Language Systems: The Passive Voice
By Charles Roe
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Contents
1.0 Introduction – Pg. 3
2.0 Analysis – Pg. 3
2.1 Form – Pg. 3
2.1.1 Agent versus Agentless – Pg. 3
2.2 Meaning and Use – Pg. 4
2.2.1 Passive with Agent – Pg. 4
2.2.2 Passive without Agent – Pg.4-5
3.0 Issues for Learners – Page 5
3.1 Form – Pg. 5
3.2 Meaning and Use – Pg. 5
3.2.1 Transitive versus Intransitive Verbs – Pg. 6
3.2.2 Stative versus Non-Stative verbs – Pg. 6
3.2.3 Other Errors – Pg. 6
3.2.4 Agent versus Agentless – Pg. 6
3.3 Pronunciation – Pg. 6
4.0 Approaches – Page 6-7
4.1 Been versus Being – Pg. 7
4.2 Intro to Passives – Pg. 7
4.3 Passives in Context – Pg. 7-8
4.4 How to Make Sentences – Pg. 8
5.0 Conclusion – Pg. 8
6.0 Bibliography – Pg. 9
7.0 Resources – Pg. 9
8.0 Appendices – Pg. 10+
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1.0 Introduction
In How to Teach Grammar, Scott Thornbury devotes two chapters to the history, questions and
variety of arguments on the topic of grammar teaching, with one primary conclusion arising – it is
not whether or not grammar should be taught, but that “it is fair to hypothesise a core grammar that
will be useful to all learners, whatever their needs” (Thornbury 1999: 9). This ‘core grammar’
certainly includes the passive voice, as all ELT course books devote some amount time and effort to
covering this problematic construction. But, though the passive voice is covered, it is often only
given peripheral treatment in course books or is presented more as a “transformation of
corresponding active sentences” (Lewis 1999: 132) and therefore becomes some sort of deviant
form in students’ minds, which is of secondary or arbitrary usage, rather than something they need
to know.
2.0 Analysis
The use of voice in English is divided into two distinct parts: active and passive. Voice is defined as
“the way the relationship between the subject and object of the verb can be changed without
changing the meaning of the sentence” (Thornbury 2006: 156). The active voice is the most common
form in English, especially in spoken correspondence, but the passive voice is a necessary
construction for students to learn and master, as it occurs quite often in written forms such as
newspapers, magazines and advertisements. For EAP students the study of the passive voice is of
particular importance as it is most often used in academic and scientific texts (Celce-Murcia &
Larsen-Freeman 1999: 354).
2.1 Form
The form of the passive structure is often relatively simple for students to understand: be + third
verb form as is shown in a few examples below:
Stamps are sold in supermarkets now (present simple passive).
Jacob’s car was being repaired by our local mechanic (past continuous passive).
The managing director has been fired (present perfect passive)--footnote
(Lott 2005: 114-15)
2.1.1 Agent versus Agentless
The most common form of the passive structure in authentic texts is the agentless form which
occurs approximately 80-85% of the time (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman 1999: 354-55). The
difference in the forms is:
Swimming in the lake is prohibited (agentless).
Swimming in the lake is prohibited by the Park Authorities (with agent).
As can be seen from these two examples, the agent is most often shown through the use of the
preposition by, though other prepositions such as on, with, in and at can be used. But, by is the
primary preposition used to demonstrate the agented passive in most course books and is
therefore the main focus of students when trying to discover the passive structure in texts (see
3.2.4). In my experience with both Slovak and Turkish students it is not usually a problem of form
(except incorrect third verb form) that causes them consternation, but rather meaning and use.
2.2 Meaning and Use
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The active voice is usually used to show the subject of a sentence (also called the agent) doing some
sort of action:
Darwin studied the fauna of the Galapagos Islands.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote this poem.
(Ibid: 343-45)
In these examples, the focus is on Darwin and Longfellow as the agents of the sentence. The passive
voice is essentially a reversal of the active voice in that the object of the action becomes the agent
and thus the primary focus of the sentence. The meaning of the passive is more grammatical than
lexical, in that ‘it is a focus construction that exists to put the patient, i.e., the receiver or undergoer
of an action, in subject position’ (Ibid: 347):
The Galapagos Islands were studied by Darwin.
This poem was written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.
These examples switch the subject of the sentence from the original subject/agent to the object of
the original sentence. This necessarily changes the focus of the sentence from Darwin to the
Galapagos Islands, from Longfellow to the poem being discussed. While this can be a seemingly
arbitrary decision by the speaker/writer of the sentence since the information is essentially the
same, there are often very specific reasons for using passive voice over active voice. The most
common uses can be outlined in a few compact categories.
2.2.1 Passive with Agent
The most common uses of passive voice with the agent are:
When the agent is not a person:
o The cathode ray tube has been replaced by a flat electroluminescent display.
To put focus on the receiver of the action, while also giving credit to the agent.
o St. Paul’s Cathedral was designed by Christopher Wren.
2.2.2 Passive without Agent
The most common uses of passive voice without the agent are:
When it is not necessary to mention the agent because the agent is obvious, not known or
not important:
o The first digital computer was built in 1946 (by some kind of engineers).
o My wallet was stolen last night (by someone unknown).
To purposely avoid placing responsibility for a particular action:
o It is believed that some top executives are involved.
For notices, new reports and descriptions of processes:
o Customers are advised to buy their tickets in advance.
o The oranges are treated with wax and then stored in large boxes.
(Walker & Elsworth 1995: 60-61 & Raimes 1998: 127-29)
Though there are other more specific uses of the passive voice outlined by various authors, those
above show the main uses that I have demonstrated to my students in the past and have worked
well to give them a concrete differentiation between active and passive voice.
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3.0 Issues for Learners
3.1 Form
While it was stated above (2.0) that many learners can understand the passive form of be + third
verb form in a text as long as they have already studied the tense and aspect of the particular
construction being created, they still make common verb form errors. It is dependent upon the level
of the learner and the previous coverage of the items whether the errors would be considered
competence or performance. Lower level learners will certainly make more competence errors as
the passive form is still quite new for A1/A2 levels, while B2 and higher level learners tend to make
more one-off performance errors. For many learners though there are certainly L1 interference
errors in terms of the passive structure. My Turkish learners tend to overuse the continuous tense,
with such errors as:
My house was building in 1920.
Nothing is doing for poor people.
(Swan & Smith 2001: 221)
Some of the most common form errors made by learners across various languages are clearly
outlined by Rosemary Aitken in Teaching Tenses. These errors take a number of different forms and
while the list below is by no means exhaustive, it presents the most frequent:
Incorrect formation of the past participle
o They were eated.
Replacement of the past participle by the present participle
o The door is opening by the button.
Both order and form of auxiliaries are often confused
o He was had been taken.
Past and present participles are often interchanged
o I have being followed.
Third person he’s (he has) often used as he is:
o He is been followed.
(Aitken 1999: 142-54)
3.2 Meaning and Use
The most common errors relating to meaning and use stem from a misunderstanding of how and
when to use the passive voice. Often learners do not want to use the passive because it is seen only
as an academic or scientific tense, which is fostered by many course books that only gloss over the
structure and teach it only in terms of its academic uses (Parrott 2000: 295).
3.2.1 Transitive versus Intransitive Verbs
My Turkish and Slovak students often misuse transitive and intransitive verbs. Many students cannot
tell the difference between them or there is no differentiation in their L1 and so they make L1
transfer errors when trying to create a passive sentence with an intransitive verb in English:
She was arrived at the train station.
He was dead by a criminal.
3.2.2 Stative verses Non-Stative Verbs
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This problem is further aggravated by the differentiation between stative and non-stative transitive
verbs. It is necessary to demonstrate to learners that the passive is meant to show that the subject
of the passive construction must somehow be ‘affected’ by the verb. Thus, many students after
learning and practicing the passive in class will try and apply the passive construction to every
transitive verb they encounter, without being aware than many stative verbs cannot be readily
converted to passive voice:
Lori is resembled by her father.
Five dollars is cost by the parking fine.
(Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman 1999: 348)
3.2.3 Other Errors
Some of the other most common meaning and use errors made by my students include:
Misuse of present participle
o I am boring (for I am bored).
Misuse of passive in reflexive sentences
o I was dressed myself (for I dressed myself).
3.2.4 Agent versus Agentless
One of the most difficult areas is the correct use of the agented and agentless forms. The problem of
the overuse of the agent is exacerbated by course books which typically only show passive
constructions with the agent present. Thus, students only recognize the form when the by + agent is
present and therefore only use passive constructions with that form, thereby creating inappropriate,
uncomfortable or unnecessary sentences such as:
I was told you were leaving us for another job by John (possibly uncomfortable).
Vitamin tablets should be taken daily by you (unnecessary).
(Carter, Hughes & McCarthy 2007: 99)
3.3 Pronunciation
While pronunciation is not the most significant of the errors encountered with passive voice, there
are a few general issues that need to be addressed. The two most common problems are: First,
when the past participle form has an unstressed –ed ending and thus is understood as the standard
form of the verb rather than the past participle (I was chased by a bus). This could be misheard as I
was chase by a bus. Second, a misunderstanding between the pronunciation of being and been,
which causes mistakes like I am been followed rather than I am being followed (Aitken 1999:
145,148).
4.0 Approaches
There have been many times in my ELT career when I have come into class and began a lesson on
passives and inevitably had the students moan that ‘teacher why do we have to study passives?’ This
sort of indifference, and at times outright opposition, to the passive voice can be dealt with by giving
students explicit instruction on how and why the passive is used, along with the requisite instruction
on form to make sure the students can adequately produce the construction before attempting to
use it. EAP students in particular need a sound understanding of grammar to successfully complete
their University coursework. EAP students are, by the nature of the academic environment,
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cognitively involved in their language instruction. Thus, by using explicit instruction that involves
both focus-on-form and focus-on-meaning techniques in learning the passive construction, my EAP
students will be able to “beneficially utilize their cognitive skills in pursuing second-language
instruction” (Azar 2007: 8).
4.1 Been versus Being (App-1)
Aim: To help B1 students learn difference between been and being (form, pronunciation, use).
Activity: Form and meaning focus exercise with pronunciation practice
Procedure:
1) T gives examples to Ss of the form and use of the structures:
He has been taken to the hospital.
He is being examined right now.
They have never been arrested before.
They were being questioned when the lawyer arrived.
2)T has Ss pronounce the two forms and checks pronunciation.
3) Ss then do mechanistic exercise where they use correct forms.
4) Answers are peer checked.
5) In groups Ss then work to discover the rules of when been/being are used. T monitors.
6)Ss write 2 short paragraphs (50 words) using been and being in passive voice.
(Raimes 1998: 132)
4.2 Intro to Passives (App-2)
Aim: To introduce the simple passive form to mid-A1 level (form and use).
Activity: Form-focus exercise with speaking and written production.
Procedure:
1) T asks Ss to choose 5 objects in room. T models the exercise by doing an example first. Ss
then ask classmates what they are made of:
What is the desk made of? The desk is made of wood.
What are the windows made of? The windows are made of glass.
2) Ss talk about what they are wearing or carrying, again modelled by T first:
My shoes were made in Italy.
3) T shows difference between agent and agentless:
My shoes were made in Italy by shoemakers.
4) Ss discuss differences of using by. T explains difference between adjective and
process/result sentences in 1 and 2.
5) Ss work in pairs and create sentences using both forms.
(Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman 1999: 356)
4.3 Passives in Context (App-3)
Aim: To get B2 level Ss to cognitively consider complicated passive questions (form, meaning, use).
Activity: B2 students work through a number of questions concerning three authentic texts, then do
peer checking in groups.
Procedure:
1) T puts Ss into groups and gives three short texts. Ss answer questions:
Give reason why so many passive constructions used in each text.
Identify all passives, give reason for each of their uses.
Could active be used in any sentences?
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Could auxiliary verbs be changed with any others?
Could any other prepositions be used instead of by? Could the by be
removed?
Re-write each paragraph as they were a spoken conversation. How does this
change them?
2) Ss then put into groups of four and each group compares their notes. T monitors.
3)T then has Ss present their group discoveries to class.
(Parrott 2000: 298)
4.4 Transitive/Intransitive
Aim: To give A2 level Ss practice in using transitive/intransitive verbs (form and use).
Activity: Ss work individually to make sentences from list of words. Is individual practice so T can
check understanding, then Ss peer check and present to class.
Procedure:
1)T gives Ss paper has Ss write 5-10 sentences using passive form (the list could be much
longer):
Leonardo da Vinci
sing
the telephone
Alexander Graham Bell
paint
the Mona Lisa
Tolstoy
write
War and Peace
Amelia Earheart
disappear
Moon
Neil Armstrong
walk
Pacific Ocean
2) Ss do peer check then write 1-2 sentence on board. T helps with error correction.
(Carter, Hughes & McCarthy 2007: 101)
5.0 Conclusion
The passive voice is a necessary construction for all students to learn as it is a fundamental part of
the English language. Students must be made aware of the form, meaning and use of this
construction not only so they can understand it, but also so they can produce it effectively in daily
life. This construction is especially important for EAP students due to their constant contact with
academic/scientific texts, and so the inclusion of explicit instruction of the passive voice should be
included in all EAP classrooms to allow the students the chance to become cognitively involved with
it and thus have more capacity to eventually master it.
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6.0 Bibliography
Aitken, R. Teaching Tenses: Ideas for Presenting and Practising Tenses in English. Longman. 6th ed.
1999.
Azar, B. “Grammar-Based Teaching: A Practitioner’s Perspective.” TESL-EJ. 11/2. 2007. 1-12.
Carter, R., Hughes, R. & McCarthy, M. Exploring Grammar in Context: Upper-Intermediate to
Advanced. CUP. 8th ed. 2007.
Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course. Heinle &
Heinle. 2nd ed. 1999.
Lewis, M. The English Verb: An Exploration of Structure and Meaning. Language Teaching
Publications. 5th ed. 1999.
Lott, H. Real English Grammar. Marshall-Cavendish. 2005.
Parrott, M. Grammar for English Language Teachers. CUP. 2000.
Raimes, A. How English Works. CUP. 1998.
Swan, M. & Smith, B. Learner English: A Teacher’s Guide to Interference and Other Problems. CUP.
2001.
Thornbury, S. An A to Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts Used in English Language
Teaching. Macmillian. 2006.
Thornbury, S. How to Teach Grammar. Pearson Education Limited. 1999.
Walker, E. & Elsworth, S. Grammar Practice for Upper-Intermediate Students. Longman. 1995.
7.0 Resources
Carter, R., Hughes, R. & McCarthy, M. Exploring Grammar in Context: Upper-Intermediate to
Advanced. CUP. 8th ed. 2007.
Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course. Heinle &
Heinle. 2nd ed. 1999.
Parrott, M. Grammar for English Language Teachers. CUP. 2000.
Raimes, A. How English Works. CUP. 1998.
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8.0 Appendices
(included separately from article)
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