C I T I Z E N S • DEFENSE • C O R P S
CINCINNATI • M E T R O P O L I T A N • AREA
LEGEND
CINCINNATI METROPOLITAN AREA
Citizens Defense Corps
AREA COORDINATOR AND STAFF
AREA CONTROL CENTER
DISTRICT WARNING CENTER
Hamilton County, Ohio
ZONE I.
ZONE IV.
ZONE II.
: COORDINATOR
ZONE CONTROL CENTER
Kenton County, Kentucky
Campbell County, Kentucky
ZONE V.
ZONE VI.
ZONE COORDINATOR AND S
ZONE COORDINATOR AND STAFF
ZONE CONTROL CENTER
ZONE CONTROL CENTER
ZONE CONTROL CENTER
ZONE CONTROL CENTER
ZONE CONTROL CENTER
ZONE CONTROL CENTER
Ambeiley
Anderson
Columbia
Deei Park
Indian Hill
Arlington
Glendale
Green Hills
Lockland
Ml. Healthy
New Burlington
Notlh College Hill
Reading
Shaionville
Woodlawn
Wyoming
Total - 11
Addyston
Bridgetown
Cheviot
Cloves
Covedale-Wesl
Crosby Twp.
Delhi
DenI
Elixabelhlown
Groesbeck
Harrison
Hooven
Mack
Elmwood Place
Norwood
St. Bernard
District 6 De Couicey
Forrest Hills
Lalonia Lakes
Pye Hill
Crescent Springs
Winston Hill
Ludlow
Winston Park
Alexandria
Bellevue
Dayton
Ft. Thomas
Highland Heights
Newport
Silver Grove
Madeira
Miiford
Montgomery
North Union
Rossmoyne
Fort Wright
Lookout Heights
Park Hills
South Hills
E. Ft. Mitchell
Ft. Mitchell
Lakeside Park
S. Ft. Mitchell
District 5 —
Creslview Hills
Edgewood
Elsmere
Erlanger
'arious Citizens Defense Corps Report Cenle
District 7 Independence
Nicholson
Richardson
Sanfordtown
TOTAL REPORT CENTERS:
Total — Ohio
Total — Kentucky
District 9 (Boone County]
Winter 1991
The War That Never Came
The War That Never Came:
Civilian Defense in
Cincinnati, Ohio
During World War II
Robert Earnest Miller
During World War II the Office of Civilian
Defense (OCD), a federal agency, encouraged more than ten
million Americans to volunteer their time and effort for all
types of defense-related activities that provided psychological
and material benefits for the home front. The agency's top
priority was civilian protection. By the summer of 1941, air
raid precautions modeled after Great Britain's during the blitz
had been developed in the United States. Treated solemnly
by many, especially in the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, civilian
protection was seen as America's last line of defense.1
By the summer of 1942, however, the Allied
military situation had improved dramatically. The threat of
further enemy air raids diminished and the OCD restructured
its programs. It gradually phased out civilian protection plans
and placed new emphasis on civilian war services, non-
protective programs in "emergency" child care, nutrition and
consumer information, recreation, and health. These
volunteer activities were designed to do three things: give
participants a stake in the war effort; encourage wartime unity;
and improve and uplift the community. The Office of Civilian
Defense also encouraged state and local authorities to
coordinate morale-building events such as scrap drives and
war bond rallies until June 30, 1945, when President Harry
S. Truman disbanded the agency.2
Precedents for organized federal civil defense
reach back to the months preceding American entry into
World War I. The Council of National Defense, which had
been created by statute on August 29,1916, encouraged states
to form defense councils to help insure civilian compliance
with the federal government's preparedness measures. At a
gathering of state governors in 1917, Secretary of War Newton
Baker announced:
Under modern conditions, the whole nation is at
To coordinate civilian protection activities in the Greater
Cincinnati area, Dana T. Merrill, regional coordinator,
divided the metropolitan
region into seven zones.
(Map, CHS Manuscript Collection #516)
Created in August 1916, the
Council of National Defense
encouraged states to form
defense councils during World
War I. A local council directed
numerous activities on the
Cincinnati home front. (CHS
Photograph Collection)
Robert Earnest Miller received
his Ph.D. in American history
from the University of Cincinnati and served as a research
historian for the Society's
exhibit, "Cincinnati Goes to
War: A Community Responds
to World War II."
1
•**
war . . . as much in the home and in the factory and on the farmas it is on the fighting front.3
In Ohio, a state defense council, formed on
April 11, 1917, directed a variety of activities on the home
front. In conjunction with Ohio State University's agriculture
college, the defense council assisted in the increase of food
production. It also coordinated a speaker's bureau that
whipped up patriotic support for the war. By 1918 similar
defense councils existed in several states.4
During the postwar reconversion process,
civilian defense activities were disbanded. Yet, as early as 1936,
long before the United States entered into World War II,
officials in the War Department began to revive and modify
civilian defense plans. Some military experts worried that
technological improvements might someday enable German
planes to launch air raids on industrial and metropolitan
centers in the United States. In the fall of 1940, when the
Germans dropped incendiary bombs on British cities, many
Americans wondered if their cities were just as vulnerable to
enemy attack.5
President Franklin D. Roosevelt responded to
In World War I local civilian
organizations, such as the
Thimble Fund Committee,
helped the war effort through
a variety of activities: collecting scrap metal, making and
rolling bandages, and holding
clothing drives. (CHS
Photograph Collection)
those fears when he created the Office of Civilian Defense by
Executive Order 8757 on May 21,1941. The OCD was divided
into two main divisions. The Board for Civilian Protection,
headed by OCD director and New York City Mayor Fiorello
H. LaGuardia formulated "civil defense programs... designed
to afford adequate protection of life and property in the event
of emergency." The Volunteer Participation Committee,
which was led by Eleanor Roosevelt, promoted non-protective
activities "designed to sustain the national morale and to
provide opportunities for constructive civilian participation in
the defense program
" Despite the broad mandate outlined
in Executive Order 8757, LaGuardia focused exclusively on
developing auxiliary fire and police forces and emergency
medical services.6
The OCD was strictly an informational and
advisory agency. Civilian defense policies were formulated in
Washington by a small staff of civilian and military officials
and implemented by state and local defense councils. In July
1941, nearly every state and more than 1,000 cities had formed
defense councils. LaGuardia created nine regional OCD
offices to act as conduits between Washington and this
Winter 1991
The War That Never Came
growing network of state and local defense councils. The Fifth
Regional Office in Cleveland, for example, monitored and
coordinated civil defense activities in Ohio, Michigan,
Indiana, Kentucky, and West Virginia. In Ohio, the state
legislature had formed the Ohio State Council of Defense on
August 20, 1941. Governor John W. Bricker became its
honorary chairman, but the day to day administrative duties
fell upon executive director Courtney Burton, a mining and
shipping magnate from Cleveland.7
Civil defense began to take organizational
shape even earlier in Cincinnati. City council member Charles
P. Taft wired Governor Bricker in April 1941, that he and
Mayor James G. Stewart had asked Philip O. Geier, a local
industrialist and president of the Chamber of Commerce, to
serve as chairman of Cincinnati's defense council.8 In
Cincinnati, and in several other major cities, a pattern of
corporate leadership in local defense councils arose. The
federal government had forged strong links with business
leaders, especially where defense plants existed. Since factories
represented obvious potential targets for enemy bombers,
corporate leaders were encouraged to assist municipal officials
with civilian defense planning.9
Cincinnati defense officials mapped out a
comprehensive civilian defense program, including air raid
precautions, based on the British experience. Even though
Cincinnati—which was about 500 miles away from the
Atlantic seaboard—was presumably less vulnerable to enemy
attack, civilian protection plans were formulated. Civilian
defense planners asserted: "the citizens of every community
have a right to assume that their representative officials have
considered every possible provision for their protection and
safety against sabotage or any act of war."11
By fall 1941, every state and more than 6,000
cities had formed defense councils; sometimes even
neighborhoods formed local defense councils. Women's
organizations cooperated with local Red Cross officials to
offer "home defense" courses in filing, shorthand, and typing
as well as sewing, knitting, and home nursing. During a two
day "mass registration" for civilian defense jobs more than
2,500 area residents volunteered for semi-military fields of fire
fighting, communications, first aid, and similar activities,
More often than not male recruits were funneled into the
civilian protection fields. By this time, local defense leaders
recognized the need for a county-wide agency that could
coordinate defense activities of Hamilton County's thirty
three municipalities (including Cincinnati) and twelve
townships.12
On November 15, 1941, the state officially
certified the Hamilton County National Defense Council
( H C N D C ) as part of Ohio's defense program. The
HCNDC's certification coincided with "Civilian Protection
Day," capping off a week long observation of "Civilian
Defense Week," sponsored by federal and state defense
authorities.13 But before the HCNDC could call its first
meeting, the nation was jolted by the news of Japan's attack
on Pearl Harbor on December 7,1941. OCD head LaGuardia
recalled:
that raid demonstrated. . . that we live a new kind
of war. The customs and rules of civilized belligerents are ignored,
and civilian populations no longer enjoy any immunity
whatsoever.1*
The nation's entry into the war unleashed a tidal
wave of patriotism and community voluntarism. Ohio
Governor Bricker issued a call for wartime unity and
encouraged everyone to participate in the war effort without
thought of "race, creed, political conviction, or personal
profit." In Cincinnati, for the thousands of residents who were
unable to enlist in the armed forces, civilian defense
represented an alternative means of supporting the war.
Not surprisingly, community organizations
In May 1941, as he created the OCD, President
Roosevelt urged "loyal" state and municipal officials to
cooperate with the new agency to assure "our internal security
against foreign-directed subversion and to put every
community in order for maximum productive effort . . .
minimum waste and unnecessary friction."10
Women's organizations
cooperated with local Red
Cross officials to offer a
variety of "home defense"
courses. (CHS Photograph
Collection)
Queen City Heritage
and individuals who had previously demonstrated little
interest in organized civil defense activities offered their
services to the HCNDC. The number of civil defense
volunteers soared from approximately 4,000 in December 1941
to more than 62,000 in June 1942.15
Just after Pearl Harbor, the OCD issued over
fifty-seven million copies of "What To Do In An Air Raid,"
a tersely worded, eight page pamphlet that warned many
Americans about the dangers of total war. The pamphlet
urged people to learn the appropriate air raid signals to lessen
confusion during blackouts and air raid drills. In general a
series of short blasts or rising and falling tones from a siren
or whistle signaled a warning. During these tests everyone
except air raid wardens and other authorized personnel had
to take cover (and extinguish lights during blackouts) until
the all-clear signal—a steady tone for two minutes—could be
heard. Most cities lacked sirens that were powerful enough
to be heard and were forced to improvise. For example, local
defense councils in Hamilton County used church bells and
factory whistles.16
During December 1941 the HCNDC naturally
looked to state defense officials in Columbus, Ohio, for
leadership. Overwhelmed by the rush of events, state defense
officials issued some dubious advice. "Under [air] raid
conditions," the Ohio State Council of Defense [OSCD]
warned, "keep a bathtub and buckets full of water for the fire
department in case water mains are broken." The OSCD
added: "if bombs start to fall near you, lie down. The safest
place is under a good stout table."17
Enemy bombers never threatened the safety of
Cincinnati—or any other American city—but during the early
weeks of the war some local defense heads briefly gave in to
wartime hysteria. Few cities, including Cincinnati, were
prepared to deal with the sudden influx of volunteers who
were eager to do their part for the war effort. Civilian defense
volunteers were assigned to guard bridges, defense plants, and
public utilities against the threat of sabotage. The HCNDC
also encouraged civilian pilots to organize for the purpose of
guarding pipelines, railroads, and civilian transportation. City
Manager Clarence O. Sherrill, Cincinnati's civilian defense
coordinator, even entertained the notion of transforming the
abandoned underground transit tunnel in Cincinnati into a
bomb shelter.18
State and county defense officials agreed that
a metropolitan area, like greater Cincinnati, needed "one
recognized coordinating body" to administer vital disaster
and relief services. Upon Sherrill's recommendation, the
HCNDC hired retired Brigadier General Dana T. Merrill to
coordinate civilian protection activities in Greater Cincinnati,
including Hamilton County, as well as Campbell and Kenton
counties in northern Kentucky. A veteran of two wars, Merrill
was an experienced administrator. During the mid-1930's, he
had served as the commandant at Fort Thomas, in northern
Kentucky, where he was living in retirement in 1942.19
Merrill encouraged local defense councils to
adopt a uniform blackout ordinance as well as "mutual aid
agreements that would allow communities to share their
protective equipment in the event of an emergency."20 Merrill
strengthened his ties with local defense leaders by dividing the
metropolitan region into seven zones, five in Hamilton
County, and two in northern Kentucky. In Hamilton County,
Cincinnati comprised one zone, while the outlying suburban
communities of Cheviot, Wyoming, and Mariemont made up
three more. Two other municipalities, St. Bernard and
Norwood, made up the final zone. In the event of an
emergency, Merrill hoped to be able to transmit news quickly
through the zone coordinators to the local defense councils.
V: *"
•
• . . • . . - • •
flMHH
B
JOHN W.
BRISKER
Republican Governor John W.
Bricker served as honorary
chairman of the Ohio State
Council on Defense. (CHS
Photograph Collection,
portraits)
Winter 1991
The H C N D C conducted several registration
drives in neighborhoods and ran ads in Cincinnati newspapers
for civilian defense work.21 The OCD recommended that
communities enlist sixty-three volunteers per 1,000 civilians
(or a little more than six per cent of the total population) to
provide adequate personnel for air raid precautions. Based on
that ratio, Hamilton County's population of about 622,000
would have required about 39,000 air raid wardens.22
Clearly, in retrospect, the threat of an enemy
air raid in Cincinnati, seems remote and unrealistic. Not all
Cincinnatians were convinced that elaborate air raid
precautions were necessary. For example, Bleeker Marquette,
the executive secretary for the Better Housing League, argued
that social and economic problems should take precedence
over civilian defense since "there is little danger of air raids
in Cincinnati
" City Manager Sherrill agreed, noting that
Cincinnati's chances of being bombed by the enemy were "one
in a million." However, in February 1942, a London fireman
visiting Cincinnati said that persons who did not believe that
Cincinnati could be bombed should be called "Fifth
Columnists."23
Federal authorities helped to insure the public's
support for civilian defense measures by exaggerating the
danger of further enemy attacks. In January 1942, OCD Head
Fiorello LaGuardia—well known for his hyperbolic
tendencies—warned that "the war will come right to our cities
and residential districts." At a February 1942 press conference,
President Roosevelt told the public to take the threat of enemy
invasion seriously. The Germans, FDR remarked, "can come
in and shell New York tomorrow night . . . ." It probably
alarmed Cincinnatians more when the President said that
Detroit—an inland city like Cincinnati—could also be
bombed "under certain conditions."24
A local radio station (WLW) aired a program
sponsored by the county defense council that reinforced the
President's warning. The radio announcer instructed listeners:
The War That Never Came
Here's Your Chance To Serve!
AIR RAID WARDEN'S VOLUNTEER REGISTRATION FORM
Col. C O . Bhernll, Commander,
Citizens' Defense Corps,
102 Union Central Annex,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
I offer my services as AIR RAID WARDEN t i tap Citizens- Defense
Bettor In which my home Is located.
I am able-bodied, between 40 and 65 years old. possess normal sight
and hearing, -and am willing to take the training required. If accepted,
I agree to aerve if and when an emergency should develop. Pledging
my devotion, to my country, the Utited States of America, I agree to
place myself under orders—to pertorm the tasks assigned me—and to
serve «A long Ju- my services are needed.
(Mr. )
Name (Mn.).
(Miss;
Address.
Telephone.
DO NOT (end Ln tbli form if Ton hiva Tolnntecred u » Fire
FIRE WATCHER'S VOLUNTEER REGISTRATION FORM
CoL C. O. SherrTll, Commander,
Citizens' Defense Corps,
!lO2 Union Central Annex,
Cincinnati, Ohio.
Possessing the qualifications stipulated, I effer my services as
FIRE WATCHER in the Citizens' Defense Sector ln which my home Is
located. If accepted, I agree to serve when and if an emergency
jshould arise.
Pledging my devotion to my country, the United States of America,
J agree to place myself under orders—to perform the tasks assigned me—
juid to serve as Jorig as my. services are needed.
(Mr. )
iName (Mrs.).
(Mlsi)
Addreu.
TelephoneNOT scad la thU form U yo« hart YolunUsrei »• Va Air E»ld Warden.
Do you have a world map there handy, . . ? Spread
it out on the floor in front of you. See—there's Lake Erie. . . there's
Detroit at the end of it. There's Ohio, and down at the southwest
corner, Cincinnati and Hamilton County. Distances aren't very
great when you look at it on a world map . . . . They aren't very
great, either, as the modern bomber flies.
The message did not go unnoticed in Cincinnati. Many if not most public and private organizations
influenced by national and local defense activities and by the
press, radio, and newsreels demonstrated their support for air
raid precautions. For example, most of Cincinnati's public and
The announcer referred to Cincinnati as the private schools and universities made important contributions
machine tool capital which was vital to the nation's productive to the civilian defense effort.
High school teachers practiced air raid drills
capability, adding that "the loss of one single great source of
supply—Cincinnati Milling Machine, LeBlond, Wright, a with students. The nuns at Saint Ursula Academy, a parochial
dozen others—would be a knock-out blow more disastrous girls' school, devised air raid precautions for the school. They
than Pearl Harbor . . . and the enemy knows it!"25
divided themselves into three groups: "watchers" kept a
The HCNDC ran ads in local
newspapers requesting volunteers for civilian defense work
particularly air raid wardens
and firefighters. (CHS Newspaper Scrapbook Collection)
Queen City Heritage
Silverton's Sand Bags Ready
»One of the first Hamilton County communities to display
visible evidence of defense preparedness is Silverton, which already
has distributed bags of sand for use in case of attack by incendiary bombs. The sand, packed in old cement sacks, has been
placed at seven street intersections in various parts of the village.
The pile of sand-filled sacks in the above protograph is stacked
at the corner of Ohio Avenue and South Berkley Circle. Grouped
around the sacks (left to right) are Police Chief John Ballbach,
Councilman William O'Brien and Mayor Harry Mueller. Chief
Ballbach said there v?ks enough sand in each sack to control an
incendiary bomb. The sacks will be kept covered with waterproof
paper to protect them against rain. Howard Newman, one of
Silverton's volunteer firemen, took this picture.
lookout for falling incendiaries; "sanders" kept full buckets
of sand to douse the bombs; and "runners" stood ready to
alert nearby defense officials. The student editor of the
Woodward (High School) Bulldog solemnly noted that
"Cincinnati would be a favorite target for enemy planes
because of its large production of machine tools so vital to
the defense program." He added that "this news should add
an incentive to pupils of the school when performing their
air raid drills . . . ." Teachers also directed extracurricular
activities towards the war effort. Students cut up old sheets
and rolled them into bandages, participated in salvage drives,
and purchased war stamps and bonds.26 Many schools served
Hamilton County communities, such as Silverton, distributed sand bags to fight
incendiary bombs. (CHS Newspaper Scrapbook Collection)
as potential "emergency hospitals" and "casualty stations,"
storing bandages and medical supplies. In addition, the
HCNDC secured space in twenty-six public and parochial
schools in Cincinnati to train volunteers as air raid wardens
and fire watchers.27
Norman P. Auburn, Dean of the University of
Cincinnati's Evening College, agreed to head the civilian
defense training program. For five weeks, on Tuesday and
Thursday evenings, trainees attended classes dealing with:
organizational principles of civil defense, fire and gas defense,
blackout techniques, and first aid instruction. Federal and
state documentary and training films often supplemented
lecture formats. Some of the films were produced by Great
Britain's Ministry of Information, and depicted "civil defence"
procedures during the blitz. The H C N D C also showed a
variety of technically-oriented War Department training films,
ranging from "Handling Incendiaries" to the "The
Adjustment of the Gas Mask."28
Cincinnati's universities made other contributions to the war effort. Dr. Leon Goldman, Assistant Professor
of Dermatology at the University of Cincinnati's College of
Medicine, directed a course for physicians from several states,
explaining the potential effects of chemical warfare on civilian
populations. Xavier University also assisted the H C N D C by
hosting "commencement" ceremonies for over 6,000 air raid
wardens in May 1942.29
Other sectors of the community prepared for
war. For example, the Cincinnati Zoo devised a special
lighting and communication system to enable its personnel
to react quickly in the event of a blackout. Sandbags were
placed strategically to protect the animals (and people). The
zoo superintendent also announced that in the event of an
emergency, "the Zoo force is prepared to destroy animals that
would be a menace if they should get loose."30
These preparations seemed justified when the
OCD designated Cincinnati as a "target area" in March 1942.
Based on the vulnerability of area industries, its contribution
to national defense, and the likelihood of attack, Cincinnati
was one of thirty-three "strategic cities." As a result, the OCD
gave Cincinnati priority status for future allocations of fire
fighting equipment, air raid sirens, and medical supplies—
enough to equip forty-six "casualty stations " 31
Even though Cincinnati was a "target area," the
OCD provided only limited material support, mostly in the
form of literature, films, and some protective equipment, But
the ultimate responsibility for training volunteers and
implementing civilian defense policies fell upon state and local
officials. Ideally, the OCD envisioned each community
IF AIR RAIDS COME
— AIR RAID RULES * * *
YOU WILL BE WARNED
When enemy planes are spotted moving in your direction,
watchers, many miles away will
set in motion the machinery of
protection. You will hear the
warning signal. When danger is
past, the "all clear" will be
signaled.
YOUR BIGGEST JOB
There are many things you can
do to protect your family if an
air raid comes. Nothing is so
important as to keep calm.
Make certain every member of
your family knows the air raid
rules.
KNOW YOUR
AIR RAID WARDENS
You should know by sight and
by name the Air Raid Wardens
in your block at home, and in
the building where you work.
Every member of your family
should be prepared to carry
out your warden's instructions.
He has been trained to help
you protect your family.
BLACKOUTS
Select the safest place in your
house for general air raid and
blackout purposes. Be prepared
to blanket the windows or
cover the glass with opaque
protective material. Be sure
IF Y O U
ARE A T
H O M E . . . Get your family together in the
safest room in the house, and stay there. Turn off your gas stove but not
the pilot Sight. Turn out the lights in rooms not blacked out. Stay away
from windows. Don't go outdoors and don't use your telephone.
•
•
•
IF YOU ARE ON THE STREET . . . Obey the orders of the
Air Raid Wardens. Go home if you can walk there in a few minutes. Otherwise, get off the street and into the best shelter you can find. Get into
or close to a large building. Avoid large windows, particularly show, windows. Don't join crowd. If it is dark, don't light matches and don't smoke.
•
IF Y O U
ARE A T
•
•
S C H O O L . . . Do exactly what your teacher
tells you to do.
•
IF
Y O U ARE I N A
*
*
STREET C A R
OR
B U S . . . The
oper-
ator will try to stop near a good shelter; go into it and stay there until
the all clear sounds.
•
•
•
IF YOU ARE IN A N AUTOMOBILE . . . Drive to curb and
that no lights can be seen from
the outside. Keep your blackout material ready for instant
use.
THINGS TO CHECK:
Have you removed inflammable
material from your attic?
Have you followed your wardens* advice about equipment
for fire protection?
Have you selected the refuge
room for your family?
Are blankets available for
first aid?
Do you have simple first aid
supplies on hand?
Has a member of your family
had first aid training?
IN GENERAL
Use your Common Sense. Keep
Calm. Locate a safe place
wherever your daily routine
takes you. Remember that
direct hits are few. The greatest
danger is from shattered glass,
flying debris and fire.
park immediately. Shut off lights and ignition and seek shelter.
•
•*
*
IF YOU ARE IN A CHURCH, THEATER OR OTHER
PUBLIC
G A T H E R I N G . . . Stay seated, remain calm, obey orders.
Y O U R
A JR
W A R D E N
RAID
IS
Panic can be as dangerous as bombs.
•
•
•
IF YOU ARE NOT NEAR SHELTER AND HEAR BOMBS
F A L L I N G . . . Get off the street and lie face down on the ground,
preferably in a low spot.
KEEP CALM
Panic hurts more
people than
bombs.
DONT
FOLLOW
DON'T
FOLLOW
make telephone colls
during a raid. All lines
are needed for vital
messages.
these rules of conduct
for yourself and family.
They are based on
experience.
shut off main gas sup.
ply unless house is
your warden's advice
for protection
against fire.
damaged or gas
supply fails.
CONTROLLING INCENDIARY BOMBS
If an incendiary bomb comes through your roof, if is your fob to control it.
Prompt action on your port will control the fire.
Bring your fire fighting equipment to the scene at once.
Shoot a jet of water directly at the bomb without delay, to put it out of action
quickly.
any fires that might have been started.
Be absolutely sure the fire is out before you leave the scene.
Use a coarse spray only where scattering of metal must be avoided.
Use land only if a bomb falls where it is not likely to start s fire, or if
water is not available.
Posters placed in schools,
churches, and public buildings
instructed citizens on what to
do "if enemy planes and
bombs come." (Poster, CHS
Manuscript Collection # 51 6)
Check carefully for smoldering first.
CONSULT YOUR AIR RAID WARDEN for detailed advice
COOPERATE WITH TOUR AIR «AID WARDEN.
CINCINNATI METROPOLITAJsMtEOION
CTIZSNS DEFENH^etMPS V
T. Merrill, Brig. Gen., U. S. A., Ret.
REGIONAL COORDINATOR
10
Queen City Heritage
separately recruiting and training its volunteers. A fully
trained air raid warden, one on each block, would be
knowledgeable of his neighbors needs, and could provide
information about civilian defense. Moreover, in the event of
an enemy attack, he could take charge of the neighborhood,
and assist members of the local police and fire departments.
Hamilton County's smaller suburban villages, like Wyoming,
were better able to adapt OCD programs. However, for
metropolitan areas, like Cincinnati, with a large industrial
base and an heterogeneous population, the process of
implementing OCD plans took much longer.32
All types of men and women engaged in
defense activities, but leadership in the county and city civilian
defense program tended to be dominated by middle class
white males. Morris Edwards, executive vice president of the
Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, was named executive
director of the HCNDC, and local bankers and industrialists
held many of the key leadership positions on that council.
Likewise, many small businessmen and elected officials
dominated the smaller defense councils. Edwards realized that
the HCNDC needed the support of every community in
Greater Cincinnati in order to implement OCD programs.
However, many people, particularly Blacks and
women, felt that opportunities to participate fully in civilian
defense programs were limited, In theory total war was a great
equalizer—a leveler of distinctions based on class, race, or
gender. In actuality long established patterns of discrimination in Cincinnati persisted after Pearl Harbor and
undermined a basic premise of civilian defense, that is, to
promote national morale and wartime unity.
The county defense council tried to include a
cross section of municipal and county government representatives, as well as persons from business, labor, religious, and
civic organizations. Yet, when the H C N D C first met just after
Pearl Harbor, no Black representative had been appointed by
Edwards, even though Blacks comprised twelve per cent of
the city5 s population and eight per cent of the county's.33
The experience of Blacks in Cincinnati during
the early months of the war illustrated some of the prejudices
they encountered in other northern industrial cities. In its 1941
annual report the Division of Negro Welfare (DNW), the
local affiliate of the National Urban League, had noted that
Cincinnati was "geographically a northern city, [but] its
proximity to the southern boundary exposes it to many
traditions of Negro-white relations of the South."34 The
absence of Blacks from H C N D C activities, whether
accidental or intentional, reinforced the D N W s depiction of
Cincinnati as a racially divided city. It also contradicted
Governor Bricker's call for wartime unity and racial amity, and
hindered Black morale. During the war, the Division of Negro
The Cincinnati zoo devised a
special lighting and communication system so its personnel
could react quickly in a blackout. (CHS Photograph Collection, Special Collection # 156)
Winter 1991
The War That Never Came
11
of a bigger problem . . . Blacks were not being regarded as
an essential part of the war effort or given an opportunity to
play their role." 38 Both McClain and the Cincinnati
Independent, a local Black weekly, felt that Berry should be
appointed to the HCNDC. However, Berry's local and
national commitments to Black organizations, as well as his
professional duties as assistant county prosecutor, prevented
such an appointment.39 Despite Edwards' assurances to deal
with the matter at the "earliest opportunity," an OCD field
representative reported in late January 1942 that "Cincinnati
authorities are not including Negroes in the essential
organization of Civilian Defense and . . . representative
community leaders are not being utilized . . . ." Before the
month ended the HCNDC had designated William N.
Lovelace, a Hamilton County probation officer as its Black
representative.40
Welfare focused primarily on improving employment and
educational opportunities, substandard housing and health
care, and race relations. But some area Black leaders
demonstrated an interest in civil defense preparations, seeing
them as a means of involving the Black community in the war
effort.
William W. B. Conrad, a Cincinnati attorney,
complained first to Governor Bricker and then to OCD head
Fiorello LaGuardia about the HCNDC's failure to appoint
a Black representative. Conrad contended: "If we are to secure
national unity we shall have to adopt different tactics." Stanley
Roberts, a National Youth Administration field worker, added
that "the protection of the Negro communities, their homes,
and perhaps their very lives," were at stake.35 Roberts feared
that long range civilian protection plans would not include
Black communities.
Other Blacks, who had little personal interest
in the civilian defense movement, still resented their exclusion
from the HCNDC. Cincinnati NAACP president William A.
McClain and his law partner, Theodore M. Berry, viewed the
Women were also restricted in their opportuwar as an opportunity to elevate Blacks into decision making nities to participate in civilian defense, however, they were
roles. Ten days after Pearl Harbor McClain warned the included in civilian defense work more than Blacks had been.
HCNDC that no organization could be "representative of the Women's organizations like the Cincinnati Woman's City
American people unless it has a Negro member acting in an Club, the Republican Women's Club, and the Business
advisory capacity and coordinating the activities of the Women's Club that had a reputation for community service
Negroes in the defense of our democracy."36 Likewise, Berry participated indirectly in civilian defense activities. These
had written Mayor Stewart six days earlier and urged him to organizations formed ad hoc "defense committees" that were
appoint a Black representative to "this important public in close contact with county and city defense officials.41
body." Stewart, threw the problem into Morris Edwards' lap,
However, few Cincinnati women participated
adding that "Mr. Berry is right in this matter."37
directly in civilian protection, according to a University of
While Berry was not chiefly concerned with California survey conducted in early 1942. A team of pollsters
HCNDC activities, he realized that "civilian defense was part from its Bureau of Public Administration examined civilian
In the event of an attack a
trained air raid warden would
be in charge of the
neighborhood, knowledgeable
of his neighbors needs, and
able to provide information
about civilian defense. (CHS
Photograph Collection)
The zoo superintendent
announced that in an emergency the zoo was prepared to
destroy animals "that would
be a menace if they should
get loose." (CHS Photograph
Collection)
Queen City Heritage
12
Certificate of Snstructton
Because Cincinnati was
designated as a "target area,"
the OCD gave Cincinnati priority status for allocations of
fire fighting equipment. (CHS
Photograph Collection)
defense organizations in cities with populations greater than
10,000. The survey, which included Cincinnati, considered six
different fields of civilian defense services: air raid warden;
auxiliary police and firemen; fire watchers; medical corps;
rescue squads; and nurses' aides and found that opportunities
for women in most of these fields were limited, Men
dominated the ranks of the civilian protection army in every
field except nurses' aides. There were six times as many male
air raid wardens, the most highly visible and most sought after
position in civilian protection work. Hamilton County
defense officials suggested that fewer women had become air
raid wardens because applicants had to declare their age on
registration forms. While the federal government encouraged
women to assume a non-traditional role in the defense plants,
volunteer civilian defense work seemed to reinforce traditional
sex roles. In Cincinnati and elsewhere women were usually
cast in supporting rather than leading roles in civilian defense
work.42
Although the federal government encouraged women to
assume non-traditional roles
in defense plants, civilian
defense reinforced the traditional sex roles for women, for
example, serving as hostesses
at USO centers. (CHS
Photograph Collection)
The HCNDC's emphasis on developing air
raid training, instead of other non-protective activities, left
many women only marginally involved in the civilian defense
program. Likewise, William Lovelace, the Black representative on the county defense council conceded that practically
no consideration had been given to Black participation in
civilian defense just after Pearl Harbor. Yet, by April 1942,
Lovelace felt that Blacks had become more active in county
defense programs. Lovelace noted that over forty Blacks had
become instructors of the air raid warden courses. In the
twenty-six schools for air raid wardens Lovelace indicated that
there was "no semblance of segregation."43
County, municipal, village, and township
authorities were responsible for funding civilian defense
schools as well as other measures, yet, local officials were
reluctant to allocate funds necessary for the HCNDC to
operate. Governor Bricker alleviated most of the HCNDC's
financial woes, when in April 1942, he announced that over
14
Queen City Heritage
i
to donate large amounts of scrap iron that would ostensibly
be converted into vital material for the war effort. For example,
an RKO theater donated a steel tower, that weighed over
100,000 pounds. Likewise, Woodward High School contributed the iron fence that surrounded its campus, "believed
to be the heaviest in the city." Nichols' ability to coordinate
county-wide salvage drives won the praise of OCD Fifth
Region Director Dan T. Moore. In August 1942, the state
defense council honored Nichols, who later became state
salvage coordinator for Ohio. Civilian defense volunteers in
Cincinnati collected more scrap iron—twenty-nine million
pounds—than any other city in the nation. Nichols directed
over 7,000 Boy Scouts in a six day house-to-house scrap drive.
The proceeds went to the USO to help meet the expenses of
send-off parties for new recruits at Cincinnati's Union
49
Ohio is truly showing her colors in a thousand ways Terminal.
every hour of every day by her civilian protection and mobilization,
While the H C N D C became increasingly
her war production, her salvage collection, herpurchase of war bonds preoccupied with salvage drives, rationing, and other moraleand stamps, conservation of rubber, . . ,by rationing, price control, building programs, civilian protection units continued to
and so forth.**
practice air raid drills. By November 1942, there were three
"victory
sirens" were placed on Cincinnati rooftops.
Harold W. Nichols, the chairman of
HCNDC's Waste Materials Conservation Committee, Cincinnati civilian defense officials attempted to maximize the
responded to the challenge by coaxing schools and businesses authenticity of an air raid drill on November 8. Planes were
$2,000,000 in "excess poor relief would be channeled towards
county and local defense efforts.44 From July 1942 to June 1943
state appropriations for Hamilton County totaled nearly
$290,000.45
Ironically, just when the newly trained air raid
wardens began to conduct blackout tests in Cincinnati on a
regular basis, the OCD shifted its emphasis away from civilian
protection. By the summer of 1942, the Allies' military
situation had improved dramatically and the threat of enemy
air raids diminished.46 Although civilian protection units
remained intact in Cincinnati, and elsewhere, state and local
defense councils began to focus on non-protective programs.47
A state defense official hinted at the new
direction of Ohio's defense program in June 1942 and
challenged its volunteers to prove that:
Women volunteers participated in child care, nutrition
and consumer information,
recreation, and health. (CHS
Photograph Collection)
Winter 1991
The Paramount Theater at the
corner of Gilbert Avenue and
McMillan Street contributed a
steel tower, which weighed
1,000 pounds, to the war
effort. (CHS Photograph
Collection)
The War That Never Came
IS
16
Queen City Heritage
scheduled to fly over the city and drop "simulated bombs,"
small cardboard cylinders with red crepe paper streamers.
Each "bomb" contained a message, rolled up inside the
cylinder, that described its destructive capability. They were
also numbered so they could easily be reported to defense
officials. Unfortunately, inclement weather on the day of the
drill grounded air traffic, but the bombs still "fell." They were
thrown from automobiles.50
In retrospect, these events appear both
humorous and unnecessary. Nevertheless, preparations for the
war that never came paid off when a real emergency
confronted Greater Cincinnati in late 1942. When the Ohio
River surpassed flood stages in Pittsburgh, the American Red
Cross appealed to state defense authorities for assistance. In
eastern Ohio, civilian defense workers cooperated with the
Red Cross in evacuating hundreds of families. Similarly, in
Hamilton County civilian defense officials and workers
mobilized relief forces in the "onerous responsibilities that
follow in the wake of a flood." Others served as "auxiliary
policemen [and] acted as guards at shelter points and assisted
city police in patrol duty in flood areas."51 OCD Regional
Director Moore praised the efforts of Hamilton County
civilian defense workers, and the Enquirer attributed the well-
organized effort during the flood to the "greater sense of civic
responsibilities that have grown out of civil defense , . . ."52
Apart from this brief moment during the war, local civilian
defense workers had little opportunity to put some of their
training to the test.
In a subtler and less dramatic fashion,
thousands of civil defense volunteers engaged in a variety of
"non-protective" programs in health, recreation, nutrition,
child care, and race relations. Women tended to be more
involved in these activities that reinforced rather than
challenged traditional sex roles.53
During the summer of 1943, the H C N D C
coordinated a morale-building program that was targeted
specifically at involving housewives in the war effort. The
HCNDC awarded "V[ictory] Home" window stickers to
home owners who cooperated with air raid wardens, complied
with government rationing programs, purchased war bonds,
and "refused to spread rumors designed to divide our nation."
Air raid wardens inspected homes in their communities and
were encouraged to be generous in issuing stickers. State
defense officials relaxed the criteria and stated that if "the
housewife indicates that her family is doing its best for the
war effort," then she was entitled to a "V Home" sticker.54
'<-:••
Proceeds from scrap drives
went to the USO to help meet
the expenses of send-off parties for Cincinnati soldiers and
sailors. (CHS Photograph
Collection)
-s/.'.
r \
-.'•
if J
.-'..
-:^2S<
Winter 1991
The H C N D C , like every other county council
in Ohio, acted as a clearing house of war-related information.
It also mobilized volunteer support for other federal agencies.
As a result, civil defense volunteers often assisted Office of
Price Administration and Selective Service boards in
Cincinnati.55 Other community agencies and organizations
that predated the war also took advantage of the extensive
network of state and local defense councils to promote their
own interests. For example, shortly after the race riot in
Detroit, in the summer of 1943, the National Urban League
issued an "anti-riot directive" to the Division of Negro
Welfare (and its other affiliates) encouraging it to promote
better race relations through local religious, business, and
fraternal organizations. Significantly, the Urban League also
felt it could make use of local defense councils. It hoped that
local defense officials could serve as a conduit to promote
positive ideas about race relations in white communities.56
Likewise, neighborhood child care centers and
day nurseries benefited from the civilian defense program
when the H C N D C established an Emergency Child Care
Office. By the end of 1943, the HCNDC had helped
coordinate the activities of twenty-seven nurseries that cared
for 1,067 children. While only a fraction of the area's working
mothers made use of these facilities, the enrollment figures
were "in line with the state and national trend." Most working
Civilian defense volunteers
held clothing drives and participated in salvage and scrap
metal drives. (CHS Photograph Collection, Marsh
Collection)
parents relied on relatives or friends to look after their children
or left them unattended.57
The H C N D C continued to promote the
purchase of war bonds, coordinate scrap drives, and it
encouraged community organizations, schools, and area
industries to cultivate "victory gardens" to supplement food
production for the home front. Not all gardens successfully
produced food, but few defense activities were judged solely
by their end result. The fact that the program involved
thousands of men, women, and children in the war effort made
it a success.58
The HCNDC coordinated a variety of activities
that offered both psychological and material benefits to the
home front. However, these efforts rarely if ever received the
same amount of attention in the media that civilian protection
attracted. Nevertheless, the efforts of a child care worker with
real children were arguably more important than those of an
air raid warden, dealing with "paper" bombs thrown from
automobiles. Both activities enabled the participants to feel
involved in the war effort.
Civilian defense preparations before Pearl
Harbor—based largely on the British experience during the
blitz—stressed the need for elaborate air raid precautions in
American cities. During the war federal, state, and local
defense officials periodically exaggerated the threat of enemy
18
attacks to combat public complacency and apathy. The air raid
warden became an important symbol that reminded many
Americans that they were still at war.59 When it became clear
that sustained enemy attacks against the North American
continent were no longer a threat, the OCD encouraged state
and local defense officials to participate in non-protective
activities that promoted wartime unity.
On November 1, 1943, War Department
officials recommended the complete cessation of air raid drills.
While they conceded that "token air raid raids are always a
possibility,... the present degree of danger..." was minimal.60
The Ohio state legislature responded to this news by slashing
appropriations for local defense activities to a bare minimum.
By early 1944, the H C N D C was unable to meet its
administrative expenses. In addition, the Cincinnati Chamber
of Commerce withdrew the use of its facilities. The H C N D C
did not officially disband until September 1944, but during
its final months, it existed mainly on paper.61
Queen City Heritage
1. Fiorello H. LaGuardia, Report of the Director of the Office of Civilian
Defense, February 1942, p.l, in William H. McReynolds Papers, Box 7
OCD File, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library (FDRL), Hyde Park, New York.
Several general studies of the World War II home front provide useful
overviews of civil defense activities. See Phillip J. Funiegello, The Challenge
to Urban Liberalism: Federal-City Relations during World War II (Knoxvil
1978); Lee Kennett, For the Duration: The United States Goes to War—Pea
Harbor—1942 (New York, 1985); Richard R, Lingeman, Don't You Know
There's a War On?: The American Home Front, 1941-1945 (New York, 19
and Allan M. Winkler, Home Front U.S.A.: America during World War II
(Arlington Heights, Illinois, 1986). For a fuller treatment see Robert
Earnest Miller, "The War That Never Came: Civilian Defense,
Mobilization, and Morale during World War II" (Ph. D. dissertation,
University of Cincinnati, 1991).
2. Executive Order 9562 provided for the termination of the Office of
Civilian Defense. See Elwyn A. Mauck, Civilian Defense in the United States,
1940-1945 (unpublished, 1946), Ch. 16, p. 16, Office of Civilian Defense
Papers (OCDP), Record Group 171, Washington National Records Center
(WNRC), Suitland, Maryland. For examples of the OCD's civilian war
services see Thomas Devine, memorandum, "Food Fights for Freedom,
September 18,1943, OCDP, RG 171, Entry 32 Box 2 and Thomas Devine,
memorandum, "The Use of Day Care Facilities," February 24,1944, OCDP,
RG 171, Entry 32 Box 1 (WNRC). For Cincinnati see Report of the
Emergency Child Care Director, December 3,1942 to January 1,1944, Civil
Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 4, Cincinnati Historical Society (CHS),
Cincinnati, Ohio.
3. Newton D. Baker, memorandum, c. April 1917, OCDP, RG 171, Entry
10 Box 20, (WNRC). See also The United States at War: Development and
Administration of the War Program by the Federal Government
(Washington, D.C., 1946), pp.21-25 and Mauck, Civilian Defense in the
United States, RG 171, Ch.2 p.l (WNRC).
4. William J. Breen, Uncle Sam at Home: Civilian Mobilization, Wartime
Federalism, and the Council of National Defense, 1917-1919 (Westpor
Connecticut, 1984). The standard account of Ohio's state defense council
is offered in How Ohio Mobilized Her Resources for the War: A History of t
Activities of the Ohio Branch, Council of National Defense, 1917-1919
(Columbus, 1919), in the Papers of the Ohio Branch, Council of National
Defense, Series 1135, Box 1, Folder 1, Ohio Historical Society (OHS),
Columbus, Ohio.
5. Stetson Conn, Rose C. Engleman, and Byron Fairchild, eds., United States
Over 60,000 residents of Hamilton County
volunteered for some type of civilian defense work, whether
as air raid wardens, child care workers, clericals, bandage
rollers, or salvage collectors. The experience of the volunteers
in Cincinnati reflected the activities of the millions of
Americans who participated in civilian defense during World
War II. These activities were vital to wartime morale and, in
some cases, the community activism behind civilian defense
carried into the postwar years.62
More than ten million Americans volunteered for all types
of defense-related activities
that provided benefits for the
home front. (CHS Photograph
Collection)
The Office of Civilian Defense
encouraged state and local
authorities to coordinate
morale building events such
as scrap drives and war bond
rallies. (CHS Photograph
Collection)
The War That Never Came
Winter 1991
19
9. Robert Earnest Miller, "Preparing for Armageddon: The Role of the City
Army in World War II: The Western Hemisphere: Guarding the United States
and Its Outposts (Washington, D.C., 1964), pp.45-79 and B. Franklin in Civilian Defense Planning, during World War II," in Joseph Rishel, ed.,
Cooling, "U.S. Army Support of Civil Defense: The Formative Years, 1935- American Cities and Towns: Historical Perspectives (Pittsburgh, PA.,
forthcoming). See also Ralph D. Henderson to Chamber of Commerce
1942," Military Affairs (February 1971):7-8.
6. "The Office of Civilian Defense Is Established. Executive Order 8757. Secretaries, April 24, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 8
(CHS), and Morris Edwards, "Before and Since Pearl Harbor," American
May 20, 1941," Samuel I. Rosenman, ed., The Public Papers and Addresses
of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1941, pp. 162-172; Mauck, Civilian Defense in City,
the 57 (May 1942):75. State defense officials, like Henderson, encouraged
United States, Ch.3,p.ll andCh. 4, pp.4-5; and Wayne Coy, William Bullitt, chamber of commerce secretaries to help organize local defense councils
and Harold Smith, "Memorandum to the President on the Office of Home in several other cities, including Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Syracuse, and
Defense," April 4, 1941, Wayne Coy Papers, Box 2 (FDRL). Mayor Toledo. See "Defense Council for City and Council," American City, 56
(January 1941):87; John Naegle to Fiorello H. LaGuardia, May 21, 1941,
LaGuardia headed the OCD from May 1941 to January 1942. Eleanor
Roosevelt served as assistant director, and chaired the Volunteer Fiorello H. LaGuardia Papers (FHLP), Municipal Archives, New York,
New York (NYC); "The Toledo Chamber of Commerce: An Interim and
Participation Committee, from September 1941 to February 1942.
7. "State and Local Cooperation," Defense (a government-sponsored weekly Varied Program," Toledo Business, 19 no. 10 (October 1941), Ohio State
publication), Vol.1 no. 17 (April 29,1941):22. For Ohio see Senate Bill 178, Council of Defense Papers, Series 2246, Box 1, Folder 19 (OHS).
Ohio General Assembly, (effective August 20,1941). This statute required
10. "The City's Part in National Defense," American City, 56 (June
local defense councils to submit personnel lists to the state defense council
1941):cover page. President Roosevelt linked the goals of civilian defense—
for official certification by the Governor.
protection against foreign-directed subversion with war production, the
8. Charles P. Taft to Governor John W. Bricker, April 7,1941, Civil Defense nation's top priority in June 1941.
Collection, Box 2, Folder 8, (CHS) and Memorandum on the Mayor's
11. Cincinnati Bureau of Governmental Research, "Memorandum to the
Committee on National Defense, May 7, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Committee on Coordination and Cooperation in Hamilton County," June
Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS).
12. 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS). Coastal cities
Local manufacturers, such as
Procter & Gamble, held practice air raid drills. Employees
had special assignments or
reported to specific areas
where there were lockers
stocked with first aid supplies
and bomb fighting equipment.
(CHS Photograph Collection)
20
Queen City Heritage
initially displayed the most interest in developing air raid precautions.
However, after Pearl Harbor many inland areas, including Cincinnati,
developed civilian defense measures comparable to those coastal
communities. See Stephen J. Leonard, "Denver at War: The Home Front
in World War II," Colorado Heritage, 4 (1987):35-36; Eugene P. Moehring,
"Las Vegas and the Second World War," Nevada Historical Society Quarterly,
29 (1986):2-6; and Mary Watters, Illinois in the Second World War: Operation
Home Front, vol. 1 (Springfield, Illinois, 1951). Even rural areas
demonstrated an interest in civilian protection. See Robert Karolevitz, "Life
on the Home Front: South Dakota in World War II," South Dakota History
vol. 19 (Fall 1989): 393-423 and Charles William Sloan, Jr., ed., "The
Newelletters: E. Gail Carpenter Describes Life on the Home Front,
Part I" Kansas History, 11 (Spring 1988):54-72.
12. "Tally of Local Defense Councils Reveals 5935 Organized in Nation,"
Defense vol.2, no. 47, (November 25, 1941):31. Ohio had 150 local defense
councils compared to Texas, the largest state in the Union, which had 890.
See also Cincinnati Enquirer (clipping), September 28, 1941, WW II
Scrapbook, v. 1 (CHS); Cincinnati Post, November 4,24,1941; and Morris
Edwards to James G. Stewart, September 29, 1941, Civil Defense
Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS).
13. Civilian Defense Week: Plans and Suggestions for Defense Councils,
(Washington, D.C., 1941) in FHLP, Box 3767, Folder 4, (New York City);
"Civilian Defense Week," November 11-16, Designed to Stimulate
Awareness of Need, Defense vol.2 no.43 (October 28, 1941):22; and
Cincinnati Times-Star (clipping), November 16, 1941, WW II Scrapbook,
v. 1 (CHS).
14. LaGuardia, "Report of the Director," p. 1.
15. Governor John W. Bricker to the People of Ohio, December 9, 1941,
Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS). A Cincinnati radio station
(WCPO) offered its services to the HCNDC "under any circumstances."
H.M. Kranz, City Engineer for Cincinnati, also offered the services of the
Division of Public Works for civilian protection purposes. See Mortimer
C. Watters to Morris Edwards, December 9,1941, and H.M. Kranz to C O .
Sherrill, December 9, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 8
(CHS). On the increase in civil defense volunteers see Post, December 17,
1941 and Status Report of the Hamilton County National Defense Council
to OCD, July 2, 1942, Civil Defense Collection (CHS). Nationally, the
increase in the number of civilian defense workers was just as impressive.
In November 1941 approximately 750,000 men and women had been
recruited by state and local defense councils; in just six months there were
nearly eight million volunteers. See "LaGuardia Calls for More Volunteers
in All Phases of Civilian Defense," Defense vol. 2, no. 47 (November 25,
,
Community activism behind
civilian defense carried into
the postwar years. Volunteer
fire departments later
emerged in communities that
had received fire-fighting and
protective equipment from the
federal government's allocations. (CHS Photograph
Collection)
Winter 1991
The War That Never Came
21
32. James M. Landis, "Block by Block," Victory vol.3 (December 22,1942):3
16. What To Do In An Air Raid (Washington, D.C., 1941), pp.1,5 and Past, and Post, January 7, 1942.
March 6, 1942.
33. Memorandum from C O . Sherrill to Morris Edwards, December 10,
17. Press Release, December 15, 1941, Ohio State Council of Defense 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS) and Charles P. Taft
Papers, Series 2246, Box 7 (OHS).
to Morris Edwards, December 1, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2,
18. Post, December 17, 1941, and Memorandum from C O . Sherrill to Folder 8 (CHS). Population figures are based on the 1940 Census. 55,593
Morris Edwards, December 10, 1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Blacks resided in Cincinnati (total pop. 455,610); fewer Blacks (55,313)
Folder 2 (CHS). Cincinnati's reaction to the onset of war was typical of resided in other parts of Hamilton County (total pop. 621,987).
many metropolitan areas. For other examples see G. Thomas Edwards, "The 34. See Horace R. Cayton, "Negro Morale," Opportunity 19 (December
Oregon Coast and Three of Its Guerilla Organizations, 1942," Journal of 1941):371-375 and Franklin O. Nichols, "Six Industrial Cities and the Negro
the West, 25 no. 3 (July 1986):20-34; Lingeman, Don't You Know There's a in Defense," Opportunity 19 (August 1941):235-37. In order to maintain the
War Going On?, pp.25-62; Geoffrey Perrett, Days of Sadness. Tears of morale of the larger (majority) group, Cayton bitterly noted that "all forms
Triumph: The American People, 1939-1945 (Madison, Wisconsin, 1973), of segregation and the subordination of the Negro must be continued, so
pp.205-206; and Studs Terkel, The "Good War": An Oral History of World that undivided attention can be directed toward the outside enemy. The
War Two (New York, 1984), p.25.
Negro is asked to forgo [sic] any change in the status for the duration."
19. Courtney Burton to Phillip O. Geier, January 9, 1942, Civil Defense Also see Fourth Annual Report (19401941), May 21, 1941, Division of
Collection, Box 1, Folder 2, (CHS); Morris Edwards to Courtney Burton, Negro Welfare, Urban League Papers (ULP), Box 1, Folder 4 (CHS).
December 24, 1941, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS); and Post, December 23,1941. 35. George W. B. Conrad to John Bricker, November 29,1941, and Conrad
20. W.D. Anderson to Dana Merrill, January 9, 1942; Russell Oelsner to to Fiorello LaGuardia, December 10,1941, OCDP, RG 171, Entry 11, Box
Merrill, January 31,1942; J. J. Greenleaf to Merrill, February 11,1942, Civil 47 (WNRC) and Stanley Roberts to J. Harvey Kearns, December 16,1941,
Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS).
ULP, Box 6, Folder 9 (CHS).
21. Times-Star (clipping), April 17, 1942, WW II Scrapbook, vol. 2 (CHS). 36. William A. McClain to Morris Edwards, December 17, 1941, Civil
22. Enquirer, February 28, 1942.
Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS). At roughly the same time,
23. Post, January 27, 1942, and February 16, 17, 1942. After the fall of McClain and Berry, as members of the civil rights committee of Cincinnati's
Singapore on February 15, 1942, Sherrill modified his position and noted NAACP, led a successful protest movement against downtown movie
that the odds of an enemy attack had increased. Sherrill noted that "our theaters to admit Blacks. Theater owners had organized, (it should be
protection from Japan depends greatly on the Navy."
noted) with the support of the Chamber of Commerce, but the NAACP
24. LaGuardia cited in New York Times, January 2,1942. See also "The Eight prevailed, See William A. McClain "Cincinnati's Theatre Doors Opened,"
Hundred and Sixth Press Conference," February 17, 1942, Rosenman, ed., The Crisis 48 (December 1941):382-383, 389.
Papers of FDR, 1942, p.105.
37. Theodore M. Berry to James G. Stewart, December 11, 1941, Civil
25. WLW Radio, "Defense Council," c. February 1942, Ohio State Council Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS). Before Franklin Roosevelt
of Defense Papers, Series 2250, Box 4, Folder 13 (OHS).
created the Fair Employment Practices Committee by Executive Order 8802
26. Post, December 18, 1941, and January 16, 1942; "Woodward and War," in June 1941, Berry served as coordinator of the National Committee for
Woodward Bulldog, March 13, 1942 (CHS); and Virginia Berten, "The the Participation of Negroes in the National Defense Program. The
committee was essentially a pressure group with affiliates in fifteen states,
Sisters of St. Ursula," Queen City Heritage, 43 (Fall 1985):42-43.
including Ohio, that monitored hiring practices of defense contractors.
27. Post, January 16, 1942.
28 Enquirer, March 1, 20, 1942; Post, March 10, 1942; and Harry Gilligan Berry also served as legal council for the Division of Negro Welfare. See
to C O . Sherrill, March 20, 1942, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder Adeline Harris interview of Theodore Berry, Tape I (CHS) and ULP, Box
2 (CHS). For the use of films in civil defense training see Enquirer, February 1, Folder 4 (CHS).
26, 1942; OSCD Communique No. 55, February 10, 1942, Civil Defense 38. Interview with Theodore M. Berry, April 18, 1987.
Collection, Box 39, Folder 344 (CHS); and Ralph Stone to [All] Mayors, 39. McClain to Edwards, December 17,1941, Civil Defense Collection, Box
Chairmen, Directors, County and Local Defense Councils, October 5, 2, Folder 8 (CHS) and Cincinnati Independent, n. d., Civil Defense
1942, Ohio State Council of Defense Papers, Series 2246, Box 4 (OHS). Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS).
County and local defense councils regularly borrowed films from the 40. Morris Edwards to Theodore Berry, December 20, 1941, Civil Defense
OSCD's vast collection of British and American defense-related films. The Collection, Box 2, Folder 8 (CHS); James Leslie Hubbell, to James G.
extant films are available at OHS.
Stewart, January 26,1942, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS);
29. "Chemical Warfare Course: Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare and Enquirer, February 4, 1942.
Agents," Science 95 (April 17, 1942):400-401 and Lee J. Bennish, S. J., 41. Post, November 4, 24, 1941.
Continuity and Change: Xavier University, 1831-1981 (Chicago, 1981), p.161.42. Russell Barthell and Robert Ward, "Wartime Organization of Cities,"
30. For the Zoo quote, see Enquirer, April 3, 1942. Also see Enquirer, in Clarence E. Ridley and Orin F. Nolting, eds., The Municipal Yearbook,
February 12 and March 1, 1942.
1942 (Chicago, 1943), pp.317-323. According to an HCNDC status report
31. Post, March 7, 1942; Harry Gilligan to C O . Sherrill, March 13, 1942, sent to the OCD in July 1942, only 15.4% of all volunteers engaged in civilian
Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 2 (CHS); and "Civilian Defense protection work were women. See also Monthly Report on Status of
. . . First Allocation of Protective Equipment Under the $100,000,000 Civilian Defense Activities in Local Areas, Submitted By the Hamilton
Appropriation Will Go Mainly to Coastal Target Areas," Victory (formerly County National Defense Council, July 2, 1942, Civil Defense Collection
called Defense) vol.3 (March 10,1942):30. William McReynolds, an Assistant (CHS) and Post, March 4, 1942.
to the President, referred to a list of 39 "target areas." Significantly, fifteen 43. Ethel A. Irving to E. Eppinger, March 31,1942, and William N. Lovelace
cities were located in inland rather than coastal states. Five of the fifteen to P.L. Prattis, April 18,1942, ULP, Box 6, Folder 9 (CHS). Also see Timesinland "target cities" were in Ohio, including: Akron; Cincinnati; Star (clipping), April 8, 1942, ULP, Box 6, Folder 9 and Enquirer, April
Cleveland; Columbus; and Toledo. See William McReynolds, c. April 1942, 10, 1942.
memorandum, "Plans for Training Civilian Protection Workers," William 44. Post April 18,1942, During the first four months of the war, the Chamber
McReynolds Papers, Box 7 OCD File (FDRL).
of Commerce provided the HCNDC with free office space, heat,
Queen City Heritage
telephones, and met all other operating expenses. Between April and July
1942, when state funds were appropriated, the H C N D C relied on the War
Chest for support. See Executive and Financial Committee Papers, Box 2,
Folder 6, Civil Defense Collection (CHS).
45. Finance Committee Papers, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 7
(CHS) and Enquirer, June 8, 29, July 20, 1942.
46. James M. Landis, Harvard law school dean and LaGuardia's successor
at O C D recalled that after the Battle of Midway "the danger of bombing
was gone." Landis headed the O C D from February 1942 to August 1943.
See James M. Landis, Columbia Oral History Project, 1963-1964, p.324
(microfiche copy) and Donald A. Ritchie, Landis: Dean of the Regulators
(Cambridge, 198O), pp.103-119. The likelihood of enemy air raids had
lessened by summer 1942, however, later in the war the Japanese armed
high-altitude balloons with explosives and incendiaries that traveled as far
inland as Iowa. These "bombs" caused a few fatalities and injuries, but failed
to weaken America's wartime morale as Japan had hoped. See Lawrence
H. Larsen, "War Balloons over the Prairie: The Japanese Invasion of South
Dakota," South Dakota History, 9 no. 2 (1979):104-115; Bert Webber, Silent
Siege: Japanese Attacks Against North America in World War II (Fairfield,
Washington, 1983) and Leonard, "Denver at War," pp.30-39.
47. Mauck, Civil Defense, Ch. 3, pp. 13-14.
48. OSCD Communique No. 136, June 12,1942, Civil Defense Collection,
Box 39, Folder 344 (CHS).
49. Enquirer, May 1, 23, June 12, and December 24, 1942; Times-Star
(clipping), August 14, 1942, WW II Scrapbook, vol. 2 (CHS); Harold
Nichols to Charles P. Taft, n. d., Charles Taft Papers, Box 33, Folder 6
(CHS); and O C D Newsletter no.20 (September 24, 1942) in Ohio State
Council of Defense Papers, Series 2250, Box 1, Folder 1 (OHS). See also
Courtney Burton to All Local Defense Councils, February 17, 1942, Ohio
State Defense Council Papers, Series 2246, Box 1, Folder 16 and Boy Scouts
of America 1942 Series, Bulletin no.l, "We, Too, Have A Job To Do,"
January 7,1942, in Ohio State Council of Defense Papers, Series 2246, Box
1, Folder 16 (OHS).
50. Enquirer, November 4,9,1942; and Sherrill, Memorandum to the Press,
November 9, 1942, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 3 (CHS).
51. Enquirer, December 31, 1942, and The American National Red Cross,
The Bxd Cross—A Brief Story (Washington, 1944).
52. Post, January 4, 1943; Enquirer, January 5, 6, 1943; Gilligan to Sherrill,
January 12, 1943, Civil Defense Collection, Box 2, Folder 6 (CHS);
Patterson Report on Activities in the Cincinnati Area During the Flood
Many cities lacked sirens that
were powerful enough to be
heard. In Hamilton County
civilian defense councils supplemented the sirens with
church bells and factory
Period of January 1,1943 to January 4,1943, Ohio State Council of Defense
Collection, Series 2246, Box 4 (OHS); "Flood Tests CD in Many States,"
OCD Newsletter no.27 (January 25, 1943), in Official File 4422, Office of
Civilian Defense, 1943-1945, Box 2 (FDRL); and Landis, COHP, p.326.
53. Earlier in the war Boy Scouts had been recruited as messengers to assist
air raid wardens, whereas, the state coordinator for civilian war services
encouraged local defense councils to include Ohio's 53,000 girl scouts in
non-protective volunteer programs in recreation, child care, consumer
interest, and victory gardens. See Delbert L. Pugh, memorandum, October
9, 1942, Ohio State Council of Defense Papers, Series 2246, Box 7, Folder
93 (OHS).
54. Harry Graff to Ford Worthing, April 1, 1943, Ohio State Council of
Defense Collection, Series 2246, Box 3, Folder 13 (OHS).
55. Ralph Stone to Morris Edwards, March 24, 1943, Civil Defense
Collection, Box 2, Folder 4 (CHS). Tire rationing and car pool programs,
formulated by the OPA, were implemented by state and local defense
councils.
56. Mayor James Garfield Stewart, Memorandum, July 8,1943, ULP Papers,
Box 24, Folder 5.
57. Report of the Director of the Emergency Child Care Office, December
3,1942-January 1, 1944, Civil Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 4 (CHS).
At its peak the nationwide child care program serviced over 130,000 in more
than 3,000 centers. See Susan M. Hartmann, American Women in the Forties:
The Home Front and Beyond (Boston, 1982), pp.58-59 and Richard
Polenberg, War and Society: The United States, 1941-1945 (Philadelphia, Pa.,
1972), pp. 148-49.
58. Ruth Joseph Fischer, ed., Ohio War History Commission, vol.2, no.10,
(April 1944), pp.2-4 (CHS).
59. Interview with Harry Graff, October 10, 1986, (transcripts available at
CHS).
60. Elwyn A. Mauck, "Civilian Defense in the United States, 1941-45," The
Bulletin of Atomic Scientists 6 (August/September 1950):267.
61. Executive Committee Papers, March 29,1944, Civil Defense Collection,
Box 2, Folder 6 (CHS); Nichols to Edwards, November 17, 1943, Civil
Defense Collection, Box 1, Folder 4 (CHS); and Enquirer, September 23,
1944.
62. For example, volunteer fire departments emerged in communities that
had profited from the federal government's allocations of fire-fighting and
protective equipment. See The Pride of Park Hills (Kentucky), c.1947.
whistles. (CHS Photograph
Collection)