THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL
EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
The uzbek state world languages university
II ENGLISH PHILOLOGY FACULTY
ENGLISH STYLISTICS DEPARTMENT
QUALIFICATION PAPER
On the theme:
“Linguistic analysis of metaphor and metonymy in
non-related languages on the material of the novel “a farewell to arms” by
ernest hemingway
Written by the student of
The 4th course group 427 B
Usmanova Iroda
Scientific supervisor:
RAJABOV N.
__________________
Reviewer:
ATAKHANOVA G.SH.
__________________
This qualification paper is admitted to defence by the head of the
department protocol № _______of «______________» 2011
TASHKENT 2011
Content
Introduction…………………………………………………………………...3-5
Chapter 1 Theoretical aspects of stylistics
1.1
Stylistic as a science ………………………………………....5-7
1.2
Expressive means and stylistic devices……………………...7-11
Chapter 2 Stylistics devices: metaphor and metonymy
2.1 Lexical stylistic devices………………………………………….11-16
2.2 Metaphor and metonymy…………………………………………16-41
Chapter 3 The usage and importance of metaphor and metonymy in the
novel “A Farewell To Arms” by E. Hemingway
3.1 The usage of metaphor and metonymy in the novel “A Farewell To
Arms” by E. Hemingway…………………………………………………….41-46
3.2 The translations of metaphor and metonymy from English into Uzbek
and Russian……………………………………………………………………46-53
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………53-56
The list of used literatures…………………………………………………...56-59
Summary…………………………………………………………………………60
Introduction
“Style is depth”
(Derbyshire)
This qualification paper deals with one of the most important and disputable
branches of linguistics.
The subject matter of the qualification paper is the study of metaphor
and metonymy in the novel “A Farewell to Arms” by Ernest Hemingway,
which is considered to be one of the lexical stylistic devices.
The actuality of this qualification paper is that a number of researches
have been done on problems of metaphor and metonymy but we have decided to
analyze them, which are used in the novel “A Farewell to Arms” by Ernest
Hemingway, its usage and importance in the language according to dictionary
meanings and contextual meanings.
The aim and the task of this qualification paper is:
1) to study the problems of metaphor and metonymy;
2) to differ its translation in both languages Uzbek and Russian;
3) to analyze metaphor and metonymy in three (related and non-related)
languages: English, Uzbek, Russian;
The hypothesis: E. Hemingway as the master of words, in order to increase
expressiveness and impressiveness, used metaphor and metonymy in his works
and they can be analyzed according to the theories of stylistics and text
interpretation.
The method used in this qualification paper is linguistic analysis –
contextual and situative analysis for revealing the information value of metaphor
and metonymy and its stylistic function. We have used comparative methods
while analyzing the translation done into Uzbek and Russian.
The main materials of this qualification paper and examples taken from
the novel “A Farewell to Arms” by Ernest Hemingway, its Uzbek (“Alvido
qurol”
Ibrohim G’ofurov tarjimasi)
and
Russian
(<<Прощай оружие>>)
translations.
The novelty of this qualification paper is that we have the ways of
translation of metaphor and metonymy in related and non – related
languages.
The theoretical value of this qualification paper is that the theoretical
position of the paper can be used in lectures on “The theory of translation “,
“Stylistics
and
text
interpretation”,
“Stylistics”,
“Practical translation”,
“Interpretation”, “Lexicology” and so on.
The practical value of this qualification paper is the examples gathered on
the theme and the practical results and conclusion can be used at seminars on “The
theory of translation”, “Stylistics”, “Practical translation”, “Interpretation”,
“Lexicology” and so on.
The structure of this qualification paper is as follows:
Introduction
three chapters, conclusion and the list of used literatures.
Introduction deals with the description of the structure, aim, task, methods
and actuality of the work.
Chapter one consists of two paragraphs. It deals with the theoretical notion
of linguistics and the tasks of stylistics and text interpretation in modern English.
In this chapter we also differ all expressive means and stylistic devices of
language.
The second chapter also consists of two paragraphs where we deal with
lexical stylistic devices, with the semantic and stylistic analysis of metaphor
and metonymy, its classification and usage in the language.
The third chapter is devoted to the practical part of the qualification
paper, which is analysis of metaphor and metonymy is used in the novel “A
farewell to Arms” by Ernest Hemingway, their translations and comparative
analysis of these sentences.
The conclusion deals with the theoretical and practical results of the paper.
Bibliography includes the list of literature used in the qualification paper.
Chapter 1 Theoretical aspects of stylistics
Stylistics as a science
Stylistics is a branch of general linguistics. It has now been more or less
definitely outlined. It deals mainly with interdependent tasks: the investigation of
the inventory of special language media which by their ontological features secure
the desirable effect of utterance and certain types of texts which due to the
pragmatic aspect of the communication. The two objectives of stylistics are clearly
discernible as two separate fields of investigation. The inventory of language
media can be analyzed and their ontological features revealed if presented in a
system in which the correlation between the media becomes evident.
The types of texts can be analyzed if their linguistic components are
presented in their interaction, thus revealing the unbreakable unity and
transparency of construction of a given type. The types of texts are distinguished
by the pragmatic aspect of the communication are called
functional styles of
language (FS); the special media of language that secure the desirable effect of the
utterance are called stylistic devices (SD) and expressive means (EM).
The firs field of investigation, i.e. SDs and Ems, necessarily touches upon
such general language problems as the aesthetic function of language, synonymous
ways of rendering one and the same idea, emotional coloring in language, the
individual manner of an author in making use of language and a number of other
issues.
The second field, i.e. functional styles, cannot discussion of such most
general linguistic issues as oral and written varieties of language, the constituents
of text larger than the sentence, the generative aspect of literary texts and some
others.
In dealing with the objectives of stylistics, certain pronouncements of
adjacent disciplines such as theory of information, literature, psychology, logic and
to some extent statistics must be touched upon. This is indispensable; for
nowadays no science is entirely isolated from other domains of human knowledge;
and linguistics, particularly its branch stylistics, cannot avoid references to the
above mentioned disciplines.
The branching of stylistics in language science was indirectly the result of a
long – established tendency of grammarians to confine their investigations to
sentences, clauses and word combinations which are “well formed”, to use a
dubious term, neglecting anything that did not fall under the recognized and
received standards. This tendency became particularly strong in what is called
descriptive linguistics. The generative grammars, which appeared as a reaction
against descriptive linguistics, have confirmed that the task of any grammar is to
limit the scope of investigation of language data to sentences which are considered
well formed. Everything that fails to meet this requirement should be excluded
from linguistics.
But language studies cannot avoid subjecting to observation any language
data whatever, so where grammar refuses to tread stylistics steps in. Stylistics has
acquired its own status with its own inventory of tools (SDs and EMs), with its
own object of investigation and with its own methods of research.
A great number of monographs, textbooks, articles and dissertation papers
are now at the disposal of scholar in stylistics.1
It is in view of the ever – growing significance of the exploration of
language potentialities that so much attention is paid in lingua stylistics to be
analysis means (EMs) and stylistic devices (SDs), to their nature and functions, to
their classifications and to possible carry in a message as well as their esthetic
value.2
1
Виноградов В.В. Стилистика. Теория поэтической речи. М.,1963
2
Морозова Н.Н. English stylistics – M.: 1983
In order to ascertain the borders of stylistics it is necessary to go at some
length into the question of what is style.
The word “style” is derives from the Latin word “stylus” which meant a
short stick sharp at one end and flat at other used by the Romans for writing on
wax tablets. Now the word “style” is used in so many senses that it has become a
breeding ground for ambiguity. The word is applied to the teaching of how to write
a composition. It is also used to reveal the correspondence between thought and
expression:
- it frequently an individual manner of making use of language
- it sometimes refers to more general, abstract notions thus inevitably
becoming vague and obscure, as for example, “Style is the man himself”
(Button),“Style is depth” (Derbyshire), “Style is choice” and the like.3
Some linguists consider that the word “style” and the subject of linguistics is
confined to the study of the effects of the message, i.e. its impact on the reader.
Thus Michael Riffaterre writes that “Stylistics will by linguistics of the effects
of the message, of the output of the act of communication, of its attentioncompelling function”. The point of view has clearly been reached under the
influence of recent developments in the general theory of information. Language,
being one of the means of communication or being exact, the most important
means of communication, is regarded in the above from a pragmatic point of view.
Expressive means and stylistic devices
In linguistics there are different terms to denote particular means by which
utterances are for a grounded, i.e. made more conspicuous, more effective and
therefore imparting some additional information. They are called expressive means
stylistic means, stylistic markers, stylistic devices, tropes, figures of speech and
3
Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка. М.,1960
other names. All these term are used indiscriminately and are set against those
means which we shall conventionally call neutral. Most linguists distinguish
ordinary (also: substantial, referential) semantic and differences in meaning. In fact
all language means contain meaning-some of them contain specific meanings
which may be called stylistic. Such meanings go alongside primary meaning and it
were, are superimposed on them.
Now it should be impossible to define the notion expressive means. The
expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, word building,
lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system
for the purpose of logical and / or emotional of the utterance.
These intensifying forms, were written by social usage and recognized by
their semantic function, have been singled out in grammars courses in phonetics
and dictionaries (including phrase logical ones) as having special functions in
making the utterances emphatic. Some of them are normalized and good
dictionaries label them as “intensifiers:. In most cases they have corresponding
neutral synonymous forms. Compare, for example, the following pairs:
He shall do it! = I shall make him do it
Isn’t she cute! = she is very nice, isn’t she?
What is a stylistic device? It is a conscious and intentional intensification of
some typical structural and / or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or
expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative
model. It follows then that an SD is an abstract pattern, a mould into which any
content can be poured. As is known, the typical is not only that which is in
frequent use, but that also which reveals the essence of a phenomenon with the
greatest and most evident force.4
SD’s function in texts as marked units. They always carry some kind of
additional information either emotive or logical.
4
Виноградов В.В. Стилистика. Теория поэтической речи. М.,1963.
A.W.de Groot points out significance of SDs in the following passage:
“Each of the aesthetically relevant features of the text series to create a
feature of the gestalt of the poem. In this sense the relevant linguistic features may
be said to function or operate as gestalt factors”.
The idea of function of SDs is expressed most fully by V.M.Zirmunsky in the
following passage:
“The justification and the sense of each device live in the wholeness of the
artistic impression which the work of art as self – contained thing produces thing
produces on us. Each separate aesthetic fact, each poetical device finds its words,
the semantically structures, the wholeness and find justification”.
The motivated use of SDs in a genuine work of emotive literature is not
easily discernible, though they are used in some kind of relation to the facts,
events, or ideas dealt with in the artistic message. Most SDs display an application
of two meanings: the ordinary one, in words, the meaning (lexical or structural)
which has already been established in the language-as-a-system and a special
meaning which is superimposed on the unit by the text, i.e. a meaning which
appears in the language-in-action.
The conscious transformation of a language fact into the stylistic device has
been observed by certain linguists whose interests in linguistic theory have gone
beyond the boundaries of grammar. Thus, A.A. Potebnya writes:
“As far back as in ancient Greece and Rome and with few exceptions up to
the present time, the definition of a figurative use of a word has been based on the
contrast between ordinary speech, used in its own, natural, primary meaning, and
transferred speech”.
The contrast which the author of the passage quoted points to, cannot always
be clearly observed. In some SDs it can be detect it. It be emphasized that the
contrast reveals itself most clearly when our mind perceives two fold meaning
simultaneously. The meanings run parallel: one of them taking precedence over the
other.
Thus in “The night has swallowed him up” the word “swallow” has two
meanings:
-referential
-contextual (to make disappear, to make vanish)
The meaning can be observed in the sentence:
“Is there not blood enough upon your penal code that more must be poured
forth to ascend to Heaven and Festoiy against you” (Byron)
The interrogative form, i.e. the structural meaning of statement, and it is
difficult to decide which or the two structural meanings – the established or the
superimposed – takes the upper hand.
In the following chapter where detailed analysis of the different SDs will be
carried out, we shall try, where possible, to consider which of the two meaning
realized simultaneously out of weighs the other.
The interrelation between expressive means and stylistic devices can be
worded in terms of the theory of information. Expressive means have a greater
degree of predictability than stylistic devices. The latter may appear in an
environment which may be seen alien and therefore be only slightly or not at all
predictable. Expressive means, on the contrary, follow the natural course of
thought, intensifying it by means commonly used in language. It follows that SD’s
carry a greater amount of information and therefore require a certain effort to
decode their meaning and purport. SDs must be regarded as a special code which
has to be well known to the reader in order to be deciphered easily.5
The notion of language as a special code is now very much practiced in the
analyses of the functions of language unit. E.Stankievich sees a kind of code
switching when SDs are employed. He also acknowledges the two fold.
Application of the language code when “…the neutral, basic code serves as the
5
Анашкина Е. В. Дискурсивный аспект функционирования стилистического приема
метонимии (на материале англоязычной художественной прозы). М, 2003
background against which the elements of another system acquire expressive
prominence within the context of the basic system. SDs are used sparingly in
emotive prose, lest they should overburden the text with implications thus
hindering the process of decoding. They are abundantly used in poetry and
especially so in some trends of poetical tradition, consequently retarding mental
absorption of the context ”.6
It is necessary to distinguish between a stylistic use of a language unit, which
acquires what we call a stylistic meaning, and a stylistic device, which is the
realization of an already well-known abstract scheme designed to achieve a
particular artistic effect. Thus many facts of English grammar are said to be used
with stylistic meaning, for example, the morphological expressive means
mentioned on page 28. But most of them have not yet been raised to the level of
SDs because they remain unsystematized and so far perceived as nonce uses. They
are, as it were, still wandering in the vicinity of the realm of SDs without being
admitted into it. This can indirectly be proved by the fact that that have no special
name in the English language system of SDs. An exception, perhaps, in the
Historical Present, which meets requirements of an SD.
So far the system of stylistic devices has not been fully recognized as
legitimate members of the general system of language. This is mainly due to the
above-mentioned conception of grammatical theory as dealing exclusively with a
perfectly organized and extremely rigid scheme of language rules, precise and
accurate in its application.7
Chapter 2 Stylistics devices: metaphor and metonymy
Lexical stylistic device
6
7
E.Stankievich – M.:1976
Cohen T. Figurative Speech and Figurative Acts. 1975
Lexical stylistic Devices are further classified according to the nature of
Lexical meanings participating in their formation.
A. Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction between the Logical and
Nominal Meaning of the Word.
Antonomasia
Antonomasia is always trite when its contextual meaning is logical, because,
to be employed as a common noun, the proper name must have ficked logical
associations between the name itself and the qualities of its bearer, which may
occur only as result of long and frequent usage.
The second type of antonomasia, as a rule, is original for the variety of
common nouns becoming contextual proper names is unlimited, and thus each case
is a unique creation. The main function of this type of antonomasia – to
characterize the person simultaneously with naming him – is vastly used in the so –
called “speaking names”.8
B. Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction between Two Logical
Meanings of a Word.
M e t a p h o r (in general)
Various objects, phenomena actions, etc, may possess similar features, which
fact provides the possibility of transference of meaning on the basis of similarity
and association, i.e. metaphor. When likeness is observed between inanimate
objects and human qualities, we speak of personification. When a group of
metaphors is clustered around the same image to make it more vivid and complete
we speak of a developed metaphor.
8
Black M. Metaphor., NY, 1984
Metaphor can be expressed by all national parts of speech. The most complete
identification of the associated phenomena is achieved in verb – metaphors.
- Phrase-epithets, including into one epithet an extended phrase or a
completed sentence;
- Sentence-epithets, expressed by a one member sentence which fulfils the
function of emotive nomination.
In the sentence epithets are distributed:
- Singly (a dry look)
- In pairs (a wonderful and happy summer)
- In strings (a ribald, magnificent laugh)
Semantic classification of epithets allows differentiate among them metaphorical
epithets, which are based on metaphor and transferred ones, which transfer the
quality of one object upon its nearest neighbor thus characterizing both of them.9
Oxymoron
Oxymoron joins two antonymous words into one syntagm, most frequently
attributive or adverbial, less frequently of other patterns.
Trite oxymoron has been lost their semantic discrepancy and are used in oral
speech and fiction dialogue as indicators of roused emotions.
In the treatment of both above – discussed groups B and C the attention must
be focused on the context and its role in the conversion of genuine stylistic device
into trite and
In the treatment of both above – discussed groups B and C the
attention must be focused on the context and its role in the conversion of genuine
9
Beardsley M. C. The metaphorical twist //Philosophy and phenomenological research,
1958, №22
stylistic device into trite and dead ones as well as on the structural and semantic
peculiarities and types of them.10
C. Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction between Free and
Phraseological Meanings of a word.
The main stylistics function of the indicated Stylistic Devise is to create
humorous effect. Proceeding from the quality of the context and the structure of
the stylistic devices we shall differentiate:
M e t o n y m y (in general)
Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects and is
thus based on their contiguity. Since the types of relations between two objects
can be finally limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy present
relations between a part and the whole and are known as synecdoche.
Metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivized numerals
Irony
Irony is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings within the same
context, which is sustained in oral speech by intonation. Irony can be realized also
through the medium of the situation, which in written speech, may extend as far as
a paragraph, chapter or even the whole book. Bitter, socially or politically aimed
irony is referred to as sarcasm11.
D. Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction between the Logical and
Emotive Meanings of a Word.
10
11
Way E. C. Knowledge, representation and metaphor. London. 1991
Bain A. English Composition and Rhetoric. L.,1887
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of some quantity, quality, size, etc,
big thought it might be even without exaggeration.
If it is smallness that is being hyperbolized, we speak of understatement,
which works on identical principles but in opposite directions with hyperbole
proper.
Epithet
- Word – epithet, i.e. epithets expressed by any national part of speech in the
attributive or adverbial function.
- Two – step epithets, i.e., supplied by intensifiers;
- Syntactical epithets based on illogical syntactical relations between the
modifier and modified;
Zeugma
Zeugma – the context allows to realize two meanings of the same
polysemantic word without the repetition of the word itself.
Pun
Pun – the role of the context is similar to that of zeugma, while the structure
is changed, for the central word is repeater.
Semantically false chain
Semantically false chain – extended context prepares the reader for the
realization of a word in one contextual meaning when unexpectedly appears
a semantically alien element forcing the second contextual meaning upon the
central word. As it is seen from the denomination of the stylistics device,
structurally it presents a chain of homogeneous members, belonging to non –
relating semantic fields but linked to the same kernel, which due to them is
realized in two of its meanings simultaneously.
Violation of phraseological units
Violation of phraseological units – occurs when the bound phraseological
meanings of the components of the unit are disregarded and intentionally
replaced by their original literal meanings.
Metaphor and Metonymy
a. Metaphor
The interaction or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning and a
meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro – context may be maintained
along different lines. One line is when the author identifies two objects which have
nothing in common, but in which he subjectively sees a function, or a property, or
a feature, or a quality that author finds it possible to substitute one object for
another on the grounds that there is some kind of corresponding objects. A third
line is when a certain property or quality of an object is used in an opposite or
contradictory case or sense.
The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is
called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object for
another is called metonymy.
Let us now proceed with a detailed analysis of the ontology, structure and
function of these stylistic devices.
The term “metaphor” as the etymology of the word reveals, means transference
of some quality from one object to another. From the times of Greek and Roman
rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one
word to another. It is still widely used to designate the process in which a word
acquires a derivative meaning. Quintillion remarks: “It is due to the metaphor that
each thing seems to have its name is the language”. Language as a whole has been
figuratively defined as a dictionary of faded metaphors.12
Thus by transference of meaning of the words grasp, get and come to have the
derivative meaning of understand. When these words are used which that meaning
we can only register the derivative meaning is metaphorical in origin, there is no
stylistic effect because the primary meaning is no longer lift.
A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when different phenomena are
simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent
properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these
properties.
The last decade saw considerable headway in the development of the linguistic
theory of the translation. A number of fundamental contributions to this theory
have been recently made both in our country and abroad. Theoretical studies in
translation have kept abreast with the recent advances in linguistics which provided
some new insights into the mechanism of translation and the factors determining it.
The theory of translation has benefited from new syntactic and semantic models in
linguistics and from development of such hyphenated disciplines as psycho – and –
socio – linguistics. Equally insightful way the contribution to the theory of
translation by semiotics, a general theory of sign systems. A condensation of the
major problems of translation introduces the reader to basic concepts and defines
the terminology. The subjects discussed include the subject – matter of the theory
of translation and the nature of translating, semantic and pragmatic and pragmatic
aspects of translation/these lectures were written by I.D.Shvaytser, Grammatical
problems of translation and grammatical transformational (L.S.Barkhudov),
12
Black M. More about metaphor //metaphor and thought. Cambridge, 1993
Lexical problems of translation and lexical transformations (A.M.Fiterman),
Stylistic aspects of translation and its socio – regional problems (A.D.Shveitser).
The summary of the lecture is based on the syllables of foreign scholars:
prof.A.Neuber, prof.E.Nida, prof. Roger. T.Bell’s view points on theory and
practical of translation. The theory of translation in subdivided into general theory,
dealing with the general characteristic of translation, description and analyses of
the various types of translation, such as the translation of fiction poetry, technical
and scientific literature, official documents, etc. The general theory of translation
has a clearly defined subject matter; the process of translating in its entirely,
including its result with due regard for all the factors affecting it. Each special
branch depends and specifies the general theory for it is the job of the general
theory to reflect what is common to all types and varieties of translation while the
special branches are mainly concerned with the specifics of each genre. The
general theory of translation is an interdisciplinary area, predominantly linguistic,
but also closely allied to philology, sociology, ethnography and etc.
It is based on
the application of linguistics theory to a specific type of speech behavior, i.e.
translating. It differs from contrastive linguistics in that the former seem to
compare different language systems with a view to determining their similarities
and distinctive feature while the theory of translation has a subject matter of its
own (the process of translation) and used the data of contrastive linguistics merely
as point of departure. The earliest linguistics theory of translation was developed
by Russian scholars Y.L.Retsker and A.V.Fedorov who pioneered in a linguistic
analysis of translation problems. Their theory came to be known as the theory of
regular correspondences. Translation, they agreed, is inconceivable without a
sound linguistic basis, and this study of linguistic phenomena and the
establishment of certain correspondences between the language of the original and
that of the translation. The authors of this theory were mainly concerned with the
typology of relationship between linguistic units equivalents – permanent
correspondences not sensitive to context such as The League of Nations – Лига
Наций, and context- Sensitive variant correspondence , such as Slander- клевета
нового поколения/ but also investigated some of the translation techniques, such
as antonymic translation (see below, thus mapping out some ways of dealing with
translation as a process). In the 60th some linguistics /N.U.Rozentsveig in Russia
and L.E.Nida in the USA/ proposed a theoretical model of translation based on
generative or transformational grammar. E.Nida subdivided the process of
translation into 3 stages; analysis where an ambiguous surface structure is
transformed into non- ambiguous kernel sentences to facilitated semantic
interpretation/ the foundation of school/ somebody founded a school or a school
has a foundation/ transfer where equivalent in the target language are found at a
kernel or near-kernel sentences are transformed into surface structures. It is true
that in some cases it is necessary to paraphrase the source – language structure to
facilitate its translation. Such transformations come in hardly especially when the
target – language, /e.g. he stood with his feet planted wide apart; he stood, his feet
were planted wide apart = Он стоял, его ноги были широко расставлены; он
стоял, широко расставив ноги.
But transformations in terms generative are not the only type of paraphrases
used in translation. What is more, in some cases, especially when close parallels
exist between the Source – and target language structures, they are not even
necessary. The structural model of translation is based on analysis in linguistics
developed others. It is based on the assumption the languages are somewhat
different sets of semantic components /constituents of meaning/ to describe
identical extra – linguistic situations, Russian verbs of motion contain the
component of move but not always the direction of movement while their English
equivalents are often neutral, the direction of / Вот он идёт – Here he comes /
Here he goes. The structural model provides some interesting insights into the
mechanism of translation, especially when a situation is described in a different
semantic categories of / проточный пруд and spring fed pond/ but does not seem
to apply to sentences going beyond mere description of a situation. Different
translation models complement each other and should therefore be combined in
analyzing of translation as a process. Translation is the expression in target
language of what has been said in source language preserving stylistic and
semantic equivalence.
Traditionally, translation may be orewed. As a interlingual communicative
act in which at least 3 participants are involved: the sender of source / the author of
the source language message/, the translator who acts individual capacity of the
receptor of the source – language message and as the sender of the equivalent
target – language / message /, and the receptor of the target – language
/translation/. If the original was not intended for a foreign- language receptor there
is one more participant: the source – language receptor for whom the message was
originally produced. Translation as such consists in producing a text / message / in
the target language, equivalent to the original text /message/ in the source
language. Translation as an interlingual communicative act includes 2 phrases:
communication between the sender and the translator and communication between
the translator and the receptor of the newly produced target – language text. In the
first phrase the translator acting as a source – language receptor, analysis the
original message. Extracting the information contained in it. In the second stage,
the translator acts as a target – language sender, producing an equivalent message
in the target – language and re – directing it to the target language receptor. In
producing the target – language text the translator changes its plane of expression
/linguistic form/ while its plane of context / meaning / should remain unchanged.
In fact, an equivalent / target – language / message, should match the original in
the plane of content. The message, produced by the translator, should make
practically the same response in the target – language receptor as the original
message in the source language receptor. That means, above all, that whatever the
text says and whatever it implies should be understood in the same way by both the
source – language used for whom it was originally intended and by the target –
language user. It is therefore the translator’s duty to make available to the target
language receptor the maximum amount of information carried by linguistic sighs,
including both their denotational / referential / meanings / i.e. information about
the extralinguistic reality which they denote / and their emotive – stylistic
connotation. However the information conveyed by linguistic signs alone, i.e. the
messages overtly expressed in the text, would not be sufficient for adequate
translation. Some linguists distinguish between what they call translation, based
palely on the meaning expressed by linguistic sighs, and involving recourse to
extralinguistic information. In fact, the two are very closely interwined and in most
cases effective translation is impossible without an adequate knowledge of the
speech – act situation and the situation described in the text. The phrase “Two on
the aisle” / Два места ближе к проходу/ would hardly make much sense unless it
is known that the conversation takes place at a box – office / speech act situation/.
The phrase “ Поворотом рычага установить момент поступления воздуха в
цилиндр” was translated “turn the handle until the air comes into the cylinder”
because the translator was familiar with the situation described in the text
knowledge of the subject is one of the prerequisites of an adequate translation. The
translation of technical and amount of technical and scientific knowledge.
The aim of professional translation is to acquaint the reader with the original
work of fiction; educational as a linguistic subject at the special institute and at
school in one of the methods of more conscious and profound study of the foreign
language by the way of showing up in the English text lexical, grammar and
stylistic peculiarities of the English language. Before speaking of the basic
principles of translating process the concept of the term “faithfulness of
translation” should be determined. The translation is considered to be faithful when
the content of the book, its stylistic peculiarities are rendered by the linguistic
means of the native language. It means that very often we have to use such
linguistic categories of the native language, which formally don’t coincide with
those of the English language but have the same emotional and psychological
effect on the Russian reader.
The process if education translation presents 4 stages:
1. First of all the text should be thoroughly understood. It means that the
student should be acquainted with the whole book, should have some
knowledge of the history of literature and mode of life of the people from
whose language the translation is being done.
2. The student should realize the stylistic functions of lexical ad grammar and
phonetic phenomena which are used to express the content of the text.
3. Then the work on the choice of corresponding means of expression in the
native language should be done.
4. The last is a work on the Russian or Uzbek text.
Any grammatical phenomena or stylistic peculiarities do not always coincide
with those of the foreign language as well as the meaning of the separate words
which are lexical equivalents. The main meaning of the English word “table”
coincides with that of the Russian language. But the Russian “стол” has one
additional meaning: “питание” “пансион” means while in English we have the
special words to express the idea:
“board”, ”room and board”. At same time English “table” has the additional
meaning to “таблица“.
The logical meaning of the word may be both independent and connected
with other words. The latter can be understood in the given combination of words.
A color bar – цветной / ярко окрашенный/ барьер was seen in the distance.
There exist a color bar (расовая дискриминация) in the South Africa.
A lot of words may acquire emotive meaning and the same word in different
sentences may be rendered by different words.
-China is a large country( страна )
-We are ready to die for our country(родина)
While translating one should take into consideration on that in different
languages the words which are lexical equivalents mat arouse quite different
associations. For Russians ‘‘зима’’ means snow and frost, for Englishmen – fog
and cold wind.
‘Она ходит павой перед ним’’- Дело Артамоновых.
For Russians ‘‘пава’’ arouses the idea of something beautiful, stately,
majestic, proud /a same – to величава, выступает будто пава –Пушкин /.
For Englishmen ‘‘peahen’’ has nothing in common with these associations.
That’s why it’s quite correct to translate the sentence as follows:
‘She poses proudly before him / to pose – позировать/
The meaning of the word shouldn’t be mixed with its use. The word in the
sentence may acquire so-called contextual meaning. It may be not constant, as a
rule we can’t find the contextual meaning of the word in the dictionary. But it
always has something in common with the main meaning of the word.
‘In the atomic war common and children will be first hostage.’’ The
dictionary gives only one meaning of the given word- ‘‘золотник’’, but in the
given sentence the word acquires a new meaning : ‘‘жертва’’. It’s a great
difficulty to find out the contextual meaning of the word as the dictionary only
gives hints how to search for the necessary word in our native town language. The
majority of the words are known to be polysemantic and the context becomes
especially important while translating polysemantic words as translating in
different languages is quite different. While translating one should remember he
may use the words not included in the dictionary because it’s impossible to include
in the dictionary all the correct meanings of the word, which it may acquire in the
context.
“He
was
developing
grammatical
nerves”-
У
него
развивалось
грамматическое чутьё.
We can find a lot of meanings of the word “nerves” “нервы, сила, мужество,
хладнокровие, дерзость, нахалство” but in our text it is rendered as “чутьё”.
The students are to make out that thoughts, reflections should be translated not
by separate words. So it’s quite possible and natural either to introduce some
words and even:
- I lit my candle at the watchman’s /Dickens/ - Я зажёг свою свечу от
фонаря ночного сторожа.
Sentences or omit them if one could manage without them. Beside finding the
exact meaning of the word the students should be able to choose the necessary
word from corresponding number of synonyms in the native language.
- “She was brave about it”.
“Brave” means “храбрый”, “смелый”, “благородный”, “прекрасный” sentence
and other words can be used in translating the given sentence and other words
should be given preference too: “отважный”, “мужественный”.
The English language is very rich in synonyms. Synonymous pairs are very
characteristic of the English language. They are more emhliatic.
- The week and humble Jewo. (“The Path of Thunder” page 80)
Those words which have similar form and meaning in different languages are
called international words. Some of them completely coincide in their meaning
/such as football, diplomacy, artillery/ some of them partially. They may be
different in their stylistic coloring e.g. “businessman”, “cosmopolitan” are neutral
in English while in Russia they have negative meaning. Some of them have
entirely different meaning.
The English language is very rich in neologisms – the word have been created
recently and perhaps will not live in the language for a long time. It is very seldom
that we find equivalent for the translation of neologisms and for the most part we
use descriptive translation and word-for-word translation /people of good will, top
level talks. We usually make out the meaning of the new words with the help of the
context, but it is also necessary to take into consideration the way of their
formation. The translation with the help of antonyms can’t be escaped in case of
different structure peculiarities of the English, Uzbek and Russian languages.
1. The combination of negative prefixes with negative particles – litotes/
widely used in English but not typical of the Russian language.
He was not unfriendly to a particular type of prisoner.
-“ Soames, with his set lips and his square chin, was not unlike a bulldog” /Galm.
The Man of Property/…
2. Negative conjunctions “until” and “unless” used with negation:
The United States didn’t enter the war until April 1917 – Соединённые Штаты
вступили в войну только в апреле 1917 г.
Although this is a theoretical subject we think that the following guidelines will
help the students to evaluate their own work on translation. Below are some
general principles which are relevant to all translation. The golden rule is: if the
idiom does work in the LI, do not force in into the translation. /The principles
outlined above are adopted from Frederic Fuller, the translator’s handbook.
This problem was briefly discussed in previous lecture in connection with the
distinction between semantic and programmatic equivalence. For instance:
V.G.Gark and I.N.Levin distinguish the following types of equivalents: formal
semantic and situational. Formal equivalence may be illustrated by speech cases
as: The sun disappeared behind a cloud – солнце скрылось за тучей.
Here we find similarity of words and forms in addition to the similarity. The
differences in the plain of expression are in fact, those determined by overall
structural differences between Russian and English. The use of articles in English,
the use of perfective aspect, gender, forms, etc., in Russian.
Semantic equivalence exists when the same meanings are expressed in the two
languages in a way. Example:
- Troops were airlifted to the battlefield – войска были переброшены по
воздуху на поле.
As to “situational equivalence” , it is in our view another variety of semantic
equivalence that differs from the fist type in that it is based on the same semantic
components may be semantically equivalent /a+b/=/c+d/, upside down вверх
ногaми. We shall therefore speak of two types of semantic equivalence;
componential /identity of semantic components/ and referential / referential
equivalence of semantic components/. The later is preferable to “situational
equivalence” for descriptions of the same situation are not necessary semantically
equivalent. Let us add to the definitions we have given so far a third which, in its
extended form, takes us directly into the problem we must address: the nature of
equivalence. Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one
language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. The
authors continue and make the problem of equivalence very plain.
It is apparent and has been for a very long time indeed, that the ideal of total
equivalence is a chimera. Languages are different from each other; they are
different in form, having distinct codes and rules regulating the construction of
grammatical stretches of language and these forms have different meaning. To
shift from one language into another is ,by definition, to alter the forms. Further,
the contrasting forms convey meanings which cannot but fail to coincide totally;
there is no absolute synonymy between words in the same language, so why should
anyone be surprised to discover a lack of synonymy between languages?
Something is always lost / or, might one suggest “gained”?/ in process and
translator can find themselves being accused of reproducing only part of original
and so “betraying” the authors intentions. Hence the traitorous nature ascribed to
the translator by the notorious Italian proverb: Traduttore traditore.
If equivalence is to be “preserved” at a particular level at all costs, which level
is to be? What are the alternatives? The answer, it turns out, hinges on the duel
nature of language itself. Language is a formal structure – a code – which consists
of elements which can combine to signal semantic “sense” and, at the same time, a
communication system which uses the forms of the code to refer entities /in the
word/ and create signals which possess communicative “value”. The translator has
the option, then, of focusing on finding formal equivalents which “preserve” the
context – free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive
communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic sense.
Each of these questions defines one or more parameters of variation. What is the
message content in the text; the content of the signal; the proposal content of the
speech act. These run the whole gamut from informing through persuading to
flattering… and, as we shall see, it is rare for a text to possess a single function.
Multiply functions are the norm rather than the exception for adult language sour
task as receivers of text, it is find out the primary function from those which are
secondary.
Pragmatic equivalence which implies a close fit between communicative
intent and the receptor’s response is required at all levels of equivalence. It may
sometimes appear alone, without formal or semantic equivalence, as in the case: С
днём рождения! – Many happy returns of the day!
The translator, as we have been saying, is by definition a communicator who
involved in written communication. We might, therefore, began by providing a
rough, general model of the process of written communication before moving on to
the special and particularly problematic process in which translator are involved.
The model of communication process may contain 9 steps which take us from
encoding the message through its transmission and reception to the decoding of the
message by the receiver.
Monolingual communications. Even with this limitations, however, it
contains within it the elements and process which need to be explained and raises a
large number of questions which require an answer. One of the two texts / the
original and its translation should be semantically equivalent sets a relationship
between the linguistic science and their denotata (referents). The goal of translation
is to produce a text, bearing the same relation to the extralinguistic situation as the
original. Semantic equivalence of message does not necessary to imply semantic
identify of each linguistic sign. Semantically equivalent utterances include not only
those, made up of the semantically identical signs/ as for instance, He lives in Paris
- U Parijda yashaydi, but also utterances comprising different sets of signes which
in the theory totality at up denotates the same types of relationship to the
extralinguistic world and denotate the same extralinguistic situation (e.g. Wet pain
– Ehtiyot bo’ling. Bo’yalgan).
Semantic relation effect translation both in the initial stage of analysis and in
producing the target – language text of the translator to as distinct from semantic
relations, syntactic relations are important only at the stage of analysis since
relations between linguistic sings are essential for their semantic interpretation
(e.g. Bill hits John and John hits Bill). But also they may be occasionally preserved
in translation, the translator does not set himself this goal, very often and
syntactically non-equivalent utterances prove to be semantically equivalent: He
was considered invisible –Uni yengilmas hisoblashardi.
Pragmatic relations are superimposed on semantic relations and play an equally
important role in analyzing the original text, and in producing an equivalent text in
the target language. Semantically equivalent message do not necessary mean the
same thing to the source and target language receptors, and therefore are not
necessary pragmatically equivalent. The phrases “He made 15 yard and run” –
“U 15 yardga sakradi ” are semantically equivalent for they denote the same
situation but the American reader, familiar with American football will extract far
more information from it then Uzbek counterpart who would neither understand
the aim of the manourre nor appreciate the football player’s performance. The
pragmatic problem, involved in translation, arise from three types of pragmatic
relations. The relation of the source – language sender to the original message; the
relation of the target – language receptor to the target – language message and
relation both messages.
The first type of relations is amount to the sender’s communicative intent or the
pragmatic motivation of the original message. The translator, in the words, should
be aware whether the message is a statement of fact a request, an entreaty or a
joke. Very often the speaker’s communicative intent differs from what of fact in
which case it would be translated as “Меn bilmayman” but also expression or
hesitation “Sizga nima desam ekan?” “What gives?” in American slang may either
a question “Nima yangiliklar bor?” or just a greeting “Салом”. “Is Mr.Brown
there, please” is not a question but a distinguished request “Тelefonga janob
Braunni chaqirib yuborsangiz”.
Typically, in written translation the translator deals with the text, not intended
for target – language audience and therefore subject to pragmatic adaptations.
Allowances are made for sociocultural; psychological and other differences in their
background knowledge.
According to E.Nida / Linguistics and ethnology in translation problems/
Language in culture and society; Language structure and translation./ , “snow”white is translated into one of the African languages as a feathers of a “white
heron”. Pragmatic factors mat effect the scope of semantic information conveyed
in translating. Differences in background knowledge call for the addition of
deletion of some information / e.g. “Part of the nuclear station in Cuberland has
been closed down”- “Кaberlend elektrostansiyasidagi atom elektrostansiyasining
bir qismi yopilgan edi”; “According to Newsweek” – “Nyusvik jurnalining xabar
berishicha”/. Some cultural realize may be translated by their functional analogies
/Amerika imperializmining jandarmi – a watchdog of US imperialism – from story
about the 7th US Fleet/
Another pragmatic factor relevant to translation, is the socio-psychological and
ideological orientation of the translator himself. Translation is a process,
determined by quite a number of factors. In addition to conveying the semantic
information, contained in the text, the detonational meanings and emotive-stylistic
connotations, the translator has to take into account the author’s communicative
intent the type of an audience for which the message is intended knowledge. Such
an imposition generally results when the creator of the metaphor finds in the two
corresponding objects certain features which to his eye have something in
common.13
The idea that metaphor is based on similarity or affinity of two (corresponding)
objects or nations is, as I understand it, erroneous. The two objects are identified
and the fact that a common feature is pointed to and made prominent does not
make them similar. The notion of similarity can be carried on ad absurd; for
example animals and human beings, move, breath, eat, etc., but if one of these
features, i.e. movement, breathing, is pointed to in animals and at the same time in
human beings, the two objects will not necessarily cause the notion of affinity.
Identification should not be equated to resemblance. Thus in the following
metaphor:
“Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still” (Bayron) the notion Mother arouses in
the mind the actions of nursing, weaning, caring for, etc. where the notion “Nature
does not. There is no true similarity, but there is a kind of identification. There it is
better to define metaphor as the power of realizing two lexical meanings
simultaneously”.
Due to this power metaphor is one of the most potent means of creating images.
An image is a sensory perception of an abstract notion already existing in the mind.
Consequently, to create an image means to bring a phenomenon from the highly
abstract to the essentially concrete. Thus the example given above where the two
concepts, Mother and Nature are brought together in the replay of their meanings,
13
Croft W. The role of domains in the interpretation of metaphors and metonymies
//Cognitive linguistics 4, 1993
brings up the image of Nature materialized into but not likened to the image of
Mother.
The identification is clearly observed when the metaphor is embodied either in
an attributive word, as in pearly teeth, voiceless sounds or in a predicative wordcombination, as in the example with Nature and Mother.
But the identification of different movements will not be easily perceived
because there is no explanatory unit. Let us look at this sentence.
“In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window the dust danced
and was golden”. “O.Wilde”
The movement of dust particles is seem to the eye of the writer to be regular and
orderly like the movements in dancing. What happens practically is that our mind
runs into parallel lines: the abstract and the concrete i.e. movement (of any kind)
and dancing (a definite kind).
Sometimes the process of identification can hardly be decoded. Here is a
metaphor embodied in an adverb:
“The leaves fell sorrowfully”.
The movement of falling leaves is probably identified with the movement of
human being experiencing some kind of distress-people swing their bodies or
heads to and from when in this state of mind. One can hardly perceive any
similarity in the two kinds of movements which are by the force of the writer’s
imagination identified.14
14
Camac M. & Glucksberg S. Metaphors do not use associations between concepts, they
create them //Journal of psycholinguistic research, 13, 1984
Generally speaking, one feature out of the multitude of features of an object
found in common with a feature of another object will not produce resemblance.
This idea worded best of all in Word worth’s famous lines:
“To find affinities in objects in which no brotherhood exists to passive minds”.
Here is recognition of the unlimited power of the poet in finding common
features in heterogeneous objects.
Metaphorization can also be described as an attempt to be precise, as
J.Meddieton Murry thinks. But this precision is of an emotional and aesthetic
character and not logical. This is what Middleton Murry writes:
“Try to be precise and you are bound to be metaphorical; you simply cannot
help establishing affinities between all the provinces of the animate and inanimate
world”.
Metaphors, like all stylistic devices, can be classified according to their degree
of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors, which are absolutely unexpected, i.e. are quite
unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those, which are commonly used in
speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as expressive means
of language in dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors or
dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is apparent. Genuine metaphors
belong to the language- as- system, i.e. language proper, and a usually fixed in
dictionaries as the unit of the language.
V.V.Vinogradov states:
“… a metaphor, if it is a cliché, is an act of establishing an individual world
outlook, it is an act of subjective isolation … Therefore a world metaphor is
narrow, subjectively enclosed, … it imposes on the reader a subjective view of the
object or phenomenon and its semantic ties”.15
15
Виноградов В.В. Стилистика. Теория поэтической речи. М.,1963
The examples given above may serve a illustrations of genuine metaphors. Here
are some examples of metaphors that are considered trite. There are time – worn
and well rubbed into the language: “a ray of hope”, “floods of tears”, “a gleam of
mirth”, “a shadow of smile” and the like.
The interaction of the logical dictionary meaning and the logical contextual
meaning assumes different forms. Sometimes this interaction is perceived as a
deliberate interplay of the two meanings/ in this case each of the meanings
preserves its relative independence. Sometimes, however, the metaphoric use of a
word begins to affect the source meaning, i.e. the meaning from which the
metaphor is derived, with the result that the target meaning, that is, the metaphor
itself, takes the upper hand may even oust the source meaning. In this case we
speak of dead metaphors.
In such words as to melt (away) as in “these misgivings gradually melted
away”, we can still recognize remnants of the original meaning and in spite of the
fact that the meaning “to vanish”, “to disappear” is already fixed in dictionaries as
one the derivative meanings, the primary meaning still makes itself felt.
Trite metaphors are sometimes injected with new vigor, i.e. their primary
meaning is re-established a long side the new meaning. This is done by supplying
the central image created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some
reference to the mean word. For example: “Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance
and corked it down”. The verb “to bottle up” is explained in dictionaries as follows
“to beer in check (Perguan Dictionary”); to conceal, to restrain, rep. Ress”
(“cassel’s New English Dictionary”). The metaphor in the word can be hardly felt.
But it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb ”to cork down”. This context
refreshes the almost dead metaphor and dives it a second life. Such metaphor is
called sustained or prolonged. Here is another example of a sustained metaphor:
“Mr. Dombey’s cup of satisfaction was so full at this moment, however, that he felt
he could afford or two its contexts, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his
little daughter” (Dickens “Dombey and son”).
We may call the principal metaphor the central image of the sustained
metaphor and the other words which bear reference to the central image –
contributory images. Thus, in the example given word cup (of satisfaction) being a
trite metaphor is revived by the following contributory images: full, drop, contents,
sprinkle. It is interesting to note that the words conveying both the central image
and the contributory images are used in used in two senses simultaneously: direct
and indirect. The second plane of utterance is maintained by the key word –
satisfaction. It is the word that helps us to decipher the idea behind the sustained
metaphor.
Sometime, however, the central image is not given, but string of words all
bearing upon some implied central point of reference are so associated with each
other that the reader is bound to create the required image in his mind. Let us take
the following sentence from Shakespeare:
“I have no spur to prick the side of my intent”. The words spur, to prick, the
sides in their interrelation will inevitably create the image of a steed, with which
the speaker’s intent is identified.
The same is to be seen in the following lines from Shelley’s “Cloud”:
“In a cavern under is fettered the thunder
It struggle and howls at fits.”
Here the central image – that of a captive beast – is suggested by the
contributory images – are fettered, struggles and howls.
The metaphor is often defined as a compressed simile. But this definition lacks
precision. Moreover, it is misleading; in as much as the metaphor aims at
identifying the objects, while the simile aims at finding some point of recumbence
by keeping the objects apart. That is why these two stylistic devices are viewed as
belonging to two different groups of SDs. They are different in their linguistic
nature.16
True, the degree of identification of objects or phenomena in a metaphor varies
according to its syntactic function in the sentence and to the part of its syntactic
function in the sentence and to the part of speech in which it is embodied.
Indeed, in the sentence “Expression in the dress of thought we can hardly see
any process of identification between the concepts expression and dress where as
in the lines”.
Yet Time, who changes all, had altered him
In save and aspect as in age: years steal.
Fire from the mind as vigor from the limb
And Life’s enchanted cup but sparkles near the brim.
(Byron “Childe Harold”)17
The metaphors steal, fire, cup, brim embodied in verbs and nouns not used
predicative can be regarded as fully identified with the concepts they aim at
producing. Genuine metaphors are mostly to be found in poetry and emotive prose.
Trite metaphors are generally used as expressive means in newspaper, articles, in
oratorical style and even in scientific language. The use of trite metaphors should
not be regarded drawback of style. They help the writer to enliven his work and
even make the meaning more concrete.
There is constant interaction between genuine and trite metaphors. Genuine
metaphors, if they are good and can stand the test of time, may through frequent
16
Арутюнова Н.Д. Метафора и дискурс/теория метафоры. М.,1990
17
Hawkes T. Metaphor. London, 1972
repetition, become trite and consequently easily predictable. Trite metaphors, as
has been shown, may regain their freshness through the process of prolongation of
the metaphor.
Metaphors may be sustained not only on the basis of a trite metaphor. The
initial metaphor may be genuine and may also be developed through a number of
contributory images so that the whole of the utterance becomes one sustained
metaphor. A skillfully written example of such a metaphor is to be found in
Shakespeare’s Sonnet No.24.
Mine eye hath play’d the painter and hath stell’d
Thy beauty’s form in table of my heart
My body is the frame where in this’ held
And perspective it is best painter’s art18
In conclusion it would be of interest to show the result of the interaction
between the dictionary and contextual meanings.
The contrast use of a metaphor gradually leads to the breaking up the primary
meaning. The metaphoric use of the word begins to affect the dictionary meaning,
adding to it fresh connotation or shades of meaning. But this influence, however
strong it may be, will never reach the degree the dictionary meaning entirely
disappears. If it did, we should have no stylistic device. It is a law of stylistics that
in a stylistic device the stability of the dictionary meaning is always retained, no
matter how great the influence of the contextual meaning may be.
b. Metonymy
18
Searle J. Metaphor //Metaphor & thought. Cambridge. 1993
Metonymy is based on different type of relation between the dictionary and
contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of
association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent.
Thus, the word crown may stand for “king or queen”, cup or glass for “the
drink it contains”, woolsack for Chancellor of the Exchequer who sits on it.
Here also the interrelation between the dictionary and contextual meanings
should stand out clearly and conspicuously. Only then can we state that a stylistic
device is used. Otherwise we must turn our mind to lexicological problems, i.e. to
the ways and means by which new words and meanings are coined. The examples
of metonymy given above are traditional. In fact they are derivative logical
meanings and therefore fixed in dictionaries. However, when such meanings are
included in dictionaries, there is usually a label fig (‘figurative use’). This shows
that the new meaning has not replaced the primary one, but, as it were, co-exists
with it.
Still the new meaning has become so common, that it is easily predictable and
therefore does not bear any additional information, which is an indispensable
condition for an SD.
Here are some more widely used metonymical meanings, some which are
already fixed in dictionaries without the label fig: the press for (the personnel
connected with) a printing or publishing establishing establishment or for “the
newspaper and periodical literature which is printed by the printing press”. The
bench is used as a generic term for “magistrates and justices”. A hand is used for a
worker; the cradle stands for infancy, earliest stages, and the grave stands for
death.19
19
Анашкина Е. В. Дискурсивный аспект функционирования стилистического приема
метонимии (на материале англоязычной художественной прозы). М, 2003
Metonymy used language – in – action, i.e. contextual metonymy, is genuine
metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, or
one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression produced by a
chance feature of the thing, fox example:
“Miss Tox’s hand trembled as she slipped it through Mr.Dombey’s arm and
felt herself escorted up the steps, preceded by a cocked hat and a Babylonian
collar”.20
“A cooked hat and a Babylonian collar” stand for the wearer of the articles in
question. One can hardly admit that there is a special characterizing function in
such a substitution. The function of these examples of genuine metonymy is more
likely to point out the insignificance of the weather rather than his importance, for
his personality is reduced to his externally conspicuous features, the hat and red
collar.
Here is another example of genuine metonymy:
“Then they came in. Two of them, a man with long fair moustaches and a silent
dark man … Definitely the moustache and I had nothing in common”. (Doris
Lessing, ‘Retreat to innocence’.)
Again we have a feature of a man which catches the eyes, in this case his
facial appearance, the moustache stands for the man himself. The function of the
metonymy here is to indicate that the speaker knows nothing of the man in
question, moreover, there is a definite implication that this is the first time the
speaker has seen him.
Here is another example of the same kind:
20
Croft W. The role of domains in the interpretation of metaphors and metonymies
//Cognitive linguistics 4, 1993
“There was something so very agreeable in being so intimate with such a
waistcoat; in being on such off-hand terms so soon with such a pair of whiskers
that Tom was uncommonly pleased with himself”. (Dickens, “Hard Times”.)
In these two cases of genuine metonymy a broader context than that required by
a metaphor is necessary in order to decipher the true meaning of the stylistic
device. In both cases it is necessary to understand the words in their proper
meanings first. Only then it is possible to grasp the metonymy.
In the following example the metonymy ‘grape’ also requires a broad context:
“And this is stronger than the strongest grape
Could e’er express in its expanded shape”
(Byron)
Metonymy and metaphor differ also in the way they are deciphered. In the
process of disclosing the meaning implied in a metaphor, one image excludes the
other, that is, the metaphor “lamp” in the “The sky lamb of the night”, when
deciphered, means the moon, and through there is a definite interplay of meanings,
we perceive only one object, the moon. This is not the case with metonymy.
Metonymy, while presenting one object to our mind, does not exclude the other. In
the example given above the moustache and man himself are both perceived by the
mind.
Many attempts have been mud to pin-point the types of relation which
metonymy is based on. Among them the following are most common.
A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion. In this the thing becomes a
symbol of the notion, as in
“The camp, the pulpit and the law
For rich men’s sons are free”
(Shelley)
The container instead of the thing contained
“The hall applauded”
“The relation of game table was boisterous and happy”
The material instead of the thing mad of it, as in
“The market spoke”
The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the
action or the himself, as in:
“Well, Mr.Weller, says the gentleman, you are a very good whip, and can
do what you like with your horses, we know” (Dickens)
“As the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should it be the
last ” (Byron)
The list is in no way complete. There are many other types of relations which
may serve as basis for metonymy.
It must also be noted that metonymy, being a means of building up imagery,
generally concerns concrete objects, which are generalized. The process of
generalization is easily carried out with the help of the definite article.
This is probably due to the fact that any definition of a word may be taken for
metonymy, in as much as it shows a property or an essential quality of the concept,
thus disclosing a kind of regarded part of it.
Difference between Metaphor and metomomy
Metaphor and metonymy are both figures of speech where one word may be used
in place of another.
Metonymy may be instructively contrasted with metaphor. Both figures involve the
substitution of one term for another. In metaphor, this substitution is based on
similarity, while in metonymy, the substitution is based on contiguity.
Metaphor example: That man is a pig (using pig instead of unhygienic person. An
unhygienic person is like a pig, but there is no contiguity between the two).
Metonymy example: The White House supports the bill (using The White House
instead of the President. The President is not like The White House, but there is
contiguity between them).21
Chapter 3 The usage and importance of metaphor and metonymy in the
novel “A Farewell To Arms” by E. Hemingway
3.1 The usage of Metaphor and Metonymy in the novel
“A Farewell to Arms” by E. Hemingway
In this part I want to write my examples which I’ve found from the novel
“A Farewell to Arms”. As you know Ernest Hemingway, as a master of words,
used many expressive means and stylistic devices in his novel. He wrote his works
in such way because of expressiveness and impressiveness of novels. And I have
worked only with metaphor and metonymy as my research work is about them.
Firstly I would like write metaphors:
21
Croft W. The role of domains in the interpretation of metaphors and metonymies
//Cognitive linguistics 4, 1993
1.“In the bed of the river, there were pebbles and boulders, dry and write in
the sun, and the water was clear and swiftly moving and blue in the channels ”.
In this sentence ‘the bed of the river’ is a metaphor. Because the word ‘a bed’
is a piece of furniture and Hemingway used this word for river, meaning ‘the
bottom of river’.
2.“Troops went by the house and down the road and the dust they raised
powdered the leaves of the trees”.
The word ‘powdered’ is used for ‘dust’ and I find it as metaphor. It is
“personification” because ‘dust’ can’t do any action. But the writer used as the
person.
3.“The trunks of the trees too were dusty and the leaves fell early that year and
we saw the troops marching along the road and the dust rising and leaves, stirred
by the breeze, falling and the soldiers marching and afterwards the road bare and
white except for the leaves”.
In this sentence the word ‘bare’ used for road with nobody or nothing on. The
real meaning of ‘bare’ is ‘without clothing, covering, protection, or decoration’.
But we say “bare road” the meaning is ‘the road without anybody or anything
on’.
4.“The vineyards were thin and bare- branched too and all the country wet
and brown and dead with the autumn”.
In this sentence there are two metaphors “bare - branched” and “dead”. The
writer wrote about vineyards “bare – branched” as he wanted to write “vineyards
were without leaves”.
The second metaphor is “dead”. The writer used this word for ‘country’, but
this word is in inanimate, because of it I find the word dead metaphorical
personification.
5.At the foot of the bed was my flat trunk, and my winter boots, the leather
shiny with oil, were on the trunk.
In this sentence the word “foot” is metaphor. This word is the part of body of
animate objects. Here it is used for ‘bed’. That’s why it is personification.
6.They were top – heavy blunt- nosed ambulances, painted grey and built like
moving –vans.
In this sentence the word “blunt - nosed” is metaphor. This word is the part
of face of animate beings. Here it is used for “ambulances”.
7.I went along the narrow road down towards the river, left the car of the
dressing-station under the hill, crossed the pontoon bridge, and went through the
trenches in the smashed down town and along the edge of the slope, the bridge was
protected by a shoulder of the mountain.
In this sentence the writer used the word “shoulder” for mountain. The
“shoulder” as the part of mountain used here, but its dictionary meaning is the part
of body.
8.It took the enamel off your teeth and left it on the roof of your mouth.
In this sentence the word “roof” is used for mouth, but its dictionary meaning
is “the higher part house”. The writer found the likeness between the higher part of
the mouth and the higher part of the house. So, I find it as metaphor.
9. “The saint hung down on the outside of my uniform and I undid the throat of
my tunic, unbuttoned the shirt and dropped him under the shirt”.
The dictionary meaning of the “throat” is “the front part of the neck”. By the
combination “the throat of the tunic” we can understand “the collar of the tunic”.
That’s why it becomes a metaphor.
10. “We were in the foot-hills on the near side of the river and as the road
mounted there were the high mountains off to the north with snow still on the tops.
In this sentence the word “foot” is used for “hill”. Dictionary meaning of this
word is “part forming the lover and of the leg”, contextual meaning is “lower part
of the hill”.
11. Beyond the mule train the road was empty and we climber through the hills
and then went over the shoulder of a long hill into the river-valley”.
This sentence also has such kind of metaphor but here instead of “foot” used
“shoulder”. Dictionary meaning of this word is “that part of body of a human
being or animal where an arm foreleg is joined to the trunk, or where the wing of a
bird going its neck”, contextual meaning is “the higher part of hills but not the
top”. The writer found likeness between these two meanings.
12. “The road went up to the valley a long way and then we turned off and
commenced to climb into the hills again”.
Here the “road” described as an animate abject. But we know it is inanimate
thing, so the combination “the road vent up” is metaphorical personification.
13. The road climbed steeply going up and back and forth through chestnut
woods to lever finally along a ridge.
This sentence is also like the last one a foresaid. Difference is that “the road
climbed” not “went up”. We can give to this sentence such of definition as above
mentioned one.
Here I like to deign example for metonymy.
1. “Sometimes in the dart we heart the troops marching under the window and
guns going”.
As we know about metonymy I find “guns” as metonymy. The whole used
instead of the part.
2. “In the fall when the rains came the leaves all fell from the chestnut tress and
the branches were bare and the trunks with rain”.
Nowadays we always se the word “fall” instead of “autumn”. The original
meaning of this word is “come or go down freely”. In autumn leaves of trees fall
down. That’s why autumn is called is “fall” is the part of autumn. So, I check it as
metonymy.
In this sentence metaphor is used too. The word “bare” used for “trunks”. The
dictionary meaning is “without clothing, covering, protection or decoration,
contextual meaning is “without leaves”.
3. The river ran behind us and the town had been captured very handsomely,
but the mountains beyond it could not be taker and I was very glad the
Qustrians seemed to want to come back to the town some time, if the war
should end, because they did not bombard it to destroy it, but only a military
way”.
Here “us” is used as metonymy. Because, “the river ran not behind us but the
place where we were living”. “We (us)” is the part of the living place.
In this sentence there is also metaphor. The expression “river ran” has the word
“run” which is used for animate objects or human being in its dictionary meaning.
But for the “river” it used from old times. That’s why we can tell it “trite
metaphor”:
4. “When you come back bring a photo graph?”
“Bring good opera disks”
“Don’t bring Caruso. He bellows”.
We know that “Caruso” is the name of a person, proper noun. It is a direct
meaning. But in contextual meaning it lost its value as a proper noun it became
common noun. By context we can understand that the meaning is about opera disks
sung by the singer Caruso. The author’s used name used for his work. The whole
used for the part.
5. “I had gone to no such place but to the smoke of café’s and nights”.
In this sentence metonymy is “smoke of cafes and nights”. “Smoke is used for
“cafes”, but we known that “café’s can’t make smoke, it is done instead of part.
That’s why it is metonymy.
6. “The battery in the next garden woke me the morning and I saw the sun
coming through the window and got out of bed”.
The word “battery” is used instead of the sounds of bangs which were made
by battery guns”. The second metonymy in the sentence is “the sun” used instead
of instead of the part.
7. “The saint hung down on the outside of my uniform and I undid the throat of
my tunic, unbuttoned the shirt collar and dropped him under the shirt.
Dictionary meaning of the word is “holy person”: contextual meaning is
“medial” or “capsule” with the picture of the saint on it. Metonymy is used here.
3.2 The translations of metaphor and metonymy
from English into Uzbek and Russian
1.In the bad of the river were pebbles and boulders, dry and white in the sun,
and the water was clear and swiftly moving and blue in the channels.
- Metaphor (P-3)
Daryoning o’zagi oftobda oqargan, quruq qayrag’ochlar va mayda shag’al bilan
qoplagan, daryo shahobchalarida esa suv tip-tiniq va ko’m-ko’k bo’lib, sho’h
shaldirab olib borazdi.22
Русло реки устилали----и----сухие и белые на солнце вода была прозрачная и
быстрая и совсем голубая в протокаx.
2.Troops went by the house and down the road and the dust they raised
powdered the leaves if the trees.
Kulba oldidagi yo’ldan qo’shinlar o’tib borar ularning oyog’idan ko’tarilgan
to’zon yog’ochlarning barglariga o’tirardi.
По дороге мимо домика или войска, и пыль которую они поднимали, садилась
на листья деревьев.
3.“The trunks of the trees too were dusty and the leaves fell early that year and
we saw the troops marching along the road and the dust rising and leaves, stirred
by the breeze, falling and the soldiers marching and afterwards the road bare and
white except for the leaves”
- Metaphor – (P.3)
Ogohlarning shoxlari ham rangga burkangandi, o’sha yili yaproqlar erta to’kila
boshlagandi, biz bo’lsa, yo’ldan qo’shinlarning o’tib borishini, changto’zonning ko’kka o’rmalashini, shamol yaproqlarni yulkib-sulkib o’girib
ketayotganini, soldatlarning odimlarini, so’ng esa kimsasiz, bo’m-bo’sh tuproq
yo’lda yolg’iz yaproqlargina to’kilib yotishini tomosha qilardik.
Стволы деревьев тоже были покрыты пылью, и листья рано начали
опадать в тот год, и мы смотрели, как идут по дороге войска, и клубится
пыль и падают листья, подхваченные ветром и шагают солдаты, а потом
только листья остаются лежать на дороге, пустой и белой.
22
I.G'afurov (tarjimasi) “Alvido qurol” T.:1987
4.Sometimes in the dark he heard the troops marching under the window and
guns going past pulled by motor-tractors.
- metonymy – (P-3)
Ba’zida qorong’uda derazadan qo’shinlarning o’tib borishini, to’p-to’pxonalar
tortib kelayotganini eshitib kelardi.
Иногда в темноте он слышал как под его окнами проходят войска и тягаги
везут мимо нас орудия.
5. In the fall when the rains came the leaves all fell from the rains come the
leaves all fell from the chestnut trees and the branches were bare and the
trunks black with rain.
- fall – metonymy
-bare – metaphor
Kuz kirib, yomg’ir ketidan yomg’ir quyib bergach, kashtanlarning yaproqlari
duv-duv to’kildilarda, shohlari qip-yalang’och bo’lib qoldilar, daraxtlarning
tepalari yomg’irdan qorayib ketdi.
Осенью, когда начались дожди, с каштанов облетели все листья, и ветки
оголились и стволы почернели от дождя.
6. The vineyards were thin and bare-branched too and all the country wet and
brown and dead with the autumn.
- metaphor (P-2)
Tokzorlarning ham orasi ochilib, quruq novdalargina qoldi, tevarak – atrof
qo’ng’ir tusga kirdi, hammayoq rutubat, kuzgi so’lg’inlikka cho’mdi.
Виноградники тоже поредели и оголились и всё кругом было мокрое, и бурое,
и мёртвое по-осеннему.
7. The river ran behind us and the town had been captured very handsomely,
but the mountains beyond it could not be taken I was very glad the Austrians
seemed to want to come back to the town sometime, if the war should end,
because they did not bombard it to destroy but only a little in a military way.
- metonymy (P-4)
Daryo bizning ortimizda oqardi, shaharni ham osongina qo’lga kiritdik lekin
nariroqdagi tog’larni ishg’ol qila olmadik, men shunisiga xursand edimki,
avstraliyaliklar qachondir urush tugasa, qaytib boramiz-ku, degan o’y bo’lsa
kerak, shaharni aytarlik bombardimon qilishmas, yo’liga po’pisa qilib
qo’yardilar xolos.
Река протекла позади нас и город заняли без всякого труда, но горы за
ним не удавалось взять и я был очень рад что австрийцы, как видно,
собирались вернуться в город когда-нибудь, если окончиться война, потому
что они бомбардировали его не так, чтобы разрушить а только слегка для
порядка.
8. “When you come back bring a photograph”
“Bring good opera disks”
“Bring Caruso”
- Metonymy
- Metaphor (P-7)
- Qaytib kelayotganingizda grammofon ola keling.
-
Yahshi opera plastinkalaridan obkeling
-
Karuzoni obkeling
- Karuzo kerak emas, uvillaydi.
- Когда будете возвращаться, привезите граммофон.
- Привезите Крузо
- Крузо не привозите. Он воет
9. At the foot of the bed was my flat trunk, and my winter boots, the leather
shiny with oil, were on the trunk.
- Metaphor – (P-8)
- Karavotning oyoq tomonida sandiqcham, sandiqcham ustida ega yiltiratib
moylab qo’yilgan qishlik etigimni turadi.
- В ногах кровати стоял мой сундучок, а на сундучке мои зимние сапоги,
блестевшие от жира.
10. I had gone to no such peace but to the smoke of cafés and night … .
- Metonymy – (p-10)
Shungaq joylarga bormadimu tutunga to’gan qaxvaxonalarga, … bordim.
Я не поехал в такие места, а поехал туда, где дымные кафе и ночи, …
11.The battery in the next garden we me in the morning and I saw the sun
coming through the window and got out of bed.
- metonymy
Ertabalab meni qo’shni bog’dagi batareya uyg’utib yubordi. Derazadan quyosh
charaqlab tushib turardi. O’rnimdan turdim.
Утром меня разбудила батарея в соседнем саду и я увидел, что в окно
солнце, и встал с постели
12. They were top-heavy, blunt-nosed ambulances, painted grey and build like
moving-vans.
- metaphor –(P-11)
Bular oldi to’mtoq, kuzoblari baxaybat, och rangga bo’yalgan, mebel tashiydigan
furgonlarga o’hshash sanitar mashinalar bor edi.
Это было тупоносные с громоздким кузовом, санитарные автомобили,
выкрашенные в серое, похожие на мебельные фургоны,
13. It took the enamel off your teeth and left it on the roof of your mouth.
U tishlarimizning sirlarini ko’chirib, tanglayimizga epishtirib qo’ymoqda edi.
Оно снимало с зубов эмаль и оставляло её на нёбе.
14. The saint Antony was is a little white metal capsule.
- metonymy (P-32)
Avliyo Antoniy oq metaldan ishlangan kichkina medalonga joylashgan edi.
Святой Антоний был в маленьком медальоне из белого метала.
15. The saint hung down on the outside of my uniform I find the throat pf my
tunic, unbuttoned the shirt collar and dropped him in under the shirt.
- Metonymy –
- Metaphor – (P-32)
Avliyo xarbiy fringim ustida turib qoldi, men yoqamni ochib,ko’ylagimning
yoqasini boshatdim-da, avliyo Antoniyni ichimga solib qo’ydim.
Святой Антоний повис на моём форменном френге, и я раскрыл ворот,
отстегнул воротник рубашки.
16. We were in the foot-hills on the near side of the river and as the road
mounted there were the high mountains off to the north with snow still on the
tops.
- Metonymy – (P-32)
Biz daryo tomondan tog’ etagi bilan ketmoqda edik, yo’l yuqorilagach, shimol
tomanda baland qorli cho’qqilar ko’rindi.
Мы ехали по предгорью со стороны реки, и когда дорога забралась выше, на
севере показались высокие горы, на которых уже лежал снег.
Conclusion
Cognitive linguists argue that emotions are not devoid of conceptual content;
rather, they have a complex conceptual structure and reveal various nontrivial
inferences. It is believed that conventional expressions reflect enduring conceptual
patterns such as metaphors and metonymies. For that reason, conventional
expressions have been studied systematically with a view to search out underlying
conceptual structure. Within cognitive linguistics, conventional expressions are
furnished as linguistic evidence for the existence of conceptual patterns. Idioms are
one conspicuous type of conventional expressions. They frequently suggest the
particular emotion or attitude of the person using them. It is well-known that many
idioms are metaphorical or metonymical, instantiating underlying conceptual
patterns. In conclusion we may say that this qualification paper is dedicated to the
study of the most important and disputable branches of linguistics.
The subject matter of the qualification paper is the branches is the study of
which is considered to be one of the lexical devices.
1) To study the problem of metaphor and metonymy;
2) To differ its translation in both language Uzbek and Russian;
3) To analyze metaphor and metonymy in there (related and non-related)
languages :English, Uzbek and Russian;
4) To show the main peculiarities of translation as a result of analyzed
examples an this qualification paper.
The method used in this qualification paper is linguistic analysis-contextual and
situative analysis for reveling the information value of metaphor and metonymy
and its stylistic functions. We have used comparative methods while analyzing the
translations done into Uzbek and Russian.
The main materials of the qualification paper are the examples taker from the
novel “A farewell to Arms” by Ernest Hemingway, its Uzbek (“Alvido qurol”
Ibrohim G’afurov tarjimasi) and Russian (“Прощай оружие”) translations.
The novelty of this qualification paper that we have the ways of translations of
metaphor and metonymy in related and non-related languages.
The theoretical value of this qualification paper is the theoretical position of the
paper can be used in lectures on “The theory of translation”, “Stylistic and text
interpretation”, “Lexicology” and others.
The practical value of this qualification paper is the examples gathered on the
theme and practical results and conclusions can be used at seminars an “The theory
of translation”, “Stylistic”, “Practical translation”, “Interpretation”, “Lexicology”
and so on.
The structure of this qualification paper is as follows: Introduction, three
chapters, conclusion and bibliography.
Introduction deals with the description of the structure, aim, task, methods and
actuality of the work.
The first chapter deals with the theoretical notion of stylistics in modern
English. The subject of linguistic stylistics is confined to the study of the effects
of the message, its impacts on the reader. In this chapter we also doffed all
expressive means and stylistic devices of language. The main constituting
feature of a stylistic is the binary opposition of two meanings of the employed
unit, one of which is normatively fixed in the language does not depend upon
the context, while the other one originates within context and is contextual.
The second chapter deals with lexical stylistic devices, which the semantic
and stylistic analysis of metaphor and metonymy, and their classification and
used in the language. Stylistic devices based on the binary opposition of lexical
meanings regardless of the syntactical organization of the utterance – lexical
stylistic devices.
Various objects, phenomena, actions may posses similar features, which
fact provider the possibility of transference of meaning on the basis of
similarity and association, i.e. metaphor.
At the of the bed there was my flat trunk my winter boots.
Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects and
is thus based on their contiguity.
“Bring good opera discs, bring Caruso”
The third chapter is devoted to the practical analysis of metaphor and
metonymy used in the novel “A Farewell to Arms” by Ernest Hemingway, their
translation and comparative analysis of these sentences.
I undid the throat of tunic and unbuttoned the shirt collar. (Ernest Hemingway,
“A Farewell to Arms”, page 32 (Metaphor))
Men yoqqamni ochdim va ko’ylagimning yoqasini bo’shatdim. (“Alvido qurol”
Ibrohim G’afurov tarjimasi, 51-bet)
Я раскрыл ворот и отстегнул рубашки.(«Прощай оружие», “A Farewell
to Arms”, page 32 (Metonymy))
Alvido Antoniy oq metaldan ishlangan kichkina medalyonga joylashgan edi.
(“Alvido qurol” Ibrohim G’afurov tarjimasi, 50-bet)
Святой Антоний бал в маленьком медальоне из металла.(«Прощай
оружие», стр. 35)
Here I want to finish my qualification with the quotation of Quintilian:
“It is due to the metaphor that each thing seems to have its name in the
language”.
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metaphor.L. 1992
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15.Hesse M. Revolutions and reconstructions in the philosophy of science.
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66. “A Farewell to Arms” Ernast Hemingway
67.“Alvido qurol” Ibrohim G’afurov tarjimasi
68.“Прощай оружие” Перевод с английского
69.“Практикум о стилистике английского языка” Кухаренко В.А.
70“Инглиз тили стилистикаси” Л.Т.Бобохонова (Т.1995)
аспекте
Summary
This qualification paper deals with metaphor and metonymy used in the novel
“A Farewell to Arms” by Ernest Hemingway, Which is considered to be one of the
lexical stylistic devices.
It consists of: introduction, three chapters, conclusion and bibliography.
Introduction deals with the description of the structure, aim task, methods and
actually of the work.
Chapter one consists of two paragraphs. It deals with the theoretical notion of
linguistic and the tasks of stylistic in Modern English.
The second chapter also consists of two paragraphs where we deal with lexical
stylistic devices, with the semantic and stylistic analysis of metaphor and
metonymy, and their classification and usage in the language.
The third chapter is devoted to the practical part of the qualification paper,
which is the analysis of metaphor and metonymy used in the novel.