19
EMOTION
THIS CHAPTER IS ABOUT
El
El
El
El
El
El
El
The Nature of Emotion
Psychophysiological Approaches to Understanding Emotions
Cognitive Approaches to Understanding Emotions
Cross-Cultural Approaches to Understanding Emotions
Some Major Emotions and Their Characteristics
Measurement of Emotion
The Expression of Emotion
19.1. The Nature of Emotion
A.
An emotion is a feeling, a tendency to respond experientially as well as physiologically and
behaviorally
to certain internal and external variables.
B. Emotions can be either preprogrammed or learned, and they can be manifested behaviorally
in a variety
of ways, such as by smiling, frowning, and crying.
C. Emotions seem to serve an important adaptive function. They enable us to respond to situations in appro
priate ways. For example, anger or fear may be appropriate in the face of aggression, and lead
us either to
counterattack or to run away.
19.2. Psychophysiological Approaches to
Understanding Emotions
Psychophysiological approaches to emotion seek to link emotions to the biology of the organism.
A. Early psychophysiological approaches
1. An early theory of emotion is known as the James—Lange theory of emotion, This theory turns
commonsense notions about emotion on their head. The conventional view is that we
perceive an event.
that the perception of the event causes an emotion, and that the emotion in turn leads
to psychophysio
logical reactions. According to the James—Lange theory of emotion, we perceive an event, which
causes
psychophysiological reactions in the body. Our interpretation of these reactions
is then experienced
as an emotion. For example, first we would cry, and then we would feel sadness as our
interpretation of
this crying.
2. An alternative theory, the Cannon—Bard theory of emotion, argues that the James—Lange theory
cannot he right. According to this theory, the organs of the body could never provide
the kind of subtle
differentiating information that would be needed to experience one emotion as opposed another.
to
Cannon
and Bard proposed that the brain (and. particularly, the hypothalamus) rather than bodily
reactions causes
our emotions, Thus, for example, it is the sequence of events in the brain rather than crying
that makes a
person feel sad.
190
Emotion
191
B. Modern psychophysiological approaches
1. Modern psychophysiological approaches provide more detailed accounts of emotion and have more
evidence to support them.
2. Joseph LeDoux has suggested that arousal of the autonomic nervous system may not be all-or-none, but
rather may occur in differentiated patterns. The emotions we feel are a result of the pattern of arousal.
3. Other theorists have argued for the importance of the endocrine system in the experiencing of emotion.
For example, increased experiencing of anger seems to be associated with increased levels of norepinephrine;
likewise, greater fear is linked with increased levels of epinephrine. Clearly, this approach does not establish
causality: It is not obvious whether the increases in hormonal levels cause the emotion, or vice versa.
19,3. Cognitive Approaches to Understanding Emotions
Cognitive approaches to emotion seek to understand the relationship between thinking, on the one hand, and
emotion, on the other.
A. The Schachter—Singer theory
1. Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed what has come to be known as the two-component
theory of emotion. According to this view, we first experience a stimulus, and this perception results in
physiological arousal. The arousal can be caused either by our perceiving some external stimulus, or even
by our perceiving an internal stimulus, as when we are under the influence of drugs. We then label the
arousal, and this labeling process is what leads us to feel a particular emotion. Note that, according to this
view, the very same experience that might lead one person to experience happiness might lead another to
experience anger: It all depends on the way we cognitively label our experience.
2. We now know that the two-component theory cannot be completely correct, because research has shown
that patterns of arousal differ for different emotions. Thus, it is not simple labeling of a single form of
arousal that causes us to experience certain emotions.
B. Lazarus’s temporal-sequence theory
1. According to Richard Lazarus (and earlier, Magda Arnold), our thinking about a situation leads us to
experience emotions. Lazarus has suggested that when we appraise a situation, we do so in stages.
2.
First, we engage in primary appraisal, which means that we determine the potential consequences of
what is about to happen. Next we engage in secondary appraisal, which means that we decide what to do
about the situation we are in. Later we may (or may not) need to reappraise the situation, depending on
whether we believe that our initial appraisals were correct.
3.
According to Lazarus, each of our appraisals determines what emotions we will experience. Thus,
cognition precedes emotion.
C. Zajonc’s theory of separation of cognition and emotion
1, Robert Zajonc has argued that Lazarus’s theory could not be correct. He has suggested that the emotional
and cognitive systems are separate, and thus that cognition cannot always precede emotion.
2. Zajonc has further suggested that emotion must have preceded cognition in evolutionary history, so that
it would not make sense from an evolutionary point of view to argue that cognition must precede emotion.
For example, lower animals know to fear predators without having to go through any complex cognitive
processing.
19.4. Cross-Cultural Approaches to Understanding Emotions
Batja Mesquita and Nico Frijda have done extensive cross-cultural analyses of emotions, and on the basis
of this research, have suggested that emotions must be understood in terms of a number of interrelated
components of the entire context,
192
College Outline for Psychology
A. Components in the Mesquita—Frijda theory
1. Antecedent events are those that happen right before an emotion is experienced.
2. Event coding is how we interpret and categorize the events we have experienced.
3. Appraisal is how we evaluate the events that have happened in terms of their relevance for us, for
example, as leading to potential danger or reward,
4. Physiological reaction pattern refers to the physiological changes we experience in response to the
coded and appraised events.
5. Action readiness refers to the actions we feel ready to take in response to a particular emotion,
6. Emotional behavior refers to the actions we actually take in response to a particular emotion.
7. Regulation refers to how we exaggerate or inhibit our recognition and expression of emotion.
B. Russell’s alternative
An alternative cross-culturally based theory has been proposed by James Russell, According to Russell, not
all cultures sort their emotions according to the same basic categories or recognize the same basic emotions.
Although there are many differences across cultures, there are also certain similarities, particularly in regard
to the emotions associated with facial expressions.
19,5, Some Major Emotions and Their
Characteristics
Different theories have been proposed concerning the set of basic emotions, For example, Robert Plutchik
has proposed a list of eight basic emotions, including joy, acceptance, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger,
and anticipation. Plutchik’s theory is in the form of a wheel, with more similar emotions closer to each other
on the wheel as well as closer in terms of our subjective experience.
A. Some of the basic emotions
1. We experience joy when we are happy, satisfied that things are going well, and sometimes feel an
internal glow. There is some evidence that joy is at least as much a trait as a state, that is, people have
typical levels of joy that differ among them, According to this view, some people are simply happier than
others, regardless of the particular events that are transpiring.
2. We feel fear when we anticipate danger or harm from a known source. We experience anxiety when we
anticipate danger or harm but are unable to specify the source,
3. We experience anger when we are frustrated in the pursuit of a goal. Research suggests that most of our
anger is directed toward people we love or like, rather than toward those we actively dislike,
4. We experience sadness when we feel low spirits or sorrow, We experience grief when the low spirits
are more long-lasting, often in response to a loss, whether permanent or through temporary separation.
5. We feel disgust in the face of objects or experiences that we find to be repulsive, Research by Paul Rozin
suggests that our labeling of something as causing disgust is very much a function not only of the nature of
the object, but of its origin and social history as well as of what it reminds us, For example, people are reluc
tant to eat fudge that is shaped like feces, Or if people are first told by an experimenter that something is
poisonous and then are told that it really is not, they are still reluctant to consume it,
19.6. Measurement of Emotion
A. One way of measuring emotion is through self-report measures, When one uses these measures,
people are simply asked to report how they feel.
Emotion
193
1). An example of a self-report measure is a Likert Scale, in which people are asked to rate on a
numerical scale, such as from I to 5. how much of an emotion they feel.
2). Another type of self-report measure is a forced-choice measure, in which subjects are asked which
of two (or more) terms better characterizes the way they feel.
B.
A number of psychophysiological measures of emotion have also been proposed.
One such measure is the galvanic skin response (GSR). which tracks the electrical conductivity of
the skin. Conductivity increases with perspiration, so that a person feeling more emotion or stress (and thus
tending to perspire more) is likely to have increased skin conductivity.
1).
2).
Another measure is heart rate, which tends to increase with emotion experienced.
3).
Blood pressure also increases with degree of emotion experienced.
4). Respiration rate is further linked to experiencing of emotion, with rate increasing as degree of
emotional experience increases.
5).
A polygraph, also known as a lie dereerom; measures a variety of psychophysiological reactions,
such as the GSR, heart rate, and respiration. There remains in the field of psychology serious disagreement
as to the validity of polygraph results.
19.7. The Expression of Emotion
A. According to Carroll Izard. the expression of emotion serves several social functions.
1. It enables us to communicate our feelings to other people.
2. It regulates how other people respond to us.
3. It facilitates social interaction.
4. It encourages prosocial behavior.
B. Work by Paul Ekman and others suggests there is a very’ substantial cross-cultural overlap in the ways emo
tions are expressed facially: The same facial expressions represent the same emotions in large numbers of cultures.
C. According to the facial-feedback hypothesis, proposed by Sylvan Tomkins, we feel emotions as the
result of feedback from the face. In other words, the facial expression of an emotion leads us to experience
that emotion.
1). The strong version of the hypothesis suggests that merely by making a certain facial expression. you
will feel the emotion corresponding to that expression.
A weaker version of the theory holds that making a facial expression corresponding to an emotion
can affect the intensity of the experiencing of that emotion, but is not causal of the emotional experience.
2).
D. Paul Ekman studied individuals in a variety of occupations in which it is necessary to detect lying. such
as members of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Secret Service. Ekman found that only members
of the Secret Service were reliably able to detect liars from their emotional expressions.
Sununary
1. Emotion is a feeling, a tendency to respond experientially as well as physiologically and behav
iorally to certain internal and external variables,
2. Emotions serve an evolutionary function. For example, fear can lead us to flee appropriately in the
face of danger.
3. The James—Lange theory of emotion claims that bodily changes cause emotion, rather than the
reverse. Cannon and Bard disagreed. claiming that the brain controls emotional behavior.
4. Other physiological theories have looked at the role of patterns of autonomic nervous system arousal
in emotion,
194
College Outline for Psychology
5. Cognitive theories emphasize the relation between thought and emotion, Lazarus has argued that
cognition precedes emotion, whereas Zajonc has argued that cognition and emotion are separate
systems.
6. Cross-cultural theorists have studied emotions in a variety of cultures to determine what is
common and what is unique in the expression of emotion. For example, one theory analyzes
emotions in terms of antecedent events, event coding, appraisal, physiological reaction patterns,
action readiness, emotional behavior, and regulation. Although not all cultures categorize emotions
in the same way, there are nevertheless many similarities across cultures.
7. Some of the major emotions include joy, fear and anxiety, anger, sadness and grief and disgust.
8. Emotions can be measured through self-report measures of various kinds, including Likert
Scales and forced-choice procedures. Psychophysiological measures include the galvanic skin
response (GSR), heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate.
9. The expression of emotion enables us to communicate feelings, to regulate how others respond to
us, to facilitate social interaction, and to promote prosocial behavior.
10. The facial-feedback hypothesis holds that facial expression is related to emotion, The strong form
of the hypothesis argues that facial expressions can lead to emotions, whereas the weak form argues
that facial expressions can affect the intensity of experienced emotions.
KeyTerms
anger
anxiety
Cannon—Bard theory of
emotion
disgust
emotion
facial-feedback hypothesis
fear
forced-choice measure
galvanic skin response (GSR)
grief
James—Lange theory of
emotion
joy
Likert Scale
polygraph
primary appraisal
psychophysiological measure
sadness
secondary appraisal
self-report measure
two-component theory of
emotion
Solved Problems
A. Select the best response option from among the four that are given.
1.
The James—Lange theory of emotion holds that the experience of fear
A. occurs when we subjectively attribute our bodily responses as fearful ones.
B. is biochemically produced in the hypothalamus.
C. is autonomically similar to the experience of rage.
D. causes fearful behavior,
2.
According to which theory of emotion will the perception and labeling of our physiological arousal
lead us to feel a given emotional response?
A. Cannon—Bard theory of emotion
B. James—Lange theory of emotion
C. two-component theory of emotion
D. Lazarus’s temporal-sequence theory
3.
Zajonc’s theory of emotion holds that
A. cognition precedes emotion.
B. evolutionarily, emotion must have appeared before cognition.
C. emotions originate in our brain chemistry, not in our bodily reactions,
D. the cognitive and emotional systems are one and the same.
_______,
_______
Emotion
195
4. Increases in all of the following indicators have been shown to be valid indicators of emotional
states except
A. heart rate.
B. facial expressions.
C. skin conductivity.
D. attitudes.
5. In its most extreme form, the facial-feedback hypothesis assumes that
A. an emotion and the facial expression of that emotion operate separately.
B. our facial expressions cause us to feel emotions.
C. there must be an internal representation of an emotional state before a facial expression can
appear.
D. we will feel a certain response no matter what facial expression we have.
B. Answer each of the following questions with the appropriate word or phrase.
6. The
holds that the subtlety of emotional responses is the result of certain sequences of
events in our brains.
7. There is some evidence that the ability to experience
depends on a person’s constitutional
make-up, not just on the occurrence of positively labeled events.
8. One cognitive theory of emotion, the
holds that we think about situations in terms of
stages, which will subsequently determine which emotions we will experience.
9. We experience
when we are fearful, and unaware of the source of the fear.
10. Robert Plutchik has proposed a taxonomy of
falling along the circumference of a circle.
basic emotions, which can be viewed as
11. The validity of the
relies on the assumption of a high correlation between physiological
reactions and specific emotional states.
C. Answer T (true) or F (false) to each of the following statements.
12. Emotions are learned ways of responding experientially. physiologically, and behaviorally to
certain internal and external variables.
13. Modern physiological theorists of emotion have looked at patterns of activation of the autonomic
nervous system as well as the prevalence of certain neurotransmitters during emotional expression.
14. Lazarus’s stage of primary appraisal involves deciding what to do in a given situation.
15. Accordinu to Mesquita and Frijda’s theory, we respond physiologically to an event after we
appraise that event in terms of its relevance to us,
16. Emotions serve an important adaptive function,
17. A forced-choice measure of emotion has subjects free-associate on their internal feeling-states.
18. Our expression of emotion regulates, in part, others’ responses to our emotions.
19. Ekman has found that the facial expression of emotion varies very little across cultures,
20. The facial-feedback hypothesis holds that the internalized experience of an emotion drives our
facial expressions.
196
College Outline for Psychology
1. A; 2. C; 3. B; 4. D; 5. B; 6. Cannon—Bard theory; 7. joy: 8. temporal-sequence theory; 9. anxiety;
10. eight; 11. polygraph; 12. F (emotions may be preprogrammed, in which case they enable us to respond
to situations in appropriate ways); 13. T; 14. F (according to Lazarus, the first step of appraisal involves
determining the consequences of what is about to happen); 15. T; 16. T; 17. F (forced-choice measures have
subjects choose among term(s) that best describe their feeling-states); 18. T; 19. T; 20. F (the hypothesis is
that the experience of an emotion is derived from the facial expression of that emotion).