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Ancient India – Lesson 2
Early Indian Civilization
Over 1,000 miles separate the Indus River valley
from Iraq, the region once known as Mesopotamia.
This distance did not keep people from traveling
between the two regions over 4,000 years ago,
though. Like merchants from Egypt, Indian
merchants traded goods in Mesopotamian cities. Of
these three ancient civilizations – Mesopotamia,
Egypt, and the Indus River valley – the least is known
about the Indus River valley civilization. One reason
that historians know less about this culture is that
experts have not been able to figure out how to read
ancient Indian writing. Another reason is that few
Indus artifacts and remains have been found.
Despite these limits, historians have pieced together
a picture of what ancient life must have been like for
the people along the Indus River.
A Civilization in the Indus Valley
In 1921 archaeologists gathered around a huge dirt mound on the southern
plains of the Indus Valley. They knew remains of the past lay hidden beneath
the mound. Earlier visitors had found artifacts there. But how old were the
remains? What would they reveal about how Indian people lived long ago? As
the archaeologists dug down, the ruins of a great city began to appear. A new
understanding about India’s ancient past had begun.
The city described above is called Harappa. The people who lived nearby
named the ruins after an Indian god. Archaeologists have no way of knowing
what early people living along the Indus called themselves. Therefore, the
entire ancient Indus Valley civilization is called Harappan civilization. It lasted
from about 2500 B.C. until about 1600 B.C. One year after the city of Harappa
was uncovered, archaeologists found a city almost exactly like it about 400
miles to the south. The local name for it was Mohenjo-Daro, which means
“Mound of the Dead” in Sanskrit. Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language. Locate
the ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro on the map above.
A City Along the Indus
The city of Mohenjo-Daro was not small. Archaeologists believe that as many as 40,000 people once
lived there! Dozens of streets crisscrossed each other. Larger avenues were paved with tan-colored bricks.
The streets that crossed them were narrower and were usually left unpaved. Hundreds of sturdy brick houses
lined the streets of Mohenjo-Daro. Most homes were small, one-room buildings. Others were several stories
high. Some even had such luxuries as airy courtyards or balconies. At the west end of the city stood a massive
fort, or citadel. Surrounding this citadel were thick walls that protected against both floods and enemy attacks.
Next to the citadel was an enormous grain warehouse. Judging from its size, farmers around Mohenjo-Daro
must have been very successful at growing barley and wheat.
Question Time: Answer the following questions based on what you just read above.
1. Consider Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the
Indus Valley. About which one of these
civilizations do we know least and why?
2. How large a population did Mohenjo-Daro
have?
3. How was Mohenjo-Daro laid out as a city?
What material did people in Mohenjo-Daro
use to pave streets and construct housing?
4. What were probably the largest buildings in
the city and what were they used for?
Life in Mohenjo-Daro
Suppose that you are an archaeologist living 4,000 years in the future. You have just stumbled upon the
ruins of a small North American city dating back to the A.D. 2000’s. You uncover buildings and dusty artifacts.
You find machines and bits of plastic labels. You cannot read the city’s languages, though. How much will you
be able to understand about everyday life in this city? How many conclusions will you be able to make about
the culture of the North American civilization? Archaeologists studying ancient Harappan civilization have faced
these kinds of challenges since the early 1900s. Yet they have succeeded in making some conclusions about
what life was like for ancient Harappans. Many of their conclusions are based on remains found in MohenjoDaro.
City Planning
One of the most striking things about Mohenjo-Daro is the
exactness of the measurements used in making and building
things. Bricklayers used thousands of same-sized bricks to
pave streets and build homes. City engineers dug wells
throughout the city. They also created a sewer system,
complete with “manholes,” to keep the city clean. Projects like
this need much planning. Therefore, historians believe
Mohenjo-Daro must have had a strong government. Harappa
had almost the same layout as Mohenjo-Daro. Therefore,
historians conclude that the Indus River valley also must have
had a strong central government. On top of Mohenjo-Daro’s
citadel are the remains of a large, pillar-supported building.
Archaeologists think it may have served as a “city hall,”
because it overlooked the city. Next door was a building that
housed a pool-sized bath. The bath may have had religious
importance. Cleansing practices later became a key part of
Indian religions. The artwork at left shows what Mohenjo-Daro
may have looked like in 2000 B.C.
Working in Mohenjo-Daro
Harappan builders, engineers, and craftworkers were highly skilled. Archaeologists have found remains
of their work in the workshops that lined city avenues. Skilled workers carved beautiful figures into small
squares of stone. These stone squares were probably used as seals for marking belongings. Potters made
water jars, cooking bowls, and other containers. These were covered with colorful paintings. Metalworkers
made everything from copper fish hooks to razors. They also made fine statues of people cast in bronze.
Perhaps for the first time anywhere, weavers made cloth from cotton. As in other ancient cities, such
specialization meant that Harappan farmers produced surplus food. Surplus grain was stored in a great
warehouse. Perhaps, as in ancient Egypt, government workers collected grain from farmers as taxes. The
stored grain could later be measured out again, possibly as payment to city workers.
Harappan Trade
Historians are not sure of the exact trade routes used by ancient Harappans. However, historians do
know that Harappan merchants traded with neighbors both near and far. From artifacts, archaeologists know
that Harappans sold stone seals in what is today Iran. They brought home blue stones called lapis lazuli from
what is today Afghanistan. Beadmakers made necklaces from stones brought from what is today India. These
and other goods were then traded in faraway Mesopotamia. The long journey to Mesopotamia was probably
made in small sailboats. From the Indus River delta, the boats headed west along the southern coast of Asia.
The sailors may have taken along field birds such as crows and swallows. When set free, the birds would fly
toward land.
Question Time: Answer the following questions based on what you just read above.
5. What evidence can you find to conclude
that Harappan civilization had strong
government? What evidence suggests that
religion was important?
6. What specialized jobs had developed to
help create Harappan civilization?
7. Why might it have been easier to trade
with Mesopotamia than with Afghanistan and
Iran?
8. What evidence must historians have found
to tell them where Harappan merchants
traded?
Newcomers
Sometime around 1600 B.C. the city of Mohenjo-Daro was totally abandoned. So was the city of
Harappa. Why? Unfortunately we may never know for sure why these ancient cities were abandoned. One
possible answer, archaeologists say, is that an earthquake caused the Indus to change its course. Without river
water, farming would have become very difficult in this area. This earthquake may also have created massive
floods. Floods may have destroyed the region’s two largest cities. Life went on in the Indus Valley after the
disaster. Harappan civilization, however, was never the same again. Life in the Indus Valley changed even
more, beginning around 1500 B.C. At that time newcomers began crossing the icy passes of the Hindu Kush
Mountains. The Aryan people, originally from central Asia, herded cattle and sheep on horseback. Perhaps due
to natural disasters or wars at home, they migrated. To migrate means to move from one place to another to
live. The Aryans migrated both to Europe and India. Follow their routes to India on the map below. Aryans
means “noble ones” in Sanskrit. The Aryan people brought this language to the Indus Valley and the rest of the
subcontinent. They also brought new religious ideas, which you will read about in the next lesson.
Why it Matters
Harappan civilization existed in the Indus River valley for almost 1,000 years. During that time farmers
produced a large surplus of food. This surplus fed the populations of the great cities that developed along the
fertile plains. Workers in cities like Mohenjo-Daro created items unknown in other parts of the world at that
time. These included cotton cloth, stone seals, and citywide drainage systems. In the end, Harappan civilization
may have been destroyed by the very thing that made it possible – the Indus River. Yet parts of that civilization
would continue in new forms. New peoples would come to control the Indian subcontinent. In time their
cultures would blend with the culture of the Harappans to create a new, rich culture.
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Main Ideas
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Little is known about Harappan civilization because its writing system has not yet been figured out.
The city of Mohenjo-Daro included many brick buildings and a huge citadel. The city also had a sewer
system more advanced than any other of its time.
The orderly layout of the city and its large grain warehouse suggest that Mohenjo-Daro was ruled by a
strong local government.
Harappan merchants traded goods in many places, some of which were as far away as Mesopotamia.
In about 1500 B.C. people called Aryans migrated to the Indian subcontinent. They brought new ideas
to the region.
Question Time: Answer the following questions based on what you just read above.
9. What causes might have destroyed
Harappan civilization?
10. Who were the Aryans and when did they
migrate to the Indus Valley?
11. Why do we believe that Mohenjo-Daro
had a strong government?
12. Based on the information in this lesson,
what conclusions can you make about the
people who lived in Mohenjo-Daro? What
evidence supports your conclusions?
Pretend you are living in ancient Mohenjo-Daro.
Write a paragraph long diary entry describing one of your days there.