CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION:
After defining the research problem, a researcher needs to study, examine and
evaluate the prior research done on the related area. The process of studying,
examining and evaluating the information related to the research problem is called as
the „review of related literature‟. This process continues throughout the research
activity. This is a scientific activity and not merely compiling or capturing the facts
from the previous research. It is a systematic investigation of what has been done and
what further needs to be done. This process serves several functions such as:

Knowledge of related research enables investigators to define the frontiers of their
field

Help in finding the link between study and the accumulated knowledge in field of
interest

Help researcher to revise their initial question so that it can be investigated

Leads to insight into the reasons for contradictory results in an area

Help in selecting the proper methodology in the research study

A thorough search through related research avoids unintentional replication of
previous studies

Help the researcher to place in a better position to interpret the significance of the
result(Mohan &Parameswaran,2003.pg. 86-87)
The main purpose of the present research study was to develop Computer-
Assisted Instructional programme on all the selected units of Geography for the
students of standard VIII and ascertain its effectiveness. In the present research study,
the researcher gathered related information from various sources as shown in figure
2.1.
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The review of related literature started withmeaning, definitions of CAI and
continued with the discussion about origin of Computer-Assisted Instruction,
followed by the historic overview on the use of Computer-Assisted Instruction in the
schools. The review continued to exploretheoretical foundation of Computer-Assisted
Instruction, classification, characteristics, types, advantages, and disadvantages of
Computer-Assisted Instruction. Thereafter the review focused on the researches
related to the use and effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Instruction
2.1.2 MEANING OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTIONA revolutionary change in information technology has resulted in the
production of innovation to simplify and ameliorate student‟s learning. The greatest
contribution of cyber age technology is the development of computer and its use in all
walks of life. Computers are fundamental for the rapid flow of information and are
responsible in bringing revolution in the field of education.Use of computers in
teaching-learning process has stepped many stages of its evolution.Computers have
become the basis for data processing technologies used in realizing information
production, manipulating, storing, and distributing processes.They reach more senses
compared to other technological tools and make abstract and complicated concepts
concrete digitally. Because of their extensive multimedia properties, they are
considered as one of the most important technological tools and are used in
educational and instructional process. Computers play an influential part in
accomplishing many pedagogical functions such as measuring and evaluating
knowledge and giving feedback, observing activities and performances of
students.Being independent from time and environment, computers motivates the
students and helps them in active participation, considers individual differences,
regulates education level according to existing knowledge and progress of the
students, and presents the learning instructionsby using graphics, pictures, animation
and sound(Sahin and Yıldırım, 1999).The computer technology has a deep impact on education.
Computers facilitate an efficient storage and effective presentation of information.
Presentation software like PowerPoint and animation software like flash, 3D studio
and others can be a great help to the teachers while delivering information. Computers
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
can turn out being a brilliant aid in teaching and making the process of learning
interactive and interesting. (Oak, M. Role of computers)
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) is among the range of strategies being
used to improve student achievement in school subjects. Programs for CAI have come
a very long way since they were first developed over two decades ago. These
programs tutor and drill diagnosestudent‟s problems; keep records of student
progress, and present material in print and other manifestations. It is believed that
they reflect what good teachers do in the classroom (Kulik, Bangert, and Williams, 1983, pg. 19)
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional method
that uses a computer to present material, track learning, and direct the user to
additional material, which meets the student‟s needs(Bucholtz, Chris.1998, pg.. 50)
In CAI, information presented on computers in the form of text or in
multimedia formats, including photographs, videos, animation, speech, and music
help in increasing active participation of the students in teaching-learning process.
Computers help students in visualizing abstract objects. Examples of CAI applications
include guided drill and practice exercises, computer visualization of complex objects,
and computer-facilitated communication between students and teachers. (Lawson, 1999, pg. 30-3)
CAI tools, such as word processors, spreadsheets, and databases, collect,
organize, analyze, and transmit information. They also facilitate communication
among students, between students and instructors, and beyond the classroom to
distant students, instructors, and experts.
In short, Computer-Aided Instruction(CAI) or Computer-Assisted Instruction
(CAI) is diverse and rapidly expanding spectrum of computer technologies that assist
the teaching-learning process.
2.1.3 DEFINITIONS OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTIONLocatis and Atkinson (1984) describe Computer-assisted instruction as a mode
of instruction that involves student‟s interaction with the computer directly. Typically,
students access program presented in segments, with each segment including
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
information and questions or problems for student‟s response. The correctness of each
response is indicated immediately and remedial or new information is presented.
Sometimes students also have the option to requesting help or skipping ahead.
Although this tutorial (information-practice-feedback) form of CAI is most typical,
there are other forms such as drill and practice exercise, simulations and games.
Computer-Assisted Instruction is described and defined by Frenzel (1986) as
the process by which written and visual information is presented in a logical sequence
to a student by a computer. The computer serves as an audio-visual device. The
students learn by reading the material presented or by observing the graphic
information displayed. The primary advantage of the computer over other audiovisual
devices is the automatic interaction and feedback that the computer can provide.
Steinberg (1991) defines CAI as computer presented instruction that is
individualized, interactive and guided. He is of the view that CAI is not a method of
instruction. Many methods are implemented in it, including direct and exploratory
lessons, drill, games and simulations.
Poole (1995) defined computer-assisted instruction as a computer-based
system designed to help students learn subject matter of all kind.
According to Munden (1996) computer assisted instruction is an educational
medium in which instructional content or activities are delivered by a computer.
Students learn by interaction with the computer and appropriate feedback is provided.
Roblyer and Edwards (2000) defines CAI as software designed to help teach
information and /or skills related to a topic also known as courseware.
All the definitions of computer assisted instruction presented above agree that
computer plays a role of tutor and imparts instructions either through tutorials or
simulations or any other mode of presentation.
Use of computer in education is referred by many names such as –

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Computer aided Instruction (CAI)

Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)

Computer Based Education (CBE)

Computer Based Teaching (CBT)

Computer Based Instruction (CBI)

Computer Enriched Instruction (CEI)

Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) or Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) is
a narrower term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation
activities. It is one of the components of computer based training (CBT). ComputerManaged Instruction (CMI) is an instructional strategy whereby the computer is used
to provide learning objectives, learning resources, record keeping, progress tracking,
and assessment of learner performance. Computer based tools and applications are
used to assist the teacher or school administrator in the management of the learner and
instructional process.
CBT contains the following three components:
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)

Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)

Computer Supported Learning Resources (CSLR)
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Computer-Based Teaching
Computer-Assisted
Instruction
Computer-Managed
Instruction
Testing
Tutorial
Computer-Supported
Learning Resources
Record
Keeping
Telecommunication
Databases
Drill and Practice
Expert systems
Simulation
Hypermedia
Games
Problem Solving
(FIG.2.2 COMPUTER-BASED TEACHING)
2.1.4 THE ORIGIN OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTIONThe origin of Computer-Assisted Instruction traces back to early decade of
twentieth century, when behavioral theories were being embedded and implicated in
educational institutions. The fundamental idea of programmed self-instructional
material was described in 1912 by Thorndike.
The Greek philosopher Socrates is said to be the first programmer who
developed a program in Geometry, which was recorded by his disciple Plato in the
dialogue Meno. (Chauhan, 1994; Sampath, et al 1998; Hefzallah, 1999)
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Socrates used to teach his followers by raising questions and leading them
towards facts and insights through conversation. In the written form conversation
seems to have some characteristics of linear programmed text such as
Questions arranged so as to make the students conscious about ignorance and
move towards deeper understanding

Indications to illustrate correct response

Immediate feedback

Praise for correct response
According to Wang and Sleeman(1993) the origin of Computer-Assisted
Instruction was traced back in 1924 where Sidney L. Pressy had invented a multiple
choice items scoring machine further followed by B. F. Skinner‟s work to improve
and expand the idea in 1950s and 1960s.
During 1960s the Computer-Assisted Instruction was developed and used at a
few university military traced centers and corporation in the United States. The early
efforts were designed for providing individualized interactive instruction to learners
simultaneously (Van der Linden, 1995)
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) is based on the principles of programme
instruction. The major aim of programme instruction is to provide individualized
instruction to meet the special needs of the individual learner.
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) is relatively a new field in which the
pioneer efforts were made around 1960s. A number of large scale heavily funded
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) projects have been launched and implemented.
Chambers and Sprecher (1983) defined CAI as “the use of computer to provide course
content instruction in the form of drill and practice, tutorial and simulations”.
2.1.5 HISTORY OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
Hall(1971) stated that the earliest attempts to automate instruction were
initiated by Sidney Pressey in the early 1900s and by B. F. Skinner in 1954. Both
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Pressey and Skinner developed techniques of administering instructional materials to
students through programmed text” (p. 629). The programmed text and teaching
machines were very inadequate to provide a stimulating, responsive environment for
students. “The obvious limitations of these devices prompted investigation of
applying computers to instructional tasks” (p. 629)
According to (Suppes and Macken, 1978) members of the computer industry
were also among the earliest to use computer-assisted instruction. In the late 1950s,
the computer industry used computer-assisted instruction to train its own personnel by
linking typewriters and teletypes terminals to computers. The programming language
used during these training was obscure and quite hard for people to learn. Because of
the complexity of the programming language, ways of simplifying such programming
were explored (Suppes and Macken, 1978).
By 1960, International Business Machines (IBM) developed the first
computer-assisted author language, Course writer I. Educators were then able to
directly program their curriculum ideas into the system(Suppes and Macken, 1978).
During the 1960s the University of Illinois engaged in a computer-assisted
project, PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations), in
connection with Control Data Corporation and the National Science Foundation (Alderman,
Apple and Murphy; Kulik, Kulik and Cohen, 1980; Magidson, 1978; Suppes and Macken, 1978)
. PLATO was one of the largest
and most sophisticated computer systems designed for education.
In 1963, a Computer-Assisted Instruction research project began at Stanford
University. The Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS) at
Stanford University developed an instructional mathematical program for elementary
students. The program was developed and tested in 1964.
In 1966, IBM developed the first computer system specifically for
instructional purposes, the 1500 Instructional System. The programs and systems
developed in the early 1950s and 1960s used an electric typewriter or a teletype
terminal through which students received information from the computer. The
student, in turn, transmitted information to the computer. After the development of the
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1500 Instructional System, most systems utilized television screens as the major
display for students. Students fed responses to the program or system by the use of a
typewriter keyboard. The use of random-access audio, playback/record capability, and
random-access image projectors, all under program control, accompanied more
complete instructional systems (Hall, 1971).
In the early 1970s, computer-assisted instruction was being implemented in
different ways. A unique computer-assisted instruction program, Computer-Assisted
Remediation and Evaluation (CARE), was designed to help classroom teachers
identify children with particular mental handicaps that would adversely affect their
academic progress. The CARE project was a self-contained college level course. The
special feature of this computer-assisted instruction program was the method of
dissemination. A mobile CAI unit was driven to teachers who requested the program.
By 1972, the unit served teachers in Maryland, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Washington,
D.C. (Suppes and Macken, 1978).
In 1972, the Mitre Corporation of Bedford, Massachusetts and C. Victor
Bunderson and associates at Brigham Young University developed the Time-Shared;
Interactive, Computer-Controlled, Information Television (TICCIT).The TICCIT
combined mini-computers and television receivers in an instructional system with the
display capabilities of color televisions. The aim of the TICCIT program was to
provide a complete and independent alternative to entire college courses in selected
subjects
(Kulik et al., 1980; Suppes and Macken 1978)
Suppes and Macken (1978) noted that the purpose
of the TICCIT system was to use mini-computers and television technology to deliver
computer-assisted lessons and educational programs in English and mathematics to
community college students. The TICCIT lesson was displayed on a color
television screen connected to a keyboard and a local computer where students could
respond. One TICCIT system could serve 128 terminals
(Kulik et al., 1980)
. Rota (1981)
stated the TICCIT system lessons were developed and designed by an assembled team
of experts; whereas, the PLATO lessons were designed by teachers.
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According to Rota (1981), "The PLATO and TICCIT projects were succeeded
in introducing effective computer-assisted systems into schools. Each project led to
the development and reliable operation of computer systems dedicated to instruction.
The PLATO system supported hundreds of active terminals, and it gave each site a
powerful tool for teaching. The TICCIT system had the display capabilities of
television and employed an innovative instructional design. Schools accepted these
systems as additional resources for promoting student learning and as a part of the
approved curriculum”, (p. 14). In addition, Kulik, Kulik, and Cohen (1980) stated that
the evaluations of PLATO and TICCIT gave educators additional perspectives on
computer-based college teaching and demonstrated that this teaching approach would
be accepted in institutions of higher education as an additional resource for promoting
student learning.
In 1975, the Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC) was developed to offer
a large variety of courses for elementary through junior college students. The CAI
system consisted of an instructional computer that provided individualized lessons to
as many as 96 teletype terminals simultaneously. The computer and terminal were
located at the school site, and neighboring sites were then linked to the computer via
telephone lines (Suppes and Macken, 1978).
According to Rota (1981), the PLATO and TICCIT systems opened the
gateway in the potential of a technology market in education.
Recently, the use of technology in education and classroom teaching has
increased across a variety of disciplines. In many cases, the use of multimedia
instruction has proved to be effective (Morell, 1992; Rota, 1981; Kulik, Kulik, and Cohen, 1980).
Students may get benefits from CAI. It provides better and more comfortable
learning for students, since they learn at their own pace and convenience; get
opportunities to work with vastly superior materials and more sophisticated problems;
personalized tutoring; automatic measurement of progress; and others.
Teachers also gain from CAI, as they experience less drudgery and repetition,
greater ease in updating instructional materials, more accurate appraisal and
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
documentation of student progress, and more time to work directly with students
Bangert and Williams, 1983, pg. 23).
(Kulik,
With increasing advances in computer technology, computer-
assisted instruction (CAI) is now seen by many as a method of providing relevant
instruction to a large number of students.
Researcher felt it necessary to consider important to know about the
Programme instruction before starting with the theoretical foundation of CAI.
2.1.6 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONThe roots of Computer-Assisted Instruction can be traced back to programmed
instruction. The key concepts of programmed instruction (tutorials, management,
general enrichment, drill and practice, programming, and simulation programs) are
present in CAI.
Programmed instruction is a teaching technique that provides learners with
“small, discrete increments of instruction plus immediate reinforcement for correct
responses” (Orlich et. al, 2001). “Programmed instruction involved breaking content into small
pieces of information called frames. Students read a frame and then answer a question
about the frame. Then they check their answer (feedback) and proceed to the next
frame.”
Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matters to
students in a graded sequence of controlled steps. It is based on Skinner's "operant
conditioning". It consists of a network of statements and tests, which directs the
student to new statements depending on his pattern of errors.
In programmed instruction students work through the programmed material by
themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by
answering an examination question or filling in a diagram. They are then immediately
shown the correct answer or given additional information. (The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 200105, retrieved 16:22, 16 August 2007 (MEST).
There are various types of programmed instruction. The most important two
subcategories are:
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1. Linear programs (B.F. Skinner) and 2. Branched programs (Norman Crowder)
2.1.6.1 Skinner’s linear programmingThe linear style of programming was developed by Skinner and his associates (1954).
Linear programming contains certain features as
Contents are very small, i.e. simple statements plus a question or direct questions

Answers are usually filling in the blanks

Structural, active and controlled responses

Immediate feedback and is in the form of the correct answer

Best suited in certain subject areas

Effectively used for-small children, slow learners, difficult material and remedial
teaching and to inculcate the self-study skill

Useful to gain mastery in the subject area by attaining small steps
Linear Programme
1
2
3
4
5
etc.
(FIG.:2.3 LINEAR PROGRAMMING)
2.1.6.2Crowder's intrinsic or branching program
The branched or intrinsic style (method) of programming was originated by
Norman Crowder. He was working independently on programme instruction. He had
opinion that like any communication the programme should be directed to an
individual.
Branching is used with the idea that slower learners can be presented with
additional information if they can't respond well enough to a sequence of frames and
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
that more advanced students can be exposed to more challenging materials. Each
frame usually presents more text than the average linear frame.
In an intrinsic or branching program, each frame presents more text than the
average linear frame. After reading, the user responds to an adjunct question, usually
in a multiple-choice format. Branching instruction adapts the sequence of the program
to a limited degree to fit the prior learning and processing capabilities of the user.
Special forms of Crowder‟s model are called drill and practice programs where
learners are supposed to develop basic skills like arithmetic and keyboard operations
by many repetitions. The program adjusts drill sequences according to answers.
Branched Programme
1
2
3
4
5
Etc.
Repeat section
Test
4a
4b
(FIG.: 2.4 BRANCHED PROGRAMMING)
Branching style optional choices lead users to optional forms of feedback,
most of which is corrective. If the user makes a correct response, the program asserts
the reasons why he or she was correct and moves on to new material. If an incorrect
response is made, the program, at the very least, informs the user that an error was
made and then branches the user back to the previous frame for another try.
The primary difference between Skinner's idea of programming and Crowder's
branched programming is in the function of the response. To Skinner, learning results
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
from making the correct response. Contrary to this response orientation, Crowder
believed that learning results from the realignment of the user's knowledge structure,
and that the response is simply a means for controlling the program. The larger
amount of information needs to be assimilated and integrated with the previous
knowledge of the user.Portia Diaz-Martin (2001)
2.1.7
THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS
OF
COMPUTER-ASSISTED
INSTRUCTIONThere are various definitions of learning. Learning is a complex phenomenon.
There are many different types of learning, ranging from the simplest response (such
as withdrawing your hand after touching a hot toaster-learn very rapidly!) to the type
of thought that results in the solution to a complex scientific problem. Thus, some
theories of learning have concentrated on the acquisition of simple low-level
behaviors, and as a result, have been of most help in understanding that type of
learning situation. As might be expected, such theories have fallen short when higher
level types of learning have been under consideration. Conversely, other theories have
been concerned with global approaches that have aided understanding of higher
mental processes involved in complex learning. But unfortunately, these theories
seldom have been of significant help in accounting for the detailed components and
antecedents of such behaviour. Since CAI is applicable to a broad range of learning
tasks, only the major theoretical representatives of both ends of learning continuum
are being considered.
Idea and practice of Computer-Assisted Instruction is rooted in all the major
learning theories of the twentieth century, i.e. Behaviorist, Cognitivist, and
Constructivist.
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Cognitive/
Information
Processing
Theory
Constructivist
Theory
Operant
conditioning/
Behaviorist
Theory
(FIG. 2.5 CAI AND LEARNING THEORIES)
All learning theories made efforts to gather answer to the questions like
What is learning?

How does learning take place?

What are the factors that affect learning?

How can learning be enhanced?
Based on the views of learning, theorists are classified into two categories1. Objectivists and
2. Constructivists
The two approaches differ when they define learning and describe the condition
required to make learning happen and the kinds of problems that interfere most with
learning. They disagree because they attend to different philosophies and learning
theories
(Roblyer and Edward, 2000)
. Both the approaches accept and recognize the potential of
computer in promoting and enhancing learning.
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CLASSIFICATION OF THEORIST ON THE BASIS OF THEIR VIEWS
REGARDING LEARNING
Objectivist
Behaviorists
 J. B. Watson
 Edwin Guthrie
Realist
Cognitivist
Believe that learning
takes place as the
result of a response
that follows on a
specific stimulus
S-R condition
Contiguity
theorists
Constructivist
Believe that the
changes in one‟s
cognitive structure as a
consequence of
perceptual
reorganization in
learning
Views cognition as a
process by which learners
eventually construct
mental schema that
corresponds to the
environment
Reinforcement
Theorists




Thorndike
Hull
Robert Gagne
B. F. Skinner
Key Principles of behaviorism




Stimulus-Response
Reinforced Behavior
Antecedent Behavior Consequence
Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in
logical limited steps
Radical Constructivist
Views cognition serves to
organize the learner's
experiential world, rather
than to discover the
ontological reality
Key Principles of Constructivism
 Inquiry-based learning
 Discovery learning
Instructional Model
Problem-Based-Learning
Instructional ModelComputer-Based-Instruction
(FIG: 2.6 CLASSIFICATIONS OF THEORISTS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR
VIEWS REGARDING LEARNING)
Objectivists believe that knowledge has a separate, real existence of its own
acquired by the learner. The process of learning is teacher-directed, systematic and
structured
(Roblyer and Edward, 2000)
. Objectivists emphasized directed instruction supported by
two different theories of learning1. Behavioral theories and 2. Cognitive theories
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1. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES: Behaviorists believe that learning takes place as the
result of a response that follows a specific stimulus.By repeating the S-R cycle the
organism (it may be an animal or human) is conditioned into repeating the response
whenever the same stimulus is present. Behavior can be modified and learning is
measured by observable change in behavior. Behaviorist emphasized the following
views
The mind is seen as a processor of symbols that mirror the world's structure and a
reservoir of information.

Knowledge is an external reality mapped onto learners. It exists independent of
instruction.

Thought is governed by external reality.

The structure of the real world is independent of understanding.
On the basis of opinionsthe behaviorists are divided into two categories as contiguity
behaviorist and reinforcement theorists1. Contiguity Theorists:- J. B. Watson (Founder of behaviorism, Law of frequency),
and Edwin Guthrie-(Contiguity Theory) are the chief theorists. These theorists were
opinioned that "a combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement is on its
recurrence tends to be follow that movement". In contiguity theory, rewards or
punishment play no significant role in learning since they occur after the association
between stimulus and response has made. Learning takes place in a single trial (all or
none).
2. Reinforcement Theorists:-Thorndike (Law of effect), Hull (Postulates and
theorems, oscillations), Robert Gagne (Development of hierarchical organization), B.
F. Skinner (Rejection of intervening variables, reinforcement, operant behavior,
shaping behavior modifications), G. Miller(Information Processing Theory), E.
Tollman (Information Processing Theory) are the chief theorists of reinforcement.
According to these theorists reinforcement is described as the tendency to
make a response that occurs when the response is followed by reinforcement.
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Thorndike's primary law was the law of effect. It stated that the stimulus-response
connections depended on the effects that followed by the response. If a stimulus was
followed by a response and then a satisfier, then the connection was strengthened. If
the response was followed by an annoyer, the connection was weakened. A response
can be reinforced by either the presence of a positive reinforcement, or the removing
of a negative one. Reinforcements can be conditioned. If a stimulus occurs
repeatedly with a positive reinforcement, it tends to acquire the capacity to reinforce
behavior. It is then called a conditioned positive reinforcement. A negative
reinforcement can become a conditioned negative reinforcement in the same way.
(Hill,
W. F. 1990)
 Contribution of behaviorism to CAI
Guarantees specific learning. Objectives are predetermined by the educator.

Specific and objective outcomes for learning can be set: learner knows what is
expected from him/her. He is focused on a clear goal and can respond
automatically to the cue of the goal.

Uses time more efficiently (according to the educator)

Success of outcomes easily measurable

Programmed Learning: The subject matter is divided into smaller steps or frames.
Each step is followed by a question which the learner can almost always answer
correctly. This sequence of events (chaining) influences the procession and
retention of the information as the deductive reasoning is enhanced by correctly
sequencing the events. Chunking of content becomes easy.

Classes can be prepared with high level of control by the educator

Mastery Learning: Bloom introduced the idea that the learner will succeed in
learning if a task given the exact amount of time he/she needs to learn the task.
Bloom suggested numerous strategies for accomplishing mastery learning, e.g.
Tutors, small group study, peer tutoring, programmed instruction, audiovisual
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material and games. Behaviorism can effectively facilitate mastery of the content
of a profession

Environmental factors: The environment should be controlled to assist the learner
in concentrating on learning. Mergel, B., (1998)
2) COGNITIVE THEORIES Cognitive theories are based on information processing models. These are
concerned with how individuals gain knowledge and how they use to guide decisions
and perform effective actions. These theories try to understand the mind and how it
works. To achieve this, they view the computer as a model of the brain and employ
much of the terminology and concepts of information processing.
A cognitive learning theory is concerned with several key items:

Effect of stimuli on the organism‟s receptors

Storage of information in short term memory (working memory)

Storage of information in long-term memory

Processes involved in encoding and decoding information

Retrieval of the stored information, its possible combination with other data, and
its ultimate effect on behaviour of the organism.
Certain stimuli in the environment affect an organism‟s receptors. These stimuli
produce patterns of neural activity that are briefly registered by sensory registers. The
data are then transformed and recorded in short-term memory (STM), an important
concept in cognitive theory. Characters of STM are as follows:

Only prominent features of the original stimuli are recorded; and

STM has the capacity to hold only about 4-7 items for a limited tome (20-30
seconds). The material are retained in STM through rehearsal, transferred to longterm memory (LTM), or lost.
According to one prominent model (Bower and Hilgard, 1981), LTM contains
information originally held in STM, which had undergone a process of semantic
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encoding. This process changes information from words and stimuli to propositions
that have meaning and contains codes for retrieval at later times.
Cognitive theory recognizes the importance of reinforcement, but does not
give it the central importance accorded by Skinner. It indicates that learner behaviour
sets in motion a process that depends on external feedback, which involves
confirmation of correct performance.
An important concept contained in some cognitive theories is the executive
control process. This process controls cognitive strategies relevant to learning and
remembering in relation to such important activities as controlling attention, encoding
of incoming information, and retrieval of stored data. These types of activities were
not consideration in traditional behaviorism, nor were they given importance by
Skinner. Their applications to Computer-Assisted Instruction, however, are critical. It
is perhaps in this area that cognitive theory has contributed the most to CAI.
Considering cognitive learning theory overall, the following kinds of
processing during any single learning act could include:
1. Attention-selection among incoming stimuli.
2. Selective perception-encoding selected items for storage in short-term memory
3. Rehearsal- maintaining data in short-term memory.
4. Semantic encoding- preparing information for storage in long-term memory.
5. Retrieval- searching and restoring information in working memory.
6. Response organization-selecting and organizing performance.
7. Feedback- the external event that sets in motion the process of reinforcement.
8. Executive control process- selecting and activating cognitive strategies (Gagne
and Briggs, 1979; Bower and Hilgard, 1981).
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Cognitive learning theory
Motivation
Auditory
and
Visual
Channels
Stimuli
Elaboration
Coding
Mental models
Metacognition
Attention
Rehearsal
Sensory
memory
Transferred
Short-term
memory
(Working
memory)
Transferred
Retrieved
Longterm
memory
Information
from the
environment
Forgotten
Forgotten
Response
Behaviour
(FIG 2.7 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY)
Cognitive models evolved primarily as a result of the dissatisfaction with the
limited concerns and understanding of complex processes provided by behaviorist
theory. Thus, Skinner was criticized not as providing inaccurate descriptions of
learning, but rather as providing incomplete descriptions. Cognitive theories set out to
complete this task and to provide a foundation for studying and understanding
complex processes.
In regard to success of this movement, Norman (1981), a leading practitioner
in the field, indicated his concern with the narrowness of cognitive science itself. He
emphasized its lack of concern for an individual‟s interaction with other people, the
environment, and the influence of history and the culture on people. He especially
emphasized lack of consideration of the special problems and issues confronting an
organism that must survive.
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 Application of cognitive theory in CAICognitive learning theories are most applicable to the design and development
of tutorials. This approach has been pioneered most actively by Robert M. Gagne,
former follower of Skinner and the behavioristic model. Gagne has emphasized the
importance identifying the goals of the learning task followed by the development of
specific instructional objectives to meet these goals. He emphasizes that such
objectives must be stipulated in concrete behavioral terms. To develop instructional
objective, it is necessary to analyze the criterion task into elementary behavioral
components and to determine their organization. The skill level of the students must
then be assessed and programmes designed to teach the skills.
In development and presentation of materials, Gagne has followed Skinner in
emphasizing that learning must occur in small steps, sequenced so that lower-level
learning required for performance on more complex task is learnt first. Again, like
Skinner, he has emphasized the use of positive reinforcement in a repetitive manner.
In regard to the role of teacher or advisor in CAI, he has followed Skinner‟s
lead by emphasizing that hints and help needs to be adapted to the individual learner.
He has suggested that students be provided on a little help at a time, thus permitting
the students to use as much as he needs. The student is thus placed in control of the
learning situation.
3) CONSTRUCTIVISMMax Wertheimer (Gestalt psychology, emphasis on insight, law of proximity
and closure), Jean Piaget (Development of schemata, accommodation and
assimilation, four stages of intellectual development, conservation), Lev Vygotsky
(Social development), Jerome Bruner (constructivist Theory), Albert Bandura (Social
learning theory, imitation, modeling, self-efficacy), Ernst Glaserfeld (Radical
constructivism), J. lave (Situated learning), John Dewey (Learning as a result of
disequilibrium),Carl Rogers(Experiential Learning), R Spiro (Cognitive Flexibility
Theory) are the chief theorists of constructivism.
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Constructivists view that the learning is an active process and the learners
actively construct knowledge as they try to realize their worlds. Learners generate
their own mental models or schemas through the sense of experiences. These mental
models are constructed by prior knowledge, current mental structures and existing
beliefs. Learning is simply the adjustment of mental models to accommodate new
experiences.
The constructivists put forth two types of views as
Cognition is a process by which learners eventually construct a mental schema
that corresponds to the environment. That‟s why they are considered as realist
constructivists

The radical constructivists are of the opinion that cognition serves to organize the
learner's experiential world, rather than to discover the ontological reality.

A new trend in constructivism is enactive constructivism. "The inactive
constructivist position is non-foundational, meaning that it takes neither the
objective world nor the subjective world as pre given. This philosophy supports
the idea that understanding transforms the world by transforming the self.
 Constructivists hold the following views:

The mind seen as an inner representation of an outer reality.

Knowledge resides in the mind, thus learning results from a personal
interpretation of the world.

Thought is grounded in perception and bodily experience.

Meaning is internally constructed and is developed on the basis of experience.
Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts.

Learning is the search for meaning

Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and
interactions.
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 Positive Aspects of Constructivism

The learner uses active mental processes to develop meaning and knowledge.

Cross field/cross curricular integration.

The learning occurs in life-like situations

The learner develops holistic problem solving skills that can be transferred to
other situations.

Reflective and metacognition abilities of the learner are developed.

The learner is internally motivated to solve problems through discovery and
experience

Internal motivation leads to the development of long term memory.

The learner is in control of own learning: learn to organize and manage him/her.

Social and communication skills are developed.

Require teamwork/cooperation among learners and the educator.

The learner learns to accommodate various perspectives on an issue.

Higher cognitive levels, like analysis, synthesis and evaluation are developed.
Advancements in technology make branched constructivist approaches to
learning possible.(Mergel,
B. 1998)
Behaviorists‟ approaches emphasize individualization,
self-pacing and mastery learning concepts in education. A natural growth of
behaviorist‟s approaches is a teaching strategy called „Programme Instruction‟.
Computer-Assisted Instruction has its base in programme instruction.
2.1.8COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION AND LEARNING THEORIESMost theories agree that certain conditions are necessary in order of learning
to occur. These conditions include contiguity, reinforcement, and repetition (Practice).
The basis for behavioristic theory was that a stimulus (S) that elicited a response (R)
that was immediately followed by positive reinforcement would result in increasing
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the probability that the response would occur upon further presentation of the
stimulus. Thus, S-R reinforcement became the learning model. Skinner agreed with
the contiguity of the reinforcement following the response. The cognitive theorists
have, in general, agreed with Skinner on this point. For the purpose of this study, the
primary concept in the importance of reward (positive reinforcement) immediately
following a student‟s correct response to a problem in a learning situation
There is also general agreement among theorists that repeated occurrences of
the response followed by reinforcement are necessary in order for learning to occur
and for the materials to be retained.
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Information
Processing
Theory/
Congitive
theory
Operant
conditioning/
Behaviorist
Theory
USE OF LEARNING
THEORIES FOR CAI
Constructivist
Theory
•Learning takes place by Reherasal, organizing and
ellaborating imagery
•Concept of 'chunking' for short
term
•TOTE (test, operate, test, exit)
goal tested and retested until
fulfilled or abandoed
•Learner learn through
structured learning environment
•Learning is reinforced
behaviour
•Practice takes place in the form
of question (stimulus)-answer
(response)
•Immediate feedback
•Secondary reinforce-verbal
praise
•Learner learn by participating in
activities and experiments
•Learning takes place through
transfer ofinformation with past
and current ideas
•Learning is meaningful and active
process
•ex-PBL, Cooperative learning etc.
(FIG: 2.8 USE OF LEARNING THEORIES FOR CAI)
1. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING AND CAISkinner‟s later years were concerned with testing his theories concerning
complex behavior through the study of learning in human subjects. He developed
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teaching machines and programmed learning based on his response/reinforcement
model.
Skinner (1968) strongly emphasized positive reinforcement throughout his
writing. Early studies indicated that punishment only temporarily suppressed
behaviour. Later studies did indicate that punishment can be effective. In general, a
combination of strong positive reinforcement for a correct response and mild
punishment for an incorrect response has been found to provide support for learning.
In Skinner‟s later work dealing with complex human learning, he emphasized
the analysis of the task into small, discrete objectives so that repeated reinforcement
could be applied to simple, discrete responses. He stressed that students be given task
in a hierarchy so that they would learn essential; components first, and so that they
would not fail (Chambers and Sprecher, 1983).
 Application of Skinners theory in CAI
Skinner‟s views are directly applicable to drill and practice and tutorial forms
of CAI, and have been used successfully in these areas for many years.
Reinforcement in drill and practiceSkinner‟s main thesis is that positive reinforcement should consistently follow
each occurrence of the desired response until the selected level of mastery is reached.
Although he himself had little to say about punishment for wrong answers, most of
his followers now acceded that a mild punishment – penalty such as a reduction in
score-following an incorrect response can be beneficial to learning.
Once mastery is reached, Skinner emphasized that students must be weaned
from this approach in order to avoid rapid extinction (weakening) of the response. To
do this, he recommended shifting from continuous reinforcement to a pattern of
intermittent reinforcement. The most effective patterns yielding the greatest retention
of learning appears to be a shift first to a fixed-ratio schedule (in which fifth, or tenth,
etc., response is reinforced), and finally to variable-ratio schedule (in which every nth
response is reinforced with delivery on a random basis). Skinner emphasized that
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through these methods, behaviour could be maintained independently on a very small
number of reinforcements. He concluded:
Through a proper understanding of contingencies of reinforcements, we
should be able to make students eager and diligent and be reasonably sure that they
will continue to enjoy the things we teach them for the rest of their lives (Skinner, 1968).
Application to tutorialsSkinner‟s illustration of how to develop a programmed learning sequence is
directly applicable to the design of CAI tutorial modules, as follows:

Obtain a clear, detailed objective specification of what it means to know the given
subject matter.

Write a series of information, question, and answer frame that expose students to
the material in graded steps of increasingly difficulty and that frequently retest the
same facts from many different angles.

Require the learner to be active, i.e. require a response for each frame.

Provide immediate feedback for each answer (response).

Try to arrange the material and questions in such a manner that the correct
response is likely to occur and be reinforced (i.e., avoid errors, so that learning is
not accompanied by punishing failures).

Permit students to learn at their own pace.

Provide ample backup reinforcement (praise, merits) for diligent and effective
work.
The importance of the students control is especially helpful when considering the
design and development of tutorials. In this type of learning situation, the computer
plays the role of advisor, and the learning strategies involved are concerned with
presentation of materials and questions, hints and help messages to assist the students
as needed to achieve the correct answers, followed by reinforcement of the correct
responses.
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2) GAGNE’S LEARNING THEORY:
So far as the mastery is concerned, Gagne has expanded Skinner‟s basic views on the
topic to include more details related to human learning. He has defined mastery as
material that has been learned to the level of which they are accessible to recall at the
time of learning.
Gagne‟s most significant contribution, however, relates to his application of
cognitive learning theory to the task of designing CAI modules. Thus, he has brought
to the topic some additional insights and emphases, such as his concern with gaining
the student‟s attention and developing expectancies. This can be achieved in CAI
module by providing advance organizers in the instruction. These organizers might
take the forms of charts or graphs that reflect the structure and organization of the
lesson content.
Another point raised by Gagne is in defense of drill and practice. He indicated
his belief that drill and practice, if viewed as a part of cognitive learning theory, simply
speeds up the learning process, that it makes learning more efficient by making lowerlevel skills (such as the basic Mathematics) automatic. Since such skills are used quite
often, and since short-term (working) memory has a limited capacity, drill and practice
reinforce the indexing characteristics of the basic skills, thus permitting them to be
retrieved and placed in short-term memory for use very quickly ( Gagne,1982).
Gagne (1982) identified five categories of learning outcomes that he believes
represents all types of learning. These include:
1. Intellectual skills ( how to do something of an individual work);
2. Cognitive strategies (capabilities that govern the individual‟s own learning,
remembering, and thinking behavior);
3. Verbal information;
4. Motor skills;
5. attitudes
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Within these various types of learning, Gagne (1982) expresses his belief that
there must be nine event of instruction. The internal learning processes (expressed in
terms of cognitive theory) and external instructional events that he has postulated are
listed below: (Rao,2005. pg. 234)
Internal Learning Processes
External Learning Events
1. Alertness
1. Gaining attention
2. Expectancy
2. Information learner of lesson objective
3. Retrieval to working memory
3. Simulating recall of prior learning
4. Selective perception
4. Presenting stimuli with distinctive features
5. Semantic encoding
5. Guiding learning
6. Retrieval and responding
6. Eliciting performance
7. Reinforcement
7. Providing informative feedback
8. Cueing retrieval
8. Assessing performance
9. Generalizing
9. Enhancing retention and learning transfer
(TABLE 2.1 EVENTS OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR LEARNING)
3. BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AND CAISocial learning theory has attempted to combine cognitive psychology and the
principles of behavior with its own special emphasis on the person in the social setting
with all of the resulting ramifications. Social learning theory has provided much
needed breadth to these other theoretical positions and has provided a basis for many
of the types of learning that appear in simulations. The theory attempts to describe how
personality could evolve out of social conditions. It deals explicitly with techniques of
personality assessment and behavior modifications in clinical and educational settings.
Behavior theory in general, and Skinner‟s operant conditioning principles in particular,
have placed great emphasis on learning by direct experience, by the application of
reinforcement to response, Although social learning accepts these concepts as valid
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conditions for some of types of learning, the theory also has proposed that a large
amount of human learning is done vicariously, through observing another person
making the response ( or reading about it or viewing pictures of it) and then by trying
to imitate the response of the model.
Bandura (1977) stated his views in regard to observational learning as,” Most
human behaviour is learnt observationally through modeling: from observing one
forms an idea of how new behaviour are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as guide for action.” He pointed out that observational learning is
governed by four component processes:

Attention

Retention process

Conversion of symbolic representation into appropriate actions

and motivational processes
Attention refers to the fact that people must attend to and perceive accurately
the significant features of the modeled behavior. Attention processes determine what is
selectively observed and extracted from exposure to others. Retention processes draw
attention to the fact that individuals must remember the modeled behaviour in order to
be influence by it. Observers who translate observed behaviour into words pictures
learn and retain better than those who do not. The third component of the observational
learning concerns turning learning into actions. This involves refinement of behaviour
through self-corrective adjustments on the basis of feedback. Finally, motivation
affects observational learning in that behaviors that seem effective for others are
favored over behaviors that are seven to have negative consequences. As a result, it
has been found that high-status models are more often imitated (their behavior is seen
as leading to success).
Since earlier theories were primarily concerned with reinforcement, it may be
helpful to quote Bandura‟s position:
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According to the social learning view, observational learning occurs through
symbolic processes during exposure to modeled activities before any responses have
been performed and does not necessarily require extrinsic reinforcement…
Reinforcement does not play a role in observational learning, but mainly as an
antecedent rather than a consequent influence. Anticipation of reinforcement in one of
several factors that can influence what is observed and what goes unnoticed (Bandura).
 Application of Bandura’s Social learning theory in CAI:
The implications of social learning seem most appropriate for the type of
learning that occurs in many CAI simulations. Although real models are not used in
such simulations, the computer provides a reality situation in which the student may
learn vicariously through interaction with the model. In such cases, the reinforcement
apparently occurs as a result of student responses to the model, which brings about a
change in conditions. The student controls the situation and is thus positively
reinforced.
Several observations seem appropriate in relation to playing social learning
theory to the design of simulations. The first relates to the importance of instructions to
students to guide the learning. The instruction should provide students with
information concerning content, structure, and goals of the simulation, and in addition
should inform students concerning the benefits of adopting the modeled behavior. As
Bandura (1977) has pointed out, this will result in the development of expectations that
serve to reinforce learning.
Second, simulation should include as much interaction between students and
the computer as possible and the simulation should be used by each student a number
of times. This will enhance retention and permits feedback to improve the modeling.
From the motivational point of view, the computer should provide that is as
humanlike as possible. Also, characteristics of high-status models should be employed
whenever possible. Similarly, relevancy of subject matter is important. The degree to
which students feel; the subject matter is relevant will directly affect their
performance. In designing CAI modules, relevance can be improved by selecting
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topics or design themes that represent important issues for the students or by
demonstrating the practical or applied aspects of the subject matter.
Finally, the way in which faculty discussed the use of the simulation in class,
the importance they accord it, and the physical surrounding in which the simulation is
used all will positively or negatively affect the outcomes of the modeled learning.
To sum up, reinforcement is probably the most-accepted concept in learning
theories in general, and is central to the theories outlines for the use in the
development of CAI courseware. Yet most behavioral theories speak almost
exclusively of the need for contiguity and repetition of reinforcement. In CAI,
however, both quantity and type of reinforcement are to be considered.
So far as quantity is concerned, it has not been found to be of significant
important in most studies. Thus, providing two minutes of game playing as a reward
for attaining mastery will probably achieve as significant reinforcement effects as five
minutes.
A key items, however, is the type of reinforcement- it must be geared to the
student‟s needs and must be perceived by students as satisfying (i.e., as truly positively
reinforcing). Thus, reinforcement of drawing of spaceship in full colour may meet the
needs of a first grader successfully achieving mastery of simple addition problems.
While exit into an interactive game sequence after three or so successful solutions to
algebraic equations may be what is required at the junior high level. Relevance is the
key factor, which of course makes it difficult to develop courseware applicable to
diverse age and grade levels of students.
2.1. 9 NATURE OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION (CAI):
Computers are already in use in India in various fields such as banks, large
firms, transport companies, the armed forces and elsewhere. Technology-integrated
education is still a dream at all levels of education in India. While there are computers
in the schools, they are mostly used to learn about computers. Rarely are they used as
tools for the teaching and learning of other curriculum areas(Poole, B.J. 2007).Government
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of India is expecting to make maximum use of computers in the field of education to
enhance the quality and quantity through all the spheres. According to the statement
mentioned in the letter on the recommendations of National Knowledge Commission
on 3rd Feb. 2008, “Wherever feasible, ICT should be made more accessible to
teachers, students and administration for learning, training, research, administration,
management, monitoring etc.”
The use of computers in schools may conveniently be divided into learning
about computer and learning with, from or through computers. Knowledge of
computers may be taught of as a variety ranging from skills and awareness of
computer as learning and educational tools at one end, through programming in
various subjects at the other end.
The technology concerning computers as a learning medium varies widely and
there is no universally agreed upon definition. Among those frequently encountered
area) Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) where computer acts as a tutor teaching new
skills or concepts or providing practice for learners. Software in this mode is often
referred to as drill and practice and tutorials
b) Computer-Based-Learning (CBL) or Computer-Assisted-Learning(CAL) which
includes various categories such as simulation and modeling instructional games,
problem solving, information handling and demonstrations(Anderson,1986).
According to Fourie (1999), CAI is an interactive instructional technique
whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the
learning that takes place. It is also known as computer assisted learning (CAL);
Computer based education (CBE) and Computer Based Training (CBT).
The computer has many purposes in the classrooms, and it can be utilized to
help a student in all areas of the curriculum. CAI refers to the use of computer as a
tool to facilitate and improve instruction. CAI programs use tutorial, drill and
practice, simulation and problem solving approaches to present topics and they test
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the student‟s understanding. These programs let students progress at their own pace,
assisting them in learning the material. The subject matter taught through CAI range
from basic math facts to more complex concepts in math, history, science, social
studies and language arts (Sharp, 1996).
Many educational software programmes follow the same design as
programmed instruction. Students receive some instructional; material, followed by a
“probe” (a small test); if they respond correctly, they move on to the next lesson; if
they do not, they repeat the lesson or receive a different lesson covering the same
material. This approach is called Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).
Thomas (1997) quoted Lepper and Gurtner (1989) and Roblyer, et al (1988) as
“CAI suffers from some of the same problems as programmed instruction. It is often
repetitive, and it reduces learning to discrete units that sometimes obscure the
relationship between ideas. CAI is better suited for drill and practice than for building
concepts and promoting comprehension. Research has shown that when used in
addition to regular classroom instruction, CAI improves students‟ attitude, motivation
and academic achievement.”
Walberg (1999) examined 377 research studies, selected according to criteria
for quality of research design that had compared Computer Assisted Instruction with
conventional classroom instruction. Seeking to compare educational methods for
difference in efforts on learning, he found in all cases that computer-Assisted
Instruction combined with classroom teaching was superior to conventional
instruction without computer assistance. The computer was found to be particularly
effective with the handicapped, elementary students and secondary students.
The use of computers in education is still in its infancy. However, the
computer is bringing some exciting innovations to education. The following are the
areas in which computers are helping the educators;
 Computers take over the most of the drudgery of schooling like classifying
children according to abilities, preparing timetable, schedules, etc.
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 Computers allocate learning resources to individuals and groups.
 Computers maintain progress cards and preserve them confidentially.
 They provide easy access to files of information for reference and guidance.
 They provide direct interaction between student and the subject matter to be
learned.
 They engage the students in tutorial interaction and dialogue.
The most exciting innovation in the educational technology is ComputerAssisted Instruction (CAI). Though it is still in the experimental stage, the day is not
far off when it will revolutionize the whole process of instruction. Before discussing
in some detail computer assisted instruction (CAI), which appeals most to the teacher
practitioner, it is relevant to refer to two other modes of computer-based instructional
simulation. Each of these techniques makes use of the computer in mainly record
keeping and it does not provide any direct instruction to the learner. This type of
instruction helps to assess the learner‟s present level of knowledge, weakness or gaps
in his learning and remedial action possible. Whereas Computer-Assisted Instruction
is directly involved in tutorial work, drill and practice and is of greater help in
instruction. In the use of CAI, different programmes, one for new instruction and
another for drill and practice may be needed. The third type computer-basedinstructional simulation (CBIS) is the most powerful application of computers in
instruction as it provides realistic substitutes for real life experiences that might be
otherwise impractical, time-consuming or even dangerous. CBIS creates a model
situation, which imitates some aspects of reality and the simulation model, may be
static or dynamic, in which conditions are changed as a result of feedback of pupil‟s
actions and responses (Sampath et al, 1990).
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) is a relatively new field in which the
pioneer efforts occurred around 1960 following the introduction of computers into
higher education. A number of large-scale, heavily funded CAI projects have been
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conducted since then, with their results having implications for the future use of CAI
as a classroom tool.(Chamber and Sprecher, 1983).
2.1.10 MECHANISM OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION:
There are two models for designing interactive educational programs. The
first, instructional system design (ISD), the traditional model, determines a goal, sets
objectives, delivers instruction, formulates test questions, evaluates learning. The
second hypermedia designs (HMD) focuses on the student‟s goal and how the student
chooses to access information, while ISD is concerned with design goals. HMD
focuses on the user‟s goals. Selection of CAI or web-based design should be based on
whether the program is well designed and meets the needs of the intended users
1999)
(Dewald,
.
There are many design models for CAI available today. One model, developed by
Ina Fourie in 1994 consisted of seven phases:
1. Determination of the need and situation analysis
2. Formulation of aims and performance objectives and development of items for
evaluation
3. Design of study material, including development of a teaching strategy and media
selection and integration (e.g. the inclusion of sound and video)
4. Development and preparation including story boarding and programming
5. Implementation and use
6. Assessment of student progress
7. Formative and summative evaluation on a continuous basis.
After each phase is completed, it must be evaluated before moving to the next phase.
CAI design projects should consist of several members including a project manager,
subject expert, advisors, evaluators, programmers and graphic artists. The CAI must
meet the needs of its users to be effective. Also, computer literacy can be a major
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problem. Situation without technology skills will have to master basic computer
knowledge before using the CAI successfully.
Good web-based instruction asks to interact in some way and not just to
memories information. It must be flexible and allow for differences in learning
abilities. It should encourage deep learning and not merely surface learning. Students
must understand concepts and how they fit into the whole, be able to integrate parts,
apply the information particularly, and receive feedback. Web-based instruction
provides opportunities for interactivity to make meaningful for the student (Dewald, 1999).
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) is defined as the use of computer to
provide course content instruction in the form of drill and practice, tutorial, and
simulations. Drill and practice is common CAI form in which a type of repetitive, or
“flash cards” approach emphasizes rote memory. It is used extensively at all
educational levels (Chambers and Sprecher, 1983).
Tutorials use the computer in a higher-level mode in which question and
answers, dialogue type learning in the traditional tutor is emphasized. Like drill and
practice, it is used extremely at all educational levels.
Simulations, the third type of CAI, provide a model in which the student plays
a role and interacts with the computer. Simulations have been used most often in
higher education to model scientific processes. They are applicable to any field,
however, and can be of significant help in illustrating concepts, in helping students to
develop problem solving techniques, or in allowing students to explore complex
interactions.
These three categories-drill and practice, tutorials and simulations- make up
what has been become known in the Unites States as Computer-Assisted Instruction
(CAI), computer-based-instruction (CBI), or computer-based education (CBT). In
Europe and elsewhere, these activities are usually referred to as computer-assistedlearning (CAL).
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2.1.11 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION:
A computer is programmed with linear or branching programs. It acts like a
super teaching machine catering to the needs of a number of students at the same
time. The characteristic aspect of the CAI is its capacity to initiate flexible
interactions with the students that is not possible in the teaching machine. There are a
number of ways in which this can be brought about. The computer is usable to record
and store all the responses of all the students. It can use the information in deciding
what information to give the student next. It can branch not just in terms of one
answer but also in terms of a whole series of previous answers. It can also record the
time taken to answer a question and the degree of correctness of the student‟s
response. It uses the information in planning to determine which branch to take (Sampath et
al, 1999)
.
A typical CAI installation consists of individual learning booths, each with a
console. The student is seated. Facing him on the console is a television screen for
displaying information. Before the student starts a programme, he checks in with the
computer by displaying his identity number. This connects him with his part of the
learning programme. A complete package of information stored in the system is
presented sequentially. This information could take the form of video-tape recordings,
slides, motion picture films, filmstrips etc. The student may question the computer
and feed answer into it by means of a typewriter keyboard. The computer responds by
printing out comments, answers and questions. Sometimes, the students may write
directly on the cathodes ray tube display screen with a „light pen‟. His answer will be
picked by the computer and evaluated. When he has finished, the computer assigns
him the next program, records his progress and prints out a report for his teacher (Sampath
et al, 1990)
.
The CAI starts by identifying the way a programme seems to learn best. It
reviews his past history of learning and then presents a programme built on his
strength. Sometimes the computer stores all the information gained from all students
who have taken the teaching course previously. This information may be re-analyzed
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and much of the teaching strategies, which were not effective, may be rejected and
strategies which have succeeded may be continued (Sampath et al, 1990).
Computer-Assisted Instruction is, therefore not merely a sophisticated type of
programmed instruction but it also uses electronic data processing, data
communication, concepts of audio-visual and media theory, communication theory,
system theory and learning theory. In contrast to CAI, computer-managed instruction
(CMI) analyses the relationship between various factors pertaining to pupil and
suggests activities appropriate to individual students. This includes PLAN
(Programme for Learning in Accordance with Needs) and IPI (Individually Presented
Instruction). In general, students learn well with CAI in considerably less time
al. 1990)
(Sampath et
.
Computer-Assisted Instruction makes use of multimedia software in the
learning process including text, video technology, graphics, sound and Internet
technology. Computer-Assisted Instruction is heavily used in the growing field of
distance education. Traditionally, computer assisted instruction, like programmed
instruction, has been linear in nature. Web-based instruction on the other hand is nonlinear (Lawson, 1999).
Computer-assisted instruction is a relatively recent method and this novel
method has been advocated by leading programmers for efficient learning in the field
of education. Systematic use of CAI began appearing in late 1960s in the areas of
psychology, computer sciences and engineering. Many researchers felt that CAI
appeared to be more effective with low ability students than with the high ability
students. CAI is more suitable for poor and less intelligent learner. This is the best
user self-learning method.
There are numerous unique features of CAI which make it an exciting field.
One of the most useful is its adaptability for distance learning. Before the dominance
of microcomputers, distance learning was mostly accomplished through programmed
instruction or mail system supplemented by telephone contact. On the contrary, CAI
provided regular and timely interaction with the instructor and current feedback.
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Students can appear tutorials as often as needed and work at their own pace. CAI also
can be used with greater numbers of students than a traditional classroom would hold.
CAI and web-based instruction have opened avenues of access to individuals with
disabilities that were not previously possible.
Intelligent Computer-Assisted Instruction (ICAI) is programmed so that the
CAI adapts to the student‟s individual needs. It acquires information about the
student‟s current knowledge of a subject and his/her goals in learning the subject and
then creates a user profile based on this knowledge. It can then adjust itself to the
individual student. Web-based instruction is unique in that student and instructor can
communicate with each other anywhere in the world within seconds via the Internet.
Feedback from the instructor can be obtained immediately (Moursund, 1998).
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Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Interactive
learning
Increased
motivation
Mastery learning
Learner centered
environment
Consistency and
fairness
Improve
retention
Controlled
Privacy
Reduced
learning
time
Systematic
and ordered
Generate interest
Rationale
Audio-visual
Presentation
Visual
Learning
style
Flexible
Textual
Drill and
practice
CAI
Modes
Learning
and
Designing
Tutorial
Content
Goals
Simulation
Objectives
Game
s
Problem solving
Budget
Teaching
Style
Hypermedia
Audience
User interface Activities to
be assigned
Teacher centered
 Help me
 Support me
Student Centered






Tell me
Inform me
Challenge me
Amuse me
Guide me
Teach me
(FIG.:2.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF CAI)
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2.1.12 TYPES OF CAI PROGRAMSThere are many types of Computer-Assisted Instruction Programs. Each of the
CAI program is appropriate under different instructional circumstances and therefore
takes a different pedagogical approach. Although the beginning of CAI was
presentation of programmed instruction through computer and initial forms of CAI
i.e. tutorial, drill and practice and games were oriented to behaviorist theories of
learning. But now no type of CAI is solely associated with a specific learning theory,
as sophistication of computer languages has modifying each type of CAI according to
any theoretical framework. Poole (1997), Cox (1995), Geisert and Futrell (1995),
Maddux, Johnson and Willies (1997) and Bitter and Pierson (1999) have mentioned
and explained the following types of CAI software
Drill and Practice

Tutorials

Instructional Games

Simulations

Problem solving

Hypermedia

Integrated learning system (ILS)

Microcomputer based laboratories (MBL)

Reference software
A brief description for each of the types of CAI is given below.
 DRILL AND PRACTICEDrill and practice programs are used to provide repetitive exercise for rote
skills that have been taught some other way. It is not the function of drill and practice
software to impart instructional activities; rather, drill programs are useful for
sustaining, refining or perfecting performance in some category of behavior already
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learned by another method. Usually drill and practice is employed to increase the
speed or accuracy of the student performance of certain task. Software for drill and
practice allows learner to work problems or answer question and get feedback on
correctness. It is an important learning technique for building basic knowledge and
basic intellectual skills, such as number manipulation, vocabulary, spelling, sentence
construction etc. These skills are the foundation for higher level intellectual activity.
Good drill and practice software provides the user with an enjoyable opportunity for
repetitive interaction and immediate feedback on the accuracy of response. Drill and
Practice software is typically associated with behaviorism, because students are
commonly given „stimuli‟ (question), are required to make responses to the stimuli,
and then receive some sort of reinforcement.
(Hsu, Chen and Hung; 2000, Roblyer and Edwards, 2000;
Poole,1997; Geisert and Furtell, 1995; Maddux, Johnson and Willies, 1997).
While using drill and Practice software, the student sits at a specially designed
electric typewriter, which is connected to a computer by telephonic lines. He
identifies himself by a code number and his name. The machine types out the first
question and the student responds. Soon the lesson is underway. The computer keeps
record of each student‟s performance and can „read back‟ to the teacher a summation
of each student‟s work whenever the teacher wants it. Depending upon the
programme, the student might be referred to a branching type of remedial exercise. As
in programmed instruction, the student moves at his own pace, gets immediate
feedback and receives individual tutoring.
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Teacher get acquainted with each students
progress
Associated
with
behaviorism
Keeps record of the
students and read
back for teacher
Individual
tutoring
 Provide
repetitive
interaction
 Immediate
feedback on
correct answer
Use for
Sustainable
Refined
and perfecting
performance
Drill and
Practice
Learner
Basic
intellectual
skills
Get
motivation
Increased
speed/
Accuracy
Can work
at own pace




Number Manipulation
Vocabulary
Spelling
Sentence construction
(FIG.: 2.10DRILL AND PRACTICE)
Drill and practice software differs from tutorial in a key way; it helps students
remember and utilize skills they have previously been taught, whereas a tutorial
teaches new material. Students must be familiar with certain concepts prior to
working drill and practice programme includes four steps:

The computer screen presents the student with questions to respond to or problems
to solve

The student responds
 The computer informs the student whether the answer is correct and
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

If the student is right, he or she is given another problem to solve, but if, the
student responds with a wrong answer, he or she is corrected by the computer
(Sharp, 1996)
.
Drill and practice program steps-
QUESTION FOR PROBLEM PRESENTED
Students
Response
Student is
corrected
Student receive
feedback
Student is given
another problem
(FIG.2.11STEPS IN DRILL AND PRACTICE)
 TUTORIALSThe subject-matter is literally taught by the computer programme.
Explanations are given orally through audio-tape and needed visuals presented in
cathode ray tube as in television. The student responds on a typewriter keyboard or by
pointing on the screen with a light pen. The computer reacts to student‟s response by
„talking‟ to him. Student makes further response. A kind of dialogue takes place
between student and machine. CAI tutorials are based on the principles of
programmed learning: The student responds to each bit of information presented by
answering questions about the material and then gets immediate feedback on each
response. Each tutorial lesson has a series of frames. Each frame poses a question to
the student. If the student answers correctly, the next frame appears on screen. There
is disagreement among educators on how these frames should be arranged. Some
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educators are proponents of the linear tutorials, while others prefer the branching
tutorials. The linear tutorial presents the students with a series of frames, each of
which supplies new information or reinforces the information learned in previous
frames. The student has to respond to every frame in exact order presented, and there
is no deviation from presentation, but the student does have the freedom to work
through the material at his or her own speed. The branching tutorial allows more
flexibility in the way the material is covered. The computer decides what material to
present to each student. The pupil‟s responses to the questions determine whether the
computer will review the previous material or skip to more advance work (Sharp, 1996)
In short, Tutorials act like tutors by providing all the information and
instructional activities a learner needs to master a topic. All the conceptual or skill
based body of knowledge is presented on screen followed by quiz to assess the user‟s
comprehension of the concept or acquisition of the skill. The software monitors
progress on the basis of the results of the quiz taking the user on the new material or
back over old material. A good tutorial presentation is enjoyable, thorough, and
sensitive to the user capabilities; and provides immediate and appropriate feedback.
Interactivity is key to user involvement and perseverance. (Cox 1995; Poole 1997; Roblyer, 2000)
Tutorial software is more associated with the cognitive theory, because new
knowledge is presented in a systematic way. It is expected that students learn
principles and rules, comprehend them and become able to apply the newly acquired
knowledge to new situations. A computer based tutorial program works with an
individual student in a very interactive manner and often provide learning situation for
information transmission. (Hsu, Chen and Hung, 2000)
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Learning objectives
change according to
audience
Text only
Lesson
content
Options
Tutorial mode of
instruction
Self-test
Glossary
Quit option
Bibliography
and References
Interactive
question and
answers found
about every 3rd and
4th screen
Graphics including
line drawing,
maps, charts etc.
Multiple choice
questions, True
and False and
Match the pairs
type questions
 Covers
unfamiliar
terms
 Available
to
the learners all
the time during
tutorial
Additional
resources
(FIG.: 2.12 TUTORIAL MODE OF INSTRUCTION)
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 INSTRUCTIONAL GAMESInstructional games are courseware whose function is to increase motivation
by adding game rules to learning activities. Instructional games can be similar to drill
and practice or simulation courseware but their instructional connation to the student
is different due to entertaining and competitive environment. When students know
they are going to play a game, they expect a fun and entertaining activity because of
the challenge of the competition and the potential for winning (Roblyer and Edwards, 2000).
Cox (1995) mentions that some simulations are designed as games, often
including role playing. In such simulations the program focuses not only on the
underlying model but also on the way in which the learner interacts with the model.
Learning may be built up by discovery and conjecture; the simulation encourages
learning by inquiry and decision making. According to Hsu, Chen and Hung (2000)
instructional games are usually associated with behaviorism because of the variety of
reinforcement mechanism inherent in game environment on which students are
motivated by competition and game that strive to reach to the goal.
 SIMULATIONS
Simulations have come into effective use in education during the past decade. They
are condensed learning exercises specifically designed to represent vital real life
activities by providing learners with the essential elements of the real situation
without its hazards, cost or time constraints. Simulations are realistic imitations.
According to Thorson (1979), simulation is a mode of education which demands that
knowledge be integrated with reality and with behavior. It helps students to perceive
values and ideas not as the material for armchair rhetoric, but rather as the bases of
practical decisions and the touchstones of responsible actions.
Simulations are frequently planned in the form of competitive games to
increase motivation and interest. Organized social simulation is called gaming, as for
example, historical games. Simulates learning came into prominence during the
second World War when extensive use of this was made to train recruits in
psychomotor skills such as aircraft flying, weapon system operation, etc. Now
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simulation is used in teaching various subjects as well as areas like teacher training.
Simulation may involve simulator trainer or mock ups, which are really three
dimensional teaching aids. Example:- an aircraft flight simulator. Role playing is also
a type of simulation, ranging from simple make believe to play actingand drama. In
simulation programs, students take risks as if they were confronted with real life
situations without having to suffer the consequences of failure. Students can
experiment with dangerous chemicals on the computer screen for example, and not be
in danger from the actual chemicals. With laboratory simulations, there is no
expensive lab equipment to buy and students do not have to wait a long period of time
for the efforts of experimental conditions before they can observe the results.
Moreover, students can repeat experiments easily as often as they wish. Simulation
save money and time, reduce risks, and work well in decision-making situations.
Many educators feel that well-designed simulation software affords students the
opportunity to apply classroom knowledge in more realistic situations than can
otherwise be set up in a classroom, which enhances students‟ learning (Sharp, 1996).
The strength of a simulation is to force students to retrieve or discover relevant
knowledge, experiences and problem–solving skills under authentic situation.
Exploratory simulations require students to take more responsibility in learning
processes. Active learners are most likely to benefit from this kind of use of
computer-based simulation. For non-engaged learners, it is suggested that this kind of
simulation be used in small groups. Through cooperative learning and social
interaction, some students will overcome difficulties which occur when they use
simulation by themselves.
In education, simulations have become increasingly popular, especially in
science, mathematics, and the social sciences. Many situations in the biological
sciences cannot be done in a lab or in short time periods in the field. Simulations give
students the chance to experience situations not normally available in classroom
settings.
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Software for simulation: Simulations are powerful tools for learning.
Simulations model a real or imagined system to know how these systems or similar
ones work. They involve the learner in a vicarious experience, of events or processes,
a kind of “trial run on reality”. As such they marry nicely into a constructivist
philosophy of teaching. Students experience life vicariously through the simulation,
constructive knowledge about the world from that experience. (Poole 1997, Roblyer and Edwards, 2000)
Simulation software simulates an environment. It allows learner to change the
values of parameters in the system, and provides feedback in the form of graphical or
diagrammatic display of how the systems‟ behavior changes. For example in a
simulation based on model of a pond with three main inhabitants , phytoplankton,
herbivore and fish, the learner may change the number of one or more population and
see the effect on the others. Simulations provide a means for learning about an
environment that may otherwise not be available to learner to explore, for reasons of
safety, time, expanse, or general practicability. A simulation focuses on exploration
and discovery learning. It is not an exercise that necessarily has a fixed or correct
solution, and the route to the solution may be varied. A computer simulation offers the
opportunity for relationships to be explored and exposed by the student‟s direct
manipulation of the variables in the model. Although simulation programs are usually
constructivist, i.e. they allow students to construct their own knowledge; they can
have cognitive orientations also (Cox, 1995).
Alessi and Trollip (1991) identify two main types of simulations:

Those that teach about some thing

Those that teach how to do something
These two main types are further classified into four categories i.e. physical
processes, procedural and situational simulations.
Physical simulation- Users manipulate objects or phenomenon represented on the
screen. For example, students see selections of chemicals with instructions to combine
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them to see the result or they may see how various electrical circuits operate
(Roblyer and
Edwards, 2000)
Process simulation- These speed up or slow down processes that usually either take
so long or happen so quickly that students could not ordinarily see the events unfold.
For example- courseware may show the effect of changes in demographic variables
on population growth or the effects of environmental factors on ecosystems.
Biological simulations like those on genetic are popular, since they help students
experiment with natural laws like the laws like the laws of genetics by pairing animals
with given characteristics and showing the resulting offspring ( Roblyer and Edwards, 2000)
Procedural simulation-These activities teach the appropriate sequences of steps to
perform certain procedures. They include diagnostic programs, in which students try
to identify the sources of medical or mechanical problems, and flight simulators, in
which students simulate piloting an airplane or other vehicle ( Roblyer and Edwards2000)
Situational simulations- These programs have student‟s hypothetical problem
situation and risks them to react. Some simulations allow for various successful
strategies such as letting students play the stock market or operate businesses. Others
have most desirable and least desirable options such as choices when encountering a
potentially volatile classroom situation (Roblyer and Edwards, 2000)
 PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving software requires students to apply higher order strategies
and synthesize knowledge from multiple curricular areas in order to solve problems.
Students can test hypothesis, learn from mistakes and refine skills as they gain
mastery of problem solving techniques. Software if this type can provide practice in
solving problem by modeling general critical thinking steps, by focusing on specific
subject areas issues, or by creating an open environment in which students can
discover their own strategies. The problem solving software affords the user more
freedom than does drill and practice or tutorial software, but does not necessarily
present the real world context that characterizes simulation software.(Bitter and Pierson, 1999)
Problem solving software teaches directly, through explanation and or practice, the
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steps involved in solving problems or help learners acquire problem solving skills by
giving them opportunities to solve problems.
Problem solving software is sometimes associated with the cognitivist learning
theory because students are explicitly taught specific cognitive strategies. A problem
solving software is more sophisticated type of learning than that of drill and practice.
The computer presents fairly complex problems in which students can learn and
improve their problem solving skills. These types of problems cannot be solved by
simple memorization; problem solving programs are designed to promote students
higher order learning skills such as logic, reasoning pattern recognition and strategies.
As they interact with the program, they gradually move from simple trial and error to
more logical and systematic thinking processes.(Hsu, Chen and Hung, 2000; Roblyer and Edwards, 2000)
Type
CAI
of
Tutorial
Purpose
 Present new content
 Review material in a
different format
Goal
 To acquire basic facts
and concepts
Control
 Primarily
computer and
author of
programs
 Additional
learner control
is desirable.
Drill and Reinforce and practice
content that already has
practice
been learned.
Simulation
 To help facts and
concepts in the
learners
mind(knowledge)
Present and manipulate a  To integrate skills and
model (typical text
knowledge
based) in real life in
 To develop problem
which the students may
solving skills (generic
make decisions.
and specific)
Primarily learner
Primarily learner
 To provide insight
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
(TABLE 2.2 COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE TYPES OF CAI)
 HYPERMEDIAHypermedia based instruction (HBI) is a more complex form of CAI.(Ayersman and
von Minden, 1995)
The basic difference between HBI is in the organization of information.
While most of the CAI approaches present information on a relatively structured and
linear sequence, HBI organizes information through a node-link structure.
Hypermedia approaches combine hypertext and multimedia. Multimedia delivers
content using several formats, such as text, sound, graphics, and video that work to
reinforce each other.(Hall,
2000)
Hypertexts are learning environments knowledge as
represented through a network of nodes of information. Nodes of information are
connected through clickable buttons to other nodes, and users control navigation
through nodes. A hypertext has been defined as “a database that has active crossreferences and allows the reader to jump to other parts of the database as desired.”
(Schneiderman and Kearsley, 1989, p3)
The association of nodes on such a non-linear structure permits
a learner to associate a variety of content within an exploratory context.
The non-linear dynamics of HBI empowers students, giving them more
autonomy, responsibility, and interactivity with the software.
(Hall, 2000)
Such technical
capabilities over traditional CAI approaches permit the leaner to build more
meaningful connections among texts and information. Ayersman and von Minden
(1995) have argued that HBI allows students to acquire more holistic understanding,
participate actively in exploring learning, and construct quality knowledge. It has also
been claimed that HBI has proved successful in reaching a variety of learning styles
given its diverse use of media as compared to other traditional forms of instruction.(Hall,
2000; Liu and Reed, 1994; Melara, 1996; Summerville, 1999; Weller, Repman and Rooze, 1994)
 INTEGRATED LEARNING SYSTEM (ILS)According to Underwood and Brown (1997), ILS are systems across computer
networks that provide a comprehensive, multiyear collection of computer-assisted
instruction (CAI) delivered primarily through a model of individual assessment and
task assignment and which record and report student achievement. A good ILS
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includes courseware for broad range of learning experience, including simulations and
on-line vehicles for research. The development of ILS is grounded firmly in the
behavioral school of learning theory. ILS have highly addressed mathematical and
language material where the body of content is arranged hierarchically. Additionally
there are deemed to be identifiably right or wrong answers. The behaviorist approach
taken by ILS designers precludes any elements of social interaction.
 SOFTWARE FOR MICRO COMPUTER-BASED LABORATORIESRecognizing the value of micro-computer–based laboratory (MBL) to
research, hardware and software system have been developed. These systems have
enabled the students to automate the process of gathering data from experiments,
conducting relevant analysis and producing meaningful reports. Scientific
experiments are linked to micro-computers in laboratories to automate the process of
recording the results of experiments. Complete data sets can be stored in secondary
memory for further analysis. Summary data are produced as text and in a graphed
format. (Poole, 1997)Theoretical underlying purpose for MBL is precision in data collection
and analysis and hence in conclusion.
 REFERENCE SOFTWAREReference software can take the form of any traditional reference works, such
as dictionaries, encyclopedias and thesauri on CD-ROM. Other reference software
presents extensive collections of information on a focused topic. Electronic reference
works can be utilized just as traditional reference material would be. Depending on
the particular learning activity, students might refer to software as needed to answer
specific questions. They also might openly explore a multimedia component of
reference software present information in graphic, audio, video or other alternate
formats that allow uniquely unlimited access to students who might not be
developmentally able to contend with the text version of the information.
(Bitter and Pierson,
1999)
A table given below summarizes the functions and uses of various types of CAI as
mentioned in the previous section.
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Type
of
CAI Functions and uses
program
Drill and Practice  Provide repetitive exercise for rote skills
 Provide reviews of basic content
 Provide feedback on accuracy of answer
 Useful for sustaining, refining and perfecting performance of
certain tasks
Instructional
games
 Increases learners motivation by adding game rules to learning
activity
 Provide learning in a competitive environment
 Provide opportunities to users to compete each other or against
the computer.
Tutorials
 Deliver instructional activities, quiz and feedback
 Allow learner to activity interact with the program
 Tutorials are categorized as linear and branching
 Incorporates graphics, animations to illustrate concepts.
Problem solving  Present problems relevant to learning objectives
software
 Provide necessary directions, hints and assistance to solve the
problems according to the learners need
 Promote a reflective learning environment, stress
thinking
processes by encouraging learners to think about various
options to solving the problem
 Let students work together in pairs or small groups
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Simulations
 Presents a computerized model of a real or imagined system to
teach how a system works
 Give clear instructions how to proceed with simulation
 Learner
can
manipulate
parameters
of
the
simulated
environment, make choices and see consequences
(TABLE 2.3 FUNCTIONS AND USES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CAI)
2.1.13 PURPOSE OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTIONComputer programs allow students to progress at their own pace and work
individually and also in group. Computers provide immediate feedback, letting
students know whether their answer is correct. If the answer is not correct, the
program shows students how to correctly answer the question. Computers offer a
different type of activity and a change of pace from teacher-led or group instruction.
Also, computer-assisted instruction moves at the students‟ pace and usually does not
move ahead until they have mastered the skill.
Typically CAI programs incorporate functions such as:

Assessing student capabilities with a pre-test

Presenting educational materials in a navigable form

Providing repetitive drills to improve the student's command of knowledge

Providing
game-based
drills
to
increase
learning
enjoyment
Assessing student progress with a post-test

Routing students through a series of courseware instructional programs.

Recording student scores and progress for later inspection by a courseware
instructor.
It is essential to make maximum use of computer technology in all levels of
education to enhance the quality of teaching-learning process.
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As stated in the overview of Computer Aided Learning under Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA) „It was felt that use of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) and computers in the form of Computer Aided Learning (CAL) may help in
achieving the objectives of SSA like- reduction in drop out and repetition rate,
enhancement in the achievement levels and making joyful learning.
2.1.14 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION (CAI):
Many of the advantages of the programmed instruction are also advantages of
Computer-Assisted Instruction and web based learning. The advantages of computerassisted instruction include flexibility for students so that they can work at their speed
at their time that is best for them. With web-based instruction, they can work at home,
at school, or anywhere there is a computer with an Internet connection. Used with
distance learning, it allows students with handicaps or learning disabilities the
opportunity to learn in a less restrictive environment. Also, students who enroll in
course via CAI, including web-based classes, gain an opportunity to learn computer
skills, which benefit them in many aspects of their lives (Christmann and Badgett, 1997).
Computer-assisted instruction proves better than all other aids in several
respects. There is not only saving of time in learning but it also performs miracles in
processing the performance data. This latter characteristic helps to determine
subsequent activities in the learning situations. The large amount of information
stored in the computer is made available to the learner more rapidly than by any other
medium. The dynamic interaction between the student and the instructional
programme is not possible to be secured in any other medium. With CAI, materials
can be completely individualized.
Before computer can be of any use, they must be carefully programmed to
perform desired functions. This requires thorough planning of every step and prior
thinking. Computers are simple-minded. They demand instructions spelled out in
explicit detail. Human beings are brilliant but rather sloppy thinkers; computers are
stupid but accurate. The field of CAI is based in number of disciplines, but its primary
origins lie in computer science and psychology. From computer science and its
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
predecessors, mathematics and engineering, came the computers and the programs
that enable them to function. From psychology came the knowledge of learning
theory, instructional strategies, and motivation. Complex applications of these
concepts were not always applied in the design of CAI modules in the early
experiments due to the major problems encountered as a result of the newness of
computing hardware, its costliness, and the difficulties in writing programs. Thus, the
early experiments in CAI were primarily continued to fairly simple uses, such as drill
and practice and tutorials.
Computer-Assisted Instruction satisfied many of the theoretical requirements
for a “good” learning environment advanced by leading psychological theorist such as
Skinner (1968). Thus, it involves the individual activity in the learning process, which
supposedly facilitates learning
(Mckenzie et al, 1978)
. It also permits the learner to proceed at
his own pace. Finally, reinforcement of learning in such situations its immediate and
systematized, which, again should result in more effective learning according to
established theorist of instruction.
The critical CAI experiments of the 1960‟s and 1970‟s, however, yielded
mixed results. Other than the substantial learning gains exhibited by children using
drill and practice CAI modules, and the results obtained in the TICCIT ( a registered
trademark of the Hazeltine Corporation) study, little evidence was gained from these
large-scale experiments that clearly indicated the superiority of CAI over regular
classroom procedures.
In addition to the large-scale CAI experiments, however, a sizable number of
CAI projects have been evaluated by this time. The results of these smaller-scale
studies, covering a variety of educational levels and diversity of fields, have yielded
surprisingly consistent results in a number of different areas. The findings of all
relevant studies are presented below, categorized by the content of the finding.
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CHAPTER II-REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Textual
Conceptual
Provide extra information
Evaluate student‟s weakness
Provide various activities
Apply various learning strategies
Make learner centered teaching
Audio-Visual
Pictorial
Presentation
Teacher
CAN
Actively interact
Advantages of
Computer-Assisted
Instruction
Learner
Learns at own
pace
Get motivated after response
Receives immediate feedback
Feel challenging
Attributes






Control
Patience
Individualization
Privacy
Flexibility
Feedback
Skill
s
Observin
g
Reasoning
Problem
Interpersona
Logicalsolving
l
thinking
Intra
personal
Other
 Allow multiple learning styles
 Provide self-paced instruction
 Allow collaborative learning
 Engage user in various activities
 Reduced learning time
 Track learners and provide proof of
their work
 Help teacher for continuous
assessment of student
 Help locate student‟s areas of interest
as well as difficulties
 Allow to provide text material as per
learners demand
 Provide extra information
 Help to inculcate various values
among learner
(FIG 2.13 ADVANTAGES OF CAI FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING)
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2.1.15
DISADVANTAGES
OF COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
(CAI):
Disadvantages include the need to own or have access to a computer with the
necessary RAM and operating system, lack of computer skills of many students,
physical problems such as carpel-tunnel syndrome and eye disorders caused by sitting
in front of the computer screen for a long period of time without blinking), nonavailability or prohibitive cost of educational software, and the lack of human
interaction in the learning process (Fourie, 1999).
It is imperative that Computer-Assisted Instruction software be designed well
from the start. Computer-assisted instruction must bridge different learning styles to
be fully effective; therefore, it should offer different types of examples and ways to
solve problems. Instructors and students using CAI and web based learning must be
sure to give frequent feedback. Delays in communication may actually hinder
students‟ success in comprehending the material (Fourie, 1999).
Another approach is to combine the traditional classroom with CAI or the Internet.
Studies have shown that combining technology with the standard classroom approach
actually improves student performance (Christmann and Budgett, 1997).
Although computers open the possibility of educating the students completely
by individualized programmes, its chief limitation lays in the fact that it is
prohibitively expensive. Computers may also inject a non-human quality into
educational programmes. This new technology may „dehumanize‟ man. Further all
individualized instruction and CAI instruct the students in such a way, that all will
achieve the same level of competency.
2.2 REVIEW OF RESEARCHES:
Computers were first used in the education and training in the 1950s. Much of
the early work in CAI was done by researchers of IBM, who developed the first CAI
author language and designed one of the first CAI programmes used in the public
schools (Rao, 2005).
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Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) refers to applications specifically
designed to teach a variety of subject areas to children and adults. In CAI, students
receive feedback from computer, which controls the sequencing of the subject matter
(Freedman, 1991)
.
Experts advocate that the CAI have high expectations for the computer as an
instrument for identifying and meeting individual needs. Many studies conclude that
using CAI to supplement traditional instruction is better than the instructional
program itself.
2.2.1
REVIEW OF RESEARCHES IN THE SUBJECT GEOGRAPHY:
2.2.1.1 The status of researches in the subject Geography in India:
In India, the subject, social studies, is a combination of history, geography and
civics with a tinge of economics, but these are taught as separate subjects under the
umbrella of 'social studies'.
In the survey report researches conducted in the subject of Population
education, Economics, History, Civics, Geography, Social science, Home science, and
Music included under social studies.
SURVEY-WISE
DISTRIBUTION
OF
STUDIES
IN
GEOGRAPHY
EDUCATION: (TABLE: 2.4)
Subject
Geography
Education
Prior to 1972
1972-1978
1979-1983
1984-1988
Total
4
6
3
4
19
DIMENSION-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF STUDIES: (TABLE 2.5)
Taking into consideration the different aspects/dimensions stressed by the
research studies, the following classification has been arrived at to group the studies
under eight dimensions-teaching and models of teaching, educational technology,
curriculum, textbooks, tests and measurements, examination and evaluation, interests
and attitude, and aptitude as shown in the table 2.5:
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Subject
Teaching
Educational
Curriculum
Textbooks
technology
and
models of
Tests
Examin
Interests
measureme
and
ation
and
nts
and
6
Total
attitude
evaluati
teaching
Geography
Aptitude
on
5
1
3
3
1
19
a) Teaching methodology and models of teaching:
The studies under this head are as many as 21 (33 per cent) out of the 69
studies reviewed in the four surveys so far. Among these, social studies education
tops the list with nine studies, followed by geography education with six studies.
Studies on the present position of teaching geography in secondary schools
carried out by Jani (1987) in Gujarat, Patil (1985) in Solapur and Khan (1985) in
Bangladesh indicate that most of teachers of geography were not fully qualified to
handle the subject in terms of a degree in geography and/or professional training in
methodology and, therefore, mostly, the lecture method in teaching was adopted by
them. Audio-visual teaching and learning aids, including maps, were not considered
necessary and were not used in class. The problems the teachers faced related to lack
of needed facilities and the required knowledge to teach the subject.
Two studies, that of D‟Souza (1971) and Ponkshe (1983) deals with the
geography concepts and approaches to develop skill in teaching geographic concepts
effectively. These represent a welcome trend towards a cognitive approach to the
teaching of geography. There is great need first to identify the different geographical
concepts and then develop suitable learning experiences in the teaching of regional
and general geography. The researchers are of the opinion that some of the problems
faced by the teachers (as indicated in the previous paragraph) stand in the way of
concept development.
An interesting attempt has been made by Bhattacharya (1984) through his study on
the effectiveness of the Concept Attainment Model and Inductive Model for teaching
geography. His finding is that the models of teaching approach results in better
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achievement in geography even in average and low-resource-status educational
institutions.
b) Educational technology
Development of programmed material for individual instruction seems to be
the main focus of researchers in educational technology.
Singh (1973) found thematic prompts in programmed material in geography more
effective than formal prompts. Verma (1977), Mavi (1981) and Choudhary (1985)
developed programmes in geography. (Research in Social Science Education pg. 678)
It is stated in the fourth survey of research that:The development and use of
multimedia instructional packages is yet in its infancy. In the present survey there is
only one study where a multi-media instructional package is used. There is need to
develop computer programmes for different subjects. Computer-managed and
computer-assisted instruction should be priority areas for education research.
Computer-presented educational programmes and courseware for distance education
require urgent development. The most significant need, therefore, is to view
educational technology as a means, rather than an end in itself, for effective teaching
and learning.
c) Curriculum
Studies on curriculum are generally appraisals of existing curricula in various
subjects. Of the 11 studies on curriculum, there was only one research was conducted
on geography education.
d) Textbooks
Seven studies on textbooks are reviewed, three in history, three in geography
and one in social studies.
e) Test and measurement
Of the nine studies reviewed under this section, three are from geography and
two each from social studies, history and civics.
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In geography, De (1979), Patel (1977) and Gayen (1969) had researched on design
and standardization of achievement tests.
f) Aptitude
There is only one study on scholastic aptitude for learning geography. Singh
prepared an aptitude test battery and found out the contribution of each sub-test to
achievement in geography.
(RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE EDUCATION A TREND REPORT: E.G. VEDANAYAGAM
pp. 675-682)
According to (Fifth Survey of Education Research 1988-1992, pp. 340)
amongst the various curricular areas such as language education 90 studies, Science
Education-61 studies, Mathematics Education-47 studies Aesthetics Education-31
studies, the no. of researches reported in the area of social science education is nine
studies only. The subject Social Science includes History, Civics and Geography
Education.
TABLE: 2.6 TOTAL RESEARCHES IN SOCIAL SCIENCE REPORTED IN
ALL THE SURVEYS:
Sr.
Survey
Year
Ph.D.
Research Projects
Research Papers
Prior to 1972
09
04
01
No.
1
First Survey
2
Second Survey
1972- 1978
06
00
00
3
Third Survey
1978-1984
10
08
02
4
Fourth Survey
1984-1988
19
06
03
5
Fifth Survey
1988-1992
07
01
09
51
29
09
Total
The information in the table shows that the no. of researches carried out is not
encouraging. Further out of nine papers, it is significant to note that seven papers have
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been contributed by the scholars from overseas who have studied problems in their
own settings.
2.2.1.2 Review of researches in the subject Geography in India:
Jani, J.I. (1987) conducted studyon the „Present Position of Teaching of
Geography in the Secondary Schools of Gujarat‟, with the objectives-(i) to study the
prevailing position of the teaching of geography in the rural and urban areas of
Gujarat, (ii) to study the qualifications and experience of the teachers teaching
geography, (iii) to study the textbooks of geography prescribed for different standards
in Gujarat in the light of the curriculum of geography, (iv) to study the availability of
teaching aids and other facilities like library, and their use in the teaching of
geography, and (v) to study the prevailing position of the evaluation system in the
subject of geography in Gujarat.The findings of the research were: 1. Fifty per cent
of the teachers were not qualified in the subject of geography. 2. About 52 per cent of
the teachers teaching geography did not have geography as a method at their B.Ed.
level training. 3. About 77 per cent of the teachers were teaching geography through
the lecture method and without the use of any teaching aid. 4. Teaching aid facilities
in 52 per cent of the schools, especially for geography, were not satisfactory. 5. About
42 per cent of the teachers teaching geography did not attend any refresher course or
orientation programmes. 6. About 83 per cent of the teachers were of the opinion that
the curriculum required modifications in the light of modern developments in the
subject. 7. There was no clarity of the teaching of skills in the subject in 33 per cent of
the teachers.
Bhattacharya, G.C., ((1984)conducted study on the „Effectiveness of Various
Models for Teaching Geography in Relation to Institutional Resources‟.
2.2.1.3 Review of researches in the subject Geography in Maharashtra:
Patil, T.B. (1985) conducted research study regarding the inquiry of the
„Present Position and Problems of Teaching Geography in the Rural Secondary
Schools of Sholapur District‟, with the objectives (i) to study the existing facilities
available for teaching of geography in rural secondary schools, (ii) to study the
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professional preparation of geography teachers, (iii) to study the methods and
techniques followed in the teaching of geography, and (iv) to suggest measures
helpful in improving the teaching of geography. The researcher has conducted the
survey on 155 schools and 360 Geography teachers (two teachers per school).The
findings were 1. No facility of a geography room nor museum was available in a large
number of schools, and the facilities of library and teaching aids were inadequate. 2.
The teachers of geography were academically and professionally well qualified;
however, they could not participate in the in-service programmes and the activities of
the subject teachers, association for various reasons. 3. According to the teachers, the
objectives of teaching geography could rarely be achieved through regular teaching
due to inadequate time. 4. The majority of the teachers followed traditional methods
such as lecture or question-answer method; however, they were aware of certain
recent techniques and method like evaluation approach. 5. Geographical excursions
were one of the main co-curricular activities organized in schools. 6. The percentage
of students passing in the subject of geography was found to be very high (74 per
cent).
In another study conducted by Ponkshe, D.B., (1983) the purpose was „To
Enlist and Analyze the Concepts in Geography Covering the Syllabi for Standards
VII, VIII and IX of the Secondary Schools in Maharashtra State and to Develop the
Methodology of Teaching Concepts in Geography Effectively. The main objectives
were (i) to identify and enlist the concepts in geography covering the syllabi of
standards VII, VIII and IX of the secondary schools in Maharashtra State, (ii) to
analyze the enlisted concepts, (111) to investigate the extent to which the geography
teachers could analyze the concepts, and (iv) to develop a concept-oriented method to
teach concepts in geography and to compare its effectiveness with that of the
traditional method. The major findings of the study were: 1. The geography syllabi
were not concept-oriented. 2. Most of the geography teachers were trained with about
half of them with the subject of geography either at the first degree or at the
postgraduate level. Nearly 75 per cent geography teachers had offered geography as a
special method at training level. However, most of them were unable to formulate
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specific objectives to teach concepts, analyze the concepts properly and develop
suitable learning experiences for teaching geography concepts. 3. Most of the schools
had neither adequate teaching aids nor adequate books on geography in their libraries.
There was no tradition of organizing field trips to provide direct experiences to
understand and retain geography concepts. Films, filmstrips, slides, models,
specimens and pictures were not used at all or if used, their use was not systematic. 4.
The teachers did not lay stress on concepts while teaching. There was no provision for
in-service training for the teachers. 5. The concept-oriented method was found more
useful than the traditional method.
Mahajan M. (2009) conducted research study on the efficacy of CAI in
teaching Geography and found that students show positive attitude towards learning
through CAI in comparison with the traditional classroom teaching.
2.2.1.4 Review of related researches on use of Computer-Assisted instruction
for the subject Geography
Ellinger and Frankland (1976) and Laurillard (1984) stated that there are many
problems in using computers for teaching geography, such as the high resource cost,
the need to train teachers and students in their use, lack of easy access to computer
facilities, the preparation of supporting teaching materials and the time needed to
locate, acquire, test and implement software. Moreover, despite more than a decade's
sporadic exploration and experiment, there are few established guidelines as to what
makes a good item of educational software and few principles to suggest which
computer approaches are best suited to putting across particular geographical skills
and concepts.
According to (Shepherd, 1983; Forer, 1984) Although there is encouraging
evidence from other educational application areas, the information gathered so far in
geography fails to point unambiguously to areas of the curriculum for which
computer-assisted teaching outperforms other methods.
Hall, D., Kent, A. and Wiegand, P.(1982) had reviewed the development of
computer-based geography teaching in the United Kingdom in terms of
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"paleotechnic" and "neotechnic" eras. They outlined the results of a survey of 735
secondary schools and Only a small number of committed teachers were using
computers in their teaching, and few had evaluated the results of their
experimentation.
Grummitt, S. J. (1980) summarized research into Computer-Assisted Learning
(CAL) compared with conventional methods of instruction for teaching Geography to
secondary students, and undertakes a formal evaluation of three methods of teaching
spatial diffusion: lecturing, manual simulation and computer simulation. Comparison
of results from pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test revealed that the use of the
computer increased student understanding, particularly of processes, though retention
levels appeared to be the same for all three methods.
Jordan, F. (1972) presented a computer-based exercise on distance and
direction in the subject Geography, which attempts to encourage students to think
about the role of distance in human geography.
2.2.2REVIEW
OF
RESEARCHES
ON
COMPUTER
ASSISTED
INSTRUCTION:
2.2.2.1 Review of research of efficacy of Computer-Assisted Instruction in
various educational fields:
Lambert, T. J.; Kirkby, K. C. and Dunn, J.C. (1997) stated that Computeraided learning has a particular role to play in supplementing clinical experience in
order to maximize students opportunity to acquire clinical recognition skills. The
evidence that computer-aided approaches can enhance learning of medical skills is
reviewed. The use of CAL is illustrated by a model which combines multi-media
teaching techniques with knowledge derived from learning theories in order to
develop clinical recognition skills in medical undergraduates.
Mills, R. (2001) study investigated the effectiveness of using Computer Aided
Instruction (CAI) for skills training in the workplace. Learning, satisfaction, and cost
of each method were measured. CAI was found as effective as classroom for factual
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topics, but not as effective for theoretical topics. CAI learners expressed higher
satisfaction in the self-pacing of instruction, but lower satisfaction in logistics of
environment and instructor access. CAI learning required less time for factual topics,
but more time overall and for theoretical topics. Implications for implementation of
CAI in industry include selecting topics carefully, using CAI to communicate abstract
concepts and animations of hidden processes, allowing learner self-pacing, providing
instructor access, and recovering high initial development costs with repeated use.
Alexandra E. E., Elizabeth W. E., and Karol K. Harris (April 2000) studied the
effectiveness of a computer-assisted instruction (CAI)-based intervention to a more
traditional lecture-based intervention for influencing psychosocial correlates of human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) preventive behaviors. The analyses disclosed that,
compared to participants in the Lecture group, participants in the CAI group scored
significantly higher on the scales measuring autoimmune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS) knowledge, self-evaluative outcome motivation, and intention to practice HIV
preventive behaviors with current partner. In addition, compared to the No
Intervention group, the CAI group scored significantly higher on the scales measuring
physical outcome motivation and social outcome motivation. On the basis of findings
it was concluded that CAI-based programs can be effective for delivering instruction
on HIV prevention. However, because of certain limitations, this type of program is
best utilized as part of a more comprehensive intervention that uses several different
delivery systems.
Burns and Bozeman‟s (1981) study showed evidence that a curriculum
supplemented with CAI led to gains in achievement in some areas of curriculum. Tsai
Pohl (1977) studied the effectiveness of the lecture approach and CAI on college
students learning how to program. They found a significant difference when
achievement was measured by quizzes or final exam scores. When professors used the
lecture approach supplemented by CAI, it was more effective. The lecture approach
alone was the least effective method of instruction.
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Merriam, D. F.(8 Nov.1975) stated that Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
is being used successfully, although limited, in several fields of geology. CAI allows
increasing efficiency in teaching and provides individual instruction to the student. In
general, students enjoy and benefit from the approach which should be employed as a
compliment to normal teaching methods.
Dossett, D. L. and Hulvershorn, P. (Nov. 1983) conducted 2 studies of peer
training via computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in the technical training of
Electronics in the military. Results indicate no differences in achievement levels, but
the mean training times of both CAI groups were significantly less than that of the
conventionally trained group. The mean peer-trained CAI training time was
significantly lower than that of the individually trained group, and the variability of
training time was also significantly lower.
Bruce, A.W. (1990) studied effect of CAI for teaching clinical laboratory
science and found that computer-assisted instruction to be more effective than a
correspondence course and as effective as a workshop in providing continuing
education.
Helaiya S. (2004) developed and implemented CAI Package for teaching
Statistics to B.Ed. Students. The treatment was found quite effective as evident
through the mean gain scores and favorable reactions.
Zhang, L., Watson, E. M. and Banfield, L. (July 2007) Studies examining the
comparative efficacy of face-to-face and computer assisted library instruction were
reviewed. Differences in study methodology and lack of quality made meta-analysis
impossible; however, the two methods appear to be equally effective for teaching
basic library skills.
2.2.2.2 Review of researches based on the comparison of traditional classroom
teaching and CAI
Although improvement in learning is probably the most sought after result of
CAI applications, the most positive statement that can be made about it at this time is
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that most studies show that the use of CAI either improves learning or shows no
difference when compared to the traditional classroom approach (Alderman, 1978; Gershman and
Sakalmoto, 1981)
.
Many studies conclude that using CAI to supplement traditional instruction is
better than the instructional program itself. Goode (1988) found that fifth and sixth
grade pupils who used CAI scored significantly higher in mathematical concepts and
computation than a control group of students who used the traditional approach.
Harrison (1993) found that students who received computer instruction showed
greater increase in their achievement scores in multiplication and subtraction than
students who received traditional mathematical instruction.
Walberg (1999) examined 377 research studies, selected according to criteria
for quality of research design that had compared Computer Assisted Instruction with
conventional classroom teaching. Seeking to compare educational methods for
difference in efforts on learning, he found in all cases that computer Assisted
Instruction combined with classroom teaching was superior to conventional
instruction without computer assistance. The computer was found to be particularly
effective with the handicapped, elementary students and secondary students.
Mintz (2000) and Campbell (2000) compared computerized and traditional
instruction inthe areas of elementary mathematics and elementary reading. Both the
studies examined the effect of computerized instruction on the achievement and
critical thinking skills of fourth and fifth grades. It was found that there were
significant differences in critical thinking skill improvement between students of
experimental group (Those who learn through CAI) and the control group (learn
through traditional method).
Owusu, K.A. Monney, J.Y. Appiah, and Wilmota, E.M. (September 2010)
investigated the comparative efficiency of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and
conventional teaching method in biology on senior high school students. The results
indicated that students that were instructed by the conventional approach performed
better on the posttest than those instructed by the CAI. However, the performance of
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low achievers within the experimental group improved after they were instructed by
the CAI. Even though the CAI group did not perform better than the conventional
approach group, the students in the CAI group perceived CAI to be interesting when
they were interviewed.
Vasanthi A. and Hema, S. (2003) conducted an experiment on the students of
first year engineering to study the effect of Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) for
teaching Chemistry in comparison with traditional teaching method. They found
significant difference between the mean gain scores of posttest of control group taught
through traditional teaching method and experimental group administered by
computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in all units put together. The results indicated that
the significant difference of mean gain scores of pretest and posttest score of
experimental group was more than that of the control group.
Research on the importance of CAI on PK-12 students has examined the
effectiveness of CAI on student achievement
and-practice
Little, 2001)
(Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlet, & Powell, 2006)
, and simulation
(Chen & Liu, 2007; Liao, 2007)
, tutorial
, including drill-
(Donovan &Nakhleh, 2007; Hannafin, Burruss, &
(Iskander& Curtis, 2005; Schorr &Goldin, 2008)
. The findings of the
effectiveness of CAI on achievement suggested that CAI is more effective than
traditional instruction. They show that CAI improved student mathematics
performance and attitude (Chen & Liu, 2007; Liao, 2007).
2.2.2.3 Review of researches on testing efficacy of CAI in comparison with other
teaching methods
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) refers to applications specifically
designed to teach a variety of subject areas to children and adults. In CAI, students
receive feedback from computer, which controls the sequencing of the subject matter
(Freedman, 1991)
.
Johnson, E. P., Perry, J. and Shamir, H. (August 2010). This study examines
the effects on early reading skills of three different methods of presenting material
with computer-assisted instruction (CAI): (1) learner-controlled picture menu, which
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allows the student to choose activities, (2) linear sequencer, which progresses the
students through lessons at a pre-specified pace, and (3) mastery-based adaptive
sequencer, which progresses students through lessons based on whether or not the
student has mastered the given skill. The results suggest that the use of a sequencer is
a very important element in presenting computerized reading content for young
children.
Dalton, D.W. and Hannafin, M.J. (2001) conducted an experiment to study the
effects of Computer-Assisted and Traditional Mastery Methods on Computation
Accuracy and Attitudes. In this study, the effects of instructional strategies designed
to promote computation mastery were studied. These strategies included traditional
mastery instruction with computerized remedial tutoring, computerized mastery
instruction with computerized remedial tutoring, computerized mastery instruction
with traditional remedial tutoring and conventional non-mastery instruction. On
analysis found that students receiving computer-based instruction reported more
favorable attitudes than those receiving through traditional mastery method.
Judkins, J. W. (1993) This study focused on the effectiveness of CAI-based
Conceptually Organized Materials (COM) in comparison to traditional CAI-based
Linearly Organized Lessons chemistry instruction and traditional recitation instruction
in chemistry. The results indicated that students who received CAI-based COM
performed significantly higher on a validated chemistry concept diagnostic (CCD)
instrument compared to students who received the more traditional recitation/lecture
lesson.
Chaudhary J. (2005) studied effect of CAL with method of enquiry for
teaching Physics for secondary students and found to be more effective.
2.2.2.4Review of researches to test effect of CAI on various attributes of the
learner
Capper and Copple (1985), Kinnaman (1990) and Louie (1985) found that
students learning through Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) have more of internal
locus of control/ sense of self-efficacy than conventional instructed students.
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Capper and Copple (1985) have found that students‟ attendance improved in
computer-assisted instruction classes than the classes where the students received
instruction through traditional method. It was also noted that students‟ learning
through computer-assisted instruction (CAI) had higher rates of time on tasks than the
students learning through traditional method.
Curtic (1990) stated that CAI incorporates adult learner‟s need for selfdirectedness, readiness to learn, time perspective and utilization of past experiences.
By using CAI learner may work independently, at own pace and according to their
time schedule.
Albon (1997) found that the learning become more enjoyable for graduate and
undergraduate students who learn through computer-assisted instructions.
Moore et al. (1980) found higher achievement with computer simulations
when students had to interpret the results of the experiments to make decisions. If the
students only had to follow directions and calculate the results, there was no
difference between the experimental and control groups. Summerville (1984) and
Fortner et al. (1986) noted similar findings.
In another study, students found to be extraverted on personality measures
tended to drop out of CAI training at significant levels. However, when human
interactions were increased, dropout rates decreased (Hoffman and waters, 1982).
Kadhiravan, S. (1999) conducted the study to find out whether: 1) There is any
difference among three instructional strategies viz. Lecture Method (LM), ComputerAssisted Instruction (CAI) as individualized strategy and Computer-Assisted
Instruction with Peer Interaction (CAIPI) in terms of their effectiveness in improving
the performance in physics among the higher secondary students with different level
of cognition, viz. knowledge, understanding and application. 2) There is any
difference among different instructional strategies, viz. lecture method (LM); CAI as
individualized instructional strategy and Computer-Assisted Instruction with Peer
Interaction in terms of their effectiveness in enhancing the retention as revealed by the
learners performance in the retention test.3) There is any relationship existing
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between the students‟ performance in physics as measured by the post test and their
use of self-regulated learning strategies.The results indicated that the effect of CAI in
relation to students use of self-regulated learning strategy in terms of their
effectiveness in improving the performance in Physics among higher secondary
students with different levels of cognition-knowledge, understanding and application
and found that among the instructional strategies namely lecture method (LM),
Computer-Assisted-Instruction (CAI) and Computer-Assisted-Instruction with Peer
interaction (CAIPI), CAIPI was the most effective instructional strategy. CAI and
CAIPI had some influence on students‟ use of self-regulated strategies while lecture
method had not.Pardeshi, R. ( 2005) studied the relative effectiveness of CAI and
CAIPI in learning Trigonometry by English medium students of Standard IX of
Baroda City and found similar results.
Das, A. (1998) had explored the effectiveness of computer assisted learning
material on Rhymes in different modes. The study was conducted to develop
computer software on rhymes in text, graphics-text, text-music, graphics text music,
and graphics-text music- recital modes and to study the effectiveness of CALM
prepared in different modes for learning the Rhymes in terms of Word meaning
(lexicon), Analytical understanding, Comprehensive understanding, Writing ability,
Recitation ability and LSRW ability. The second standard pupils of Baroda high
schools (1996-1997) constituted the sample for the study. The study found that
composite modes of presentation may not ensure higher cognitive language learning,
further, intelligibility of a message is a function of sender, message, medium, mode,
receiver, and the environment.
2.2.2.5 Effect of CAI on students’ attitude towards learning
Teachers face the challenges of motivating students and foster in them a positive
attitude to improve their chances for success in school. For example, an essential
element for improving students‟ spelling is keeping interest high. There are many
studies that reports students‟ positive attitudes towards the computer and how
computers motivate students and help them maintain high interest (Hatfield, 1991).
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Some researchers have tried to find out if students prefer computer –based
methods simply because a computer is involved. Other research has focused on the
computer‟s influence on student attitudes towards school and curriculum. Bracey
(1982) found that students reacted favorably to computer use for instructional tasks.
He reported that students who worked on the computer had a more positive attitude
towards the machine than those who had not used the computer. Kulik et al. (1983)
reviewed studies on students‟ attitude towards the curriculum after using CAI. In
three of the studies reviewed, the results were statistically significant for the CAI
classroom. In their meta-analysis, Roblyer et al. (1988) found that the students do not
seem to prefer the computer over other media. However, there were few studies with
data measuring student‟s performance for computer media; thus, the results are
unclear. Another common finding of studies in this area is that students usually
develop a more positive attitude toward computers in general as a result of their
exposure to CAI (Russel, 1982).
Khirwadkar A. ( 1999) developed a CAI package in subject of Chemistry for
standard XI Science Students studying GSTB syllabus and studied the effectiveness
of the developed software in terms of instructional time and achievement of students
in relation to students‟ intelligence level, motivation level, and attitude towards the
package and the attitude of the students and teachers regarding the effectiveness of the
CAI package with respect to contents, presentation, examples, illustrations, graphs
and figures, evaluation items, utility of software and instructions given in the
instructional manual. The developed software package was found to be effective in
terms of academic achievement of the students. The students and teachers were found
to have favorable opinion towards the software package.
In addition to this findings, however, Kulik et al. (1983), surveying 11 CAI
studies involving college students, found differences favoring the development of
positive attitudes toward the subject matter as well as toward computers as a result of
exposure to CAI. This same finding was also expressed in the study conducted by
Gershman and Sakamoto (1981).
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Joy, B. and Manickam (2002) conducted the study to assess the knowledge in
computer, attitude to CAI and teacher competency of science teachers and assess the
effect of training on these variables. The results showed that there was significant
difference between groups in their attitude towards computer education, as a result of
training in Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), the attitude of experimental group
became more favorable towards computer education. There was a correlation between
age and attitude towards use of computer.
Dange, J. k. and Wahab, S.A. (2006) had conducted the study, to find out the
effectiveness of CAI on the academic achievement of students of class IX studying
Physical Science and found that there was no significant difference between the mean
gain scores of pretest and posttest of control group but there was significant difference
between the mean gain scores of pretest and posttest of the experimental group. This
showed that due to the effect of CAI students showed academic achievement in
physical science.
2.2.2.6 Effect of CAI on different types of learner
You-Jin S. and Bryanta, D.P. (online 10 June 2009) conducted a meta-study of
effect of computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in mathematics for students with
learning disabilities (LD). The focus of study was to examine the effect of CAI on the
mathematics performance of students with LD. Overallfinding of the study wasthe
students studied through CAI did not show conclusive effectiveness of the
programme. The methodological problems of the experimental group show limitations
in concluding the efficacy of CAI and failed to give an accurate validation of the
CAI‟s effectiveness.
Crews, J. (2003) This case study investigates the effectiveness of a CAI
reading tutorial in helping poor readers improve their ability to read. The multimedia
CAI program investigated supportive rolein the active cognitive participation of the
learner, delivers multisensory instruction, provides timely, directed feedback, teaches
phonics skills, and implements 100 percent mastery learning. The instruction is
individualized and self-paced. Results of pretest and posttest reading comprehension
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tests and interviews indicated that poor readers completing the CAI tutorial
significantly improved their reading skills and the students and their teachers felt that
using the CAI tutorial helped the students become better readers.
May, G. (1995) have conducted the study on CAI,the purpose of the
investigation was to determine the effectiveness of two instructional methods with
borderline college level achievers. The experimental group was instructed using CAI
and the control group was instructed by conventional methods. The study sought to
determine to what extent, either methodology influenced, if at all, the achievement
level of the students. The results indicated that there was no significant difference
between the achievement levels of the experimental and control groups. The
information blank supported group equivalency and provided additional insight on the
similarity and/or differences of both groups. A follow-up interview was also done on
the CAI experimental group. These students provided feedback on their individual
experiences using CAI. Most said they would take the CAI course again.
Gene, R.M.(1994). The results revealed the following characteristics to be
common among the successful computer assisted instruction students: (1) Students
under 25 years of age performed better in the computer-assisted format than students
over 25 (2) minority students performed significantly better in the computer-assisted
format than they did in the traditional classroom and (3) students of middle or high
socioeconomic status performed significantly better in the computer-assisted format
than those of lower socioeconomic status.
Suwanna R. (2004) had conducted a study to find out the relative effectiveness
of Computer-Assisted Instruction for Primary School Students learning Thai and
English language. The result of the study revealed that the CAI Packages developed
by the investigator on Thai language and by the ONPEC on English language
received favorable opinions both by the teachers and students.
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2.2.2.7Testing efficacy of CAI with other modes of CAI
Thomas (1997) Lepper and Gurtner (1989) and Roblyer, et.al (1988) quoted as
“CAI suffers from some of the same problems as programmed instruction. It is often
repetitive, and it reduces learning to discrete units that sometimes obscure the
relationship between ideas. CAI is better suited for drill and practice than for building
concepts and promoting comprehension. Research has shown that when used in
addition to regular classroom instruction, CAI improves students‟ attitude, motivation
and academic achievement.”
Martin (1973) and Suppes (1972) found that CAI drill and Practice in
arithmetic was relatively more effective for low ability students than for average or
high ability students.
According to Thomas and Hooper (1991), the results of the science simulation
studies are very promising. Even when a study shows no significant difference
between students who use the traditional method and students who use the computer,
this is encouraging. This means that simulations can substitute for laboratory
experiments, which is advantageous because science simulations are less dangerous,
less time consuming and less expensive than actual lab work.
Das A. (1998) explored the effectiveness of computer assisted learning
material on Rhymes in different modes. The study was conducted to develop
computer software on rhymes in text, graphics-text, text-music, graphics text music,
and graphics-text music- recital modes and to study the effectiveness of CALM
prepared in different modes for learning the Rhymes in terms of Word meaning
(lexicon), Analytical understanding, Comprehensive understanding, Writing ability,
Recitation ability and LSRW ability. The study found that composite modes of
presentation may not ensure higher cognitive language learning, further, intelligibility
of a message is a function of sender, message, medium, mode, receiver, and the
environment.
Meera, S. (2000) studied the relative effectiveness of different modes of
computer Based Instruction in relation to students‟ personality traits and found that
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Different modes of computer-based instruction namely drill and practice and
simulation were more effective than conventional lecture method in realizing the
instructional objectives in Biology at class XI. There was significant difference
among the different modes of Computer-Based instruction (CBI) viz. tutorial, Drill
and Practice and simulation in terms of effectiveness in enhancing the retention of
cognition as revealed by the learner‟s performance in the retention test.
There are mix research findings in favor and against CAI. Yet there are ample
of research findings that support CAI as an effective mode of instruction in various
subject areas at various grade levels. Poole (1997) have showed that successful CAI
programs and projects and cited findings of research studies as an evidences for
effectiveness of CAI in „reading‟, „writing‟, Arithmetic‟, „problem solving‟, „Science‟
and „Social studies‟.
Different forms of CAI used as supplement to traditional method of instruction
have proved their effectiveness to boost student learning.
2.2.2.8 Effect of CAI and Gender difference
Most gender studies try to get at the reasons for males using the computer
more than females. Collies and Ollila (1986) examined the gender differences in
secondary school students‟ towards writing on the computer. Females were
significantly less positive than their male counterparts on every item that related to
computers.
Swadener and Hinnafin (1987) studied the gender similarity and differences in
sixth graders attitude towards the computer. They found that boys with higher
achievement levels in mathematics also had high interest in computers. The boys with
low scores had low interest in computers. This is the complete opposite of the
females, with the low achieving female students having the most interest in the
computers.
Sacks et al. (1994) examined the relationship between alternative high school
students‟ attitude towards computers and computer use over a four month time period.
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The results of the study showed that girls‟ attitude towards computers improved over
the course of the study, while boys‟ attitudes remained the same. It was also found
that girls‟ attitudes towards computers with prepost correlations were not stable, while
boys‟ attitudes were. However, there were no overall gender differences in actual use
of the computer nor did computer use increase across the course of the study.
Mudasiru, O. Y. and Adedeji, O. A. (January 2010) has investigated the
effects of Computer-Assisted instruction (CAI) on secondary school students‟
performance in biology. Also, they examined the influence of gender on the
performance of students exposed to CAI in individualized or cooperative learning
settings package. The findings of the study showed that the performance of students
exposed to CAI either individually or cooperatively were better than their
counterparts exposed to the conventional classroom instruction. However, no
significant difference existed in the performance of male and female students exposed
to CAI in either individual or cooperative settings.
2.2.2.9Effect of CAI on learning time of the learner
CAI research has generally been positive regarding the time it takes to learn
concepts. Dence (1980) described several studies in which students learn more
quickly with CAI than with traditional instruction. Gleason (1981) reviewed CAI
research and interviewed researchers. The conclusion of the researcher regarding CAI
wasit saves 20 to 40 percent time as compared with traditional methods of
instructions. Fisher (1983) reported that students using the computer completed their
work 40 percent faster than when they did not have access to it. Krein and Mahlom
(1990) had found that computer assisted instruction lessened by 25 percent the time it
took students to learn the instructional material. This finding is common in almost all
studies that the use of CAI reduces learning time, as compared with the regular
classroom teaching (Hirschbubl‟1980).
Payne, N.W. (1999) studied the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) as a method of delivery, examined student attitude toward method of
instruction and observed the amount of study time required by the students for
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learning to interpret the weather reports and forecast. It was found that students
studying through CAI scored significantly higher on the first posttest. This was also
true on the second posttest. The attitudes of the two groups regarding method of
instruction were not significantly different. Attitude towards the method of instruction
appeared to have no impact on student achievement.
2.2.2.10 Effect of CAI on teaching various school subjects
Morse (1991)had found that CAI in Science Education can improve learning
and positively influence student attitude and self-esteem.
Helgeson (1988), had conducted the studies determining the effectiveness of
CAI in science classroom, and in science laboratory and was found the evidence in
support of CAI, as laboratory activities and simulation and combination resulted in
higher achievement than the conventional teaching Brophy(1999) and carter(1999)
have also found similar results that supported efficacy of CAI.
Kuchler (1998) have conducted the meta-analysis on the studies to explore the
efficacy of CAI in Mathematicsto teach secondary school students. This analysis
suggested that all the secondary school level computer assisted instruction (CAI)
programmes showedthe overall positive effect on mathematics achievement but more
positive effect on retention of mathematical concepts and skills of students of
secondary school. The most effective CAI mode appears to be „Drill and Practice‟
with the use of combinations of modes being equally effective.
Goode (1988) was found that fifth and sixth grade pupils who used CAI
scored significantly higher in mathematical concepts and computation than a control
group students who used the traditional approach. Harrison (1993) found that students
who received computer instruction showed greater increase in their achievement
scores in multiplication and subtraction than students who received traditional
mathematical instruction.
Sadatmand, and Dean, K. (1995) were stated that statistical evidence in the
study supported the findings that Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) can enhance a
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student's growth in mathematics. This research also indicated that it is possible to
improve students' problem solving capabilities at the Elementary Algebra and
Intermediate Algebra levels. Although the difference between the experimental
Intermediate Algebra and control posttest scores was not statistically significant, the
difference was in the hypothesized direction. The lack of differences may have been
due to the significant difference in gender.
Siddiqui, M. H. (2005) stated that, due to the impact and influence of
information technology on the society and education, computer-assisted language
learning is becoming trend in foreign language teaching. Interactive computer
network allows student to test the result of learning without the risk of being punish
for any mistake. Computer-assisted language learning can reduce the anxiety of the
students and turns out to be a positive side of learning (Pg. 101).
Owusua, K.A. , Monneyb, K.A., Appiaha, J.Y. and Wilmota, E.M. (online 10
April 2010) investigated the comparative efficacy of computer-assisted instruction
(CAI) and conventional teaching method in biology on senior high school students.
The students in the experimental group learned science concepts (cell cycle) through
the CAI, whereas the students in the control group were taught the same concepts by
the conventional approach. The results indicated that students who were instructed by
the conventional approach performed better on the posttest than those instructed by
the CAI. However, the performance of low achievers within the experimental group
improved after they were instructed by the CAI. Even though the CAI group did not
perform better than the conventional approach group, the students in the CAI group
perceived CAI to be interesting when they were interviewed.
Bebe F. Lavin (Jan, 1980) have conducted the study to evaluate the benefits of
computer-assisted instruction for an introductory sociology course when used as a
tutorial device. Analysis of data indicated that the students who made use of the selftesting computer program performed better than nonusers. However, level of student
ability and pattern of use were important factors. The findings of the study was
suggested that computer-programmed self-testing may have positive effects for
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retention of less experienced, lesser skilled students as their performance scores were
improved.
Shubbar, K.F., (2003) have studied effectiveness of using Computer-assisted
instruction in teaching the shapes of atomic orbitals.The results were indicated that
the CAI approach enhanced students‟ learning and helped them to figure out cues
portrayed in diagrams of atomic orbitals.
Barot H. M. (2005) have developed CAI programme in Sanskrit, and found
that the programme was effective for teachingSanskrit to VIII Std. students. The
reactions of the students towards the CAIwere found positive.
There are mix research findings in favor and against CAI. Yet there are ample
of research findings that support CAI as an effective mode of instruction in various
subject areas at various grade levels.
2.3
SIMILARITY
BETWEEN
PRESENT
RESEARCH
STUDY
AND
RESEARCHES REVIEWED:
All the above reviewed researches are related with the study of efficacy of
CAI in terms of students‟ achievements and other attributes.In most of the reviewed
researches the researchers have developed and implemented CAI programme on
selected unit/topic related to specific subject. Procedure of the study and research
methodology (experimental group design) is similar. In most of the studies the
researcher had implemented pretest posttest group design to test the efficacy of CAI
programme.
2.4 UNIQUENESS OF PRESENT RESEARCH STUDY:
The present research study deals with the study of effectiveness of CAI in
comparison of traditional classroom teaching of Geography for the students of
Standard VIII. In most of the above researches the researcher had selected either one
or two units or limited topic for the study, but in present research study the researcher
had selected total nine units of Physical Geography section which were taught for the
full one academic year. The researcher has developed CAI programmes for all the
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selected units based on the syllabus prescribed by „Maharahstra State Bureau of
Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune‟. The present research study was
implemented on the English medium school of Pune city, Maharashtra.
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FIG. 2.1 SOURCES FOR REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH
Printed material
Books
Non Print Material
Other Print material
 Text books Teacher’s
handbook
 Reference
books
 Educational
books
 M.B. Buch
volumes





Journals
Educational surveys
Periodicals
Articles
News paper
reviews
 Magazine
 Encyclopaedias
 Dictionaries




Interviews
Lectures
Discussions
Expert’s verbal
suggestions
 Ph.D. research
thesis
 M.Phil. Thesis
 M.Ed.
Dissertation
 Unpublished
thesis
E-Sources
Online sources










Online books
Online Journals
Online Articles
Online suggestions
Online Govt. Documents
Online interviews
Online news
Expert comments
Online Journals
Online research report
Other e-media
 News through various
media
 Telephonic information
 Video conferencing
 Documentaries
 Chat
 Blogs
 ERIC data base
 Email
 Online publication
37