CHAPTER 3
THE NAGA: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION
In order to understand the Naga conflict better, it is important to
study its history evolution of composite Naga identity, way of life and its
relation with the outside world. The main purpose of this chapter is to see the
relation between these historical backgrounds of the Naga in the context of the
present conflict.
Origin of Naga
The Naga is one of the largest tribal groups in the region which
consists of several tribes. Antluopologically the Naga tribe belongs to
Mongoloid stock and their language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language.
The different tribes within the Naga group possess distinct languages, customs
and well demarcated ethnic territory but at the same time there exist a common
historical root, socio- cultural and economic systems, and political aspirations.
The origin of the term Naga is still shrouded in mystery and it is
difficult to say when the word 'Naga' came into existence. There have many
theories regarding the etymology of the term given at various times by different
scholars. Johnston (1896) suggests that the word Naga may have derived from
the Assamese word 'Noga' meaning naked. Hutton (1921) and Mills (1926)
suggest that the word Naga is derived from the word 'Nanga' meaning
mountaineer and also from the Sanskrit word 'Nog' i.e. mountain or an
inaccessible place. There are also theories propounded by Naga scholars who
claim a different origin of the word. Some opined that the word 'Naga' was
derived from the Burmese word 'naka' meaning pierced ears as the Nagas had
the tradition of making holes in the ears for decoration.(R R Shimray 1985)
Some others like Ganguimei Kabul a Naga scholar opined that the word is
derived from the word 'nok' or 'nokhar' meaning warriors in Cachari language.
It may be mentioned that the Cacharis were most of the times in confrontation
53
with the Angami and Zeliangrong groups. It is therefore, quite possible that the
word Naga was named and popularized by outsiders to give an identity to those
tribes.
The historical origin of the Naga is even more obscure and very
poorly documented. Not much of research is available on the subject especially
on the pre history of the Naga society. Although the general belief is that in the
remote past various ethnic groups of the Mongoloid stock was sparsely
scattered in the region which is occupied by present day China, Mongolia and
Korea. In course of time these people are said to have migrated to South-East
Asia and South Asia. A Naga scholar, Visier Meyase said that the Naga belong
to the mongoloid group and probably a wondering community from China.
Similarly another prominent Naga scholar Horam is of the opinion that from
their myths and legends one can understand that there is a common traditional
practice of head hunting among the Naga and the people of Borneo. There is
also some commomiess with the people of Philippines and Formosa in
cultivation technique; and with the Indonesians so far in the use of the lion loom
for weaving cloth. (Horam, 1988)
According to some linguists and anthropologists, the Naga
belong to Tibeto-Burman family and sub families of Tibeto Chinese race. They
are of the view that, the Nagas were among those who came down through
Tibet to the Brahmaputra valley and the valleys of the Chindwin, Irrawaddy,
Salwin and Mekong, etc, but were forced out by successive Tibeto-Chinese
invaders and were driven into the mountains where they eventually settled
down. (Aosenba, 2001)
In the pre historic times, people's migration was along the rivers
and sea coasts wherever such environments were available. This hypothesis is
also strengthened by the life-style of the Naga and the use of conch shells
ornaments which can be observed till today. According to Vashum, the Naga
dispersed from the Yunnan province in two directions, westerly and southwesterly. Those following the south western direction might have reached
54
Myanmar and northern Thailand. The bulk of the Naga group could have been
one of those groups which took the western direction from Yunnan province
and upon reaching the head waters of Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers bifurcated
in several directions, ultimately reaching Tibet, Assam and the hill ranges
between Assam and Burma.
Once the Naga tribe took the Naga hills, the internal movement
took place generally from the south to north except in cases of the Konyak Naga
and few other northern Naga tribes, who are said to have entered into their
respective areas from
the north-east viz., from
north-west
Myaamar
(Vashum:2007). They are believed to have moved from the head waters of
Irrawaddy and Ningthi (Chindwin) rivers in the course of their migration, and
ultimately reaching their present day home.
Every Naga tribe has its own versions of its origin and these have
been embedded in their folklore and legends. These are important sources of
information in the absence of written texts. The oral traditions of the Naga
provide clues to their place of origin dispersion although they are not
substantiated. Some of the groups point to Makhel, a small village at Senapati
district of Manipur as the common point of the Naga from where they dispersed
throughout the Naga Hills. According to Chatterjee (1988) from 2000 B.C.
onwaids, Sino-Tibetan speakers from China pushed south and west and entered
India and settled in Samjok area of Myanmar.
Culture and language
There are more than 40 odd Naga groups inhabiting the Naga Hills. The Naga
tribes living in Nagaland are: l.Angami, 2.Ao, 3. Chang, 4. Chakhesang,
S.Khiamungan, 6.Konyak, T.Makliori, 8.Sema, 9.Rengma, lO.Yimchunger,
ll.Lotha, 12.Chirr, 13.Sangtam, M.Tikhir, IS.Phom, 16.Zeliangrong (Zeme,
Liangmei, Rongmei and Puimei) IT.Pochury, 18, Makhori and 19. Tikhir Naga
groups from the state of Manipur are:l. Anal, 2.Maring, 3.Moyon, 4.Monsang,
5.Lamkang, 6.Chothe, T.Tangkliul, 8.Mao, 9.Poumei, lO.Maram, ll.Thangal,
12.Tarao, 13.Chiru, 14.Kharam, IS.Koireng, 16.Zeliangrong (Zcme, Liangmei,
55
Rongmei). The Naga groups from Arunachal Pradesh are Tangsa, Wancho and
Nocte. Zeliangrong Nagas are also found to inhabit the North Cachar hills of
Assam.
The Naga literature, arts and music consist of folk tales, folk
dances, and folk music which are normally sung by all the Naga tribes. Their
language belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family though the linguistic diversity is
both unique and complex, where each tribe speaks distinct dialect which is not
easily understood by another tribe. It is not unusual to find some tribes speaking
in more than one dialect depending on their residence. As for example the Mao
and Poumai tribes can communicate with one another though their dialect is
different because they both understand the language of each other. Grierson,
who conducted a massive study of Indian languages, placed the Naga languages
under the Assamese-Burmese branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages. He
classified the Naga languages into three groups
1. The Western Naga group which includes the Angami, Chokri, Kheza,
Sema and Rengma.
2. Central Naga group of languages that includes: Ao, Lotha, Sangtam and
Yimchungru
3. Eastern Naga group of languages it has Konyak and Chang languages.
He also classified Naga-Kuki in the category as sub-group which
includes most of the languages of the Nagas in Manipur such as the Mao,
Maram, Miyangchang, Liyang or Kwoireng, Thangkhul and Maring. (Kumar,
2005)
In case of cultural practices also, the Naga tend to be different
fiom one another though there are some common identifiable features that
separate them from other tribes of the region. According to W.C. Smith (1925),
an anthropologist a few common characteristics of the Naga tribes are:
a) head hunting
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b) common sleeping houses for the unmarried men, which are taboo to
women
c) dwelling houses which are built on posts or piles
d) disposal of dead on raised platforms;
e) a sort of trial maniage, or great freedom of intercourse between the
sexes before the marriage;
f) betel chewing;
g) aversion to milk as an article of diet;
h) tattooing by pricking;
i) absence of any powerful political organization;
j) a large quadrangular or hexagonal shield;
k) residence in hilly regions and crude forms of agriculture
Festivals
The Naga are traditionally agriculturists and all their major
festivals, rituals and ceremonies revolved around agricultural calendars. Each
cultivation period was preceded and followed by rituals and ceremonies.
Among the most importajit ones are the sowing and harvest ceremony. These
festivals are celebrated with numerous rituals either for invoking blessings on
the crops or by way of thanksgiving for the harvested crops. Among other
festivals the most common one is the 'Feast of Merit' where the whole
community is given the opportunity to feast together by an individual host who
is wealthy. In return for this the feast giver is accorded social status and
recognition in the society. But most of these traditional practices are fast
eroding due to modernization and influence of Christianity.
Conversion to Cluistianity initiated a transformation in their
social and ritual lives, for instance, transformation of the Morung, a dormitory
system where the youngsters would come and spent the nights. The Morung
was the focal point where many of the community activities and ritual took
place. But today, church buildings have come up instead of the Morung.
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It is interesting to observe that despite this religious shift and the
apparent changes in their ritual life each Naga tribe has retained some of
traditional characteristics and elements, hnportant festivals are still observed
and celebrated today by all the Naga tribes during which their traditional history
and folk practices are recounted through the medium of folk songs and dances
though the sacrificial rites are done away with. The popular state sponsored
Hornbill festival which is held every year in the month of December is one
event where each of the Naga tribe come together and display their ethnic
tradition not only amongst themselves but also to the rest of the world.
The different Naga tribes safeguard their cultural practices
jealously and with pride because it is one good and interesting way of
recollecting and researching their root and identity as also to display their own
traditional distinctiveness. Moreover since it is an oral tradition these are the
only means to preserve and revive their old tradition and culture.
Dress and Ornaments
The most prominent item of Naga dress is the shawl. It is
different for every tribe and it is one of the easiest ways to identify the person's
community to which he or she belongs by simply identifying the design of the
shawl. The shawl is not only a symbol of identity but is also considered as an
important part of their lives as it is used in various occasions such as marriage,
important functions and is also presented to their guest of honor to exhibit their
love and respect.
Nagas are also colourful people with a creative sense of colour
combination and graphic designs. The various motifs of the traditional clothing
are primarily drawn from their environments as well as from their ritual life.
The use of cowry shells in their dresses is one of the most distinctive featujces of
the Naga dress and ornaments. The Naga dress and ornaments are not only a
matter of aesthetic but it also plays a significant role in their cultural and social
life.
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However, with the spread of modernization and access to global
market, the material content of the Naga dresses are also changing
tremendously. The present generation youngster have started to use traditional
dresses into fashion designing in a big way, reproducing that which represents
the ancestral motifs blended with modern appeal with brilliant designed attires,
jewelry and bead strings. In spite of this transition, the wearing of old traditional
dresses still practiced by some of the Naga tribes especially among the Konyaks
in Nagaland, the Tangsa and Wanchos of Arunachal Pradesh and the Maram
and Mao of Manipur state
Customs and Religion
Before the advent of the British into the Naga territory, the Naga
generally believe in one Supreme Being with many subordinate deities and in a
great number of spirits of nature, of river, hill and forest, ghosts and other
unseen spirits who affect human life at every point. But soon after the British
control of the Naga hill western missionaries began to spread Christianity and in
1872 the first batch of Aos was baptized and within a short span of time
majority of the Nagas became Clii'istian. One of the significant aspects of the
Naga culture was that of erecting monolith structures which were common
among all the tribes of the Nagas. These megalith structures were generally
erected in commemoration of any ritualistic ceremonies, achievements etc.
These could be buiials or feast of merits, head hunting incidents etc. The Naga
took pride in their head gear. It was found in among all the major Naga tribes
with a little variation. Wood platter was an identifiable mark of Naga culture.
Pierced ear was also one of the most identifiable elements of the Naga.
Sometimes the ear holes are found to be very big and designed with extravagant
style made out of bamboo and other naturally found elements. They are known
to have their ear pierced more than once.
From early times tattoos were used by the tribals across the
world, from the Maoris in New Zealand to the Konyaks of Nagaland and
Wanchos and Noctes of Naga tribe in Arunachal. "Facial tattoos were the marks
59
of head-taker; the various designs indicated the person's prowess in the battle"
wrote Aditya Arya and Vibha Joshi in their book, Land of the Nagas. (The
Times of India June 17, 2010) According to some researchers tattoos helped
establish tribal identity. The Nagas regarded tattoos as a sign of strength and
courage.
The Naga society follows patriarchal social system and as such
inheritance is always in the male line. All sons equally share the patrimony and
among them the youngest son would normally inherit the ancestral house.
Women can possess property but cannot inherit it; otherwise women are given
equal respect and status in the society. Haimendrof wrote "Many women in
more civilized part of India may well envy the women of Naga Hills, their high
status and their free and happy life, and if you measure the cultural level of
people by the social position and personal freedom of its women, you will think
twice before looking down on the Nagas as savages".
Marriage is considered as a sacred institution of the Naga society
and is generally settled by the parents although girls and boys are given
considerable freedom in choosing their own partners. But marriage within the
same clan is strictly a taboo under their customary law. A Naga family is
nuclear one and not a joint family system.
Food Habits
The Nagas have no prejudice against any kind of food and they
are basically rice and meat eaters from beef, pork, chicken to even dog meat. As
a result they are well-built energetic and strong. Mithun meat is eaten on special
occasion of feast and marriages. One popular drink that is common among all
the Naga tribes is the indigenous rice beer and even considered as nutritious,
particularly among the traditional wine lovers. It was also traditionally served
during festival and marriages.
Besides this bamboo shoot and fennented
soybeans are also special delicacies of the Nagas.
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One unique feature of the Naga social system is that they believe
in the wisdom of having collective granary for their paddy. The paddy store or
granary is called the 'maazum' in the Tangkhul language. The common store for
the paddy is for the poor and the needy of the village and also for their guests
who visit the village. The people who aie needy are supplied with rations
according to their needs. This practice was an annual ritual. The most striking
aspect of this custom was that, the paddies were kept in the village store room
and it was brought volujitarily by the people and not under any compulsion.
People donated according to their own capacity and families who had a large
harvest generally gave more to the common store. Generally every village had
its own rules for giving to their maazum but it also depended on the conscience
of the family concerned however small or big every family was supposed to
give at least some portion. In practice no family refuses to give its fair share of
part to the store. Dishonesty in giving to the maazum was unheard of. This form
of welfare service that existed within the Naga society has a great influence in
the present times too as evident from the continuation of the practice even after
the advent of Clu'istianity.
This same pattern is followed even today by the Naga society,
but now the system is being mostly carried out by the Church. After every
annual harvest of the paddy crops, every household are expected to donate
certain amount of percentage of their paddy according to their total
measurement. This contribution is also considered as an offering to God for the
blessings of their harvest. The paddy collected and stored is normally used for
the activities of the Church and village purposes. Sometimes it is also sold to
the villagers with a lower rate than the market price.
Head hunting
Head-hunting, which is one of the most cliche images that the
world has of the Nagas, is often a misunderstood phenomenon. Although it was
an integral part of the Naga traditional society but this in no way demonstrates
the culture of the Nagas. It is an unfortunate ignorance that the Nagas have had
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to live with the stigma of being butchers. For the Nagas head-hunting was one
of the main necessary mechanisms of defense, offence and regulation of life in a
sovereign setting just like modern waufare. It was a means for survival. In order
to maintain the sovereign entity of a village or a tribe head-hunting was the
means of defense. It was a lawful measure of self protection. It was a criterion
of existence and maintenance of the status quo.
Head hunting usually took place when somebody from other
village trespassed or broke rules or hurt somebody or invaded the village. There
were rules; codes and ethics for head- hunting too. It was generally associated
with bravery and social recognition. Head-hunters were socially feted. Any man
who could take heads of enemies was highly regarded by the villagers as an able
man. Success in head-hunting was also a sure way of earning a better bride. A
head-hunter was entitled to wear a special dress for the wairior that was not
allowed to commoners. A better head-hunter also had the better prospect of
becoming the chief of the village. There was a tradition among the Nagas to
keep the heads as memorial trophies. They were preserved in their homes and
prominently displayed.
It was also a tradition that was closely linked to their religious
rituals and prosperity. Heads were sacrificed to appease and please gods
whenever a chiefs house or morung was constructed. Heads of enemies were
prized and were offered to the gods of crops, for a good yield and harvest, to
add fertility to the soil etc. Rice is the staple food of the Nagas and they took
great pains to have a good harvest. If human heads were not sacrificed, the
Nagas believed that the spirits would destroy the crops through natural
calamities or by other means, even to the extent of harming the cultivators.
Sacrifice of the head was also used to ensure fertility in women, good luck and
prosperity for the people. Head hunting also had its influence on social issues
and boundaiy disputes with other villages.
Although head hunting appears to be imminent evil to outsiders,
it is not so. The Nagas consider it as a noble means to a prosperous and
62
respectable living with a sense of security. But after the advent of the British,
the influence of Christianity on the Naga community has been far reaching.
Head-hunting practice was abolished by the church. But the Naga community
still takes pride in their past.
Morung
The Morung or youth dormitory, is typically a huge building
which physically dominates a Naga village, resplendent with carvings
representing hornbills, tigers, mithan (bison) and human heads and sometimes
with projecting barge-boards resembling wings or horns. Sociologically
speaking, it is the key institution of Naga society especially in the traditional
Naga society 'Morung' was an important constituent of the socio-cultural and
political life. A Morung was a place where young boys were trained in the art of
warfare and code of conduct, traditional values, etc. It trained the youngsters in
the Naga way of life, such as the art of singing and dancing. The Morung not
only provided them knowledge but also physical training and from there they
were also deployed for various assignments by the village authorities, for
warfare or security purpose as and when required. The girls are also given
training in such institutions ranging from codes of the society, traditional
handicrafts to their role in society. The boys in the Morung also guarded the
village from dangers at night.
But in modern times this practice has been done away with
particularly due to the influence of the Church. The sense of unity and collective
priority among the Naga community today no longer exists as it was during the
earlier Morung days. There are wide disparities within the community in terms
of wealth, growth and opportunity. Today Naga have become more
individualistic and self-centered.
Traditional Tools and Weapons
The Naga were traditionally hunters and they depended on the
resources found in the forest and jungles for their livelihood. One of their basic
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occupations was to hunt for animals for their food and hence it was natural that
they use daos for agriculture, house building, wood carving etc. While spear,
bow and arrow, are used as their weapon for warfare and for hunting purpose.
Trade and Commerce
Before the advent of British, villages were isolated from one
another and inter-village trading and interaction were limited, except among a
few friendly villages. During those times, trade relations between the
neighboring villages were minimal with the exception of some of the friendly
villages. Naga villages were self sufficient units. Naga as a tribe were self
reliant. Trade practice in eailier times was generally done through barter, a form
practiced even today in the remote villages. Paddy was the main medium of
exchange as it was the most cultivated item and formed tlieir staple diet. The
Naga are fond of conch shells, and cowries as articles of ornaments.
Settlement of Dispute
The Naga as a tribe aie known for their honesty and modesty.
They are generally straight forward in attitude and approach. The village system
plays an important role in the Naga society and by tradition the Village chief is
the nominal head of the village. The village chief is not chosen but hereditary
passing down to the eldest son of the fainily. Under the village chief a village
council or village authority are nonnally formed. The members of this council
are equal representatives from each clan who are either elected or nominated by
their respective clan. The people rely on their village authorities to settle cases
and disputes. They don't take the lengthy recourse of going to the courts.
Customary laws which are traditional and used since generations are applied.
People abide by the rulings of these village bodies which are generally in the
form of penalties to the guilty in accordance with the nature of the crime. This
traditional leadership of the chiefs and village council is still a formidable force
even today among the Naga. society.
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Agriculture and Land use system
The Naga are primarily agriculturalist, and hence land is an
important possession in their lives they use simple teclinology for agricultural
purposes, which fitted well with their ecological surroundings. And they
produced crops only enough for the subsistence of their family. Among the
various clan groups, the agricultural practises vary from one community to
another. For instance, the Naga groups like Ao Naga. Sema Naga, Lotha Nagas
practise jhuni cultivation; the Angami Nagas are noted for skilled terraced
cultivation. The others like Tangkhul, Mao, Chakliesang, Zeliangrong, and
Maring practice both jhumming and wet terraced cultivation. The family is the
basic domestic unit among them.
In the case of land ownership they have village or community
holding system, and even private land holding system. In the case of community
land every bonafide household has the right to use it without paying any land
revenue to the village authority. However any individual household cannot
claim more land than what one can actively make use of Shimray in his book
Naga population and Integration Movement, broadly categorized into three
divisions (i) village settlement area (ii) community land and clan land and (iii)
forest of land use system in a Naga village. But in the case of terraced
cultivation the land is generally owned by an individual household while in
shifting cultivation the land is collectively owned by the community.
Today, there is an increasing individual land owoiership pattern
among the Naga society with the emergence of elites within the society v/ho are
buying away lands and forest unlike in the past where the land normally belongs
to the community. This has become one major problem that has crept into the
Naga society and the earlier classless society is dying. The traditional Naga
society was characterized by equality. Apart from respect for age, there was no
discrimination between rich and poor, male and female. Today the sense of
community belonging that existed among the ancestral Nagas has begun to
diminish.
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Conclusion
The above discussion presents a narration of the ancient history
of the Naga, its origin, evolution, migration and so forth. It also outlines the
ethno-cultural background of the Naga society. The study is based mainly on
the analysis and interpretation of their folklore, myths, legends and beliefs.
hi the following chapter the focus will be on the political history
of Naga beginning from its colonial encounter first with the Ahoms and then
with the British. It will also delineate the Naga conflict and the role of different
actors. This is done mainly to indicate the areas of continuity and changes in
Naga history and its implications for the present conflict situation.
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