LEAVING POLITICS
BIOS, ZľĎ, LIFE
LAURENT DUBREUIL
We live politics, which is not only the far horizon of shared existence, an inventory of
techniques, a subject of discussion between scholars. We live it in our gestures, words,
experiences, feelings, and attitudes. Life, politics are bound to each other; the evidence
speaks to us from the entrenched camp of a university campus to a hermitage deep in the
forest. But as to whether or how to articulate life and politics, no sooner is the question
raised than we intuit their relation. And with this more questions arise: is it even accurate
to make a difference between political practice and the course of life? Are these substances distinct? If so, do they converge at a single point in “public” or “private” space?
There are no clear answers. In our times, a model of intrication is expressed more and
more. Biopolitics has become the new catchword on the intellectual scene. Biopolitics
would complicate yet again the relation between life and the City, for it seems to integrate
bios LQWRWKH&LW\,WLVDQRSHUDWLRQRIIRUFHLQZKLFKVRPHWKLQJIURPOLIHÀQGVLWVHOI
FRQÀVFDWHGVWDPSHGZLWKDGLVÀJXULQJVHDO7KHWRQHRISDWKRVLQP\SUHDPEOHEHIRUH
the more philosophical words to which this article will also give voice, is intended to
reproduce the strike force of certain audacious propositions, with their evocation of destruction. Here I am thinking especially of Giorgio Agamben, whose Homo Sacer series
continues to provoke great controversy. Among the responses Agamben incites is the
recent work of Roberto Esposito, the subject of this issue of Diacritics. I want to take this
occasion to return to the relations between life and politics—in the strange light of our
contemporary debates on the junction bio-politics.
)DFLQJDÀHOGSRLVHGWREHFRPHDTXDVLVSHFLDOW\RIUHVHDUFK,ZLOOOLPLWP\VHOIWR
an almost nothing, to the simple fringe, to these few employed, repeated, pooled words:
ELRVSROLVYLWD]ĿďSomething other than a terminology or lexicography is in play. For
the deliberations of Agamben or Esposito render an immediate and crucial importance
to language in the elucidation of their categories. But what these authors make language
say merits a supplementary examination. Their use of substantives, their solicitation of
textual events, contain a philosophical program that informs their thoughts on biopolitics—beyond or other than what is recognized at times. In its epistemic reach, the present
text is a critical inquiry into certain recourses to language, to idioms, and the way they
contradictorily qualify present-day biopolitics. The theoretical problem takes a strange
turn in the historical reconstitution given by Agamben, for whom the two Greek words
bios and ]ĿďUHQGHUDQDFFRXQWRIWKLQJVE\QRZREVFXUHRUORVW$FRPSDUDEOHGLIÀFXOW\
arises from the confrontation of discourses assembled by Esposito. Both authors begin by
analyzing the contemporary, both dress their works in a philology that cuts through history. This crossing of disciplines, and its value in the exposition of political philosophy,
constitutes another face of my intended exploration.
Situated by languages, placed among disciplines, biopolitics can be interrogated as
well for the articulation it designates. Biopolitics appears to be revelatory of a political
ambition more widespread than in the immediate exacerbation of biometrics or genographics. In order to clear a way for myself through textual territories, I will follow above
all the impulsion of two words, and those they “engender”—bios and ]ĿďThese terms
are Greek. In themselves alone they exercise a formidable effect in the work of Agamben.
diacritics / summer 2006
diacritics 36.2: 83–98
83
While more discreet in Esposito’s, still they return. Shall we then conclude that Greek
speaks in us, that politics is best expressed from its Hellenic origins? Not necessarily. But,
UHTXLULQJQHLWKHUUHWXUQQRURULJLQFHUWDLQFRQÀJXUDWLRQVRIWKH*UHHNFRUSXVVHHPWRUHpeat themselves almost identically. Everything depends upon the almost, of course, which
facilitates the transition from one text to another, in one sense or the other. My anxiety in
regards to biopolitics is thus linked to the bios, to the ]Ŀďto the polis, to their proliferation in both Antiquity and the present—two eras from which may come, by anachronism,
several supplementary readings, be they of the “canonical” Aristotle. Thus we must begin
ZLWKWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKHÀUVWHomo Sacer, wherein Agamben presents a semantic distribution he declares to be crucial.
Bios Is =Ŀďand =ĿďIs Bios1
“The Greeks had no single term to express what we mean by the word ‘life.’ They used
two terms [. . .]: ]Ŀďwhich expressed the simple fact of living common to all living beings (animals, men, or gods), and bios, which indicated the form or way of living proper
to an individual or a group” [1/3]. These two sentences, which open Agamben’s Homo
Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, have since popularized a “Greek” distinction at
the very heart of life, a distinction that would have been lost. According to Agamben,
Greek suggests an opposition between the “simple, natural life” and a “particular way of
OLIHµ>@´OLIHLQJHQHUDODQGWKHTXDOLÀHGZD\RIOLIHSURSHUWRPHQµ>@´SULYDWH
OLIHDQGSROLWLFDOH[LVWHQFHµ>²@=ĿďWKHÀUVWWHUPZRXOGUHIHUXVEDFNWROLIH
in nature, common to life in general, which the human becoming would have to convert
LQWRTXDOLÀHGOLIHLQWRHX]ďQ(the good life3), VX]ďQ(living-with), in short, bios politikos.
At best, ]Ŀďarises from oikos, a more circumscribed space than the one of the City.
This conceptual structure would be paired with the operation of Greek semantics,
$WKHQLDQ GHPRFUDF\ DQG FODVVLFDO SROLWLFDO UHÁHFWLRQ LQ SDUWLFXODU WKDW RI 3ODWR DQG
Aristotle). Modernity has called into question the difference, the gap between ]Ŀďand
bios. Historically speaking, “the decisive fact” consists in that “bios and ]Ŀďright and
fact, enter into a zone of irreducible indistinction” [9/12] that founds totalitarian biopolitics in the West.
Agamben’s analysis is notorious. I reference it so as to underline the extent to which
the linguistic hypothesis remains in solidarity with the entire demonstrative movement
of the trilogy Homo Sacer. The effective separation between mere life and political existence is conferred on us by the words of the Greeks. This point is by now widely accepted.
On the web, the correlation between ]Ŀďand bios yields a large number of responses. The
two Greek terms have become veritable signal-words, cited often without explicit reference to Homo Sacer. Their presence hallows an exemplary success in the diffusion of
ideas that owes to Agamben. However, he merely popularized the terms, as is evidenced
by his introductory references to Hannah Arendt and Michel Foucault. The second is invoked for his conclusion to The Will to Knowledge and the courses he led at the Collège
de France on biopolitics. Arendt appears as one who restores the effaced difference. In
The Human Condition we read in effect that bios is situated “in opposition to the simple
]ĿďµDQGSURYHVWKXVWREH´VSHFLÀFDOO\KXPDQOLIHµ>@4
6RPHHOHPHQWVRIWKLVÀUVWSDUWKDYHDOUHDG\EHHQSXEOLVKHGLQ)UHQFKXQGHUWKHWLWOH´'H
la vie dans la vie: sur une étrange opposition entre ]Ŀďet bios” in Labyrinthe: Atelier interdisciplinaire 22 (2005): 47–52. The present version has been amended and revised.
3DJHUHIHUHQFHVZLOOOLVW(QJOLVKHGLWLRQÀUVWRULJLQDOVHFRQG
3. Cf. commentaries in Homo Sacer 2, 7/4, 10.
4. Arendt’s sentence is a bit ambiguous, so it is hard to determine whether she believes the
GLVWLQFWLRQWREH´*UHHNµRU$ULVWRWHOLDQ
84
The interplay between ]Ŀď and bios was remarked upon much earlier by Greek
speakers. The grammarians proposed two notable theories to explain the competition in
terms. For some, the distinguo would be related to duration and continuity. Bios would
be “the time of ]Ŀď,”5 a portion of it. Some other authors proposed the inverse repartition.
The second explanation lies at the origin of Arendt’s words, as of Agamben’s and their
followers’. For Ammon of Alexandria, “bios is appropriate to animals of reason [logikon
]ĿRQ], that is, to human beings only; ]Ŀďto human beings and animals without reason.”6
We must note as well that the philologist uses Aristotle’s distinctions without wondering whether the reasonable use preferred by the Stagirite is relevant for the entire Greek
language. Let us add that other grammarians believed a contrario that bios had been the
term reserved for nonrational animals. Obviously, each of the two constructions relies on
more or less convincing examples.
$UHQGWUHPDLQVHYDVLYHDVWRZK\VKHRSWVIRURQHMXVWLÀFDWLRQRYHUDQRWKHU,WLVQRW
certain that she means to refer to one usage of Greek; she moreover cites Aristotle in support. Without doubt the distribution ELRV]Ŀďhas some consistency in the philosopher’s
writings. But it would be overly hasty to believe, in regard even to Aristotle, that bios is
´VSHFLÀFDOO\KXPDQµRU´SROLWLFDOµ7DNHIRUH[DPSOHWKHSKUDVH´OLYLQJ>]ďQ] the life
[bion] of a plant.” One reads as well that “the differences among animals []ĿRQ] are relative to their lives [bíous], their characteristics, and their organs.”8 Certainly in the two
occurrences one will object that Aristotle did not intend to repeat, after ]ĿRQthe related
word ]Ŀď; but to explain this approximation by way of a single stylistic concern is hardly
convincing. It could be that the recourse to bios (for a plant) is due to the internal limitations of Greek, in which the verb ELRĿis “practically never used in the present tense”
“in Attic Greek.”9 This would preclude the syntagm “to live [bioun] the life []ĿďQ] of a
plant.” Here I have just transposed the solution onto an analogous problem proffered by
Agamben, that is, the theoretically troubling expression ]ĿRQSROLWLNRQBut the rarity of
certain forms of ELRĿremains to be proven; and in any case there exists another verb of
the same “root,” ELRWHXĿ2QHÀQGVLWLQ$ULVWRWOH·VGHVFULSWLRQRIELUGVWKDWGRQRWÁ\
but “live [bioteuousin] near water”: bios and not ]ĿďIn fact, one could follow Agamben (more than one can Arendt) on the degree of TXDOLÀFDWLRQAristotle has perhaps the
tendency to place bios more on the side of particular life (vegetable or aquatic existence
in the city) and ]Ŀďon the general. One would have the play between a marked substantive and an unmarked one, linguistically speaking. But in no case can bios be reserved to
either humans or political practice. Finally, Aristotle is not the entire Greek corpus.
A useful truism to repeat. When he contrasts bios and ]Ŀď Aristotle inscribes himself
within a discursive tradition. We will draw upon only one diplopic example. In the second
chorus of Heracles, Euripides invents a moral postmortem in which the good people, having arrived at the end of their years, are offered a second chance, while the bad are to be
punished by a death without return. Two verses convey the improbable gnome: “villainy
,DPXVLQJWKHFODULÀFDWLRQVSURYLGHGE\WKHThesaurus Graecae linguae at the end of the
Bios DUWLFOH>VHH(VWLHQQH@7RDGGVRPHWKLQJWRWKHGLFWLRQDU\OHWXVVSHFLI\WKDWWKHK\SRWKHVLVLV
SDUWLFXODUO\GHYHORSHGE\WKH*UHHNFRPPHQWDWRUVRI+LSSRFUDWHV&IScholia: Hippocratem and
Galenum 2: 246, 248. All translations from classical languages are the author’s.
6. Ammonius Alexandrinus, 'HDGÀQLXPYRFDEXORUXPGLIIHUHQWLD§100. The same distribution is found in the Bios article of works of the same era, such as of Herennius Philo, De diversis
YHUERUXPVLJQLÀFDWLRQLEXV
7. Aristotle, De generatione animalium [2.3.736b].
8. Aristotle, Historia animalium [1.1.487a].
9. Agamben, Homo Sacer 2/5. Agamben cites ELRĿ LQ LWV PLGGOH YRLFH DQG LQÀQLWLYH IRUP
biounai.
10. Aristotle, Historia animalium [1.1.487a]. Ammonius gives a new distinction between ELRĿ
and ELRWHXĿZKLFKLVQRPRUHUHOHYDQWWKDQWKHÀUVWRQH
diacritics / summer 2006
85
would have only one life [bioton] in life [zoas].”11 Zoas is a delicate genitive to elucidate;
he literally says, “one life’s life,” or “one life of life.” Translators have often chosen to
see in it a single intensity and discard the doubling. I choose ambiguity; that is, one life
would be of life, the life’s life, because in life. Bios is a portion, or the subcase, of ]Ŀď
somewhat as with Aristotle. Let us hasten to cite another phrase, one that indicates the
exact and dynamic inverse. Here is a bit from Plato, who, in the Timaeus, imagines a psychic migration proximate to Euripides’s chorus. He mentions a soul which “spent a lame
OLIHWKURXJKRXWOLIHµ>F@³ÀQDOH[FKDQJHRIWHUPVLQZKLFKWKLVWLPHbios denotes life
in general, and ]Ŀďa singular lifetime.
If it is our intention to render coherent these disparate elements (and must we?), we
should hardly know how to get beyond situating the most general tendencies and the most
SDUWLFXODUNHHSLQJLQPLQGWKDWWKHUROHVDUHQRWGLVWULEXWHGLQDGYDQFH$VSHFLÀFtongue
has its structures and its laws, but it is not an external or absolute datum: discourse can reinvent it in a singular manner, which is what Euripides, Plato, or Aristotle did. Agamben,
who substantiates an Alexandrine conjecture undertaken by Arendt, is well within his
rights to attach a conceptual content to ]Ŀďand inversely another one to bios. In so doing,
he participates in the Socratic moment when the philosopher went to visit the everyday
FLWL]HQVRI$WKHQVVRDVWRUHGHÀQHWRJHWKHUWKHODQJXDJHWKH\VSRNH6RWKHGLIÀFXOW\
comes not so much from the philosophical process than from its linguistic and historicoSROLWLFDOMXVWLÀFDWLRQ$JDPEHQVLPSOLÀHV$ULVWRWOH·VWH[WVDQGWKHQGLVVROYHVWKHPLQWR
the grandiose entity of “the Greeks.” Embedded in the unfounded argument from authority is a network of unspoken motives, which we must expose, then denounce. Even while
he anchors the entire “political existence” in language (logos12), Agamben remains deaf
to the semantic phenomena in tongue. 6LJQLÀFDQFHFDQRFFXUZLWKLQDGLVFRXUVHLQZKLFK
bios and ]Ŀďassume values that respond to one another, that complete or critique each
other—far from the indexation of closed and rational meanings.
7KHGHFHSWLYHHTXLYDOHQFHEHWZHHQWKHFRQFHSWXDOFODULÀFDWLRQRIGHÀQLWLRQDQGWKH
uses of utterance or discourse leads us to the lexical underpinning of political analysis.
The alleged solidarity among words, City, and philosophy cannot but astound. The end
of Homo Sacer reads like the workings of a character backstage: “today bios lies in ]Ŀď
H[DFWO\ DV HVVHQFH LQ WKH +HLGHJJHULDQ GHÀQLWLRQ RI 'DVHLQ OLHV liegt) in existence”
>@0RUHWKDQWKDW$JDPEHQMRLQV+HLGHJJHULQWKHDIÀUPDWLRQWKDW´WKH*UHHN
tongue, and it alone, is logos” >+HLGHJJHU WUDQV PRGLÀHG@7R XQGHUVWDQG WKH SRlitical logos requires us to move in the direction of the philosophical Ursprache that is
Greek. The idiom rings in unison with the real: two different words designate two different things (naked life, political life). Agamben apparently situates the dissolution at the
HQGRI$QWLTXLW\ZKHUHDVIRU+HLGHJJHUWKHXSVHWGDWHVIURP6RFUDWHV$QRWKHUPRGLÀFDtion: in Freiburg, the Hellenic celebration includes praise of a language “in unison with
being,” whereas in Venetia the modern blurring of the ancient duality is deplored. But in
both cases history is a metaphysical process beginning with the loss of the Greek—and
true—Urgrund.
By inscribing his project ab ovo in the Greek tongue, Agamben runs the philological
risks already noted. According to the protocols for proof in Homo Sacer, lexical counterexamples mar a large part of the support. In fact, the supposedly novel element of the
modern era (this “irreducible indistinction” between bios and ]Ŀď) is authorized only by
DQLPDJLQDU\UHLÀFDWLRQRIVD\linguaggio and lingua. Despite the status it appears to
merit in the political logos, the idiom is accordingly, and exemplarily, reduced to a distribution of meanings stripped of their motility, of even their life—in all possible senses.
The assertion here of a “sole” word for life might merit today an additional remark. To
contend that a single substantive exists corresponds no more to indifference than the ex
86
11. Euripides, Hercules, v. 663–64.
&IDQDO\VHVLQ$JDPEHQHomo Sacer 7/10–11.
istence of parasynonyms may be confused with a “clear” or obvious distribution. Are we
all in agreement on “what we mean by the word ‘life?’” [Homo Sacer 1/3, my emphasis].
Did Michel Henry, Gilles Deleuze, and Jacques Derrida, each contemporary and French,
share the way in which they heard the term? The “single term” [Homo Sacer 1/3] is thus
diffracted as well. It is troubling to note that Agamben hardly explains the current confusion regarding this lexical unicity, and for good reason; the chronology of biopolitical
events would lose its contemporary character if allied, for example, with the emergence
of the Latin vita and its successors. This is to say that Agamben has cause to protect the
state of exception that inheres in a Greek experience, in which the adequation of language
to situation would be KLVWRULFDOO\UHYHODWRU\
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use of disciplines. The most troubling in Homo Sacer derives undoubtedly from the peculiar connection between philosophy and other disciplines—above all, philology and history. Here, “history” means more or less “beginning,” or origin. One returns to the Greeks
so as to plunge into the causality of the past. I readily accept a correlation, a strong one,
between Athens and a large number of countries in the present. But the idea of a lineage
leading from Greco-Roman Antiquity to Europe and the United States is highly suspect.
Agamben deplores the break in this line, the event that bypasses the (illusory) bipolarity
of bios and ]Ŀďin favor of the false unity of life. Just after he insists on this break in the
present day, he postulates the possibility of a direct heritage. Playing on these two planes,
Agamben eludes simple temporal linearity—so widely criticized following Nietzsche—
to reestablish it as a virtual countermodel: contemporary politics would have yet retained
its glorious Hellenic distinction had it known to adhere more faithfully to Aristotle.
The present accession to indistinction has effected a bifurcation LQWKHÀUVWWUDMHFWRU\
This discontinuity has rendered all the more palpable the prestige of origin, according to
which all is judged. So it follows that history is precisely a fall out of the initial paradise.
A similar image emerges from biblical accounts of the Creation whereby human mobility corresponds to the loss of Eden. Agamben thus convokes two major paradigms in his
understanding of the unfolding of time: history is produced in its emergence from the
origin, and it is also a linear narrative that has deviated. The rupture has to do with both a
theology of the fall from grace and a poetics of the discontinued event. We can easily see
that Agamben not only borrows from Foucault the term biopolitics but also appropriates
the sense of history as a broken line. But Agamben recovers to some degree the Heideggerian side of Foucault.13 Historical and local fractures are the hypostasis of an originary
ÀVVXUHLQWKHRULJLQ
To the extent that it is discipline, the history Agamben practices also mimics FouFDXOW·VGHPRQVWUDWLRQV:HÀQGLQLWWKHVDPHWHQGHQF\WRZDUGHUXGLWLRQ$JDPEHQFRQÀUPVSKLORVRSK\·VQHHGWRGUDZKHQFHIRUWKIURPRWKHUGLVFRXUVHVRINQRZOHGJHDVGRHV
Foucault. Erudition is transformed into an authoritative apparatus. From the moment that
uncertainty (whether it be the lack of distinction typical to the era, or the relativity of science) threatens the solidity of theoretical discourse, authority is sought in the administration of proof. The protocol thus adopted copies philological and historical scholarship:
accumulation of facts, enactment of a unitary rule, and liquidation of counterexamples
GLVTXDOLÀHGDVHUURUVRILQWHUSUHWDWLRQRULQVLJQLÀFDQWDEHUUDWLRQV$JDPEHQ·VHUXGLWLRQ
LVQRWVRPXFKIRUWKHSXUSRVHRI´UHVSHFWLQJVRXUFHVµDVWREULQJDVFLHQWLÀFDSSDUDWXVWR
the philosophical core of his thesis. Foucault, with more endurance and more footnotes,
&I)RXFDXOWDits et écrits ´+HLGHJJHUDWRXMRXUVpWpSRXUPRLOHSKLORVRSKHHVVHQWLHO>+HLGHJJHUKDVDOZD\VEHHQIRUPHWKHHVVHQWLDOSKLORVRSKHU@µ6HHDOVR
diacritics / summer 2006
87
proceeds similarly. Agamben, less encumbered with formalities, has greater recourse to
philological scholarship than to the breakdown, collection, and analysis of archives. In
this he evinces another of Heidegger’s tendencies, whereby a thorough familiarity with
classical languages in no way precludes the pronouncement of hazardous hypotheses.
The valorization of Greek thus plays into an overall strategic approach. The number of
readers capable of verifying case by case the arguments surrounding the Hellenic corpus
is proportionally as slight as the risk of contesting any of these. Any divergent arguPHQW³LQFOXGLQJWKHRQH,KDYHMXVWSURSRVHG³ZLOOÀQGLWVHOISUH\WRHQRUPRXVGLIÀFXOties. For even had I multiplied the examples, a priori the objection as formulated is hardly
more credible for non-Hellenists. Finally, as I have stressed, linguistic competence can
lead to entirely other conclusions than my own; the Alexandrians were playing this game.
In short, in the time of one reading, objection runs the risk of neutralization. “Responsible” scholars would not want to chance decision and would suspend their judgment.
Agamben’s philology suggests disciplinary procedures, but it is foremost intended for
WKHUHDGHUVZKRGRQRWSRVVHVVWKHPHDQVRIYHULÀFDWLRQ³HYHQPRUHVRVLQFHWKHFLWHG
texts are commented upon rather evasively, the selection unduly chosen, and the grammatical conventions occulted. Agamben’s is a philology for show, in sum, which weakens
in advance the possibility for debate. Everything becomes incontestable: the necessary
dialogic and contradictory movement of human sciences is thus stopped.
Interdisciplinarity takes on meaning only when interpretations show the tensions
internal to knowledge, and when the elements harvested are given the possibility of an explanation. Agamben rushes his liminal argument through a few pages, curbs his examples
as much as possible, and presents the philological argument in a monolithic manner. In
addition to disallowing his public a rudimentary knowledge of the problems associated
with language, he blocks the interdisciplinary practice he purports to perform. Norms
WUHDWLQJSKLORORJLFDODQGKLVWRULFDOVFLHQWLÀFLW\DUHGHWDFKHGIURPWKHGLVFLSOLQHVDVGLVFXUVLYHDQGFROOHFWLYHHQVHPEOHV,QVWHDGRIDQLQWHUVHFWLRQEHWZHHQNQRZOHGJHVZHÀQG
isolated practices whose legitimacy is as yet untested—this in order to better seat the auWKRU·VSKLORVRSKLFDOUHÁHFWLRQ7KHDUJXPHQWIURPDXWKRULW\WKDWKLVWRU\WKH´ÀUVWWLPHµ
and the erudition of classical studies (the disjunction between bios and ]Ŀď) provide is
required by a conceptual speech seeking external support but fearing any confrontation
with another discourse.
5HYLVLWLQJ WKH ÀFWLRQDO RSSRVLWLRQ EHWZHHQ bios and ]Ŀď consequently helps us to
qualify Agamben’s philosophical act. Ours is not a matter of reestablishing the truth, but
rather one of divesting the crow of his peacock feathers, as in Aesop. Finally we must
emphasize the repercussions of a thought riveted upon the origin and dedicated to its
eventual rupture. The fact that ]ĿďKDVQHYHUXQLTXHO\VLJQLÀHGEDUHRUDQLPDOOLIHFDOOV
into question, beyond all else, the fable of a biopolitical happening and, at the least, contests the account of its current practice.
It would nonetheless be unfortunate to renounce the possibility of an encounter
among discrete types of knowledge, and altogether too convenient to simply disqualify
the concept of biopolitics for reasons of the usage that stressed anew its study. It becomes
precisely all the more necessary to rethink the articulation between OLIHELRV]Ŀďand
politics³ZKLFKLQYROYHVQROHVVWKDQFDUHIRUWH[WXDOVSHFLÀFLWLHVDQGFKDUWHGHYHQWV
Situated along this vein is Roberto Esposito, whose book Bios deploys an altogether
different thesis than Agamben’s. In responding, most often allusively, to the philosophical
reinauguration of biopolitics expressed by his compatriot, Esposito displaces the problem in three salutary ways. First, Bios PRGLÀHVWKHKLVWRULFDOPDUNHUVRIWKHXVDJHRIWKH
word biopolitics and uncovers its traces before Foucault. Esposito’s introductory mention
RIWKHZRUNVRI0RUOH\5REHUWVLQRU$DURQ6WDURELQVNLLQ14 exceeds simple
14. See Esposito, Bios ² 1% RQ S 6WDURELQVNL·V ÀUVW QDPH LV PLVVSHOOHG DV
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88
anecdotal precision. It allows for the collective construction of a category underneath
that of the tutelary duo signaled by Agamben (Foucault and Arendt). This chronological
UHFRQÀJXUDWLRQSUHFOXGHVWKHSULYLOHJLQJRIRQHW\SHRIJLYHQFRJQLWLYHÀOLDOUHODWLRQVKLS
From there Esposito is more in line to return to the (post-)Foucauldian intricacy between
biopolitics and biopower. Finally, the circuit through the canon of political theory favors
an abandonment of the Johannic posture that Agamben so effortlessly adopts. There is in
Bios neither apocalyptic visions15 nor faith in the primordial nature of logos, as respun in
the in principio erat verbum (in the beginning was the word) of the evangelist.
While Esposito’s approach assumes the false air of a classical history of philosophy,
the work goes beyond the compilation of philosophical doctrines. The evocation of the
SUHGHFHVVRUV WDNHV WKH IRUP RI D SURJUHVVLYHO\ FULWLFDO DQG UHÁHFWLYH UHFXSHUDWLRQ (Vposito renounces the objectivist projection of an exterior observer. He marks the sites of
passage, the moments of contact between texts that can rely upon the same sort of analysis, all while endowing contrary values to the facts they describe.
Esposito advances by way of underlining differences and relationships within those
WH[WVFRQGXFLYHWRFRUUHODWLRQZLWKRXWSUHÀJXUHGVXEVXPSWLRQ7KHSUREOHPDWLFGLVSODFHPHQWVGHÀQHGHDUOLHUDQGWKHSUHFLVLRQRIWKLVPRGHRIH[SRVLWLRQOHQGKRSHWKDWbios
and ]Ŀďmight be led back to a whole body of works rather than frozen into a linguistic
RQWRORJ\:KHQLQWKHÀUVWFKDSWHU(VSRVLWRHYRNHVWKH´*UHHNOH[LFRQµKHVSHFLÀHV
“in particular the one of Aristotle.”16 Afterwards, he limits himself to considering bios as
´TXDOLÀHGOLIHµ´IRUPRIOLIHµ>@GLVUHJDUGLQJWKHDGGLWLRQDOFRQVLGHUDWLRQRIDKXPDQity. Elsewhere he cites the two Greek words as having arisen from the “classical Aristotelian partition” [55]. Both times Aristotelian might refer as much to the tradition borne by
Aristotle as to the Stagirite himself. And even though the philosopher did not make these
substantives contrast in a unique and rigid manner, the fact remains that the Alexandrian
grammarians I referenced above are very much the inheritors of the Lyceum’s teaching.
In the care he takes to distinguish between the Greek tongue and Aristotelian practice, Esposito undoes the history-catastrophe that opens and closes Homo Sacer. In the remainder
of Bios, the contrasted occurrences of bios and ]Ŀďrefer more often to their current use.
It is because he critiques Arendt that Esposito designates, in the phenomenon of birth, a
“maximal distance” between “]Ŀď” and “bios” [196], a frontal opposition (cf. “that opposes [bios] frontally to ]Ŀď” [196]). A bit later, he will qualify this “Arendtian caesura
[. . .] between life and the condition of existence” as “already Heideggerian” [196]. On
this point he challenges the idea of a “reduction of bios to ]Ŀď—or to ‘bare existence’”
[153]. Quoted indirectly, Homo Sacer seems to describe a resurgence of the couple of
Greek words. Because Esposito’s recourse to the ELRV]Ŀďbipolarity is systematically tied
WRWKHWH[WVWKDWKDYHHODERUDWHGXSRQLWWKHSULYLOHJHKHOGE\WKH*UHHNODQJXDJHÀQGV
itself evacuated. In all probability Esposito would rather be skeptical before the natural
validity of such an opposition. Caution is less in the philological order than the philosophical. In the wake of Derrida, Esposito tries more than once to approach the discrepancy in
differential terms. Thus does he discern in Nietzsche “the point of precipitation of a biopolitics of death and the horizon, hardly sketched, of a new politics of life” [114]—that
LV´DIÀUPDWLYHELRSROLWLFVµ>@,QDQRWKHUZRUNCategorie dell’impolitico, Esposito
states similarly that “the impolitical is not diverse from the political” [xx]. As to ]Ŀďand
bios, (VSRVLWRPRGLÀHVWKHDUWLFXODWLRQKHIHLJQHGWRUHFRJQL]H+HFRUUHFWVIRUH[DPSOH
Agamben’s version of Nazi biopolitics by writing: “one should speak of the spiritualization of ]Ŀďand of the biologization of the spirit” [Bios 153]. Throughout Esposito repeats
the word “biologization,” in which bios comes to assume the place of ]Ŀďas mere life, or
7KHÀQDOZRUGVRIHomo Sacer DUH´ULVNLQJDQXQSUHFHGHQWHGELRSROLWLFDOFDWDVWURSKHµ
>@´ULVFKLRGLXQDFDWDVWURIHELRSROLWLFDVHQ]DSUHFHGHQWLµ>@
16. Bios $OOTXRWDWLRQVIURP(VSRVLWRKDYHEHHQWUDQVODWHGE\WKHDXWKRURIWKHDUWLFOH
diacritics / summer 2006
89
simple animal life. Even the title, Bios, becomes a supplementary means by which to alter
the distribution between bios and ]Ŀď
7KHUHÁHFWLRQWKXVUHFRYHUVVRPHWKLQJRIWKHVHPDQWLFLQÁHFWLRQDWZRUNLQ(XULSides or Plato. But Esposito succeeds only by occulting the very term ]ĿďThe work is
entitled Bios, and not Bio-, ZKLFKZRXOGKDYHLPSOLHGDSURGXFWLYLW\RIWKHDIÀ[LQPRGern languages. The name of the book is, after all, Greek. In this way Esposito continues
a series of references to Antiquity [see his Immunitas and Communitas]; and again he
rejoins Agamben, whose trilogy Homo Sacer is scored with indexed concepts on ancient
languages. Yet if a concept of life may be placed in bios, in the name of what can we
avoid, or void, ]Ŀď?
Tactician without a doubt, and markedly unlike his contemporary, Esposito prefers
not to harp on a lexical disagreement. But does the induction of ]Ŀďin bios not reproduce
the hierarchical dichotomy suggested by both Arendt and Agamben (human life > naked
life"5DWKHUWKDQDIDFHWRIDFHRSSRVLWLRQZHÀQGKHQFHIRUWKDGLIIHUHQWLDOFKDUDFWHUL]Dtion; yet the sense of the value remains identical. Under the name of bios, DXQLÀFDWLRQ
is in process that has nothing to do with Greek vocabulary. The rare references to the
+HOOHQLFSKLORVRSKLFDOFRUSXVUHVSHFWWKHGRXEOHVLGHRIVLJQLÀFDWLRQWKHUHDUHbios and
]Ŀď), and limit the opposition to a (post-)Aristotelian operation. But the innumerable resurgences of bios throughout the text serve above all to dispense of ]ĿďFacing a Greek
particularity in relation to the Roman and Anglo-Saxon languages, Agamben opted for a
bipolar rationalization, whereas Esposito tends to erase the cumbersome supernumerary.
Bios, from beginning to end, contains ]Ŀďas internal difference, which is as much as to
say that Esposito’s subtle games between idioms are in the last analysis sustained by one
V\QWKHWLFWHUP7KH*UHHNODQJXDJHLVH[KXPHGLQRUGHUWREHVDFULÀFHGDVHFRQGWLPH
DQGRQWKHDOWDURIWKHFRQFHSW$JDLQZHPHHWWKHHQWLUHSUREOHPRIOLQJXDOVLJQLÀFDWLRQ
We must strongly suspect the tacit relationship Esposito establishes between discourse
and concept. The introduction of Bios situates the major stakes of the question, “not
only what does it mean, but when was it born, the concept of biopolitics?” [xii]. The will
RISKLORVRSKLFDOUHFRQVWUXFWLRQLQKLVWRULFDOGHFHQWHULQJLVREYLRXVKHUH7KHGLIÀFXOW\
arises in the enunciation of biopolitics as concept. For the last is immediately glossed as
one “lexical vein” in “a line of discourse” [xii]. So, vocable or concept? The concern with
lexical veins should lead to the title %LRVDQG=Ŀďor Bio-. Or the lexicon bears concepts
in the latent state, most often incompletely formed—until the arrival of the philosopher,
who at last polishes the words. The learned one would come at the end of the line, recuperating that which the speaker sensed only confusedly and discarding the dregs (]Ŀď
for example). If contemporary philosophy has recognized the place of language and of
la-langue in conceptual construction, then the relationship sketched by Esposito seems a
bit brief. The odyssey of the concept within discourse replaces the odyssey of the Spirit
in the real. Both ride a slope that skittishly evades points of aberrancy, in the event of
which speech is transformed into a more or less imperfect actualization of concepts that
the philosopher alone must consolidate.
Esposito moves without warning from Nietzsche to Charles Richet, from Dracula
to the Nazi treatises on racial hygiene. The comparison of the incomparable must be
understood as decisive to research in the “human sciences” or “humanities.” And still we
should be careful to specify the name of that in which one would attempt the angel’s leap.
In Bios, all scruples as to method are effaced by the omnipresence of the concept. Then it
becomes possible to move from literature to medicine to political organization, for these
discourses share a lexicon, and therefore concepts. It is the therefore that I refuse. The
KRPDJH(VSRVLWRJHQHURXVO\SD\V)RXFDXOWUHYHDOVRQHRIWKHJUHDWHVWGLIÀFXOWLHVRIWKH
:KLOHWKH´FDWHJRU\µRIZKLFK(VSRVLWRVSHDNVRIWHQDSSHDUVWREHDORFDODFWXDOL]DWLRQ
DQFKRUHGLQDGLVFRXUVHDQGDFRQWH[WLWGHULYHVÀQDOO\IURPWKHFRQFHSW·VLQFOXVLRQ6HHIRULQstance the relation between plural and singular in the title Categorie dell’impolitico.
90
author of The Order of Things (Les Mots et les choses). On the same subject of discursive
collision among disciplines, we were saying that Agamben enhanced the effect of authorLW\DQGWKHSRPSRIVFLHQWLÀFLW\PDUNHGLQ)RXFDXOW,Q(VSRVLWRZHDUHFRQIURQWHGLQ
plain sight with what an analysis of discourse can harbor. That which is enunciated is
detached from its enunciation, from its project, from its place in discursive registers, from
its potential performativity, and so on. To the extent that a law and a novel may encounter
each other, so the gap between them requires as attentive an accounting. At the end of
The Order of Things, Foucault distinguishes a trihedral of knowledge whence “the human
VFLHQFHVDUHH[FOXGHGµ>@&RQVWLWXWLQJQHLWKHUDQHZGLPHQVLRQQRUDVXUIDFH
WKH\EHORQJWRD´FORXG\GLVWULEXWLRQµ>@'HYLDWLQJVOLJKWO\,ZRXOGVD\WKDWWKH
analysis of discourse displays its objects identically; it organizes them with no depth. An
analogous method brings to the surface unexpected convergences and divergences that
are at times revelatory. The strategy remains, however, a reductive one if it neglects in
advance the macrodifference between a book of medicine, a samizdat, and a thesis. The
resort to discourse makes tongues, language, and speech objectively disappear: in other
terms, one simply eludes what makes discourse possible.
In his return to a concept removed from the internal plurality supposedly inherent
in episteme, Esposito distinguishes himself from Foucault. Reinhart Koselleck’s Begriffsgeschichte (“conceptual history”) is explicitly evoked in the recent preface to the
new edition of Categorie dell’impolitico [vii]. The same move, in sum. Seized in time,
discourse expresses the history of the concept. Thus texts are transformed into linguistic
supports. This leads to the double postulation of a concept that would act upon the social—and of enunciation as transparent medium. Koselleck maintains that “it has been
possible to form concepts that have liberated new realities.”18 Let us note it is the concept
WKDWOLEHUDWHV$QDORJRXVO\WKHÀQDOVHJPHQWRIBios, carrying the title of “Philosophy
of bios,” presents the future of biopolitics as conditioned “by the manner in which conWHPSRUDU\WKRXJKWwill follow its tracks” [215, my emphasis]. This conclusive thought
restores power to the concept as such. ,WGHÀQLWLYHO\FODULÀHVDQ\KHVLWDWLRQUHJDUGLQJWKH
“lexical vein”: the lexicon bears meaning only in function of the concept that commands
it. Because the “living must be thought of in the unity of life” [214–15], because there is
FRQFHSWXDOXQLW\(VSRVLWRKDVÀQDOO\QRWKLQJZKDWHYHUWRGRZLWKWKHZRUG]Ŀď
Now I would like to propose that a single substantive is no more the guarantor of
DXQLTXHVLJQLÀFDWLRQWKDQWZRWHUPVPD\LQGLFDWHDFRQVWDQWDQGSUHGHÀQHGDOORFDWLRQ
RIPHDQLQJ$QGULJKWDZD\,·OOFRUUHFWWKDW$IWHUDOO(VSRVLWRLVQRWVHHNLQJVLJQLÀFDtion at all but the sense of the concept, patiently constructed by the history of usages he
uncovers and by the history he is composing. If it is a question of reading texts, evidence
DFFXPXODWHVLQH[KDXVWLEO\VRVLJQLÀFDWLRQGRHVQRWFRPHDERXWE\GLVFRQWLQXRXVZRUGV
EXWE\WKHLUFRQÁDJUDWLRQ$VIRUWKHlife in tongue, it is not a pure concept, on occasions
preformed or corrupt: it is at each moment reelaborated in enunciation. That one meaning can be settled and in common would be plausible (although such a settlement would
EHPLQLPDODQGLQJHQHUDOPLVOHDGLQJLIQRWIRUWKHIDFWWKDWWKLVYHU\PHDQLQJÀQGVLWV
value in the excess that enables it. To say “life”—if it is a question of saying it—undoes
WKHGHÀQLWLYHHYHQWRWKHSRLQW³SDUWLFXODUO\LQOLWHUDWXUH³RIIUDFWXULQJFRQFHSWXDOLW\
When Euripides maintains life in life, he is already threatening the efforts of semantic investigation; he shows, moreover, that life differs from life, such that the living PDWHULDOLW\
of the idiom procures a signifying difference. Esposito is, in turn, precariously positioned,
IRUKHKDVQHJOHFWHGWKHSURFHVVRIVLJQLÀFDWLRQ
As regards methodology, textual reading is directed by and toward the philosophical—a telos for the book. Esposito seeks to reground this knowledge within a polytechnic
perspective. The history of philosophy aligns itself with the history of law or of medicine;
.RVHOOHFN ´6R]LDOJHVFKLFKWH XQG %HJULIIVJHVFKLFKWHµ 4XRWDWLRQ WUDQVODWHG E\ WKH
author.
diacritics / summer 2006
91
yet it would be less than accurate to see this as a particular privilege of the historical
discipline. What is true for history is true for philology. Held to be crucial, they are yet
UHFWLÀHGLQWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHFRQFHSW,QWKLV(VSRVLWRLQGHHGFRQYHUJHVZLWK$JDPEHQ
Multidisciplinary scholarship yields to SKLORVRSK\ as early as the work’s subtitle. The
venture reterritorializes a vast textual continent rather than assembling procedures, protocols. The Foucauldian archaeologist of discourses begets a dé-disciplinarisation that
WDNHVSODFHWRWKHEHQHÀWRISKLORVRSK\³DQGZLWKDEVROXWHVLQFHULW\LQ(VSRVLWR1RRQH
will consequently be astonished that historical studies are few in number, even in the pages consecrated to genocide [see 146 ff.]. The Begriffsgeschichte, or the “history of ideas”
[Esposito, Categorie vii], will in any case be translated into the history of philosophy’s
renewal, which responds, at a distance, to the wishes formulated by Gilles Deleuze as
early as 1968: “the history of philosophy is the reproduction of philosophy itself” [xxi/4].
The historical reach of reproduction in general is kept in suspense, however, if we were
to retain Deleuzian terminology. How does one move from one conception to the next?
+RZWRUHÀQHWKHbios? Indicating several times a skepticism of the grand ruptures à la
)RXFDXOWRUjOD$JDPEHQ(VSRVLWRTXDOLÀHVWKH´JHQHVLVµRIELRSROLWLFVDV´VSHFLÀcally modern” [Bios xiii] but declares “one of its roots” to be meanwhile “recognizable
also in earlier eras” [xiii]. Does recognition imply a transhistorical ground? We return to
the latency of the concept, which would remain nonetheless subsequent to Antiquity.19
We seem to have dived into biopolitics at the end of the nineteenth century, at a point of
junction between politics and medicine. Nietzsche’s work reports contrasting virtualities:
his is an “extraordinary seismograph” [xiv]. Temporal progression would then be neither
a juxtaposition of ruptures nor a simple forward movement, but an accumulation of shock
waves automatically swelling in size. This model would suppose a decline of the concept
after the acme of Nazism (“in Nazism biopolitics experimented with WKHPRVWWHUULI\LQJ
form RIKLVWRULFDOUHDOL]DWLRQµ>P\HPSKDVLV@7KHODVWSDUWRIWKHERRNGRHVQRW
share this “optimistic” view. In the section on post-Nazism, it is more a question of “interUXSWLQJLQDGHÀQLWLYHPDQQHUWKLVWHUULEOHWKDQDWRSROLWLFDORUGHUµ>@E\LQÁHFWLQJXSRQ
ELRSROLWLFVDUHYLWDOL]LQJDIÀUPDWLRQ+RSHZRXOGQRWKDYHVHQVHLIWKHVHLVPLFLPDJH
were preserved. I conclude from this that the superlative achievement has unsettled the
system of conceptual history. Or again, that Esposito approaches the sequence of thoughts
and facts in a nonhomogeneous manner: inexorability, interruptions, deviations. Both
hypothetical readings expose the site at which the philosophical concept defaults itself. In
the very body of philosophy wherein it desires a place, Bios is led back to the constitutive
GHÀFLHQF\RIWKHUDWLRQDOH[SRVLWLRQRIWKHFRQFHSW7KHV\VWHPLVOLWHUDOO\RYHUVKRWE\
WKHLQÀQLWHLWDLPVWRFRQWDLQ,DPQRWUHSURDFKLQJ(VSRVLWRDVKHGRHV$UHQGWIRUQRW
KDYLQJ´WKRXJKWLQGHSWKµ>@,DPLQGLFDWLQJRQHÀVVXUHLQSKLORVRSK\$WWKHIDXOW
OLQHQRRWKHULQVWLWXWLRQDOL]HGNQRZOHGJHZLOOKHOS(VSRVLWRÀOOLQWKHYRLGQRWHYHQWR
straddle it; for he has deprived himself of the resources of the disciplines. History, absent,
will not throw a bridge over the abyss that history reveals.
(VSRVLWRVWXPEOHVDQHZRQWKHVLJQLÀFDWLRQRIWKHKLVWRULFDOWKLFNQHVVLQWKHYDVW
body of texts he convokes. The same word can mean something else in reiteration, as
different terms may intersect by dint of the alterity that enunciation confers. Texts, constituted in turn by phrases and words, are possibly bound by the same phenomenon. The
biopolitical corpus proceeds—apart from or beyond the hermeneutical act of regrouping—from an invariant’s variation. In the reiteration of forms, themes, words, schemas,
or statements, alterations may arise. Any history of discourse that would deprive itself
of the teleological purport of the concept would take seriously the lingual nature of its
“object.” Everything is always the same but can be different. This “history” tells of the
heterogeneity of the homogenous—which is better than falling back upon heterogeneous
92
&ILQSDUWLFXODUWKHDQDO\VLVRI3ODWRBios 51.
paradigms (shock waves, rupture) in the anxiety to cover the defect. To do another kind
of history would require an account of each utterance in respect to the perfomativity of
political and legal paroles, wherein acts are not indomitably detached from words. This
entails a consideration of the site, the force, and the reach of a text beyond its layout on
the discursive plane, without which one runs the risk of making “more terrible” the old
incarnation of the Hegelian idea: the factual illustration of a treatise or the adventitious
horizon of a booklike world.
The condition of this methodical redimensioning would make it possible to perceive
the conceptual weakness without, however, stopping there. The jusqu’auboutist interdisciplinarity verges on the indiscipline to the extent that it continues up to sites of fracture
and so passes beyond the procedural limitation of knowing. It is not a question of constructing a patchwork with scraps of knowledge. Rather than falling back upon encyclopedism alone, open to wherever the wind may blow, the interdiscipline postulates at once
RQWKHLQÀQLWHDQGH[KLELWVSRLQWVRIDUUHVWFROOLVLRQDFFLGHQWV%\UHIRUPLQJLQWKLVZD\
the rich hypotheses of Roberto Esposito, a history bordering on that of the tongue would
HQVXHDQGIURPWKHFRQFHSWXDOÀVVXUHZRXOGGUDZWKHIRUFHWRFRQWLQXH&RQWLQXDWLRQ
OHW XV QRW GHFHLYH RXUVHOYHV ZRXOG OHDG IDU DÀHOG IURP Bios and displace by several
removes the problems already askew in Homo Sacer. This putative book remains to be
written, and will perhaps always remain so.
The Multiple Lives of Politics
$WWKLVOHYHORIFULWLTXHWKHXUJHQF\VHHPVWRUHTXLUHVRPHWKLQJHQWLUHO\RWKHUWKDQDÀFtive work. Agamben had the merit of investigating the possible relations between politics
DQGOLIH(VSRVLWRFORVHVWKHLQTXLU\ZLWKDQDSSHDOWRDYLWDOUHDIÀUPDWLRQEH\RQGDPRUtiferous biopolitics. For Agamben, the present day had been dominated by the renunciation of the Greek bipolarity between bios and ]ĿďFor Esposito, today’s world has been
determined since the beginning of modern times: that is, since we emerged from the reign
RI$QWLTXLW\:KDWWRPDNHRIWKLVGLYLGH",Q$JDPEHQLWÀWVWKHDSRFDO\SWLFUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ³EXWWKHVRFDOOHGSURRIRILWVUHDOLW\LVPLVVLQJ(VSRVLWR·VDSSURDFKFRUUHVSRQGVÀnally to a theoretical decoherence. Advancing by anachronism, I would hope to put aside
the hypothesis of an absolute rupture, one that Bios, we recall, relativized in the span of a
page. We will thus conclude with a supplementary collation between the Greek scene and
our current one. Rather than remaining with the pure unicity of an isolated era (whether
it be the Athenian City or our age of biometric desolation), I opt for a violent shift, which
would make the biopolitics in all politics resurface.
So let us read an Aristotle who is neither the holy origin nor the Father; and let us
move from Politics to Nicomachean Ethics. ,QWKHODWWHUZHÀQGUHÁHFWLRQRQOLIHDQGWKH
bonds between citizens. The initial assertions of Politics about the ]ĿRQSROLWLNRQthat is
PDQ³WKRVHVWDWHPHQWVVRFUXFLDOIRUWKHHQWLUHGLVFXVVLRQUHYDPSHGE\$JDPEHQ³ÀQG
there a pendant. We read in fact that “by his nature, man is a political thing,” and that
“man is by nature a political thing” [8.9.1169b]. The attribute politikon is neutral, which
the periphrase “political thing” means to indicate. Neutral: while in these same textual
UHJLRQVGLVGDLQIRUWKHDQLPDOLVKHDUGWKHTXDOLÀFDWLRQRIPDQLQEthics is less engaged
with his ravaging humanism than in Politics. Finally, politikon refers directly to the City,
the polisDQGWKHÀUVWIRUPXODPD\EHSXWLQWKHVHWHUPV´E\QDWXUHPDQOLYHVLQD&LW\µ
The anachronism I am hazarding here would not go so far as to confuse society and City,
for polis includes also the organization of power that extends beyond collective hierarchies.
20. Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea 1.7.1097b. Man LVIRUWKHQRQJHQGHUHGFDWHJRU\RIanthropos.
diacritics / summer 2006
93
If the living animal (]ĿRQ) is temporarily absent from these axioms, life surges
forth—alive and well. I intentionally abbreviated the second sentence, which in its more
integral version reads: “man is by nature a political thing and he lives with others” [my
emphasis]. The VX]ďQis literally a living-with, but to pair it with the Heideggerian Mitsein
would be misleading. In effect, VX]ďQin its other uses at the core of Ethics, designates a
strong community that is marked particularly by friendship, or philia. It surely does not
designate a relation of coexistence with the Other in general, and refers more to those affective or practical relations that rest upon activities in common. The VSHFLÀFLW\of VX]ďQ
in regard to the citizenry entails this “and” (kai) that in turn relates it to the political. The
human being is a member of the City and implied in an ensemble of particular associations.
Let us add that sumbioun appears in Ethics on two occasions, and as a bonus the substantive sumbios. The word sumbioun is derived from the verb Agamben said was “rare in
attic prose.” Twice Aristotle intentionally associates the composite terms ]ďQand bioun.
In several successive lines, sumbioun and VX]ďQ designate in an identical manner the
sharing of an existence between people;21 a parallel phenomenon is repeated further on.22
This can no longer surprise us. All the same, I wanted especially to note these shifts so
DVWRHVWDEOLVKWKDWWKHSUHÀ[FKDQJHVQRWKLQJRIWKHOH[LFDORVFLOODWLRQ7KHLQWHUFKDQJHability is evidenced even when Aristotle makes a list of activities that friends can do in
common: “some drink together, others play dice together, or together they do sport and
WKH\KXQWRUWKH\SKLORVRSKL]Hµ>D@´7RJHWKHUµFRQYH\VWKHDFFXPXODWLRQRI
SUHÀ[HGZRUGVLQsun, which are just as much subcases of VX]ďQcited at the head of this
UXEULF>E@$WWKHHQGRIWKHVHULHVWKHSKLORVRSKHUV\QWKHVL]HVKLVGHVFULSWLRQ
with the formula: “all devoting the days they spend together to what they precisely like in
OLIHµ>D@Life is bios and directly echoes the beginning of this sentence, about
the multiple and individual reasons for “living”—wherein “living” was written ]ďQ
We had shown that Agamben’s explanations of the Greek language in general lacked
validation in use. The function of Aristotle’s writing teaches us another thing, clearer still
after reading Esposito. The Stagirite is not beneath conceptualization when he moves,
indeed with insistence, from bioun to ]ďQduring the course of his text. On the contrary,
KHFRQÀUPVWKHLGLRPDWLFRUJDQL]DWLRQDQGDUWLFXODWHVDWKRXJKWWKDWLVQRWULYHWHGWRWKH
word but produced in the act of enunciation. Not only does a word not equal a concept;
but a concept does not necessarily correspond to one word. The concept is not absolutely
anterior to language, which would otherwise approximate it. After all, doesn’t Aristotle’s
rupture with Platonism begin with his rejection of the theory of Ideas, as mentioned in the
introduction to Ethics?
I will go further, to risk even an irrevocable divorce with the Aristotelian project.
From the moment that the concept is recognized as a construct, as a lingual production,
WKHLGHD·VÀVVXUHLVDOUHDG\DQQRXQFHG:LWKVLJQLÀFDWLRQRFFXUULQJE\ZD\RIZRUGV
between them, even beyond them, the principle of identity falls down—at least on the
lingual level. A substantive can signify other than itself and the same thing as another.
An exemption to internal noncontradiction is possible, which threatens to resound in the
constitution of the concept at the places of its foreclosure. The implications of what I am
sketching complete the critique of unitary rationality in Esposito: it is permitted, with or
without proper authorization, by the rereading we were conducting of Aristotle. In any
event, we have to face the necessity to retain not only bios. Life is expressed ELRV]Ŀď
Another may read vita or life, accordingly: life is life here, and diverges there. But it is
time to refuse the edict of the underlying concept. On occasion certain conceptions may
dominate, as, perhaps, “biologization” in Nazism. In no case do they precede, however,
21. Cf. 4.5.1126a and 4.6.1126b.
22. Cf. 10.10.1171a and 10.11.1171a.
94
or even form, a unitary semantics. Finally, their majority position is evaluated according
to minority options, ones they could not obliterate with a single blow.
The accumulation of amicable activities occasions a second remark. No doubt
$ULVWRWOHFRQVLGHUVWKHÀQDOsumphilosophein (“philosophize together”) as an occupation
superior to the preceding ones (“drink together,” for example). The characterization of
VX]ďQ³“putting words and thoughts in common”23—is eloquent in this regard. However,
in the conclusion we cited of the two books consecrated to friendship, the author recognizes life to be intrinsically dependent on neither its form nor its content. To live together
LPSOLHVWKHSRVVLEOHPXOWLSOLFLW\RIOLYLQJ,ZDQWWRUHFRQÀJXUHWKHDUJXPHQWLQWRDUHsponse to one scruple of Esposito’s. The current consensus on the existence of biopolitics
seems often to be accompanied by a secret and profound disagreement on the subject
of bios. In retrospect, besides my serious doubts concerning conceptual communities, I
wonder whether the meaning of bio- in biopolitics need necessarily be standardized. If
Nazism is one biopolitical apogee—or ELR]Ŀď-political apogee—did the controlled and
annulled life not exceed medical parameters? All those activities listed by Aristotle were
also deeply affected by the Third Reich. A certain death was also brought into these lives.
Destruction in life, oriented through racial control, entails a ruin beyond the medical or
the “biological.” Life is not only life.
$ULVWRWOHDOORZVXVDÀQDOUHDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHFXUUHQWGHEDWH+HUH,KDYHLQVLVWHG
the VX]ďQand sumbioun are distinct from politics. And nonetheless they depend on it. The
HQWLUH ÀUVW SDUW RI Nicomachean Ethics maintains the “architectonic” and “sovereign”
SODFH RI SROLWLFDO VFLHQFH LQVLGH NQRZOHGJH >D@ (WKLFV GHSHQGV XSRQ SROLWLFV
The VX]ďQof friends is thus linked to the “living-well,” the HX]ďQthat is the objective
of the City in Aristotle’s Politics and Nicomachean Ethics. The political perspective of
Aristotelian ethics is renowned. The intention behind its particular, and culminating, case
of friendship is without doubt. That is why the types of philiai are compared to those of
government, why friendship is indispensable among citizens, and so on.24 In The Politics
RI)ULHQGVKLSJacques Derrida fully developed this temptation to inscribe philia within
politics, in Aristotle and beyond.
And no sooner is this done than the movement is inverted, signing another severance
between ethics and politics. Whereas governmental science is by rights superior to moral
study, the acquisitions of the latter specify the content of the former. The place held by
philia LQSROLWLFDODQDO\VLVFRUUHVSRQGVWRDVHFRQGLQÁXHQFHRIHWKLFVXSRQLWVQHFHVVDU\
condition. In the same respect, “living-together” is facilitated by “living-well”; it even
contributes to it, but it does not belong solely to it. In the enumeration evoked earlier, it
is obvious that Aristotle does not present as the purpose of the City a continual sharing of
occupations, by all and for all. There is no Spartan call to uniformity; Plato’s disciple has
no special admiration for Lacedemon and its Republic of similars (homoioi). Decidedly,
“life-with” does not coincide with HX]ďQA life exists, which breaks ranks with politics
and is not consigned to the naturalness of the household. From the superposition of politics upon ethics life surges forth.
7KLVDPELJXRXVV\VWHPHYLGHQFHVDGRXEOHFRQÀJXUDWLRQ%HJLQQLQJZLWKWKHQHFHVsity of living well, Aristotle makes ethical life depend upon political existence. Because
of the primacy of the City-State, full human life exists only in the polis, through politics.
The slightest action, the slightest thought, the slightest word, since they imply a collective space, are governed politically. Only the City may lend constituency to bios and ]Ŀď
At the same time, the ethical VX]ďQremains in excess to this vital political ground. Life
surpasses the frame that “authorizes” it.
23. Cf. 4.12.1126b and 9.9.1170b.
&ILQLWVHQWLUHW\
diacritics / summer 2006
95
,Q$ULVWRWOHWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIIRUPVRIOLYHV>E@LVLQWHQGHGDVDQDQWLFLpatory response to this porte à faux. <HWLWRQO\DGGVDGLPHQVLRQWRWKHHGLÀFH)RULI
political life (bios politikos) is one of three modes of existence (alongside the movement
WRZDUGSOHDVXUHRUWKHRU\PDQ·VGHÀQLWLRQDVDOLYLQJSROLWLFDODQLPDODQGKLVQDWXUDO
obligation to seek a life lived well within the City destabilize this new horizontal structure. Apart from the “political life”-form, each human life is already political, according
to the phrase (]ĿRQ) politikon. Still in the light of our times, therefore, I propose to interpret the porte à faux in a different manner.
Ethical or quotidian ELRV]Ŀďis constituted by and depends upon the polis; human
life is E\QDWXUHpolitical; and the a-polis man is an “inferior”25 being. The totality of life,
from its nature to its content, from its form to its quality, is coextensive with the political
thing. However, friendly or ethical excess comes to contradict the grandeur of the political hold. I want to see in this—both against Aristotle and for him—the underpinnings of a
double language. The Stagirite, imperturbable laudator of Athens, celebrates a total polis
that governs all life, and all of life. Then with one unexpected gesture he designates an
outside, a space where life exceeds life. Whereas he announces the political totality of
OLIHKHGHQRXQFHVWKLVWRWDOLW\E\RSHQLQJDYLWDORXWVLGHÀHOG
So I return to the grammar of the contemporary debate. It may be that the state of
WHFKQRORJ\WKHLQÁXHQFHRIPHGLFLQHDQGWHFKQRFUDWLFHQJLQHHULQJSURGXFHDJRYHUQment of beings incommensurate with the totalizing endeavor I have just described. In the
perspective of Bios, the fact that “politics is characterized as LQWULQVLFDOO\biopolitical”
[xiii] may remain more modern than ancient. On the other hand, the second part of what
creates biopolitics for Esposito (“life [. . .] LPPHGLDWHO\translatable into politics” [xiii])
is completely in place in Aristotle. We can understand Esposito’s resolve to give rise to
a novelty, to mark a caesura. But if it is conceivable to follow him in his analysis of the
mechanization and manipulation of the living, biopolitics today will never be more than a
reinforced extension of the total relation between politics and life, as it was described by
Aristotle. Politics adjusted the intensity of its control by cultivating an alliance with bio-;
EXWLWV$ULVWRWHOLDQTXDOLÀFDWLRQKDVQRWEHHQUDGLFDOO\DOWHUHG(YHQZHUHZHWRH[WHQG
and reform Esposito’s proofs in the directions I have sketched, biopolitics will only remotivate politics’ ambitions for life that Aristotle’s ethics tried to limit. The combination
of ancient methods with new procedures (medicine or genetics, for instance) only conÀUPVWKHWKHRUHWLFDOVWDELOLW\RIWKHSROLWLFDOV\VWHPVDWLVÀHGZLWK´PRGHUQL]LQJµLWVRZQ
reign. Agamben declares that “modernity does nothing other than declare its own faithfulness to the essential structure of the metaphysical tradition” [8/11]. The phrase designates
an invariance, true; yet it does so, alas, in the name of logos and the lost origin, which
doesn’t need to be reiterated. At the price of a certain impoverishment, Agamben’s statement nonetheless depicts better than Bios the possible solidarity between Aristotle and
today. The obsession with the totalitarian (history or category) in contemporary theories
also appears as a protective measure to obscure the variable persistence of biopolitical
action in politics.26
25. Aristotle, Politica A.2.1253a.
+HUHLVDUHPDUNWKDWGHVHUYHVPRUHWKDQDQRWHEXWZKLFKWKHHFRQRP\RIWKLVDUWLFOH
SUHYHQWVPHIURPGHYHORSLQJ%\DQRWKHUURXWH-DFTXHV5DQFLqUHFRPHVXSRQDVLPLODULGHDZKHQ
KHLGHQWLÀHVELRSROLWLFVDVRQHPRGDOLW\RIZKDWKHQDPHVWKHSROLFH%XWE\H[WROOLQJWKHFRXQWHUPRGHORISROLWLFDOVXEMHFWLYDWLRQLQDQ\FDVHDOZD\VULYHWHGRQWKHSROLFHLVQ·WKHRSHQLQJKLPVHOI
to a rehabilitation or distribution of a good SROLWLFVWKHRQO\RQHZRUWK\RIWKHQDPHDQGbad (poOLFHRUGHU"$ERYHDOOZK\ZRXOGZHZDQWWRPDLQWDLQDVSDWLDOH[WHQVLRQRISROLWLFVWKDWHQGVXS
HQYHORSLQJWKHHQWLUHW\RIOLIH³PLQXVWKHUROHRIWKHSROLFH",VWKHUHQRRWKHUWRWKHSROLWLFDORWKHU"
On the distribution between police DQGSROLWLFVVHH5DQFLqUHDisagreement 28 ff. [La Mésentente:
Politique et philosophie II@2QELRSROLWLFVDVDIRUPRISROLFHUHDGWKHLQWHUYLHZJUDQWHGE\
5DQFLqUHLQWKHMRXUQDOMultitudes, ´%LRSROLWLTXHRXSROLWLTXH"µ
96
The current variation is also a means of exploring a (hi)story. In that case, the contribution of the Italian corpus to “biopolitics” holds above all to the retrospective revelation it favors. Our exaggerated rereading shows that Aristotle had expressed a coextension of politics and life—and suggested something beyond the polis.28 In other terms,
the modern era has not “given birth” to the political tendency to absorb life. But many
contemporary thinkers forget what even Aristotle had not omitted: the totalizing ambition
RISROLWLFVVKRXOGEHFRQWUDGLFWHGE\DQDIÀUPDWLRQRIOLIHLWVHOInotwithstanding the political order that attempts to contain it. Michel Foucault stated that “man, over millennia,
remained what he was for Aristotle: a living animal and with the additional capacity for a
political existence; modern man is an animal whose politics places his existence as a living being in question.”29 Now Foucault and his critics allow us to understand in Aristotle
a postulate very different from the one usually attributed to him. For in reading Politics
with Nicomachean Ethics ZHÀQGWKHLGHDRIDQDWXUDOO\political man. Exaggerating only
a little: he is ELRORJLFDOO\a citizen. Life is political for those who act within the City, who
conform to the triad of existences. But, according to Aristotle, OLIHLVIXQGDPHQWDOO\SROLWLcal in any case. Hence Foucault’s “addition” is thoroughly inexact: Nicomachean Ethics
FHUWLÀHVWKDWWKHOLIHRIPDQLVLQWULQVLFDOO\DGKHUHQWWRWKHpolis. The “question” of life is
posed precisely “in politics,” as presented by Aristotle.
Aristotle the anachronist, as we are reconstructing him, should guard us from the
mystical return to the origin; for if there are bios and ]Ŀďin these regions, the contemSRUDU\EHQWWRZDUGRSSUHVVLRQPD\WDNHHTXDOUHFRXUVHLQWKHP0LJKWRQH\HWÀQGWKH
DGHTXDWHWRROVWRLQYHQWDQHZUHVLVWDQFH",ZRXOGUDWKHUPDNHDQRWKHUÀQDOVXJJHVWLRQ
In Nicomachean Ethics, it is barely articulated but irreducibly there: this life in excess of
the political force that handles it. Against political totality, there might be the impossible
SRVVLELOLW\RIDQRWKHUOLIHGHVSLWHDOO1RWWKHDIÀUPDWLYHELRSROLWLFVVRXJKWE\(VSRVLWR
nor the Aristotelian dissymmetry of ways of life subordinated in every manner to the
RUGHUVRIWKH&LW\,DPVSHDNLQJLQVWHDGRIWKHXWRSLDQDIÀUPDWLRQRIDOLIHWDNLQJOHDYH
RISROLWLFV+HUHWKHIDPLOLDUQRWLRQRIUHWUHDWZLOOQRWVXIÀFHIRUWKHZRUGLPSOLHVDUHturn or spiraling back onto oneself. It would be vain to join “those who turn their backs
to politics” [Rancière, Disagreement 32/55]: we must depart and look things squarely in
WKHH\H1RORQJHUVXIÀFLHQWLVWKHKRUL]RQWDOTXRWDSULYDWHKHUHSXEOLFWKHUHKHUH,DP
a citizen, there an autonomous individual). It will always be a matter of leaving politics:
recognizing its necessity, its grandeur, its risks—and abandoning it. This movement cannot be completed once and for all but forever begun again. I recognize the political hold,
,GRQRWGHQ\LWDQG,GHVHUWLWLQWKHYLWDOFRQWUDGLFWLRQWKDWVLJQLÀHVVRPHWKLQJ2QH
can hope to combat political tyranny by walking its terrain (the resistance of the exile
in Hardt and Negri, Esposito’s renovated biopower, the true politics in Rancière); but
some VXSSOHPHQWDU\refusal is needed. Stating that all livable life is political, or that we
VKRXOGRQO\ÀJKWSROLWLFDOO\DJDLQVWWKHFRQWHPSRUDU\ELRRUGHUZRXOGEHWKHXOWLPDWH
victory for the totalizing ambition of polis and police. I do not call anyone to inaction.
On the contrary, let us redouble the political acts of our unassailable lives; se moquer
de la politique c’est aussi faire de la politique. Let us begin by DIÀUPLQJlife outside of
politics—even today. Politics is not of a concept, of an obscured essence. It is rather a collective, frail, ruined construct of events, words, deeds, thoughts, feelings, forces, powers,
27. The quotation marks are meant to refer to a title or to index a problem.
7KDWLVZK\WKHpolitikon DWWULEXWHLVKLJKO\VSHFLÀFLIRQHFRPSDUHVLWZLWKRWKHUSRVVLEOH
´KXPDQµIHDWXUHV7KHUHLVIRULQVWDQFHQRH[FHVVRIlogos in Aristotle, even suggested in a negaWLYHZD\
29. History of Sexuality, Vol. I: An Introduction 143 [Histoire de la sexualité, vol. I: La volonté de savoir ´XQDQLPDOYLYDQWHWde plus FDSDEOHG·XQHH[LVWHQFHSROLWLTXHµP\HPSKDsis].
diacritics / summer 2006
97
NQRZOHGJHVDOZD\VROG³DOZD\VQHZ:HVRPHWLPHVÀJKWIRUEHWWHUSROLFLHVEXWSROLWLFV
LVQRWDOO-XVWDVRXUZRUGVFROOLGHDQGWHOOXVVRPHWKLQJMXVWDVVLJQLÀFDQFHSDVVHVOH[LFDOPHDQLQJVZHRXJKWWRVSHDNRIWKHÀVVXUHVRIWKHSROLWLFDO)DUIURPWKHWRWDOL]LQJ
tendency of any bio-politics, we should remember that our life is able to be more. Critical
scholarship is a possible way of articulating these ideas. But only one way, among others, such as passionate friendship or poetry. In order not to die as a consequence of my
measured, chiseled, programmed, that is, totally political life, ,VKRXOGDOVRVWULYHEH\RQG
WKDWÀHOGUHVHUYHGIRUPHSeek not only political subjectivation against the police, nor the
DIÀUPDWLRQRIDELRSRZHUDJDLQVWWKHGHDWKWKDWGHWHUPLQHVH[LVWHQFH6D\DQGVKRZthat
there is life in life. Live politics and leave politics.
7UDQVODWHGE\&ODULVVD&(DJOHZLWKWKHDXWKRU
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