Answer Key
CHAPTER 39: THE STORMY SIXTIES
Kennedy's "New Frontier" Spirit
Know: John F. Kennedy, Jacqueline Kennedy, Bobby Kennedy, J. Edgar Hoover, Robert McNamara,
Peace Corps
1.
What was new about the New Frontier?
JFK and Jackie were the youngest presidential couple ever to enter the Whitehouse. JFK appointed a new,
young cabinet included Attorney General Bobby Kennedy (his brother). FBI reform was part of the New
Frontier b/c the FBI worked on “internal security” but gave no attention to civil rights violations. J. Edgar
Hoover (Director of the FBI) fought Bobby on reforming the FBI. Robert McNamara led the Defense
Department to help make up the “best and brightest.” The Peace Corps (youthful volunteers to bring
American skills to underdeveloped countries) was established as well.
The New Frontier at Home
2.
Assess the effectiveness of New Frontier domestic policies.
JFK had a hard time passing New Frontier legislation b/c of Congress, and when he negotiates a wage
agreement in the steel industry the steel companies were supposed to keep prices from rising.
Instead, they raised prices and JFK verbally attacked them on bad faith so that they would back
down. He also supported general tax-cut bills to put more money directly into private hands.
Lastly, he promoted a project to land Americans on the moon which became a reality in 1969.
Rumblings in Europe
Know:
Berlin Wall, Common Market, Trade Expansion Act, Charles de Gaulle
3.
Describe Kennedy's relationship with Western Europe.
After failed talks with Khrushchev, the Soviets began building the Berlin Wall in August 1961 to keep the
population drain from East Germany to West Germany. (The wall stood for almost 3 decades) Western
Europe was prospering after the Marshall Plan and the Common Market (later the EU). In 1962, the Trade
Expansion Act was passed which cut tariffs of up to 50 % to promote trade with Common Market
countries. This led to significant European-American trade. The president of France, Charles de Gaulle
was suspicious of American intentions and he vetoed British application for the Common Market b/c of a
special relationship between eh US and Britain.
Foreign Flare-ups and "Flexible Response"
Know:
Congo, Laos, Robert McNamara, Flexible Response
4.
Why did Kennedy believe that a policy of flexible response could better meet the foreign problems
of the 1960s?
European decolonization was occurring after WWII. When the Congo received independence from
Belgium in 1960 it exploded into violence. The UN sent troops and the US sent money (no manpower). In
Laos, civil war raged as Laos was threatened by communism, but still the US sent no troops. These
brushfire wars shifted policy away from Dulles’s “massive retaliation” and towards McNamara’s “flexible
response” which is to degvleop an array of military options that can be precisely matched to the gravity of
the crisis at hand. Kennedy increased spending on military forces and created the Special Forces (Green
Berets).
Answer Key
Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire
Know:
Ngo Dinh Diem, Viet Cong
5.
Why was it difficult to use flexible response to deal with the situation in South Vietnam?
Flexible response provided a mechanism for a progressive, and possibly endless, stepping-up of the use of
force. In Vietnam, American supported Diem (leader of the South) was struggling to maintain control
against anti-Diem forces (Viet Cong), so JFK ordered more military advisors (troops) to South Vietnam.
Eventually the US realized that Diem was too reactionary and encouraged a successful coup against him in
1963. Using flexible response proved difficult because the US became too heavily involved in “their war”.
Cuban Confrontations
Know:
Alliance for Progress, Fidel Castro, Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile Crisis, Nikita Khrushchev,
Quarantine, Hot Line
6.
How could Cuba be considered the low and the high of Kennedy's foreign policy?
In 1961, JFK proposed the Alliance of Progress (the Marshall Plan for Latin America) with the goal of
helping close the gap between the rich and the poor to fight off communist agitation. There was little
alliance and less progress. American handouts had little positive impact. In 1961 JFK became aware of a
CIA-backed scheme to topple Fidel Castro by invading Cuba with CIA trained anticommunist Cuban
exiles. The 1200 exiles landed at Cuba’s Bay of Pigs on April 17 and were met with 25,000 of Castro’s
forces. The failed invasion was a blemish on America’s reputation. Castro aligned himself with the Soviet
Union (Khrushchev) and in 1962, American spy planes photographed nuclear missile sites in Cuba which
were being installed by the Soviets. On Oct. 22, 1962, JFK set up a “quarantine” of Cuba (a naval
blockade) to prevent the weapons from being installed. After a week, Khrushchev agreed to remove the
missiles if the US removed the blockade and didn’t invade the island. The two superpowers signed a
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty late in 1963 and installed the Moscow-Washington hot line.
The Struggle for Civil Rights
Know:
Freedom Riders, Martin Luther King Jr., SNCC, James Meredith, Birmingham, March on
Washington, "I Have a Dream," Medgar Evers
7.
Were Kennedy's civil rights actions more the cause of events or a reaction to events in the civil
rights movement? Explain.
Kennedy needed the support of Southern legislators to pass his economic and social legislation so he was
slow to act on civil rights. Freedom Riders in 1960 were testing the desegregation of facilities in interstate
buses when angry white mobs torched a bus near Anniston, Alabama and rioted in Montgomery, Alabama.
When southern officials did nothing to stop the violence, JFK responded. Encouraged by Bobby Kenedy,
SNCC and other groups initiated a Voter Education Project to register the disfranchised blacks in the South
Desegregating schools proved challenging as schools like the University of Mississippi refused to allow
James Meredith to register in 1962. JFK sent 400 federal marshals and 3,000 troopps to enroll Meredith. In
1963, MLK launched the Birmingham campaign where peaceful marchers were attacked with dogs, electric
cattle prods and high pressure water hoses. The American public watched as little children were attacked
(MLK was arrested and wrote “Letters from Birmingham Jail”). JFK addressed the nation and called the
situation a moral issue and called for new civil rights legislation. IN August, King led the March on
Washington and gave his famous “I have a dream speech.” The violence continued as Medgar Evers was
shot and an explosion in a Birmingham Baptist church killed 4 black girls who had just finished a lesson.
Answer Key
The Killing of Kennedy
Know:
Lee Harvey Oswald, Jack Ruby, Warren Commission
8.
What was the reaction to Kennedy's assassination? Why?
JFK was shot in an open-air limousine in Dallas, Texas by Lee Harvey Oswald. Oswald was then shot to
death in front of TV cameras by Jack Ruby. VP Lyndon Baines Johnson was sworn in as president aboard
Air Force One. The nation mourned their young, vibrant president as he was acclaimed for the ideals he
had given and the spirit he had kindled than for the goals he actually achieved. JFK’s vigor, charisma and
idealism made him an inspirational figure.
The LBJ Brand on the Presidency
Know:
Lyndon Baines Johnson, The Johnson Treatment, Civil Rights Act of 1964, Affirmative
Action, War on Poverty, Great Society, The Other America
9.
Did Johnson provide good leadership to the country in his first term? Explain.
LBJ was very convincing in Congress using the “Johnson treatment” and when he became president he
vowed to honor JFK’s memory by passing the Civil Rights Bill. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned
racial discrimination in private facilities open to the public (theaters, hospitals and restaurants). It also gave
the federal gov’t the power to end segregation in schools. It created the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC) to eliminate discrimination in hiring. In 1965 he also required federal contractors to
take affirmative action against discrimination (favoring those who tend to suffer from discrimination). He
also launched the War on Poverty which included measures like Medicare and Medicaid for “The Other
America” which revealed that 20% of the population lived in poverty. These programs collectively became
known as Johnson’s Great Society
Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964
Know:
Barry Goldwater, Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
10.
Your book says that the 1964 election was a contest between distinctly different political
philosophies. Explain this idea?
Goldwater (Republican) attacked the federal income tax, Social Security the TVA, civil rights legislation,
the nuclear test-ban treaty and the Great Society. Johnson used the Tonkin Gulf Incident to his advantage in
1964. US Navy ships had been working with the South Vietnamese and were allegedly attacked by North
Vietnamese on August 2 and 4. (We later found out that they were acting in self-defense on Aug 2 and the
Aug. 4 attack never happened.) Johnson called the attack “unprovoked” and ordered a military raid against
N. Vietnam. Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution which gave the war-declaring power to the
president (basically a blank-check). Johnson used the incident to garner support for his campaign and won
486 to 52 in the Electoral College and the Democrats won majorities in both houses of Congress.
The Great Society Congress
Know:
Department of Housing and Urban Development, Medicare, Medicaid, Entitlements,
Immigration and Nationality Act, Head Start
11.
In what ways could it be said that 1964-68 marked some of the most liberal years for government in
American history?
Liberals tend to support more government spending on welfare programs like LBJ’s Great Society. The
Democratic Congress passed many of LBJ’s programs which still have an impact today. Congress
approved the creation of two new cabinet offices: The Dept. of Transportation and the Dept. of Housing
and Urban Development (HUD) to which the first black cabinet secretary was named (Robert C. Weaver).
Also created was the National Endowments for the Arts and the Humanities. Johnson aided education with
Answer Key
the Elementary and Secondary Education Act by giving aid to students, not schools. Medicare gave
medical care and insurance to the elderly while Medicaid provided medical care to the poor. The
immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the quota system from 1921 and doubled the number of
immigrants allowed to enter annually while setting limits on immigrants from the Western Hemisphere
(120,000) while allowing close relatives of US citizens to enter in addition to the quotas. Other programs
like the Economic Opportunity Act (EOA) included Project head Start, VISTA, Job Corps and the
Community Action Program.
Battling for Black Rights
Know:
Voting Rights Act of 1965, The Twenty-fourth Amendment, Freedom Summer, Mississippi
Freedom Democratic Party, Selma
12.
What forward steps toward voting for African-Americans were made in the mid-1960s?
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 prohibited literacy tests and intimidation so that states like Mississippi
would have more than 5% of African Americans voting. The 24th Amendment abolished the poll tax in
federal elections. During the Freedom Summer of 1964, blacks and Northern whites led a voter registration
drive in Mississippi and one black and two white civil rights workers disappeared. Their bodies were found
later and the murderers were not convicted. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (created b/c the
white Democratic party refused to accept African Americans) were denied their seat at the Democratic
National Convention. In 1965, MLK continued the voter-registration drive in Selma, Alabama and state
troopers attacked marchers with tear gas and whips.
Black Power
Know:
Watts, Malcolm X, Elijah Muhammed, Black Panthers, Stokely Carmichael
13.
Why did African-Americans turn from non-violence in the late 1960s?
5 days after the Voting Rights Act, a riot erupted in Watts, Los Angeles. Blacks enraged by police brutality
burned and looted their own neighborhoods and 31 blacks and 3 whites were dead while thousands more
were injured. This brought on the more militant movement of the fight for Civil Rights. A younger leader,
Malcolm X joined the Nation of Islam (a black Muslim group led by Elijah Muhammed) who believed that
blacks and whites should be separated. He later moved toward mainstream Islam and on the Hajj he saw all
different races worshipping together and changed his separatist views. He was assassinated by members of
the Nation of Islam in 1965. The Black Panther party used weapons in the streets of Oakland, CA and a
former leader of SNCC, Stokely Carmichael, urged against non-violence and more towards “Black Power”
(a movement back to traditional African clothing, names, hairstyles, etc.). Race riots broke out in many
American cities like Newark, NJ and Detroit, MI which angered many white Americans watching the riots
on TV. When MLK was assassinated in Memphis, TN, violence broke out across the nation.
Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres
Know:
Operation Rolling Thunder, Guerrilla Warfare
14.
Why did President Johnson increase America's military presence in Vietnam?
The Dominican Republic rose in revolt and LBJ said they were the target of a Castro-like coup so he sent
American troops to restore order without real proof of a communist takeover. In Vietnam, the Viet Cong
guerrillas were attacking Americans in South Vietnam and LBJ ordered more bombing raids in North
Vietnam. By March of 1965, Americans had “Operation Rolling Thunder” (a full-scale bombing attack
against North Vietnam) underway. The South Vietnamese were meanwhile becoming spectators in their
own war as Uncle Sam’s “commitment” to resist communism played out. In the US the prowar “Hawks”
were battling with the antiwar “doves” to prevent the Domino Theory from becoming a reality.
Answer Key
Vietnam Vexations
Know:
Six-Day War, Teach-ins, William Fulbright, Credibility Gap, Cointelpro
15.
Describe the negative consequences of the Vietnam War.
A mighty superpower was blasting an underdeveloped country which made America look bad and several
nations kicked out American Peace Corps volunteers. Charles de Gaulle ordered NATO off French soil to
remove the American influence from his country. Knowing the US was tied up in Vietnam, the USSR
helped out Egypt in the Six Day War between Egypt and Israel in 1967. Israel won and took over many
territories which set the stage for future conflicts. At home, antiwar demonstrations began with “teach-ins”
on college campuses which moved to full protests. Thousands resisted the draft by fleeing to Canada or
burning their draft cards. Opposition in Congress was led by William Fulbright of Arkansas where he led
televisted hearings during which people aired their largely antiwar views. The credibility gap opened
between the government and people. The war was ripping apart the fabric of American society as the CIA
began spying on antiwar activists. The FBI used its counterintelligence program (Cointelpro) against the
peace movement as well.
Vietnam Topples Johnson
Know:
Tet Offensive, Eugene McCarthy
16.
Why did President Johnson decide not to run for re-election in 1968?
Johnson claimed he could see the light at the end of the Vietnam tunnel but when the Tet Offensive was
launched (North Vietnamese attacks on South Vietnamese cities during the holiday of the Tet lunar new
year) Americans understood that gradual escalation wasn’t going to work. Americans wanted a speedy end
to the war which Johnson couldn’t deliver. Eugene McCarthy challenged LBJ and had a good chance until
Robert Kennedy also entered the race. LBJ understood that if he sent more troops to Vietnam that the
country might erupt and his own party was split on the war issue. In 1968, he announced that he would
freeze American troop levels and shift more responsibility to the South Vietnamese and he announced that
he would not run for President that year.
The Presidential Sweepstakes of 1968
Know:
Hubert Humphrey, Robert Kennedy, Democratic Convention, Richard Nixon, George
Wallace
17.
Why was the 1968 presidential election an interesting one?
Hubert Humphrey, Johnson’s VP, was vying for the nomination against Robert Kennedy and Eugene
McCarthy. Robert Kennedy was assassinated in California and the Democrats nominated Humphrey as
their candidate in 1968. Republicans nominated Richard M. Nixon as a “hawk” on Vietnam, he appealed to
southern voters (known as his “Southern Strategy”) b/c his VP Spiro Agnew took a stand against black
militants. The third party ran George C. Wallace who was for segregation. This election is important
because it is the first time since the days of Lincoln that the southern states voted conservatively and for the
Republican party and African Americans voted for the Democratic party.
Victory for Nixon
18.
"Nixon had received no clear mandate to do anything [in the 1968 election]." Explain.
Both candidates in 1968 were committed to carrying on the war and Nixon won based on the divisions over
the war, the unfair draft, crime and rioting. Americans had little choice in this election, so Nixon’s policies
will be largely his own.
Answer Key
The Obituary of Lyndon Johnson
19.
It could be said that few presidents were as great a success or as great a failure as Lyndon Johnson.
Assess.
His legislative leadership had been remarkable. No president since Lincoln worked harder and had done
more for civil rights. None had shown more compassion for the poor, blacks and ill educated than with his
Great Society. By 1966, Vietnam engulfed his Presidency and a white “backlash” formed against the civil
rights movement. Great Society programs withered away due to such expensive costs and inflation soared.
No matter what decision he made in regards to Vietnam, the hawks would say it wasn’t enough and the
doves would say it was too much.
The Cultural Upheaval of the 1960s
Know:
Berkeley, Sexual Revolution, Stonewall, Students for a Democratic Society, LSD
20.
Why did a 1960s counterculture develop and how was it expressed?
Many young people were frustrated with racism, sexism, imperialism and oppression and turned away from
their traditional morals. One of the first organized protests broke out at the University of California at
Berkeley in 1964 in the Free Speech Movement. Mario Savio urged fellow students to sacrifice everything
for their beliefs. Many youth became radical political rebels while other used mind-bending drugs like
LSD, lived in communes and blatantly opposed American traditions. This became known as the
Counterculture. The introduction of the birth control pill in 1960 led to a sexual revolution. Gay men and
women were also advocating for gay rights. In 1969, a brutal attack on gay men by off-duty police officers
at New York’s Stonewall Inn made the movement more militant. The Students for a Democratic Society
(SDS) had turned into an underground terrorist group called the Weathermen. Peaceful demonstrations had
turned to urban riots. The counterculture of the 1960s can be attributed to the 3 Ps” youthful population
bulge, protest against racism and Vietnam and the permanence of prosperity.
Varying Viewpoints: The Sixties: Constructive or Destructive?
21.
Were the sixties Constructive or Destructive? Explain your reasoning.