realm of humans.
Emperors continued to take on a god-like status throughout the dynasties, developing
doctrines and rituals (which included music) to ensure the continuity of their power and
legacy.6 In order to avoid reprisals from those still loyal to a previous emperor, stories of
mythological ancient rulers were simply reinterpreted to suit the needs of the current
emperor, which is most likely what the Zhou scholars did. Throughout Chinese history,
what remained the same was that these reinterpretations were sacred and absolute.7 The
stories of the legendary rulers were thus not so much folk tales as they were a means to
unify the people of China under one ruler.
The Legendary Period is said to begin with Fuxi, who was responsible for the
invention of the long zithers qin and se and the vessel flute xun8, as well as ―writing,
marriage, sacrifices for the spirits of the sky and the earth, the calendar, music and
laws.‖9 A great hunter, Fuxi taught the people how to hunt and prepare food. This
preparation included his hunting/dance song, jiabian, to give thanks to the hunting god.10
Nüwa complemented Fuxi, although there is much debate as to whether she did so as a
sibling or wife (or both). Together they formed the balancing act of the yin and yang.
Nüwa created the mouth organ shenghuang, and gave instructions to a
6
John King Fairbank and Merle Goldman, China: A New History (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press, 2006), 28.
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
9
Marco Moretti, China: The Kingdom of the Dragon (Indonesia: Barnes and Noble, 2007), 24.
10
Liang, 36.
6
historical/mythological figure named Lady O Lin to make an ancient flute called a
guan.11 Shennong was the successor to Fuxi, and was the god of agriculture. He was
credited for the creation of ―medicine, markets, and…..war.‖12 He also taught mankind
the dance songs of agriculture, including one by the name of Fengnian (Harvesting
Year). The instruments Shennong invented were the yue (a reed instrument) and tugu
(drum).13
Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor, is said to be the human descendant of Shennong.
He ruled from 2699-2599 B.C. and was highly regarded by the people for many centuries
afterward. He is considered to be the progenitor of the Hans ethnic group, and ―[D]uring
his reign the first house was said to have been built, jade-like stones to have been used as
a weapon, not to mention the invention of other civilizing instruments – the carriage,
calendar, and written language.‖14
Understanding the importance and influence of music, Huangdi sent his music
official Lin Lun to travel west in search of standard pitches. According to the Chun Qiu,
an ancient Chinese text, Lin Lun ―traveled westwards from the Ta Xia to the north side of
the K‘un Lun range and gathered bamboo from the valleys. He selected hollow tubes of
uniform bore and cut a length of three chun (1/3 decimeter) and nine fen (1/3 centimeter)
11
Ibid, 36.
Moretti, 24.
13
Liang, 36.
14
Ibid, 37.
12
7
between the two joints to make a pitch pipe for the tone of the Yellow Bell, or
huangzhong. Then he cut twelve other tubes and fixed their pitches according to the
singing of the Feng Huang birds.‖15
These twelve pitches eventually became known as Lülü, ―twelve pitches within an
octave based on the fundamental huangzhong pitch.‖16 This standardization of music
distinguished Huangdi‘s empire, and was very helpful in his establishment of military
music called Duzhang.17 In order to exude strength through his music, he made
modifications to the drums and zithers in such a way that they produced more sound.18
It is important to note that the Yellow Bell was not only used as a reference pitch
in music but also as reference for volume and weight measure, and was, therefore,
central to government control over trade, commerce, and taxation. It was believed that
the proper calculation of the Yellow Bell would result in a harmonious way of life for the
ruler and his subjects. In fact, each dynasty had its own measurement for the Yellow
Bell. This continuous recalculation provided reasons as to why the previous dynasties
failed: their Yellow Bell calculation was not correct and therefore any rulings or
decisions based upon this measurement would be faulty.
15
T.C. Lai and Robert Mok, Jade Flute: The Story of Chinese Music (New York: Schocken Books, 1985),
23.
16
Liang, 37.
17
Ibid, 38.
18
Ibid, 39.
8
Yao and Shun were two of the five kings who came after Huangdi to have a
musical impact on Chinese history. The dazhang, a ritual dance, was composed by Yao
specifically for the heaven and earth ceremony. Shun played the qin and was said to be
the first composer for solos on this instrument. His best known work was Nanfeng
(South Wind) for the qin.19
II. Xia Dynasty, ca. 21st-16th Centuries B.C.
The Xia dynasty was only recently acknowledged as a part of ancient Chinese
history, when in 1978 the Administration of Cultural Relics found enough archeological
evidence to determine its authenticity. Its first leader was Emperor Yu, who was the first
emperor to successfully use and develop irrigation systems. In celebration of this
achievement, the Da Xia (Grand Xia) was composed in honor of this new-found method
to cultivate the land. The dancing and music described in the Da Xia were passed down
throughout many generations and were documented in Zhou dynasty ritual books. Based
on texts from the ―Rites of Zhou‖ and ―Records of Rites,‖ we now know that panpipes
and some 64 dancers were used in this celebration.20
The son of Emperor Yu was named Qi, and he is actually regarded as a
mythological character who was said to love music. After a few visits to heaven, he
19
20
Ibid.
Liang, 41.
9
memorized Nine Songs, or Jiuge/Jiubian. Upon returning to Earth, he instructed his
subordinates on how to play his own version of this song, calling it Nine Shao
(Jiushao).21 This song was used as music for dance and ―included women holding onto
oxen tails while dancing to the accompaniment of a children‘s choir.‖22
Beyond the time of the first emperor, the amount of ritual music activity was
either in decline or not documented in any way, though the court‘s entertainment music
was documented. It was said that Emperor Jie had a tendency to overindulge in riches,
which led to his own demise: ―The Yaotai palace, a ‗playground‘ for Jie and his royal
ministers, contained beautiful ladies, wine, musicians, and dancers.‖23 It was also
speculated that he had at his command 30,000 female musicians for his own
entertainment.24
III. The Beginning of Chinese Music: Shang Dynasty ca. 16th-11th Centuries B.C.
Ritual music pervaded into the Shang period, and with it a template for Chinese
court music for centuries to come. Shamans or shamanesses were regarded very highly
and were in charge of acting as mediums between the supernatural and humans. As a
means of this communication, shamans and shamanesses invoked words, danced, and
21
Ibid.
Liang, 42.
23
Ibid.
24
Lai/Mok, 15.
22
10
played musical instruments. These rituals were often tied to procuring fertility, whether
in regard to rain for the fields, more livestock, or the legacy of human offspring.25 The
rain dance was the most prevalent pictograph found in oracle script,26 but shamans also
―chased evil spirits away, carried out spells, [and] foretold the future.‖27 In fact, religion
was an integral part of the Shang dynasty and its government. The king himself had his
own religious rituals, for which he was responsible in addition to other duties. His own
officials consisted of generals and shamans alike.28
Oracle bone inscription is the earliest evidence of developed writing in China.
Scapulimancy was practiced by shamans by heating animal bones and deciphering what
the resulting cracks meant. Once the messages from these cracks were read by the
shaman they would write the meaning on the bones.29 Oracle bone writings pertaining to
musical instruments found included: ―yo (panpipes), yen (long end-blown vertical flute),
he (small mouth organ), yue (zither), qing (stone chime), [and] gu (drum).‖ Ideas about
the possible construction and implementation of these ancient instruments can be inferred
through examining these ideographic and pictographic scriptures.30
25
Moretti, 24.
Liang, 49.
27
Moretti, 24.
28
Conrad Schirokauer, A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations, 2nd ed. (New York: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich College Publishers,1989), 18.
29
Fairbank/Goldman, 34.
30
Liang, 48.
26
11
The latter part of the Shang dynasty is also known as the Bronze Age in China.
Metallic musical instruments, including bells and other percussion-type instruments, were
found at many excavations. Also, tools made of metal helped to create other instruments
with more precision, for example, the shaping of lithophones and xun.31 Overall, this
provided a means of standardizing pitches. It was not uncommon for bells to be made in
sets of three, ―implying the intervals of major second and major and minor thirds, the
foundation of the pentatonic scale.‖32
IV. Zhou Dynasty and the Warring States (1075-256 B.C.)
The Zhou dynasty was the longest reigning dynasty in Chinese history. This
period of continual conquest led to a quickly apparent need for overall control of these
new vast lands. Rather than the respective emperors having direct involvement over the
governance of far away territories, special officials (family members, friends) were sent
to rule these areas.33 The role of the court shamans became worldlier. They not only
maintained shamanistic practices of ceremonies and rituals, but ―developed rules or
propriety and complex court practices of ceremonies and rituals.‖34
31
Lai/Mok, 18.
Ibid, 20.
33
Schirokauer, 21.
34
Liang, 52.
32
12
There were four main distinctions of ritual music used in the Zhou court:
sacrificial, banquet, grand archery, and processional music. Sacrificial music typically
started out instrumental, then shifted to song, and ended with dancing.35 Banquet music
indicated social status and provided behavior guidelines at important functions, such as
when to toast.36 Archery ceremonies used music to reveal who could keep his aim with
the beat, demonstrating ―the proper coordination of the archery movements.‖37
Processional music was usually loud in nature because it could serve as ―both as escort
type as well as a military band.‖38 The bells and percussion were used in this kind of
music to portray the strength of the person or army it accompanied.39
The beliefs and principles in which musicians sought to educate the nobles were
based on cosmological conceptions of yin and yang.40 The notion of yin and yang dates
back to ancient times of China—they are believed to be interconnected, yet opposing,
forces. Yin represents the female as ―dark, passive, and weak.‖41 Yang represents the
male as ―bright, active, and strong.‖42 Although yin and yang could not survive without
each other, yang (male) was naturally the dominant of the two. 43 The cosmological
35
Ibid, 57.
Ibid, 60.
37
Ibid.
38
Ibid, 61.
39
Ibid, 61.
40
Ibid, 63.
41
Fairbank/Goodman, 19.
42
Ibid
43
Ibid
36
13
principle of yin and yang not only provided hierarchical structure for humans but also for
nature. The relationship between sound and nature was fundamental in music, and was
reflected in bayin (the ―eight tones‖) and musical tonality structures (the number eight,
considered to be a lucky number, held much importance in the Chinese culture). The
bayin were metal, stone, skin, gourd, bamboo, wood, silk, and earth.44 By using these
different instruments at different times of the year, one could become one with nature
(Table 2.1).45
Table 2.1 Correlations of Instruments with Environment 46
8ayinClassification
Direction"
Season
Main Instruments
Events
I. Metal
West
Autumn
Bell-Chime
Sounded when the commander
orders his troops to retire
2. Stone
Northwest
Autumn to Winter
Stone-Chime
3. Skin
North
Winter
Drum
4. Gourd
Northeast
Winter to Spring
Mouth Organ
5. Bamboo
East
Spring
Flute, Pipe
6. Wood
Southeast
Spring to Summer
Wooden Tiger
7. Silk
South
Summer
Zither
8. Earth
Southeast
Summer to Autumn
Vessel Flute Ocarina
Performed in solemn ceremony
Performed when planting trees and
crops
Performed when silk-worms are
fattening and spinning their cocoons
" May indicate wind direction and/or the setting for the performance.
Liang also quotes Yueji, a book reading the wisdom of Confucius: ―Great music shares
the principles of harmony with the universe; through the principles of harmony [acoustic
44
Alan Thrasher, Chinese Musical Instruments (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2001), 10.
Liang, 64.
46
Ibid, 64.
45
14
phenomenon], order is restored in the physical world, and through the principles of
distinction, we are enabled to offer sacrifices to Heaven and earth.‖ 47
Beyond the court, little is known about the exact melodies of the common folk.
However, the Book of Songs, a collection of poetry selected by Confucius, provides
evidence of secular music outside the court. Confucius used these psalm-like texts in his
teachings as behavior models for the powerful leaders, although Confucianism did not
become widely popular until after his death. These poems are an invaluable source of
Chinese culture as they were written from 1000-600 B.C.48 However, the melodies to the
poems were lost by the Han dynasty.49
V. Qin Dynasty (221-207 B.C.) and Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.)
The brief Qin dynasty began an empire with a different kind of unification. The
government was centralized within a break-down of its land into smaller territories. To
further strengthen the growing sense of bureaucratic government, hereditary ascension to
power was no more, although use was found for former nobles who demonstrated
military prowess.50 Language, weights, measures, and roads were standardized to join
the people of the vast land of China.51
47
Ibid, 61.
Schirokauer, 39.
49
Ibid, 22.
50
Ibid, 21.
51
Ibid., 51.
48
15
Via the Qin Dynasty‘s division of China into multiple states, a wide array of ideas
flourished at the same time. Perhaps this dynasty‘s reign was so brief because the lack of
order in these divergent ideas and states created an opportune time for war: ―Such a
massive unification and restructuring was bound to evoke bitter hostility.‖52 Another
factor in the fall of the empire was the means used to control the people. Order was kept
throughout China by means of legal reforms, proposed and implemented by advisor
Shang Yang. Yang insisted that rewards and punishments be carried out quickly and, for
the latter, brutally. This implementation of quick judgment imprinted on the general
population more as a deterrent than an incentive. Combined with exorbitant taxation, the
people could offer no more and the empire quickly fell to its demise.53
The Han dynasty, lasting 405 years, developed the imperialist government set in
motion by the Qin dynasty. Where the Qin failed at finding the means to rule the people
without depleting them, the Han divided the bureaucracies into smaller areas in which to
govern.54 Taxes were not as high. A class system reflected the commercial benefits of
imperialism; the upper echelon was not necessarily royalty but, rather, merchants.55 This
designation of social order gave musicians more opportunities to perform not only in
official gatherings, but for social entertainment. During this prosperous time, cities
52
Ibid, 54.
Fairbank and Goldman, 57.
54
Ibid.
55
Ibid, 60.
53
16
flourished and gave way to the rise of the merchant class. The need for ritual/ceremonial
music diminished as music thrived in settings of entertainment and enjoyment.56
Trade flourished in the Han dynasty as roadways and canals became more
interconnected. The Silk Road, in particular, allowed travel from North China and
Central Asia. Cultures from the remote areas of China slowly began to influence the Han
through the assimilation of tribal and Buddhist influence. Many new instruments were
introduced at this time, including the dizi flute, pipa lute, konghou harp.57
One of the most popular kinds of urban music created in the Han dynasty was
called Harmonious Song, or xianghe ge and qingshang yue (pure music). Xianghe ge was
particularly popular in North China, especially among the merchant class.58 With roots in
the countryside, this music became very popular in the cities and was comprised of an
assortment of solo voice, wind, and string instruments. The structure of xianghe ge
music evolved from ―sonorous harmony between solo voice and instruments‖ to song
cycle form.59
Most unfortunately, the first Qin emperor destroyed all literature in order ―to have
the history of China literally begin with his reign.‖60 Confucianism proliferated in the
Han dynasty and with it a need for the rulers to have a ―daily regimen of ceremonies and
56
Liang, 78.
Thrasher, 39.
58
Thrasher, 43.
59
Liang, 80.
60
Ibid, 79.
57
17
rites.‖61 This lack of information during the Han dynasty led to the creation of the Music
Bureau, or Yuefu. Music was needed for official ceremonies and entertainment purposes,
so the Yuefu acquired this through ―1) collecting folk and country songs including texts,
2) setting new and appropriate texts to existing folk tunes, 3) setting new or rearranged
tunes to existing texts, and 4) planning the music performances for the court.‖62 The
Yuefu created guchui and hengchui band music. Guchui was intended for processions
and was usually comprised of percussion and bells accompanying paixiao and jia.
Hengchui was more for social and entertainment purposes, although it was also
―identified with the cavalry.‖63 Hengchui typically used the drum, gu, and jiao.
VI. China’s Dark Ages: Three Kingdoms (220-265 A.D.), Jin Dynasty (265-420
A.D.), and Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589 A.D.)
Ironically, all the smaller territories created in the Han dynasty easily took power
when trouble arose in the court. ―Weakness at the center came from many causes: the
succession of ineffectual Han emperors, their domination by the empress‘s family,
usurpation of power by eunuchs, and many other factional rivalries at the court.‖64 The
lack of central government resulted in hundreds of years of continual divergence,
61
Fairbanks and Goldman, 62.
Liang, 79.
63
Ibid, 81.
64
Fairbanks and Goldman, 72.
62
18
beginning with the Three Kingdoms, from 220-265 A.D. Three separate dynasties
existed simultaneously: in Nanjing the Wu kingdom, in Chengdu the Shu Han kingdom,
and in Luoyang the Wei kingdom.65
In 265 the Wei kingdom fell, and thus began the Jin dynasty (265-420). Tribes in
the north used the weakness of the broken empire to attack it continually.66 Indigenous
Chinese were scattered, but many took refuge in South and West China. Survivors of the
Jin Empire relocated and reassembled in Jiankang and it became the new Jin capital.67
From about 316-589 China saw nomads rule the north with sixteen different kingdoms
(the south had six).68 With a lack of centered Chinese Han culture in North China,
Buddhism thrived. The music of China during this period reflected the assimilations of
the myriads of cultures.69
Through this assimilation, different styles of music and different instruments were
seen in China. With the moving of the north gentry class to the south came qingshang,
which was essentially xianghe ge but was the culmination of the northern and southern
styles. Qingshang was to be the only Han Chinese music to remain from the Han dynasty
during this move south.70 Southern music, although nonextant, suggested a theme and
65
Liang, 86.
Ibid.
67
China Scientific Book Service Co.Ltd, “The History of the Jin Dynasty,‖ China Scientific Book
Services, , http://www.hceis.com/ChinaBasic/History/Jin4%20dynasty%20history.htm.
68
Schirokauer, 82.
69
Liang, 87.
70
Ibid, 89.
66
19
variations style of music called wu song. Wu song was divided into six sections, or
liubian. In the Hubei province, fisherman songs told tales of life and love called xiqu.
Though only the text remains, they are thought to have been in binary form.71
Numerous new instruments were introduced in this period. From India came the
ba gong and two different types of pipas: the quxiang pipa which had four strings and a
bent neck, and the five string wuxiang pipa. Tribes in the north introduced the bili,
fangxiang, and the luo.72
Most interestingly, during this time period large ensembles were not popular,
perhaps due to the collapse of many royal and court families. Instead, small ensembles
thrived, and the emergence of the solo performer (particularly on the qin) brought many
new compositions and performers into popularity.73 From wu music silk and bamboo
ensembles grew; the Prime Minister of the Jin dynasty, Xie An, was supposedly an active
silk and bamboo musician himself. He was instrumental in promoting music-particularly after the victory at the Fei River battle.74 Some of the oldest Chinese music
notations of Qin music are said to be from this time period according to Youlan, a
71
Liang, 90.
Ibid.
73
Ibid.
74
Shen Sinyan, ―Xie An the Prime Minister: Master of Silk and Bamboo Music,‖ Chinese Music, 29(4)
(2006): 66.
72
20
manuscript actually from the Tang dynasty, but said to be a copy of a manuscript from
550 A.D.75
VII. Reunification: Sui Dynasty (581-618 A.D.) and Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.)
During his brief rule, Emperor Wen reunified China under one government to
mark the beginning of the Sui Dynasty. Reuniting China was no small task, but Wen‘s
strength was his ability to assimilate the myriad of cultures that, after hundreds of years
of disunity, made up China. Although he was a Buddhist, for example, he integrated
Daoist and Confucian rituals in his court.76 Unlike previous emperors, he sought any
remaining literature of previous dynasties and by doing so saved a part of the Han
culture.77 Furthermore, guidelines were set for the bureaucracies, which helped to prevent
favoritism when making appointments. This in turn strengthened the relationship of the
provinces to the central government. But the Sui‘s open-mindedness equaled their greed
for more land. The military could only be spread so thin before the downfall of the
empire became imminent.78
The Tang dynasty lasted over three hundred years and was a celebration of the
various cultures that had intermingled through war and trade in the Dark Ages. With
75
Liang, 91.
Schirokauer, 102.
77
Yan Ma, Chinese Emperors: From the Xia Dynasty to the Fall of the Qing Dynasty (New York: Falls
River Press, 2009), 105.
78
Schirokauer, 103.
76
21
strong footholds left by the Sui, the Tang dynasty catapulted forward with more
improvements to the bureaucracies, food storage, and education, using a continued mix of
Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.79 Music of the court reflected this diversity and
featured stylized foreign music, or huyue. Huyue could reflect music from other
countries such as India and Korea. However, it could also reflect minority regions of
China.80 In fact, the emperor employed full orchestras from ―Indo-China, Korea, Kucha,
Bokhara, Kashgar, Samarkand and Turfan.‖81
In the early Tang dynasty this music, along with Chinese music, was divided into
ten categories known as the shibu ji (ten sections of skill). Official court entertainment
music was comprised of ―ensembles from India, Korea, Samarkand, Kashgar, and other
areas of Central Asia, together with indigenous Han Chinese ensembles.‖82 Ceremonial
music was referred to as qingshang yue, and court social music was called yanyue
(banquet music).83 Ironically, the classification of shibu ji was done away with as the
non-native Chinese music was assimilated into the culture. Standing or sitting music
became the two main categories.84
79
Ibid, 105.
Ibid, 107.
81
Sheila Melvin and Jindong Cai, Rhapsody in Red: How Western Classical Music Became Chinese. (New
York: Algora Publishing, 2004), 56.
82
Thrasher, 47.
83
Ibid, 48.
84
Liang, 99.
80
22
Music and the arts in general prospered on many levels: in performance troupes
that were hired as residents and teachers in the courts, in the first Chinese music
academy-- Liyuan, or Pear Garden-- and even in the style of the daqu, which was ―a
grand-scale presentation of instrumental music, song and dance.‖85 Outside of the court,
quzi, or short song, were popular vocal songs.86 Buddhist monks used bianwen (modified
literature), which were poems sung in a Sprechstimme style accompanied by a clapper. 87
The Tang dynasty also saw the predecessors to Chinese opera: comedy-style short stories
called chanjun and said to employ music and dancing.88
It is important to note that the effects of Confucianism distinguished the literati as
a separate kind of musicians. Although most would like to be considered professional
musicians to indicate a high level of performance capabilities, the literati preferred the
amateur classification. The amateur classification signified one‘s membership with the
upper class educated gentlemen, or ―the top rank in society in accordance with Confucian
ideology….[P]rofessional musicians were considered low class because they provided
service-oriented activities for social functions or entertainment.‖89 Men in power, in
accordance with Confucian principles, had to maintain an emotional distance from music,
85
Ibid, 97.
Ibid, 102.
87
Ibid, 103.
88
Ibid, 106.
89
Frederick Lau, Music in China: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2008), 23.
86
23
for it was one of the most important means of governing the commoners. Because music
can have such a powerful affect, it was up to the government to protect the people.90
Musical manuscripts found from 933 A.D. possibly reveal tonalities employed by
Chinese musicians of the late Tang dynasty. Upon deciphering the notation, many
scholars consider the music of the Tang dynasty to sound very foreign in comparison to
what we consider Chinese today. In fact, other music notation discoveries suggest a
greater overall influence of West Asia and the Middle East.91
VIII. Song Dynasties (960-1279 A.D.), The Rise of the Mongols, and the Yuan
Dynasty (1271-1368 A.D.)
The end of the Tang came with the aristocracy‘s fall from power and a rise in
military independence from the central government.92 The basic means of living became
extremely difficult, thus producing gang-like warfare. This brief period was called the
Five Dynasties and ended with the defeat of the warlords by the Song imperial army. 93
The Song dynasty began its reign in 960 A.D. in North China. During this period
trade (including naval trade) and commercialism thrived again. The value of education
became more important than the class of the family one was born into—greater emphasis
90
Jeannette L. Faurot. ―Music and Nature in Ancient Chinese Thought,‖ Chinese Music 21(1) (1998): 7.
Liang, 111.
92
Fairbank and Goldman, 85.
93
Ibid, 87.
91
24
was being put on examination results than completely on one‘s lineage.94 The printing
press and the growth of various industries led to a more urbanized China. Perhaps
because of this urbanization, ―things we in the modern era consider to be traditionally
Chinese in the arts and literature were either related to or rooted in the Song traditions.‖95
The tribes surrounding China were areas of unrest. The Mongols eventually
defeated the Song, which was the first time China was overtaken by foreigners. Genghis
Khan united the tribes, which took ―great determination, political skill, knowledge of
men, [and] a manifest ability to lead…ruthlessness, drive, military skill, and personal
courage.‖96 The start of the Yuan dynasty began with Khan, and developed further under
the ruling of two of his sons.97
Musical dramas called zaju (variety musical drama) were a small reprieve from
the overbearing Mongols who took over every aspect of the government. Influenced
mainly by Taoist ideas, zaju was comprised of four acts and had five characters: ―(a) a
leading male role who was the sole singer in the cast, (b) a supporting male role, (c) a
painted face, comic role, (d) an official, and (e) a musician who provided simple
instrumental accompaniment on flute and drum.‖98 Northern zaju was particularly
successful. Many scholars were not able to flee south during the Mongolian invasion.
94
Ibid, 94.
Liang, 116.
96
Schirokauer, 215.
97
Ibid.
98
Liang, 123.
95
25
Their higher level of education led to ―tightly plotted stories [that] were executed through
a precise, demanding, and beautiful format.‖99 Like southern zaju, northern zaju used the
aforementioned roles, make-up, and costumes. However, the same person could change
characters between acts, so short scenes called wedges were added to allow the performer
time to change character. Zaju actors and actresses became famous as this type of drama
became popular all across China.100
Vocal music of the Song and Yuan dynasties was some of the most popular music
among the people. Ci were irregular meter poems initially set to preexisting melodies,
but eventually led to newly composed melodies. Art songs called xiaoling (short song)
and changzhuan (drum song) were also very popular. Xiaoling was based on qu poetry
and was often performed in taoshu, or song cycles. Changzhuan brought the verses to
life by switching between ―metered and free rhythmic sections.‖101 Minority narrative
songs were very popular and were often accompanied by the xiqin, ―the predecessor of
huquin [sic].‖102 However, little is documented about Yuan court music. In 1370, the
book Standard History of the Yuan was written. It mentions several kinds of music,
99
Siu Wang-Nui with Peter Lovrick, Chinese Opera: Images and Stories (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1997),
7.
100
Ibid, 7.
Ibid, 118.
102
Du Yaxiong and Chen Mingdao, ―Music of Minorities in China: A Panoramic View of the Musical
System,‖ Chinese Music 16(3) (June 1993): 35.
101
26
including ―state sacrificial music, banquet music, secular ceremonial music, military
music, recreational music and other genres.‖103
IX. The Last Golden Age: The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) and Qing Dynasty
(1644-1911 A.D.)
A peasant uprising led by Zhu Yuanzhang usurped the Mongolian government in
1368, signaling the start of the Ming dynasty. After years of being ruled by a repressive
foreign government, the spirit of Chinese nationalism ran high. The importance of
education reached a pinnacle, and it was made more readily accessible to the poor and
rich alike. Urbanization spread quickly as new territories were established and more and
more people settled into the countryside. Regional music styles, particularly between the
North and the South, became prevalent.104
Royalty of the Ming dynasty loved dramatic works of the theatre. Chuanqi drama
used poems, dialogue, and music—sometimes over the course of several days! The
original music for chuanqi did not survive; however, kunshan music (water polishing
music) was created by Wei Liangfu over the course of a decade and became an
identifiable feature of chuanqi drama.105 Kunshan proved to have a ―delicate, languorous
103
Joseph S.C. Lam, ―There is No Music in Chinese Music History: Five Court Tunes from the Yuan
Dynasty (AD 1271-1368),‖ Journal of the Royal Musical Association 119(2) (1994): 169.
104
Liang, 128.
105
WangNgai/Lovrick, 8.
27
quality [that] was the perfect vehicle for the poetry and high literary standards.‖ 106 The
combination of chuanqi and kunshan created the national style of Kunqu opera, which is
known in modern times. Perhaps the most well-known style of Chinese opera is Peking
opera. Peking opera was an instant success, as it was made for the general public as
opposed to the literati class of Kunqu opera.107 It is recognized today as a national
style.108
When Peking fell in 1644 ―the aid of the Manchus was solicited.‖109 The Qing
dynasty was China‘s final dynasty of imperialism. Although once again led by a foreign
government, Chinese nationalism pervaded. Even as the Manchurian government
imposed restrictive rules on the content of the Kun operas, e.g., ―dramatic works based on
emperors, queens, and loyalist sages were prohibited and punishable by a hundred
strokes,‖ authors, composers, and audiences rebelled (and were punished accordingly).110
Although the spirit of nationalism on one hand preserved and created music, the music of
previous time periods was destroyed. Any music that was found to have non-Chinese
roots was considered unpatriotic. This diminished a vastly varied repertoire down to
tonalities of mainly a pentatonic nature.111
106
Ibid.
Ibid, 9.
108
Ibid, 10.
109
Liang, 129.
110
Ibid, 133.
111
Ibid, 134.
107
28
Qing court music was ironically more Chinese-based than Manchu. The Manchus
kept the tradition of using Chinese ritual music as a way to appease their Chinese
subjects. But it was under Emperor Qianlong (1711-1799) that the Siku Quanshu was
completed: a revision of its 1713 version and an additional 120 volumes were added to
this Chinese encyclopedia.112 The finished product contained ―36,000 volumes of four
sections of Classics, History, Philosophy, and Literature.‖113 Also included were
volumes with information on various types of ritual and secular music.114 The
encyclopedia was revered so greatly that ―over 150,000 copies of what were thought to
be anti-Qing books were destroyed forever.‖115
Despite the great amount of music lost due to a musical ethnic cleansing, opera,
solo qin music, and folk music was quite popular. This may have been due to yaji
(refined gathering), private social events held by the literati class.116 Actually, most
extant qin music is from this time period, because the yaji printed a great deal of qin
music: ―together with hand-copied manuscripts and examples from other sources, some
150 volumes comprising about 3000 pieces of music in tablature have been handed
down.‖117 In addition, since the printing press was well established, many qin treatises
(more than 100, in fact) were published and readily accessible to the overall educated
112
Keith Pratt, ―Change and Continuity in Qing Court Music,‖ Chime Journal 7 (1993): 90.
Yan, 174.
114
Pratt, 91.
115
Yan, 175.
116
Thrasher, 30.
117
Lai/Mok, 105.
113
29
public.118 Urban style folk music was incredibly popular as a result in the rise of the
literati class. It was not unusual to hear performance troupes performing narrative poems
in and outdoors. Marketplaces used troupes to help advertise their products, and the
wealthy would have their own private performances.119
X. The Republican Period (1912-1949)
In the latter part of the Qing dynasty came external influences the likes of which
China had not seen before. The world of the West influenced China more now than any
other time, as Great Britain dominated the seas.120 Russia and Japan began to push trade
at the borders.121 The opium war hit the Chinese both by sea and through the rampant
drugging of the people. A brief restoration of the Qing dynasty brought a short relief, but
China was ultimately left vulnerable to the rest of the world.122
After two thousand years of imperialism, the Republic of China was founded in
1912. This quick deviation from rule by emperor, although made with good intentions,
caused utter chaos among the various factions of China. Young scholars, many of whom
were musicians, went overseas to receive a Western-based education.123 At first, many of
these musicians, who were not taught in ancient Chinese practice, reflected an overall
118
Liang, 131.
Ibid, 132.
120
Schirokauer, 387.
121
Ibid, 396.
122
Ibid, 448.
123
Liang, 136.
119
30
Western performance style even though they would use well-known Chinese tunes in
their performances. European-type music schools sprung up in China. Songs composed
in a Western style were used in the public school systems to induce revolutionary
democratic attitudes. Instrumental music became more soloistic, especially on the qin,
pipa, and erhu, yet another Western influence.124 However, there were other means of
preserving what was known as traditional Chinese music. Many publications on Chinese
musical history were produced. 125 Folk and narrative songs were incredibly popular
across China, whether used in a Westernized version or in the working fields.126
The Nationalist Army and the Communists both had in common a desire to
relieve China of the crushing weight of Russia, and ultimately, Japan. However, the
Communists‘ armies were instrumental in eradicating the Japanese forces. With Mao
Zedong as their leader, communism won the hearts of the commoners and the Nationalist
party broke apart. Mao announced the founding of the People‘s Republic of China on
October 1st, 1949.127
If the period from 1912-1949 was thought to be a period of Western influence,
1949-1976 was a completely opposite ideology. Between the Great Leap Forward and
the Cultural Revolution, Mao led the communist party to force a great deal of change in a
124
Ibid, 148.
Ibid, 137.
126
Ibid, 140.
127
Moretti, 49.
125
31
short amount of time.128 During the Cultural Revolution, Mao‘s stressed the importance
of an equal-class society. Music of the literate was banned. Mao believed that music was
only meant to serve the people, saying: ―In the world today all culture, all literature and
art belong to definite classes and are geared to definite political lines. There is in fact no
such thing as art for art‘s sake, art that stands above classes, art that is detached from or
independent of politics.‖129 Any kind of music that did not fit with his ideology was not
allowed. Representing the long-oppressed lower class, folk musicians suddenly found
themselves rise to a higher status as the government called upon them to revive older
Chinese folk music. Mao found a way to promote his ideas easily to the vast amount of
common people who could not read or write: while professional folk musicians were
sought and traditional music gathered, under the direction of the government, musicians
were required to use their knowledge and skills to create communist propaganda music.
As in dynasties long before this time period, ancient melodies were fitted with new lyrics
to help promote the new rulers.
Musicians who did not serve the political agenda were treated terribly. For
example, three of China‘s most famous pianists, Fou Ts‘ong (b. 1934),130 Yin Chengzong
128
Ibid, 50.
Zedong, Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong, (Hong Kong: China Book and Periodicals, Inc.,
1990), 299.
130
Martha L. F. Argerich, ―Fou Ts'ong, piano,‖
http://chinese.s463.sureserver.com/contents/archives/past_event14.htm.
129
32
(b.1941),131 and Liu Shikun (b. 1939),132 ―suffered imprisonment or exile, and each has
endured bitter public excoriation for his political ties.‖133 Talent did not prevent even the
most successful musicians from escaping the effects of the Cultural Revolution. But
luckily, many (including the three aforementioned pianists) went on to great success
when they left China.
XI. Modern China
The opening of China‘s economic doors in the 1980‘s led to inevitable but
incredibly quick changes in China. China has become an economic force to be reckoned
with and is a world leader in trade and industry. At first, it seemed traditional music was
forgotten as music of the West pervaded into Chinese music by way of western classical
and pop culture. However, now it is apparent that traditional and contemporary music
(whether classical or pop) coexist, perhaps indicating a successful acceptance of the old
with the new.
Today, many types of music make up China‘s music. Folk music in the form of
vocal and instrumental genres can still be heard in tea houses, street performances, and in
sacred rituals (funerals, weddings, etc). Opera, especially Peking and Kun, are readily
131
―Biography,‖ Chengzong Yin pianist, http://www.yinchengzong.com/media/bio_english.html.
Committee Member, Artistic Advisory Committee,―Liu Shikun Concert Pianist Maestro,‖ National
Centre For The Performing Arts,http://www.chncpa.org/n457779/n457899/n458424/n458725/620372.html.
133
Richard Curt Kraus, Pianos and Politics in China: Middle Class Ambitions and the Struggle Over
Western Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 192.
132
33
identifiable as Chinese music by foreigners. National orchestras and solo performers
combine western and (often modified) eastern instruments and styles to perform
traditional Chinese melodies. The music of China, which had been primarily made to
serve political ambitions during the Cultural Revolution, now conveys many expressions
with messages that reach beyond China. For example, traditional music is even
combined with rock ‗n roll instruments. To those outside of China, this music is
considered Chinese--but it is a far cry from the qin-playing Confucian monk sitting
alongside the riverbank.
At the cost of losing invaluable pieces of history, what remains constant is the
‗getting rid of the old to make way for the new‘ ideology (―the old‖ being most often in
reference to the immediate-past dynasty). Old thoughts, customs, and stories were
constantly being reinterpreted to validate the new policies. This method of
reinterpretation provided the means to maintain an autocratic society. For better or
worse, it is this constant adaptation, however, that identifies Chinese music: the
assimilation of new instruments, songs, and melodies into an already vast wealth of
culture.
34
CHAPTER THREE
CHINESE WIND INSTRUMENTS
With one of the most ancient and eclectic cultures in the world, China has a rich
musical history. Instruments thousands of years old have been excavated in various
regions across the country, many of which are surprisingly similar to their modern
counterparts. These findings suggest similarities, even across many centuries, among the
diverse ethnic groups and tribes, both in terms of instrument construction and
performance: a shared musical culture links the old world to the new.
Wind instruments, particularly the flute (or derivations thereof), are some of the
oldest extant instruments. Perhaps it is in the simplicity of the construction, the bond
between man and nature, or the perceived vocal characteristics (whether human or
otherwise) that has left the design of Chinese wind instruments relatively unchanged. Of
course, as Western influence took hold the function of the instruments became more
diversified. It is not uncommon, for instance, to see a dizi as part of a seemingly Western
style orchestra today. But the instruments‘ construction and timbral qualities have
35
remained basically consistent, and continue to assimilate (and be assimilated to) old and
new music alike.
Chinese wind instruments can be distinguished by many different characteristics,
including the bayin classification mentioned in the previous chapter. The bayin
classification categorizes each instrument by the material out of which the instruments
were constructed. Rather than focusing on the instrument material, three categories will
be used here based on how the sound is specifically activated by air (since they all fall
under the category of wind instruments). The three categories are: air reeds (blowing
across an opening to activate the sound), reeds (using a reed directly to make a sound),
and free reeds (blowing into a mouthpiece that activates a reed within the instrument).
This chapter will provide a basic summary of instrument construction, sound, and
implementation of these instruments.
I. Air Reeds
Transverse flutes
In the transverse flute family, the chi is the oldest, dating before the 7th century
B.C. (Figure 3.1). It was typically made of bamboo, although bone chi have been
excavated. Typically, five finger holes formed a straight line, 90 degrees from the mouth
hole. There was one additional hole for air to vent, as the natural nodes in the bamboo
36
prevented air from escaping from the ends of the instrument. Evidence suggests that the
chi was held with both palms toward the body.134
Figure 3.1 Excavated bone flutes, Henan Province, c. 7,000-9,000 years old.135
The chi is very similar to the modern dizi, which was first known as the di. The
di, which became more prevalent in the Han dynasty, was stopped only at one end. It is
speculated that the chi was held to the right and the di to the left.136 Two other factors tie
these two particular flutes together: ―the old Chinese pronunciations of these names are
134
Liang, 268.
Spencer Harrington, ―Oldest Musical Instruments Still Play a Tune,‖ Archaeology,
http://www.archaeology.org/9911/newsbriefs/flute.html.
136
Yuan Yuan Lee and Sin-yan Shen, Chinese Musical Instruments (Chicago: Chinese Music Society of
North America, 1999), 66.
135
37
similar,‖137 and the fingering holes were also constructed in a similar manner. ―On
Marquis Yi‘s chi, the section where the fingering holes are placed was skinned and
leveled to a narrow strip, a feature also found in di flutes recovered from Han dynasty
contexts.‖138 Both flutes were used in court and ritual music.
The modern di, or dizi, separates itself from the other Chinese flutes because it is
constructed with a special membrane hole, the mo kong. When the mo kong is covered
with dimo paper it produces a distinct buzzing sound.139 It is fixed to the instrument with
water soluble glue over a hole halfway between the embouchure hole (chui kong) and the
first finger hole. Before the glue is dry, the dimo paper must be adjusted in such a way
that wrinkles are created over the membrane hole. The wrinkles must be perpendicular to
the length of the flute. Getting just the right amount of wrinkles can affect the tone
dramatically and is required to ensure even sonority in all the registers.140
Dizi can be made of many different materials, including jade, bone, and, most
commonly, bamboo. Bamboo is an ideal material, as it is affordable, readily available,
and very resonant. Although bamboo is a very sturdy material, like any wood it is
affected by temperature and humidity fluctuations. In order to prevent splitting, bamboo
flutes are bound with thread, and it is common to see bone caps on each end of the dizi.
137
Jenny F.So, Music in the Age of Confucius (Washington D.C.: University of Washington Press, 2000),
92.
138
Ibid.
139
Rick Wilson, ―Chinese Flutes,‖ Rick Wilson's Historical Flutes Page, http://www.oldflutes.com/.
140
Alan R Thrasher, Chinese Musical Instruments (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 2000), 96.
38
The thread wrapping and bone caps function both as protection and decoration. There are
also 2-4 holes at the end of the flute which define the acoustic length and where it is
possible to hang a decorative tassel.141 Most traditional dizi have six finger holes, as did
some of the ancient di.
There are three basic types of dizi: the bangdi, qudi, and the most recent addition,
the large dizi (Figure 3.2). The qudi dates back to the Ming Dynasty and gained much
popularity in Kunqu opera.
In construction, it remains unchanged and on average is
about 50cm long. It has a range of about two octaves. The bangdi is also used in bangzi
opera but is shorter in length, about 40cm long. It is mainly associated with the highly
decorated music of northern China. The large dizi can start at 70 cm and is used in
contemporary Chinese music. The large dizi can also have one additional finger hole for
the right hand pinky finger.142
Figure 3.2: From bottom to top: the bangdi, the qudi, and the large dizi143
141
Ibid.
Chen-Gia Tsai, The Chinese Membrane Flute (dizi: Physics and Perception of its Tones), (Berlin:
Humboldt University, 2003), 13.
143
Ibid.
142
39
Vessel flutes
Of all the Chinese musical instruments, the xun is the most ancient (Figure 3.3).
Neolithic findings date back to the Xia dynasty, specifically from the Yangshao and
Longshan cultures. Before 5000-4000 B.C., the Yangshao and Longshan cultures settled
in the south eastern bend of the Yellow River. Excavations from the Yangshao culture
yielded many vessel flutes in various shapes and sizes. These xun had 1-4 finger holes,
and one mouth hole. There were also two vessel flutes found from Xinchun in Wanquan
of Shaanxi province that played thirds: one played C#3 and E6, and the other played E5,
B5, and D6. None of the excavated flutes were decorated, so it is believed that these
particular xun were not intended for sacred use.144
Figure 3.3: Banpo Village Xun (4700-3600 B.C.)145
144
145
Liang, 46.
―Chinese Instruments,‖ http://chineseinstruments.org.
40
Xun flutes of the Shang dynasty, however, revealed taotie designs: ―a highly
stylized representation of a monster-like animal with facial characteristics split into two
symmetrical halves, featuring exaggerated eyes, geometric horns, jaw with fangs, and
other artistic stylizations.‖146 Use of taotie designs demonstrated the relationship with
nature, as many of the taotie represented animals. The Shang dynasty xun had as many
as five finger holes.147
The xun is the only extant instrument from the Zhou ―clay‖ classification of the
eight tone instruments. Clay, or earth, is often associated with fertility. Hence, according
to the Eyra (considered the first Chinese dictionary) of the 3rd century B.C.,148 both the
small and large xun are said to be shaped like chicken and goose eggs, respectively.
These xun were cited as having 5 finger holes, but by the 18th century A.D., the number
of finger holes could be 6 or more.149 During this period, the xun was used not only for
temple music but also for archery ceremonies.150
Vertical Flutes
Chinese panpipes have gone by several names throughout Chinese history. In
ancient times they were known as yue. Early pictorial evidence from Shang dynasty bone
146
Thrasher, 3.
Ibid, 14.
148
Ulrich Theobald, ―Chinese Literature, The Eyra Dictionary,‖ Chinaknowledge,
http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Classics/erya.html.
149
Thrasher, 14.
150
Liang, 61.
147
41
inscriptions reveal that yue were represented as a symbol with two pipes.151 Preceding
the Tang dynasty, the instrument was called the xiao. To avoid confusion with the
vertical xiao, the name was again changed to pai xiao (row flute) by the 12th century
A.D.152
The oldest pai xiao was found at Baoxiangsi, Guangshan, Henan Province.
Actually, only four pipes were found, so there is some speculation as to whether or not
they were actually intended for use as a pai xiao. These four pipes date from before 638
B.C. More readily identifiable pai xiao was found in a Chu tomb in Xiasi, Xichuan,
dating to the late 6th century B.C. (Figure 3.4). They are a set of thirteen pipes, arranged
from smallest to largest. This arrangement of pipes evolved into a more symmetrical
wing-like structure by the 10th-14th centuries, perhaps because of the pai xiao’s sound
was said to be similar to that of birds. The pai xiao is often associated with the phoenix
and the dragon.153
151
Thrasher, 5.
Ibid, 21.
153
Thrasher,22.
152
42
Figure 3.4: 6th century pai xiao from a Chu tomb in Xichuan154
Two pai xiao were found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng at Leigudum,
Suizhou, Hubei Province (Figure 3.5). Dating to approximately 433 B.C., both
instruments have thirteen stopped pipes. They are arranged from largest to smallest and
tied together with bamboo.155 The edges are not beveled, indicating that slower melodies
were intended since faster melodies required a beveled edge.
154
155
http://chineseinstruments.org
So, 94.
43
Figure 3.5: Marquis Yi’s pai xiao156
In the Qin and Han dynasties, pan flutes were used alongside the jia in drum and
percussion marching and processional band music.157 This military music, known as gu
chui, was comprised of the pai xiao, drums, bells, and transverse flute.158 By the Song
Dynasty, the pai xiao ―was mainly used in court music.‖159
The xiao emerged during the Zhou dynasty, and is cited both in the Zhouli as ―di‖
and in the Han poem Changdi Fu, or ―long poem.‖ 160 It was also referred to as the chiba,
156
http://chineseinstrument.org
Liang, 81.
158
So, 94.
159
Ibid, 95.
160
Thrasher, 36.
157
44
although on the southeastern coast of China it is still referred to this name, along with
dong xiao. The chiba is essentially the precursor to the Japanese shakuhachi.161
For evidence that the xiao has indeed been in existence for some time, an
Akaiydian Buddhist temple contains celestial musicians holding instruments, including
the xiao. This particular temple was destroyed in both the 8th and (after being rebuilt) 9th
centuries and was rebuilt again in the 14th century.162 The xiao was also a common
chamber ensemble member in the courts of the Ming and Qing dynasty, specifically in
shifan luogo (ten kinds of gongs and drums) in the south Jiangsu province 163 and sizhu
ensembles.164 It has also been used in Kunqu orchestral music since the Ming dynasty.165
The xiao is typically pitched a 4th or 5th lower than the dizi. Thrasher states three
types of xiao. The Zizhu xiao is used in Jiangnan sizhu music, the dongxiao is used in
Minnan music, and the Yuping xiao is used in the Yuping region in the Guizhou province
(Figure 3.6).166
Figure 3.6: various xiao167
161
Ibid, 37.
Ibid, 52.
163
Ibid, 55.
164
Ibid, 68.
165
Shen, 29.
166
Thrasher, 68.
167
http://www.oldflutes.com/.
162
45
II. Reeds
The bili (lit., wicker horn) (Figure 3.7) is a double reed flute introduced by
Northwest Chinese ethnic tribes during the Jin dynasty (265-420 A.D.).168 It typically
has seven fingerholes and is usually capped with metal to prevent splitting. The body is
made of bamboo and the reed is made from soft cane. The soft cane allows the performer
great flexibility in tone and range, but it can take years of practice to gain good control of
both elements.169 The reed is unflattened and broad, almost an inch wide and up to three
inches long, giving the bili a very loud dynamic quality.170
Figure 3.7: Bili171
Buddhist ensembles before the Tang dynasty (618-907 A.D.) included the bili. It
was also featured in court ensembles as a leading instrument during this time.172 Today the
bili is mainly found in villages of Southern China.173
168
Liang, 90.
R. Raine-Reusch, ―Guanzi and Bili,‖ World Instrument Gallery, http://asza.com/iguan.shtml.
170
Shen, 71.
171
http://asza.com/iguan.shtml
172
Thrasher, 45.
173
http://asza.com/iguan.shtml
169
46
The bili is not as common today as the guanzi (lit., small pipe), both of which
share a range of about two and a half octaves.174 Almost identical in construction, the
guanzi is made from hardwood cylindrical tube, usually rosewood. The exact size varies
from region to region, but like the bili, it is decorated on the ends with metal. However,
the reed is usually made of hard cane, giving it a very loud sound.175
The guanzi (Figure 3.8) became more prevalent during the Ming and Qing
dynasties. It is pictured in the paintings ―Morning at the Han Palace‖ and ―Returning to
the Palace.‖176 During the Ming dynasty, it was used in Xi’an guyue, or Xi’an drum
music and was reminiscent of Tang court music (banquet music). It was also used in
military processions.177
Figure 3.8 Guanzi
The central Hebei province uses the guanzi in yinyue chuida type music along
with the dizi, sheng, yunluo, and percussion.178 Near Beijing, the guanzi is used in
174
Liang, 268.
Ibid.
176
Thrasher, 53.
177
Ibid, 56.
178
Ibid, 77.
175
47
―sheng-guan ensembles‖ called ―music associations.‖179 ―During the performance, [the
ensemble members] usually wear colorful robes (a sign of ritual importance)…it must be
remembered that the reed pipe guanzi (historically known as bili) was an instrument of
great significance in imperial court music of the Tang dynasty.‖180
Several types of guanzi exist in Chinese orchestras. The xiaoguan is the smallest
guanzi. It is the soprano member of the family and is reserved for soloistic phrases.
Used extensively in shengguan music, the zhongguan is lower than the xianguan by a
fourth. The daguan is the alto voice and pitched in the key of D.181
The suona is a double reed instrument (Figure 3.9). It is most distinguishable by
its flared metal bell at the end. With Arabic and Central Asian roots (where it was called
a zurna and suernai, respectively), it was in use in China by the Ming dynasty.182 Like
most traditional instruments, the size and length also vary from region to region, although
the bore remains conical. A small straw double reed is used for a mouthpiece, which has
a circular plate for the mouth the rest on. Typically the suona has seven fingerholes with
one thumbhole.183 It is held vertically and had a range of two octaves.184
179
Ibid, 78.
Ibid.
181
Lee/Shen, 53.
182
Thrasher, 55.
183
Moule, 87.
184
Liang, 270.
180
48
Figure 3.9: Qing Dynasty Suona185
The suona is a newer part of the chuida ensembles and today is used in both
processions and as accompaniment to the vocal lines in Chinese opera. Chuida means
blowing-hitting, or wind and percussion. Chuida ensembles feature loud wind
instruments accompanied by percussion. The projecting quality of the suona makes it a
perfect fit as a lead instrument in chuida. It is also often featured as a leading instrument
at funerals or zodiac celebrations.186
The chuida is a very common ensemble of North China, although it is found in
many parts of China. The suona is actually used as a lead instrument most in the
province of Shangdong. In fact, the Shangdong area holds the suona in high standing,
185
186
http://chineseintruments.org
Thrasher, 55.
49
where it has its own repertoire.187 Here chuida music is known as guchui.188 There are
actually two types of guichui music: chu (rough/loud) and xi (refined, soft). The former
is heard at outside events, while the latter is suited for indoor performances. The suona,
with its distinct piercing quality, leads the chu. The xi is led by the dizi or sheng.189 The
suona is also a typical lead instrument in chaozhou daluogu (great gong-drum) music,190
shifan qing luogo,191 and in Peking opera to help convey outside festivities.192 It is also
used in Cantonese opera.193
Overall, the suona is actually considered a lower-class instrument, perhaps mainly
because it is a newer member of the guida. Ironically, even though it is often considered
lower-class, it is more commonly played than the honorable guanzi. Because it is such a
popular instrument, it is known by many other names throughout China, including dadi
and labu.194
187
Ibid, 87.
Ibid, 76.
189
Liang, 217.
190
Thrasher, 76.
191
Liang, 224.
192
Ibid, 155.
193
Lau, 67.
194
Thrasher, 79.
188
50
III. Free Reeds
Figure 3.10: Tang Dynasty Sheng55
The sheng (Figure 3.10) is a mouth organ dating back some 3000 years to the
Shang dynasty, as revealed by extant oracle bone scripts.195 Legend has it that the
goddess Nüwa is responsible for the invention of the sheng and other aerophonic chestlike open instruments. The sheng has also been associated with the phoenix, resembling
both the perceived mythological bird and the sound it could make.196
It was first seen as the hulu sheng, or gourd sheng, in the tribes of Southwest
China. Gourds were molded by being placed in a container at a young age. As it grew, it
195
196
So, 96.
Liang, 36.
51
took a more tubular form, although the lower part was still round. This shaping of the
instrument prevented any unwanted leaks, although holes were cut into the rounded
section to allow placement of the bamboo pipes.197 This use of gourds was in use
throughout the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. By the 4th century A.D., wood blow pipes
replaced the gourd molding, although the body of the gourd was still used for the
chamber. The bonus of this construction was that the makers did not have to wait for the
gourd to grow in the molding.
Completely wooden shengs were eventually constructed in the same century, and
it is not uncommon to see gourd and wood (or combinations thereof) today. 198 Metal was
eventually used in the latest centuries B.C., but was not a popular option until recent
times. Not only are the wind chests now made of metal, but the reeds within the
instruments are as well.199
The earlier sheng of the Zhou dynasty arranged the bamboo pipes in two rows,
giving it a wing-like appearance, and had anywhere from 13-23 pipes.200 Each pipe had a
reed at its lower end that was inserted into the base (wind chamber), which was usually
made from a gourd or wood. A pipe extended from the base, serving as the blowpipe and
mouthpiece. Interestingly enough, the ancient sheng’s mouthpiece was much longer than
197
So, 96.
Ibid.
199
Shen, 152.
200
Liang, 70.
198
52
the modern sheng, and it is speculated this allowed ―court officials [to] see the attractive
faces of female musician.‖201
Nowadays it is usually held to the right and ―the performer‘s right index finger
[is] inserted through the gap in the pipe circle to activate two inner fingerholes.‖202 It is
played by both inhaling and exhaling,203 and provides sustained multi-tone harmony in
ensembles. The ability to provide continuous harmony within an ensemble was and still is
crucial when the instrumentation can change frequently.204
In the Zhou court, it could serve as banquet interlude music,205 and among
aristocracy, it was also used in archery music.206 It also had a place in ritual music,
whether ―state sacrificial music, ancestral shrine ritual music, [or] Confucian ceremonial
music that [was] developed to honor Confucius after his death.‖207 The sheng was also
featured in Ming dynasty court and processional music, shifan luogo, and Xi’an guyue.208
During the Qin dynasty rise of urban music, it was accompaniment for xianghege song
cycle music.209 Today it plays a lead role in sizhu, chuida, Jiangnan, and yinyue types of
201
Thrasher, 37.
Ibid, 38.
203
Ibid, 74.
204
Shen, 152.
205
Liang, 60.
206
Ibid, 61.
207
Lan, 119.
208
Thrasher, 69.
209
Liang, 80
202
53
music,210 accompanies Kun opera vocal lines,211 and is a regular member of the Chinese
orchestra.212
The bawu is a relatively new addition to the Chinese orchestra (Figure 3.11).213
Making its orchestral debut in the 1960‘s in Southern China, it is speculated to originate
from the Yunnan Province. A small rectangular box holds a copper reed which the
performer covers entirely with the mouth. Unlike the other free reeds, it can only be
played through exhaling.214 Typically, the bawu has 6 finger holes and one thumb hole
and is constructed with two pieces of bamboo.215 The range is about an octave, and the
sound is not unlike a clarinet.
Figure 3.11: Bawu216
Also speculated to have originated in the Yunnan Province (possibly first within
the Dai tribe), the hulusi is played by many tribes in South China (Figure 3.12). Three
pipes are inserted into a gourd, two of which act as drones. If the drone pipes are of
different length, harmony can be created. Inside the pipes are metal reeds. The range of
210
Thrasher, 69.
Liang, 240.
212
Lau, 38.
213
http://www.asza.com/
214
Ibid.
215
Pat Missin, ―Bawu,‖ patmissin.com, http://www.patmissin.com/history/bawu.html.
216
Ibid
211
54
this instrument is approximately a ninth. The center pipe has 6 finger holes with one
thumb hole.217
Figure 3.12: Hulusi218
217
218
Ibid.
Ibid.
55
CHAPTER FOUR
THE DIZI
I. Function
The dizi has always been a very affordable instrument available to the general
public, so it comes as no surprise that it is still a popular folk tune instrument. The dizi
also found its way into the hands of professional musicians, including those in theatrical
and instrumental ensembles. Ceremonies and rituals also called for the use of the dizi.219
The music of China varies dramatically in its performance style from region to
region. Liang states, ―Each dialectic linguistic area possesses its own style of music-the
style being heavily influenced by linguistic speech tonal patterns.‖220 Although there are
linguistic variations of seemingly similar tunes, there are also commonalities in the
function and implementation of the music. Influences from poetry and stories lend a
programmatic quality to Chinese music in general; for instance, the title of each song
219
220
Mei Pa Chao, The Yellow Bell (Baldwin: Barberry Hill, 1934), 37.
Liang, 20.
56
conveys a specific emotion. Given these qualities, the dizi was popularly used to perform
folk music for personal and social entertainment purposes.221
Perhaps one of the most influential genres that led to the rise in the dizi’s
popularity was Kunqu opera, which eventually outgrew its regional classification to
become a national style. Easily projecting through the percussion, the dizi not only
accompanied but also accentuated the vocal lines, which came to be a defining feature of
the southern dizi performance style.222 In Kunqu opera, Thrasher maintains, the dizi ―is
the principal accompanying instrument, for two reasons: its tone, due to the attached
vibrating membrane is bright, clear, and easy to follow, and, because of the fixed position
of the finger holes and pitches, a tuning standard is established for all instrumentalists
and singers.‖223 Dizi use spread to other opera styles during the Ming dynasty; for
example, in Anhui opera, ―The chorus was discarded but flute accompaniment was
adopted.‖224
In the 1950‘s, the northern style of playing adapted to the political reformations of
the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. Once living a life of poverty,
professional dizi players were now called to government service. In exchange for a stable
income and elevated social status these musicians were led by the State to create National
221
Ibid, 18.
Ibid, 21.
223
Thrasher, 106.
224
Ngai, 21.
222
57
Music. Two of the most famous dizi players during this time were Feng Zicun (19041987) and Lu Chun-ling (b.1921).225 Feng, attributed with a northern style of playing,
began learning the dizi when he was 11 years old. For six years he traveled with his
brothers in Northern China and ―became a master of the styles of music of Hebei, Shanxi,
and Neimeng.‖226 Lu‘s experience with Jiangnan sizhu music imbued him with a southern
style of playing.227
Although both Feng and Lu had distinct personal styles they seemed to have no
problem conforming to standards that would be more readily transmitted for ―mass
consumption.‖228 The ultimate style of the music depended on what the government
needed to convey to the general public at any given time. This new traditional music
could include influences from ―national minorities, regional folksongs, European
classical music, folksongs from other cultures, and sometimes even jazz.‖229 Although
traditional repertoire was the basis of the dizi National Music, Western techniques and
forms were also implemented. Eventually these songs steered away from ancient
traditional stories and incorporated revolutionary and patriotic themes. As the Western
techniques in dizi performance became more commonplace, dizi performers created new
225
Frederick Lau, ―Forever Red: The Invention of the Solo Dizi Music in Post-1949 China,‖ British Journal
of Ethnomusicology 5 (1996): 119.
226
Shao Ying, ―Listening to Lu Chun-Ling and Remembering Feng Zi-cun: Reflections on Chinese Music
in the 20th Century,‖ Chinese Music 22(2) (1999): 30.
227
Ibid.
228
Lau, Red 119.
229
Ibid, 123.
58
interpretations, new techniques, and new repertoires. When surveying over 400 dizi
pieces, Frederick Lau found only about 15% of the music was traditional Chinese
music.230
II. Performance Practice
With my limited personal experience playing the dizi, I can honestly say that it
was a physically easy transition from the technique of the silver modern flute. However,
I know that the music I play sounds more American-Chinese than Chinese. Learning the
language, taking dizi lessons from a dizi master, and spending consistent time in the
Chinese culture would be necessary in attaining an authentic approach to the art of the
dizi.
Before explaining the various techniques I have learned from Dr. Udo Will, I can
share my experience as a beginner American dizi player. As a modern flute performer
and student, there has been a great deal of emphasis on me as the individual. How well
can I emotionally interpret the music of the composer with every technical detail in
place? I feel this is a very different way of being part of the music in comparison to that
of a Chinese perspective, in which the emphasis is placed on the greater whole than that
of the individual. For instance, I could talk about how my breath on the silver modern
230
Frederick Lau, ―Individuality and political discourse in solo dizi compositions,‖ Asian Music 27(1)
(1996): 145.
59
flute must be done in a way so that I can physically meet the endurance and musical
demands within the phrases of any piece. However, in a more Chinese view, my breath
is only a part of the air which supports all walks of life: it is everywhere, where my own
being is not. Take a look at any traditional Chinese painting or picture and you will most
likely see a huge sky, smaller landscape, and smaller still, humans. So although I have
found it quite interesting to learn of various dizi techniques and styles, when I perform on
the dizi I am thinking of how my playing fits in with the larger picture. To be clear, I do
not feel meaningless in the grand context; rather, I feel comforted to know that I am part
of something much bigger than myself.
For traditional dizi performers, there are actually no specific names for various
techniques. A traditional approach to learning the dizi would find most of the students
learning by ear (notes are only written out to jog the memory). In dizi playing there is
much improvisation because embellishments are an integral part of the performance of
Chinese music. 231 There are some basic embellishments that can be found across the
various regions of China. These embellishments originate from the fact that the tongue is
rarely used to articulate the music--finger articulations are used instead. Perhaps this is
due in part to treating the breath as a natural, uninterrupted part of the phrase. This is not
unlike the Japanese shakuhachi playing, described by Kiester as ―a physical, acoustical
manifestation of the privileging of the spirituality of ―natural sound‖ over music.
231
Chao, 17.
60
―Correct‖ intonation and standardization imply an idea of refinement that is opposed to
the romantic idea notion of naturalness.‖232
The use of finger articulations is especially important in traditional southern style
of playing. When the performer comes across repeated notes of the same pitch,
articulation is achieved through the use of ―appoggiaturas, trills, repeated end notes, or
end note decorations.‖233 Below is a list of these common embellishments (based on
Western interpretation).
1. Appoggiatura: Can come from below or above the main note as a single or multiple
appoggiatura. Appoggiaturas precede the main note.
2. Trills: Can start on the main note or above, depending on the context.
3. Repeated end notes: As long as the last note heard is the main note, repeated endnotes can come from above or below the main note.
4. End note: A ghost-like, unaccented note accomplished with precise timing in lifting or
dropping two or more fingers while blowing with a sudden (but small) burst of air. If
notated, it is indicated with an upward/downward curved line from the main note.
The northern style of dizi performance can incorporate the aforementioned
southern style performances practices. However, a wide variety of articulation by use of
the tongue is widely accepted, including single, double, and triple tonguing. Glissandos,
232
Jay Kiester, ―The Shakuhachi as Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist Instrument in the West,‖ Asian
Music, 35(2) (Spring-Summer, 2004): 111.
233
Tsai, 17.
61
key slaps, percussive notes, vibrato, and flutter-tonguing are some other modern
techniques used.234
234
Ibid, 18.
62
CHAPTER FIVE
BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER:
A BRIEF SUZUKI FLUTE SCHOOL VOLUME 1 OVERVIEW, CORRESPONDING
SUPPLEMENTARY CHARTS, AND FINDING CHINESE SONGS
I. A Brief Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Overview
How does one teach a four year old how to play the violin? The Suzuki method
began the day Dr. Shinichi Suzuki was faced with this particular situation. Suzuki had no
experience teaching a child so young—a child who had yet to attend primary school, read
his first book, or write his first sentence. Yet Suzuki realized that before any level of
aptitude was achieved academically, all children were exceptional students from birth:
all children had the capacity to master their complex native languages. With constant
interaction and feedback from supportive parents, family, and friends children were able
to not only learn how to speak but how to communicate. Suzuki was convinced that if all
children could master their own native languages, every child was born with the ability to
grow and learn if taught in a nurturing environment. By teaching his youngest students in
the same manner in which language is acquired, Suzuki created what he called the
63
mother-tongue method. In short, children do not learn how to spell before they talk; nor
do they talk in monotone drones before learning inflections. Suzuki successfully applied
this theory to his young violin students and later taught this method to flutist Toshio
Takahashi. Together they developed the Suzuki method for flute.
There are three main components to the Suzuki method. First, the use of
recordings within the Suzuki method, combined with the development of tonalization,
allows the student to hear and recognize superior performances of the easiest of folk
songs. Furthermore, a Suzuki certified teacher knows exactly how to interpret and teach
each song. And finally, the success of the method is attributed to the partnership of the
student, teacher, and parent. The overall theme: a person of excellent character will be
able to produce beautiful music.
Perhaps most vital to the successful progression of the Suzuki student is the
relentless emphasis of excellent posture, sound, and character. If a student at a young age
develops great sound, posture, and positive attitude, and if goals are maintained and
modified as needed, the possibilities are unlimited. It is not enough to get most of the
notes with correct articulation or even all the right notes with terrible posture. And it is
certainly not enough to just own the materials. Stickers are meaningless if the student
does not trust that the teacher has her best interests at heart. The student who learns to
love learning will adapt the quickest and can progress at an alarming rate.
64
Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 is the most important book in the method, for it
provides a strong foundation for excellent flute playing. It is comprised of various folk
songs, exercises for technique and tone (including a small excerpt from Marcel Moyse‘s
De La Sonorité235), and some baroque selections. Most of the information provided in
the chart analyses is common knowledge to me as an active Suzuki teacher. However,
historical reference information about the songs themselves is for the most part omitted
from Suzuki Flute School Volume 1; I felt it necessary to provide this information as part
of the analysis. Some of the tunes are common knowledge to many people: Mary Had a
Little Lamb is an American Nursery rhyme, Fireflies is a Japanese children‘s song,
Kagome Kagome is a Japanese children‘s game.
The updated Suzuki Piano School literature contains more reference information,
where I found that Cuckoo and Lightly Row are German children‘s songs and Honeybee
is a Bohemian folk song.236 Most music students have studied the music of J.S. Bach
(1685-1750) in great detail but cannot recall the precise derivation of the work, which is
also included in the piano method. The first minuet in Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 by
J.S. Bach is from Minuet III from Overture in G minor, BWV 822, the second from
235
Marcel Moyse, De La Sonorité (Paris:Alphonse Leduc,1934), 6.
Shinichi Suzuki, Suzuki Piano School Volume 1 New International Edition (USA: Summy-Birchard, Inc.,
2008 ), 7.
236
65
Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach, BWV Anh.114, the third from Notebook for Anna
Magdelena Bach, BWV Anh. 116.237
Information about the remaining songs was found elsewhere. Twinkle, Twinkle
Little Star is based on a French nursery rhyme.238 Although Suzuki Flute School Volume
1 lists J. Ghys is listed as the composer for Amaryllis, it omits that it is an arrangement of
a French air239 as well as Ghys‘ dates (1801-1848).240 Long, Long Ago is listed in Suzuki
Piano School Volume 1 as composed by T.H. Bayly (1797-1839),241 and further research
revealed it is a 19th century American popular song.242 Lullaby is by Franz Schubert
(1797-1828) from D. 498, Op. 98 No. 2.243 Moon Over the Ruined Castle was composed
in 1901 by R. Taki (1879-1903) and was based on a poem by H. Kitahara (1885-1942).244
237
Shinichi Suzuki, Suzuki Piano School Volume 2 New International Edition (USA: Summy-Birchard,
Inc., 2008 ), 3.
238
Katrien Vander Straeten, ―Dutch Twinkle Twinkle Little Star,‖ Suite 101.com,
http://customsholidays.suite101.com/article.cfm/not_so_innocent_nursery_rhymes.
239
Hazel Gertrude Kinscella, Music and Romance (Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing), 263.
240
Naxos, ―Jospeh Gyhs,‖ Naxos The World‘s Leading Classical Music Label,
http://www.naxos.com/person/Joseph_Ghys/63282.htm.
241
Suzuki, Suzuki Piano School Volume 1, 7.
242
Lesley Nelson-Burn, ―Long Long Ago,‖ Folk Music of England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and America,
http://www.contemplator.com/folk.html.
243
Wiegenlied ("Schlafe, schlafe, holder süsser Knabe"), song for voice & piano ("Mille
Cherubini in Coro"), D. 498 (Op. 98/2), Answers.com. Classical Work Reviews, All Media Guide,
http://www.answers.com/topic/wiegenlied-schlafe-schlafe-holder-s-sser-knabe-song-for-voice-piano-millecherubini-in-coro-d-498-op-98-2.
244
Yukiko Kawahara, ―Koojoo notsuki (Moon Over the Ruined Castle),‖ Social and Cultural History of
Japan Through Music Education,
http://74.125.93.132/search?q=cache:VHFobqvfPhoJ:bulldog2.redlands.edu/dept/AsianStudiesDept/music_
ed/castle.htm+Moon+OVer+Ruined+Castle+Taki&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us.
66
The book ends with Bourrée by Handel (1685-1759) from Sonata in G Major, Op.1 No.5
HWV 363b.245
The subsequent sections contain outlines of Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 and the
coinciding supplementary selections; these selections can be used outside of the Suzuki
method but are meant to coincide with the teaching points in Suzuki Flute School Volume
1. The purpose behind the supplementary book is twofold: the songs are meant to
reinforce the teaching points Suzuki Flute School Volume 1, and also to expose the
students to the music of the Chinese culture. Regardless of what song is being learned,
however, the ideas and principles of the Suzuki method always remain with the students.
245
George Frederick Handel, ―Bourrée,‖ from Sonata in G Major, Op.1 No.5 HWV 363b in Handel
Barenreiter Urtext 11 Sonatas for Flute, page 28, (Kassel: Germany, 1995).
67
Table 5.1: Suzuki Flute School Volume 1 Chart Analysis
Section
Low Range
Form
Meter
Key
Rats in the Rice: Preparatory Exercise
Mary Had a Little Lamb: American Nursery
Rhyme
Fireflies: Japanese Children‘s song
Kagome: Japanese Children‘s game
Cuckoo: German Children‘s song
Lightly Row: German Children‘s song
AB
ABAC
4/4
4/4
CM
FM
ABBA
ABCDEF
AABA
AABA
4/4
4/4
3/4
2/2
am
am
FM
FM
Middle Range Part 1
Twinkle Preparatory Study
Twinkle Theme and Variations: French
Nursery Rhyme, arr. Takahashi/Suzuki
Amaryllis: Old French Air, arr. Ghys
Allegro(c.a. 1930): Plateau piece composed by
Dr. Suzuki
Honeybee: Bohemian Folk Song
AB
ABA
4/4
4/4
CM
CM
ABAB
AABA
4/4
4/4
CM
CM
ABA
2/4
FM
Middle Range Part 2
Slur and Legato exercise
Long, Long Ago(1833): 19th century American
popular song by T.H. Bayly (1797-1839)
Lullaby (1816): Lied by F. Schubert (17971828) from D.498 Opus 98 No. 2
Moon Over the Ruined Castle (1901):
Popular Japanese song by R. Taki (1879-1903)
based on poem by H. Kitahara (1885-1942)
Minuet (1702-1705): Minuet III from Overture
In G minor, BVW 822 composed by J.S. Bach
(1685-1750).
Tonalization: Tone Exercises from excerpts of
Marcel Moyse‘s De La Sonarité, section one
AA
AABA
4/4
4/4
CM
CM
AABA
4/4
CM
AABA
4/4
dm
3/4
GM
NA
NA
AAB (½A) B
(½A), (a.k.a.
rounded
binary)
NA
Introduction to scales and arpeggios and
their respective context within Minuet and
Bourrée styles:
Minuet (1725): From Notebook for Anna
Magdalena Bach (1725), BWV Anh. 114.
Composed by J.S. Bach (1685-1750).
Minuet (1725): From Notebook for Anna
Magdalena Bach, BWV Anh. 116
Composed by J.S. Bach (1685-1750).
Bourrée (c.a. 1711-1716): From Sonata in G
Major, Opus 1 No. 5 HWV 363b. Composed
by G. F. Handel (1685-1759).
AAB (½A) B
(½A), (a.k.a.
rounded
binary)
AAB (½A) B
(½A), (a.k.a.
rounded
binary)
3/4
GM
3/4
GM
AABB
4/4
GM
68
Range
E1 to C2
Articulation
Tongued,
staccato
Technical Challenges
Balance while playing C2,
sound production while
tonguing, especially in
lowest notes
C2 to C3
Tongued,
staccato,
legato
Embouchure adjustment to
middle range, open throat,
E to D and D to C
combinations, longer
phrases (breathing),
introduction to
terms/symbols: i.e.,
fermata, ritard, repeat
dots, ties
C2 to C3
Tongued, slur
and legato
Breathing and long
phrases, executing fast
finger transitions under
the slur, various slur
combinations, soft phrase
endings, tuning while
playing soft
C1 to D3
Various
Dynamic contrast,
color/tuning with C#2,
bell technique/vocal
techniques combined with
various articulations and
dynamics, flexibility
throughout range
C#1 to
D3
Various
Music theory introduction,
endurance, faster
technique (tonguing and
fingering), supporting
higher registers
throughout longer phrases
Table 5.2: Chinese Supplementary Selections Chart Analysis
Section
Low Range
Form
Meter
Key
Little Duckie: Children‘s song
I Have a Pair of Little Hands: Children‘s
song
AABC
ABC
4/4
2/4
FM
FM
Middle Range Part 1
Going to School: Children‘s Song
Guessing Game: Chinese Children‘s game
Little Donkey: Children‘ Song
Find a Friend: Chinese Children‘s song
AABC
ABCD
ABAC
ABCD
2/4
2/4
2/4
2/4
ABCD
AB
AB
AB
ABCADD
ABB
2/4
4/4
2/4
4/4
2/4
3/4
FM
GM
FM pentatonic
DM pentatonic
DM
BbM
AB
4/4
dm
Technical Development
Wa Ha Ha: Uygur Folk Song
Jasmine Flower: Hebei Folk Song
Mud Doll: Children‘s Song
The Little Girl Who Picks Mushrooms:
Children‘s song
AABB
ABCD
AABA
ABACD
2/4
4/4
2/4
2/4
ABCDE
2/4
Technical Challenges
Balance while playing
C2, sound production
while tonguing,
especially in lowest
notes
C2 to
C3
Tongued,
staccato, legato
Embouchure
adjustment to middle
range, open throat, E
to D and D to C
combinations, longer
phrases (breathing),
introduction to
terms/symbols: i.e.,
fermata, ritard, repeat
dots, ties
C2 to
C3
Tongued, slur
and legato
Breathing and long
phrases, executing fast
finger transitions
under the slur, various
slur combinations, soft
phrase endings, tuning
while playing soft
C#1 to
D3
Various
Music theory
introduction,
endurance, faster
technique (tonguing
and fingering),
supporting higher
registers throughout
longer phrases
C1 to
D3
Various
cm
CM
dm
em
Chinese Performance Practice
Purple Bamboo: Shanghai huju
Articulation
Tongued,
staccato
GM
CM
CM
CM
Middle Range Part 2
Throwing Handkerchief: Children‘s Game
Little Rabbit: Children‘s song
Embroidered Purse: Shanxi Folk Song
Mom is the Best!: Children‘s song
Purple Bamboo Flute: Shandong Lullaby
In the Silver Moonlight: Xinjiang Folk
Song
In the Land that is Faraway: Qinghai
Folk Song
Range
E1 to
D2
CM pentatonic
Techniques:
Trills
Grace Notes
Repeated End Notes
Ghost End Notes
69
II. Finding the Chinese Songs
Finding traditional Chinese songs-- whether children‘s or folk-- proved to be a
learning process in itself. As stated in Chapter One, I began this quest by asking many of
the Chinese parents what songs they recollected, and came up with the following list:
Children‘s Songs
Two Tigers
Find a Friend
Clap Hands
Little Swallow
Throwing Handkerchief
Listening to Mom Talk About the Past
I Love Beijing Tiananmen
One Cent
On Golden Mountain in Beijing
Let‘s Row the Boat
The Little Girl Who is Picking the Mushrooms
Mom is the Best in the World
Mud Doll
Folk Songs
Jasmine Flower
After looking for these tunes on YouTube, I found that Two Tigers is actually to
the tune of Frere Jacques and Clap Hands is to the tune to If You’re Happy and You
Know it Clap Your Hands. I Love Beijing Tiananmen was used in the 2008 Olympics
ceremonies, so I did not want to violate any potential copyright. I was not able to find
several other songs, or as not sure if they were from the mainland, including Listening to
70
Mom Talk About the Past, One Cent, and On Golden Mountain in Beijing, and Let’s Row
the Boat.
Although YouTube is banned in China, I used this website to help gauge the
popularity of potential songs. Obviously, this popularity would reflect more of the
Chinese abroad community rather than the mainlanders'. In the end, however, I felt that
these were the songs that Chinese-American parents remembered the most. The only
alternative was to order untranslated Chinese songbooks and recordings, have a friend
translate the lyrics, and then arrange/transcribe them for flute. Although acceptable from
an academic perspective, I worried this method would only reflect a certain publishers
viewpoint of what songs were truly popular. I needed to know that some part of the
Chinese community had a say in the selections. I later used all the Chinese songbooks
and recordings I could get a hold of as a way to confirm my YouTube selections. That
left the remaining songs from the OCCS parents to be considered for the final selections,
overall not a very long list.
The parents didn‘t submit many folk songs (I had asked them more for children‘s
songs), but I already had several in mind from my own experience playing and listening
to some traditional melodies. For example, I knew that I wanted to use In the Land That
is Far Away and Embroidered Purse. Jonathan Stock published Chinese Flute Solos in
71
1994, which I have enjoyed playing through the years;246 I found many fine dizi
performances of these pieces on YouTube and added Purple Bamboo Melody to my
book. In addition, there are several volumes of Collections of Chinese Music for Flute by
Yue Xin.247 Stock‘s book is modeled after dizi performances for the modern flute,
whereas Xin‘s books have a variety of old and new melodies with piano accompaniment.
The most popular tune that my Chinese friends recognized from Xin‘s book was In the
Silver Moonlight. I found Purple Bamboo Flute in China Sings: Folk Songs and
Fighting Songs of China by Liu Lina-Mo and Evelyn Modoi.248 All in all, there are
plenty of recordings and online resources available for Chinese traditional music. With
the folk songs it was more of a matter of finding tunes that would be appropriate for the
students in Suzuki Flute School Volume 1, at least when taken down to the most basic
melodies. Future books could always incorporate various dizi technique ornamentations.
Obviously, it was necessary to find more children‘s songs: songs that were limited
in range, short in length, and that did not have any political implications. These were the
types of songs I could arrange and modify to correlate with the teaching points of Suzuki
Flute School Volume 1. YouTube gave me a great start. Although Chinese music is
never sung the same way twice I found versions of Guessing Game, Jasmine Flower, The
246
Jonathan Stock, Chinese Flute Solos (London: Schott, 1994), 2.
Yue Xin, Collection of Chinese Music for Flute (Beijing: People‘s Press, 2005), 5.
248
Evelyn Modoi and Liu Liang-Mo, China Sings: Folk-Songs and Fighting Songs of China, (New York:
Carl Fischer, 1945), 12.
247
72
Little Girl Who is Picking Mushrooms, Mud Doll, Little Rabbit, Little Donkey, Purple
Bamboo Melody, Find a Friend, Embroidered Purse, In the Land That is Far Away,
Throwing Handkerchief, Going to School, and Wahaha, Mom is the Best, and In Silver
Moonlight. In many cases, it took time to ascertain the basic melodies, and to
complicate matters even more, my spoken and written Chinese is not very strong. I used
many online pinyin translators so that I could search for music more readily, but even so,
it was quite time-consuming.
There are very few Chinese music books available with pinyin and English
translations, and the ones that are available mainly contain folk songs. After months of
searching, I finally found two out of print song books of Chinese children‘s music and
folk music: Sing Chinese! Popular Children’s Songs & Lullabies249 and Sing Chinese II
China’s Best Folk Songs, 250 both compiled by Cindy Mao and Ma Baolin. Finding these
books helped in more ways than one: I found two very simple tunes with which to open
my book (Little Duckie and I Have a Pair of Little Hands), it confirmed that most of my
selections were indeed popular enough to be included in the book, gave geographical
origins of the YouTube selected songs, and the books also contained the pinyin with
English translations. Although I already asked several friends to help with translations of
249
Cindy Mao and Ma Baolin, Sing Chinese! Popular Children’s Songs & Lullabies, (San Francisco: China
Books & Periodicals, Inc., 1996.
250
Cindy Mao and Ma Baolin, Sing Chinese II! China’s Best Folk Songs, (San Francisco: China Books &
Periodicals, Inc., 1997.
73
several of the songs in my book, it was beneficial to compare how I lined up the pinyin in
those particular music selections with the pinyin syllables in Mao and Baolin‘s
arrangements. While my book is obviously for flute players and not meant to be a song
book, the Suzuki method is based on language acquisition. I have my students write in
any available lyrics for the songs in their Suzuki books. Besides, most of the OCCS
students take a Chinese language class in addition to flute class. Although I found these
books a little late in the process, and they did not contain all of the songs I used, they
were an immense help for this English speaker! After my YouTube quest and finding the
Sing Chinese! books, it was much easier to find other Chinese recordings of my
selections.
74
CHAPTER SIX
CHINESE SONGS FOR THE SUZUKI FLUTE STUDENT
75
Figure 6.1: Cover
Chinese Songs
For the
Suzuki Flute Student
Arranged by Nicole Charles
and
Narrated by Timmy
76
the Cat
Figure 6.2: Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
China‘s Musical History ..................................................................................................... 3
The Chinese Flute and Some Great Chinese Music! ........................................................ 10
Little Duckie, Children’s Song ......................................................................................... 11
I Have a Pair of Little Hands, Children’s Song ................................................................ 11
Going to School, Children’s Song .................................................................................... 12
Guessing Game, Children’s Song/Game .......................................................................... 12
Little Donkey, Children’s Song ........................................................................................ 13
Find a Friend, Children’s Song ......................................................................................... 14
Throwing Handkerchief, Children’s Song/Game ............................................................. 14
Little Rabbit, Children’s Song .......................................................................................... 15
Embroidered Purse, Shanxi Folk Song.............................................................................. 15
Mom is the Best!, Children's Song .................................................................................. 16
Purple Bamboo Flute, Shandong Lullaby ......................................................................... 17
In the Silver Moonlight, Xinjiang Folk Song .................................................................... 18
In the Land That is Far Away, Qinghai Folk Song ........................................................... 18
Wa Ha Ha, Uygur Folk Song ............................................................................................ 19
Jasmine Flower, Hebei Folk Song .................................................................................... 20
Mud Doll, Children’s Folk Song ...................................................................................... 21
The Little Girl Who Picks Mushrooms, Children's Song ................................................. 22
Purple Bamboo Melody, Shanghai Huju Song ................................................................. 23
77
Figure 6.3: Introduction Page 1
1
Hello! My name is Timmy, and it is
my job to be your guide through this
book of Chinese music for the flute. I
love talking about my travels to China
and my love of music.
China has such a cool history and
wonderful music. In the end, I hope
that you will find some interesting
information. Most of all, I really hope
that you will find some music that you
love too!
78
Figure 6.4: Introduction Page 2
2
The first thing I should tell you: China is a very, very big
country with many different kinds of people. In fact,
there are over 100 different kinds of languages used in
China! Having so many different kinds of people, or
ethnicities, in one country is a very good thing: it makes
the Chinese culture rich with many traditions, customs,
history—not to mention, music!
With so many people and such a long history, we are really lucky that some music from
the past survived to this day. You see, during China‘s history there were many who
came to power by destroying any evidence of the previous emperor. It‘s a little sad that
so much history was lost, but that how things went during those days. This is why we
cannot say for sure how old some Chinese songs really are--the original music may
have been destroyed or simply never written down.
The Great Wall was a very exciting place to
visit—I definitely got my exercise that day!
79
Figure 6.5: China’s Music History, Page 3
China’s Music History
3
China‘s history is so long it had to be broken into time periods referred to as dynasties.
To see some of the earliest recorded forms of Chinese music, we need to go back
thousands of years to a time called the Xia dynasty (21st-16th centuries B.C.). The
earliest documented Chinese music was believed to be used for rituals like
celebrations and ceremonies. During the Xia dynasty, the leader of the people was
named Emperor Yu. He did something that would help the Chinese people for
thousands of years! He developed an irrigation system so that the farmers could
control the water to their fields—more food for everyone! To celebrate, they had a
big party and special ceremonial music was composed called the
Da Xia. Like the irrigation system,
the Da Xia was passed to later
generations.
That was some
party!
We do know of other ways that really old music survived. During
the Shang (16th-11th centuries B.C.) and Zhou (1075-256 B.C.)
dynasties, bones were used to write down oracle scriptures. Some
of the bones had old writing on it that referred to musical
instruments. Also, archaeologists have found musical instruments
during excavations from many time periods. Since these
instruments have been kept safe for thousands of years, we are able
to get an idea of what musical instruments sounded like long ago—
although how and what they played is another story!
80
Figure 6.6: China’s Music History, Page 4
4
The Zhou dynasty (1075-256 B.C.) was the longest reigning dynasty in
Chinese history. Many writings about music have survived from this time
period. We know that as the Zhou court grew bigger the need for
ceremonial music increased. There were four types of court music:
Ritual music was
used for official
court ceremonies.
Archery music was
timed to match the
movements with the
beats.
Banquet music
accompanied special
dinners, like when to
toast.
Are you going to
eat that?
81
Processional music let
everyone know when
someone important was
coming or going.
Figure 6.7: China’s Music History, Page 5
5
The connection between nature and sound has always been very
important to the Chinese. In fact, Zhou court musicians had very specific
guidelines on what musical instruments to play and when to play them.
They had eight different sound classifications, referred to as bayin, from
which to choose: metal, stone, skin, gourd, bamboo, wood, silk, and earth.
Gourd: sheng
Bamboo: dizi
Metal: bells
Stone: chimes
Skin: drum
Earth: xun
Wood: clappers
82
Silk: qin
Figure 6.8: China’s Music History, Page 6
6
The invention of the movable wooden type during the Song
dynasty (960 A.D. – 1279 A.D.) was especially beneficial for
transmitting music. More music was able to survive as more
people were able to print, read, and remember to pass the
music to the next generation in some way other than by ear. In
fact, some of the Chinese folk music that we hear today is
most likely from the Song dynasty.
Furthermore, the value of education increased exponentially
during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368 A.D.–1911 A.D.).
Since people were overall more educated, even when war
forced people to move and leave their homes that they were
still able to find happiness in music. Often, people in the
upper class would hold private gatherings in which they would
perform music for each other, especially on the qin.
83
Figure 6.9: China’s Music History, Page 7
7
During the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 A.D.) folk music flourished with the
rise in urbanization. Lots of different styles of music were brought together
as villages were established. It was very common to hear music in the
market. Different kinds of traveling performance troupes visited both the
countryside and the major cities and combined all kinds of musical ideas
and customs together with drama and music.
84
Figure 6.10: China’s Music History, Page 8
8
China has always been influenced by many different cultures through trade from all over
Asia. A new influence was added to the Chinese culture when trade was established
between China and the West. Many Chinese decided to go overseas to Europe and
America for an education. When these traveling students came home, they brought with
them western style music. This was another way that the Chinese music absorbed
another culture into its own. Although Chinese rulers and leaders eventually tried to
banish any music that wasn‘t made strictly for political purposes, they were ultimately
unsuccessful.
85
Figure 6.11: China’s Music History, Page 9
9
Today in modern China, many different kinds of music
exist. Folk, rock, classical, and pop music are just some of
the kinds of music found in modern China. We are so
lucky to have some of the old music to enjoy with the new
music!
86
Figure 6.12: The Chinese Flute and Some Great Chinese Music, Page 10
10
The Chinese Flute and Some
Great Chinese Music for the
Silver Flute!
The Chinese flute that most resembles the modern
silver flute is the dizi. It is typically made of
bamboo. The dizi has a special membrane hole,
called mokong, that is covered with dimo paper.
Dimo paper is made of really thin slices of
bamboo. When applied just right, this dimo paper
helps the dizi get a very distinct buzzing sound.
There are many different kinds of music in
China—just think of how many people live in
China (little more than a billion) and you can
imagine the variety of music to which we could
listen!
Each area of China has its own flavor of music
and its own style. The dizi can play all kinds of
music because, like all flutes, it is a very vocal
instrument. In the next section you will get to try
many different kinds of songs and even learn a
little dizi technique—enjoy!
87
Figure 6.13: Little Duckie and I Have a Pair of Little Hands, Page 11
11
Remember: Keep your fingers close to the keys when playing C‘s!
I Have a Pair of Little Hands
Wŏ Yŏu Yī Shuāng Xiăo Xiăo Shŏu
Technique Challenge!
Can you play C to D 10 times while keeping your fingers super close to the keys?
88
Figure 6.14: Going to School and Guessing Game, Page 12
12
Watch out for those F sharps!
This game is just like rock, paper, scissors. The only difference is that you shout
“scissors, stone, cloth!‖ instead.
89
Figure 6.15: Little Donkey, Page 13
13
*Try to keep your throat open for the E‘s so they do not crack!
90
Figure 6.16: Find a Friend and Throw a Handerkerchief, Page 14
14
This song is actually a game lie duck-duck-goose. Everyone sits in a circle facing each other while one
person walks outside of the circle with a handkerchief. If the handkerchief is dropped behind you, you
must pick it up and catch your friend before he sits down in his spot!
91
Figure 6.17: Little Rabbit and Embroidered Purse, Page 15
Little Rabbit
Xiăo Tù
These two songs take a lot of breath control—so make
sure to take in air all the way to your belly! Relax your
shoulders, too!
Embroidered Purse
Cì Xiù Qián Bāo
92
15
Figure 6.18: Mom is the Best!, Page 16
16
Remember how to finger a High D? It‘s just
like a ―G‖ but you keep your left index
finger up! Easy!
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Figure 6.19: Purple Bamboo Flute, Page 17
17
So sleepy!
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Figure 6.20: In the Silver Moonlight and In the Land That is Far Away, Page 18
18
In the Land That is Far Away
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Figure 6.21: Wa Ha Ha!, Page 19
19
This is a great time to review
all those 16ths notes in Twinkle
Preparatory Study!
96
Figure 6.22: Jasmine Flower, Page 20
20
This one is very tricky—you should be able to
play Long, Long Ago, Lullaby, and Moon Over
the Ruined Castle before trying this one!
97
Figure 6.23: Mud Doll, Page 21
21
For these next two, you might want to review
Bourrée first! Very lively!
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Figure 6.24: The Little Girl Who Picks Mushrooms, Page 22
22
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Figure 6.25: Purple Bamboo Melody, Page 23
23
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Figure 6.26: Purple Bamboo Melody (cont’d), Page 24
101
24
Figure 6.27: Goodbye!, Page 25
25
Whew! I am exhausted! It
seems we have come to the end
of our adventure. I hope you
had as much fun as I did!
Now it‘s your turn to share everything
you have learned with all your friends and
family. So many people would love to
hear you play—and they will probably be
very curious about the music they hear!
Just be sure to mention….
you heard it all from a really
cute orange cat named Timmy!
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CONCLUSION
It is amazing after all the research done in creating this document that I find
myself only on the tip of the iceberg. Although I have met the goal of writing a book for
my Suzuki students, it is very clear that my Chinese studies will be a life-long passion.
This will be a different type of quest--not something done for a grade or a requirement,
but to learn more about a culture I love and of which I feel a part in some way.
Each chapter of this document gives me more opportunities for more research. I
would love to do more research and documentation about the growth and evolution of
Chinese schools in America. A trip to China would be an incredible journey. To see and
be a part of the mainland culture even briefly—to visit historical sites, music schools,
villages—it is an exciting prospect. Learning various Chinese instruments, studying with
a dizi master, learning the language–these are all things I would be more than happy to
include in my studies.
Perhaps this project will influence a future revision of the Suzuki flute repertoire
to include a Chinese melody. Even adding one Chinese song would be incredible from a
musical and cultural standpoint. In the meantime, having my own book will help
immensely within my own studio.
My book itself will need to take on a different set of considerations if it is to be
published: should I include music from Taiwan, revolutionary tunes, and Cantonese
103
songs? Perhaps these will lead to other volumes. My gut says to stick to one theme for
now, maybe even add a few more melodies along the way.
Perhaps knowing that the door has only been opened will make it easier to leave
this document where it is now. It would be impossible to include every aspect of Chinese
history, culture, and music in this one document. What I have learned about Chinese
history, music, and most importantly, culture will surely continue to grow and be passed
on to my students.
104
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