The Huron University College Journal of Learning and
Motivation
Volume 52 | Issue 1
Article 6
2014
Cue Saliency and Age as Factors Affecting
Performance in a Card Sorting Task
Rebecca Herbert
Huron University College
Follow this and additional works at: http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/hucjlm
Part of the Psychology Commons
Recommended Citation
Herbert, Rebecca (2014) "Cue Saliency and Age as Factors Affecting Performance in a Card Sorting Task," The Huron University
College Journal of Learning and Motivation: Vol. 52: Iss. 1, Article 6.
Available at: http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/hucjlm/vol52/iss1/6
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Psychology at Scholarship@Western. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Huron
University College Journal of Learning and Motivation by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Western. For more information, please contact
[email protected].
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
82
Cue Saliency and Age as Factors Affecting Performance in a Card Sorting Task
Rebecca Herbert
Huron University College at Western
Abstract
The present study aimed to identify if cue saliency could be manipulated in a
card-sorting task in a way that would hinder task performance. Specifically, it
was predicted that when four similar colours were used in a card-sorting task
similar to the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, performance would suffer. It was
also predicted that there would be a significant difference in performance
between individuals in their early twenties and individuals in their forties and
fifties. The results suggested no significant difference in performance between
the control and experimental group, F (1,24) = .21, p> .05, partial 2 =.009, as
well as no significant difference in performance between age groups, F (1,24)
= .48, p> .05, partial 2 =.019.
Keywords: human cognition, card-sorting, cue saliency
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) was a task developed to measure a person’s
ability to adapt or shift their way of thinking based on feedback (Berg, 1948). The task involves
having a person sort a set of cards based on the image they contain. These images differ in three
fundamental dimensions: shape, colour, and quantity. Specifically, cards may contain stars,
crosses, triangles or circles, which may be red, yellow, blue or green, and there may be one, two,
three, or four of the images on any given card. Cues that differentiate cards from one another are
thought to be relatively equal in their salience; that is, people are not more inclined to sort cards
by one particular rule over another. At the beginning of the task, four cards that differ in all 3
dimensions are placed in front of the participant. They are asked to sort the cards into groups by
placing test cards one at a time on top of the pile that they believe it belongs to. The researcher
gives the participant feedback after every card sorted, telling them whether they have sorted
correctly. “Correct” categories, or sorting criteria are always predetermined. After correctly
sorting five cards consecutively, the rule for sorting is changed to one of the two remaining
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
83
dimensions, and the researcher adjusts his/her feedback accordingly. The task is considered
complete after a participant successfully completes nine categories. Task performance is
measured by calculating the average number of errors made by each participant.
Berg (1948) found that the older individuals (ages 58-73) learned the first sorting rule but
then showed an inability to shift to the new rule. It has since then been found that children and
adolescents often struggle with shifting in the WCST, too (Bujoreanu & Willis, 2008). Because
the prefrontal cortex (PFC) has often been associated with cognitive or executive control and an
ability to “orchestrate thought and action in accordance with internal goals”, it is believed that
the PFC plays an important role in allowing people to successfully complete the WCST (Miller
& Cohen, 2001, p. 167). Evidence that the PFC is one of the last brain areas to mature as well as
the first to deteriorate may give insight into why the WCST is much more difficult for both
young children and older individuals (Miller & Cohen, 2001; Hampshire, Gruszka, Fallon &
Owen, 2008). This theory has further been supported by research that has found that patients
who suffer from lesions or damage to the PFC struggle to complete the WCST in much the same
way (Milner, 1963).
The Dimensional Change Card Sort Task (DCCST) was designed as a simpler version of
the WCST, to be more suited for young children around 3 years of age (Fisher, 2010). Rather
than cards differing in three dimensions, DCCST cards differ in only two dimensions: shape and
colour. In the task, images may be one of two possible colours (Ex. red or blue), and one of two
shapes (Ex. boats or flowers). Children are first asked to sort the cards based on one of the two
dimensions, and generally are successful at this. However, after they have sorted all of the cards,
they are asked to sort by the other dimension. Despite receiving reminders about the new rule,
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
84
young children still tend to struggle to shift their sorting rule in the postswitch phase (Fisher
2010).
A study conducted by Fisher (2010) aimed to determine whether it was possible to
manipulate cue salience in a way that would make the task of shifting in the DCCST easier for
children. It was hypothesized that through altering cue salience in the sorting task, specifically in
the postswitch phase, children would have an easier time switching their sorting rule. For
example, this was done through using similar colours (red and pink) and dissimilar shapes (stars
and flowers) to render shape more salient. This prediction was based on the theory that “the more
similar two values are, the less salient is the contrast between these values” (Fisher 2010, p.
214). It was predicted that if children were switching to a cue that was more salient, they would
have an easier time learning and maintaining the new rule in the postswitch phase. Indeed, this
hypothesis was confirmed: children who received the manipulated cards to sort performed 30%
better than those who received the standard DCCST cards.
The present study aims to determine whether cue salience may also be manipulated to
make a task like the WCST more difficult for individuals. Specifically, because all cues (colour,
shape and number) are relatively equally salient in the standard WCST, it is predicted that using
four similar colours may make the task more difficult. Specifically, it is hypothesized that the
rule of colour may be more easily overlooked when using cards such as these in comparison to
the standard cards. In addition, the present study aims to identify any significant age difference
in task performance between individuals in their early 20’s and individuals in their 40’s and 50’s.
Based on research involving PFC function, it has been found that the task becomes easier with
age to an extent, and then declines as that region begins to deteriorate. However, it is unclear at
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
85
what specific age this “peak” occurs. It is predicted that there will be a significant difference
between the two age groups, presumably due to differences in PFC function.
Method
Participants
Participants in the study were 28 individuals recruited by the researcher. Participants
were either under the age of 25 or over the age of 40. The younger participants consisted of
friends and peers of the researcher, as well as some individuals recruited around the Huron
College campus. The older individuals consisted of family of the researcher, as well as
individuals who were recruited in the Masonville Mall food court in London, as well as workers
at Leamington Chrysler. The mean age of the young participants was 21.14 years, and the mean
age of the older participants was 51.86 years. There were a total of 14 males and 14 females in
the study (4 males in the younger group, and 10 males in the older group).
Materials
The card-sorting task used in the present study was modeled after the WCST. The shapes
used were squares, circles, crosses and triangles, and there were one, two, three, or four shapes
on any given card. There were two sets of cards- set A and set B. In set A (the control group),
images were red, green, blue, or yellow. In set B (the experimental group), however, cards were
light pink, hot pink, red, or burgundy. See appendix A for a sample from each set. In each set
there were a total of 18 cards, and each card was unique from the rest in that set.
Procedure
Individuals who agreed to participate in the study were seated across from the researcher.
The researcher laid out four cards before the participant. In the control group, the cards were
images of: one yellow square, two red crosses, three green triangles, and four blue circles. The
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
86
cards were identical in the experimental group, except that yellow shapes were burgundy, green
shapes were light pink, and blue shapes were hot pink (red shapes remained red). The participant
was informed that they would be given a series of cards, one at a time, to sort into one of the four
piles, based on whatever criteria they wished. They were also informed that the researcher would
give them feedback whether they had sorted based on the “correct” rule or not, and that they
should switch until they had selected the correct pile. A fundamental change from the standard
WCST was made in the task used for the present study: rather than have sorting rules change
systematically throughout the study, the sorting rules were set up in a “random” fashion to allow
for less predictability for the participant. This was done so that participants would not learn a
certain pattern of change throughout testing. Thus, the rule for sorting switched sporadically
throughout the process. The researcher had predetermined correct sorting criteria ahead of time.
A total of five “switches” occurred during each trial. The number of errors made by each
participant was recorded as they sorted a total of 14 cards. When the participant sorted the last
card correctly, they were thanked for their participation and given a debriefing form.
Results
The results of the study are shown in table 1. A 2X2 ANOVA was conducted with
number of errors in the card-sorting task as the dependent variable and age (younger/older) and
type of cards (control/experimental) as the independent variables. The results indicated that there
was not a significant difference in task performance between younger individuals (M = 8.42, SD
= 2.56) and older individuals (M = 9.71, SD = 6.23), thus showing no main effect for age, F
(1,24) = .48, p> .05, partial 2 =.019. In addition, there was not a significant difference in task
performance between control cards (M = 8.64, SD = 4.41) and experimental cards (M = 9.5, SD =
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
87
5.14), thus showing no main effect for card type, F (1,24) = .21, p> .05, partial 2 =.009. Lastly,
there was no age by card type interaction found, F (1,24) = .09, p> .05, partial 2 =.004.
Table 1:
ANOVA Table
Dependent
Variable
df
F
Partial 2
p
Age
Cards
Age * Cards
Error
1
1
1
24
.476
.212
.094
.094
.019
.009
.004
.497
.650
.762
Note: Significant at the p< 0.05 value.
Discussion
Previous research has shown that cue saliency may be manipulated during the DCCST to
make the task easier for younger participants (Fisher 2010). The present study hypothesized that
manipulation of cue saliency may impede task performance in a task similar to the WCST,
specifically through using four very similar colours. In addition, it has been theorized that the
PFC plays a crucial role in allowing for successful completion of the card sorting tasks, thus
making performance difficult for both younger and older individuals (Miller & Cohen, 2001).
The present study hypothesized that there would be a significant difference in task performance
between individuals in their early 20’s and individuals in their 40’s and 50’s. Results of the
present study did not support either of the hypotheses; there were no significant differences
between any of the four groups.
The scientific adequacy of the present study must be examined as a potential reason for
the results. The sample size was rather small, and although an equal number of men and women
partook in the study, they were not evenly dispersed between groups. Specifically, there were
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
88
fewer young males sampled and more older males sampled. In addition, upon being invited to
participate, some people said no and expressed concerns about “failing miserably”. Thus, it is
possible that the only individuals who participated were ones who believed they could do well at
such a task, leading to a more biased sample that was less reflective of the true population. In
addition, it is possible that the age ranges used were too wide. Specifically, having the “older”
group consist of individuals anywhere from 40-60 years of age may have been too large of a
window to see an effect. This is especially true because of the research that shows the PFC is
normally the first brain area to deteriorate; this may be too much of a time-sensitive matter to test
with an age range of 20 years (Miller & Cohen, 2001). Sampling may have been improved by
incorporating a larger, more diverse sample, with an equal number of males and females in each
group, as well as a smaller age range for the older group.
In addition to sampling, the card-sorting task used may have not been as reliable or valid
of a measure as the actual WCST. Although it was modeled after the WCST, it is still unlikely
that the card-sorting task used was just as effective of a measure. In addition, the researcher
conducting the card-sorting task was not as qualified as testers that administer the WCST; the
researcher may not have been unbiased throughout testing, and this may have had an effect on
how well or poor people performed on the task. Furthermore, there were some outliers in the data
collected- specifically, people who got notably more errors than their peers. The outliers were
not eliminated from the data set. However, it is unclear why this occurred. It is possible that this
was due to a poor understanding of the task itself, perhaps which was due to a poor explanation
of the task by the researcher. Thus, the present study may have benefited from using a
standardized card-sorting task such as the WCST, and having it administered by someone with
professional training.
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
89
An issue with any colourful card-sorting task is colourblindness- an issue that is most
predominately found in males. If a colourblind male attempted the task, his performance may be
severely hindered. This is especially true for the experimental group, where all colours used on
the cards were around the red area of the colour spectrum. If a male did have a form of
colourblindness that affected his perception of red, he would likely not be able to distinguish
between any of the colours on the cards. This phenomenon may be a potential reason for some of
the outlier data that was observed. It is difficult to get around the possibility of testing someone
who is colourblind, unless males are eliminated completely from the study. However, doing this
would also greatly affect the generalizability of the sample. A future study may first test males’
ability to distinguish between the four colours used in the task before actually beginning the task.
This would ensure that results were more a measure of true task performance, rather than a
measure of colour vision.
Future research in the area may look at ways to help improve performance in card-sorting
tasks for older individuals. Specifically, rather than trying to make the task more difficult for
participants, future research may look at ways of manipulating cue saliency to make the task
easier for older individuals, as Fisher (2010) did with children in the DCCST. Another possible
area of research could be incorporating brain imaging techniques such as fMRI into the card
sorting tasks, in order to obtain more information about brain function in the card-sorting tasks,
as well as to observe changes in brain function as age increases. Card sorting tasks give
interesting insight into the function of the frontal lobe, specifically the PFC, and hold many
possibilities for exciting research in the future.
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
90
References
Berg, E. A. (1948). A simple objective technique for measuring flexibility in thinking. Journal of
General Psychology, 39, 15.
Bujoreanu, I. S., & Willis, W. G. (2008). Developmental and neuropsychological perspectives on
the wisconsin card sorting test in children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(5), 584600.
Fisher, A. V. (2010). Automatic shifts of attention in the dimensional change card sort task:
Subtle changes in task materials lead to flexible switching. Journal of Experimental Child
Psychology, 108(1), 211-219.
Hampshire, A., Gruszka, A., Fallon, S. J., & Owen, A. M. (2008). Inefficiency in self-organized
attentional switching in the normal aging population is associated with decreased activity
in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20(9), 16701686.
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual
Review of Neuroscience, 24, 167-202.
Milner, B. (1963). Effects of different brain lesions on card sorting: The role of the frontal lobes.
Archives of Neurology, 9, 90-110.
Factors Affecting a Card Sorting Task
91
Appendix A
Set A (Control Cards):
Set B (Experimental Cards):