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Education and Human Development Master's
Theses
Education and Human Development
7-1-2011
The British Army in North America in the Mid to
Late Eighteenth Century: Teaching the Topic In
High School Classrooms
Stewart Dean Atkin
The College at Brockport, [email protected]
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Atkin, Stewart Dean, "The British Army in North America in the Mid to Late Eighteenth Century: Teaching the Topic In High School
Classrooms" (2011). Education and Human Development Master's Theses. Paper 41.
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THE BRITISH ARMY I N N ORTH AMERICA I N THE MID TO
LATE EIGHT E E N TH C E N TURY: TEACHI N G THE TO PIC IN HIGH
SCHOO L CLASSROOMS
by
Stewa rt Dea n Atk i n
July, 2011
A thesis su b m itted to the Depart m e nt of Ed ucati o n a nd H u m a n Deve l o p m e nt at the State
U n ive rsity of N ew Yo rk Col lege at B rockport in pa rtia l
F u lfi l l me nt of the req u i rements for t h e d egree of
M aste r of Science in E d u catio n
1
The British Army in North America in the Mid to Late
Eighteenth Century: Teaching the Topic In High School Classrooms
by
Stewart Atkin
Approved by
2
Advisor
Date
D i re cto r/ G ra d u ate Studies
Date
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
..........................................................................................................
Signature Page
................................................ ........................ .........................
Table of Contents
l
2
.............................................................................................
Acknowledgements
.................................................................. .......................
Part One: Historiography
4
..................... ................................. .........................
Part Two: Original Research
..................... ....................................................
Part Three: Using the Research in Curriculum Development
A: Connecting To Teaching
3
8
39
...................
................................................................
72
72
B: A Course Portfolio of Sources
81
C: The Educational Research
122
.................................... ...................
Appendices
............... ..................... .........................
........................................................................................................
3
135
Acknowledgements
From January 2010 until July 2011, one of the primary responsibilities of my
life was to complete a master's thesis in Secondary Social Studies in Education. This
needed to occur in order for me to become eligible to become a Secondary Social
Studies teacher. My first task was to choose a topic. I decided one that I knew little
about; the British Army in North America in the mid to late eighteenth century. The
reasons I chose this topic were because firstly, it seemed interesting, and secondly,
and more importantly, it struck a chord with me. In a unique way, the topic
combined two parts of my personal life. The first half of my life to date took place in
Great Britain, and roughly the second half has taken place in the United States. Also,
most of my United States residency has occurred in New York State, an area that is
closely connected to my area of study. It seemed pertinent that I should choose a
topic whereby I could look at and learn to teach about individuals who came from
my original homeland and who traveled to my adopted homeland. It of course goes
without saying that the hardships that most of them endured are unimaginable to
me.
I am pretty confident that I will never work on a PhD, so this will be my only
opportunity to thank the people close to me who have helped me along the way.
Firstly, I would like to thank my academic advisor, Dr. Mary Corey of the Department
of Education and Human Development at SUNY Brockport, for her guidance,
4
support, whole-hearted encouragement and humour. I have taken a number of her
classes over the years and they have always been interesting and thoughtful. She
has introduced me to literature I would probably never have read, and she achieved
the impossible; through one of her recommended readings, I actually learned how
to appreciate an American sport, baseball, although I think it is mostly because it is
so similar to cricket.
I want to thank my paternal aunt, Diane Atkin for her continued support,
interest and encouragement in my goal of becoming a teacher. She deserves my
thanks for so much more, but in these pages I want to acknowledge how much it
means to me that she is always so interested in my present career as a youth
advocate and in my future aspirations to be a teacher, and that even from her home
in Canterbury in England, she is a constant source of help.
My mother, Wendy Corfield is also a wonderful support from her home in
Canterbury in England. It never seizes to amaze me how we never stop caring
deeply about making our parents proud. The length of time it takes a man with a full
time job to obtain a master's degree and a New York State teacher's certificate is a
source of perplexity to the folks back home.
After all, it didn't take my cousin much
longer to become an oral surgeon. My mum listened to my complaints at every step
of the way just as she had when I struggled with chemistry at school. I want to
thank her for paying for my student teaching which was a big expense at a time
5
when I had to take a leave of absence from my job and forego an income. I will
always be grateful for how much we laugh together, and for her continued love.
Lastly, I want to thank my "big family". My sister-in-law, and next-door
neighbor, Mary Mapes has been a fantastic support ever since I have known her.
She is one of the most caring and giving people in the world, has minded my kids
while I have been working and playing, and is a model of thoughtfulness and
positivity. Her daughter, and my favourite niece, Rita "smalls" D' Agostino, aged 7,
her of the hilarious one-liners, is always such fun to be around. Her energy and her
{{ninja" qualities of always being able to somehow inflict physical pain on innocent
by-standers cracks you up once the agony has subsided.
My two daughters, Wendy Atkin-Mapes, aged 9, and Dorothy Atkin-Mapes,
aged 15, have had to endure large segments of their childhoods of me being holed
up working on assignments, preparing for tests, and concentrating on the thesis.
Both girls' love of life, their sensitivity, their laughs and their easy-going nature
makes them such enjoyable people to spend time with. Wendy's ability to make
other people feel comfortable and Dorothy's work ethic and sense of humour are
constant sources of pride. It is because of them that I have learned about the
immensities of parental love.
Lastly, I want thank Kathy Mapes my wife, best friend and companion. She
has been the most supportive person in my life in every way. In regards to the
thesis, she has read scripts and made suggestions, and has offered constructive
6
feedback and practical encouragement. She has listened to me ramble on about
something she is not particularly interested in, because our love for each other is
constantly evolving. She has put up with my crap and she is the best friend I could
ever hope to have. We love having a cup of tea in the morning and talking about a
variety of topics. She is amazing and you could not imagine how lucky I am to have
found her.
7
PART O N E
11Redcoats" : T h e Soldiers o f t h e B ritish Army i n N o rt h Ame rica
During t h e Ame rica n Wa r of Indepe nde n ce a n d Before : A
H i sto riography
"They came three thousand miles, a n d died
To keep the Past upon its throne
Unheard, beyon d the ocean tide
Their English m o th er made her moan"
I nscri ptio n at the grave fo r B ritish so l d iers at Old N o rth B ridge, C o ncord, M a ss
I ntroduction :
Whether yo u c a l l it (/The Revo l ution" or "Th e American Wa r of I nd e pe n de n ce", the
war betwe e n G reat B rita i n and her A m e rica n co l o n ies towa rds the end of the E ightee nth
Century is a sou rce of great pride, h a pp i ness and i nspiratio n to m o d e rn day citizens of the
U n ited States. Togeth e r with the fra m i ng of the U.S. Constitutio n, it gives Am e rica n s a
g l o ri o us exa m pl e of what they fee l re p rese nts the best of their c o u ntry. " Patriot" fighte rs
l i ke George Was h i ngto n, Etha n A l l e n, H e n ry Knox, Natha n i e l G ree ne, H o ratio Gates a nd
eve n Benedict Arno l d a re house h o l d n a mes.
Across the oce a n i n B rita i n, t h e Revo l utio n a ry e ra u ndersta n d a b l y is of m uch less
significa nce, a n d there has tra d iti o n a l ly been l ittl e i nterest i n the wa r and the begi n n ing of
t h e U .S. natio n . Not m a ny peo p l e know m uch a bo ut this topic, with the exce pti o n of the
" Bosto n Tea Party" . H i sto rica l ly, t h e re a re many reasons fo r this. I n itia l ly m a ny Brito ns felt
8
sha med by the fact that the fi nest a rmy i n the world h a d l o st to what was widely seen as a
ra b b l e . Also, to G reat B rita i n this wa r was o n l y o ne of m a ny fro nts a n d Americans were o n ly
o n e of m a ny a ntago n ists. Also, it is fa i r to say that B rita i n was e ngaged i n a worl d wa r that
i nvo lved Spa i n, F ra nce a nd H o l l a nd, a nd that the a re na s of the wa r too k p l ace in Euro pe, the
Ca ri b bea n, as we l l a s N o rth Ame rica . M o re rece ntly, Brito n s have deve l o ped fee l ings of
regret, shame and d e e p e m ba rrass m e nt of the i r i m peria l past. Tho usa nds of common
sol d i e rs were m o b i l i ze d to N o rth Ame rica to fight fo r thei r c o u ntry, and yet history has not
bee n ki n d to the m . A me rica n s h ave been kee n to p a i nt t h e m as a m ixtu re of wel l tra i ned
m e rcena ries a nd i m m o ra l cri m i na ls . B rito ns have tried t o fo rget the m . In this
histo riogra p h ica l essay I see k to look at how histo ria ns on both sides of the Atla ntic have
studied the Britis h s o l d i e rs i n N o rth Ame rica . I w i l l cove r m o stly the Revo l utio nary e ra, but I
wi l l a lso ta ke a conside ra b l e l o o k at the decades lea d i ng u p to the war, because m uch of the
tension from the Revo l utio n a ry e ra ca n be traced to the days l ea d i ng u p to the French a n d
I nd i a n Wa r ( 1756-1763 ) a nd beyon d . Students have l o n g b e e n ta ught t h a t o n e o f t h e m aj o r
b o n e s of content i o n a m on gst t h e col o n ists w a s t h e fact t h a t B rita i n left a sta n d i ng a rmy i n
N o rth America, a nd t h a t that a rmy was a great expe nse, i nc o nve n i e nce a n d eve n a threat to
the co l o n i a l po p u l atio n . This pa per does not look at the h i storiogra p hy of the America n
Revo l utio n . It loo ks at how h isto ria n s have studied the B ritish Army's com m o n soldiers, a n d
t o a lesser degree h o w h i sto ria ns have looked a t t h e ge n era l s, office rs, a n d a d m i nistrators of
the B ritish Army in N o rt h America at this time.
Contemporary accounts :
Ve ry soo n afte r the co ncl usion of the Revo l utio n a ry Wa r, peo p l e bega n to write a n d
p u b l ish eye-witness a ccou nts of the confl ict. M ost of these a uthors had been co nnected
9
with t h e A m e rica n side. H oweve r, there were two nota b l e p u b l ications by British
contem po ra ries that looked at the Briti sh Army. In 1790, Robert Beaton's Naval and
Military Memoirs of Great Britain was p u b l ished, fo l lowed m o re nota bly by Cha rles
Sted m a n's History of t h e Origin Progressf and Termination of the American War fou r yea rs
l ate r i n 1794. Ste d m a n had served as a co m m issa ry under Genera l s H owe, Cli nto n a n d
Cornwa l l is, a nd h i s acco u nt has been ca l le d "o n e of the two most respected conte m pora ry
accou nts of t h e Revo l ution" 1 (fro m either s i d e ) . Ste d m a n does not l i st m a ny s o u rces, a n d it
is a ss u me d that t h e a ccou nt comes from h i s o w n m e m o ry. H owever, i n 1958, h i storia n R .
Ke nt N ew m ye r co ncl uded that Stedman had occasi o na l ly p l agia rized fro m t h e B ritish
"An n ua l Registe r" . The A n n u a l Register, w h i c h had been sta rted in 1758, was and re m a i n s a
yea r-by-yea r reco rd of B ritis h a n d wo rld eve nts. It seem s p l a usible howeve r, that Sted ma n
had refe rred to t h e Register to h e l p refres h h i s m e m o ry, a nd had someti mes fo l lowed its
c h ro n o logy. This s ho u l d h a rd ly be surprising b e ca use Ste d m a n was re l ayi ng eve nts from a l l
across t h e t h i rtee n co l o n ies i n rebe l l ion, a s we l l a s Ca nada, the Ca ribbean, E u ro pe, the
Atl a ntic O ce a n, and the E nglish Cha n ne l . The s o u rces h e does l ist however, (and they a re
few a n d fa r b etwee n ), a re l ette rs a nd parl i a m e nta ry re ports .
M uc h of Ste d m a n's report focu ses o n t h e m aj o r events of the wa r, a n d gives the
maj o r po l itici a n s a nd ge nera l s a l ot of cove rage . H owever, when he does m e nti o n the
com m o n s o l d i e rs, and it i s occasio n a l ly, h e i s co m pl i m e nta ry of them . Fo r exa m pl e, he
descri bes the B ritish tro o ps that a rrived in Boston to rei nfo rce the troops that had been
blockaded t h e re in the l ate Spring of 1775 ( afte r Lexi ngto n a nd Concord) as a " respecta b l e
force", n o t i n te rms o f size, b ut i n re lati o n t o "the exce l le nce o f t h e troops" . 2 I n his a cco unt
1
Newmyer
2 Ste d m a n va
l, I , p 12 4
10
of B u n ke r H i l l he c l a i m s that t h e British so l d i e rs despised the i r e ne m ies. H e a lso re po rts that
they s howed "bravery and d isci p l i ne" 3, a nd m a kes pains to d escri b e how wel l the British
s o l d i e rs perfo rmed on that day despite being put at a seve re d isadva ntage by the poor
p l a n n i ng of the i r leaders. H e d escri bes o n e com pa ny of high l a nd e r troo ps serving i n Georgia
a s d e mo n strating "o bsti nate b ra ve ry" a ga i n st a much la rger force, a cha racteristic that saw
m ost of t h e m we re k i l l e d . 4
Despite these nods to t h e b rave ry of the Britis h so l d i e rs, m o st of Ste d m a n's work
records the m i l ita ry and pol itica l strategies and considerations.
The late-Nineteent h Century: Sir John Knox Laughton leads the way
After the i n itial eye-witn e sses of the wa r, there was very l ittl e w ritte n a bo ut the
Britis h Army i n N o rth Ame rica u nt i l the l atte r p a rt of the N i n eteen t h Century . Si r J o h n Knox
La ughton was a B ritis h nava l h i sto ria n who was very active in h i sto rica l study at the end of
the N i netee nth Ce ntury. H i s major focus was on the histo ry of the Roya l Navy, a nd on the
b iogra phies of m aj o r nava l figures t h ro ugho ut B riti sh histo ry, i n cl ud i ng those who served
d u ri ng the America n Revo l ut io n a ry Wa r, such a s the Ea rl of Sa ndwich a n d Visco u nt H ood .
Despite La ughto n o n l y being c o n cerned with the study of the navy, a nd n ot the a rmy, he is
re l eva nt h e re, fi rstly beca use h i s work h e l ped form u l ate a study of B riti s h m i l ita ry d i rectio n
i n the America n Revo l utio n a ry W a r, a n d secon d ly beca use h e was a very i nfl u e ntia l h i sto ria n
of h i s time. I n 1 875, he d e l ivered a m o n u me nta l speech to the Roya l Un ited Se rvice
I nstitution where by he stated that i n o rder to deci pher what rea l ly h a p pe ned i n the past a n d
to d is p e l t h e m u ltitude o f m yths t h a t were h a nded down fro m ge n e ratio n t o ge neration, it
3 Ste d m an, va
4
l l, p 128
Ste d m an, va l l I , p 1 17
11
was i m perative that h i sto ria ns base the i r a n a lyses of the past o n a uthentic docume nts a nd
a rchiva l rese a rc h . H e a lso fo rced t h e British gove r n m e nt t o re l u cta ntly a l l ow schol a rs t o
have access to t h e P u bl i c Record Office .
As p revi o us ly m e ntio ned, La ughton focused o n the highest echelons of the Roya l
N avy. This was co n sistent with other a reas of study at this ti m e . Before the F i rst Wor l d
Wa r, "The Roya l Com m ission o n H i storica l Man uscri pts" a n d "The Roya l I nstitution of G reat
B rita i n" p u b l is h e d i m po rtant pa pers a nd docume nts pe rta i n i ng to the B ritish Army in N o rth
Ame rica d u r i n g the revo l utio n a ry e ra , but o n ly con ce ntrated o n pa pers that pertai ne d t o the
leaders of the wa r effo rt, such a s the Secreta ry of State for America, Lord George G e r m a i n,
a n d the under-Sec reta ry, Wi l l i a m Knox.
In the U n ited States, "The New York H istorical Society" p u b l ished col lecti o n s of
" m i n utes, orders, j o u r n a l s, lette rs, o rder books, a nd s i m i l a r materi a l writte n by Ame rica n,
B ritish, a nd G e rm a n officers of the Ki ng's forces" 5 • B ritish office rs whose j o u rnals we re
p u b l ished i n d e pth i nc l u d e Ca pta i n J o h n M ontre sso r, the a rmy's c h ief e ngineer betwe e n
1774 a n d 1 7 7 8 ( pu b l is h e d i n 188 1 } a nd Major Ste p h e n Kem bl e ( p u bl ished i n 1884-5} w h o
w a s t h e deputy a dj uta n t genera l o f M ajor Genera l S i r VVi l l i a m Howe . A n u m ber of
i n d ividu a l s a lso p u b l is h e d books that perta i ned to the B ritish m i l ita ry in North America i n
t h e m i d a n d l ate N i n etee nth Ce ntu ry. I n 1844, J o h n G raves Si m co e p u b lished a b o o k that
was pres u m a b ly a bout o ne of his a ncesto rs entitled Simcoe's Military Journal: A History of
the operations of a Partisan Corps, Called the Quee n 's Rangers, Commanded by Lieut. Col. J.
G. Simcoe, During the War of the American Revolution, a n d i n 1859 a book edited by Charles
5 Syrett,
p2 {The p a ge n u m be rs t h a t I cite for Syrett's a rt i c le a re not reco rded i n ste p with t he p a ge
n u m be rs in the o rigin a l a rt i c le . This is be c a u se my copy of h i s a rt i c le d id not come with t he
a pp ropri ate p a ge n u m be rs)
12
Ross was p u b l ished e ntitled Correspondence of Charles, First Marquis Corn wallis . Altho ugh
these books were n ot a bo ut the ge n e ra l s, they sti l l conce ntrated on officers.
One m aj o r work o n the B ritish Army befo re the Fi rst Wo rld Wa r was J. W.
Fortescue's m u lti-vo l u m e work entitle d A History of the British Army. The vo l u mes were
p u b l ished betwe e n 1899 a n d 1920, a n d vol u me three which dealt with the Ame rican Wa r of
I nd e pe n dence was p u b l ished in 1 9 1 1 . It i s a long na rrative on the eve n ts of the war,
record i ng eve nts a bo ut the campa igns from both sides. M ontescue is especia l ly critical of
G e r m a i n e back in Lo ndon and Genera l B u rgoyne i n the fie ld, and he created s u b-ch a pters
with n a m es such a s " Fa l se Basis on w h i c h the British O pe rations we re P l a n n ed", " I ndecision
of the E ng l ish M i n iste rs", a nd 11H i s ( G e rm a i ne's) Singu l a r U nfitness for the D uty" . Fortescue
a ls o i s critica l of the Co nti nenta l Congress for o bstructi ng Wa shi ngton's a bi l ity to o bta in a n d
reta i n troops a n d for reneging on the t e r m s of the B riti s h s urrender at Sa ratoga b y treati ng
the t ro o ps h a rsh l y, a nd atte m pting to co nscript them i nto the revo l utio n a ry fo rce. Near the
end of t h i s vo l u m e h e d iscusses so m e of the a d m i n i strative fa i l i ngs of the a rmy. He even
m e ntions so m e of the h a rd s h i ps faced by the o rdi n a ry troops i n te rms of pay, a n d notes the
high l eve l s of desertion a nd the c h a l l e nges of recruitm e nt . H oweve r, a s stated e a rl i e r, m ost
of t h i s vo l u m e is either a narrative that reco rds batt l es a nd a rmy movem ents, or is a
criticism of B rita i n's wa r leaders, e s pecia l ly Lo rd George G e rm a i n . A such, F o rtescue
contin ues to p ri m a ri ly d iscuss the a ct i o n s of the u pper echelons of the B ritish Army a nd
B ritish p o l itics .
Acco rdi ng to David Syrett i n h i s 1999 a rticle e ntitled "The British Armed Forces i n
t h e A m e rica n Revo l utio n a ry War: P u b l i cation s, 1875-1998", Fortescue's work 11is
13
co nsidera bly flawed by m o d e rn sta nda rds beca use of its wea k rese a rch" 6 . H oweve r, to
ba l a n ce that assertion, Syrett does concede that it is "a magn ificent feat of writi ng", a nd is
"the sta rting point fo r a ny stu de nt of its (the British a rmy's) o pe rations d u ri ng the America n
Revo l utio n a ry War" 7 .
Between the World Wa rs :
Accord i ng to Syrett, "widespread i nterest i n the ro l e of the B ritish forces i n the
America n Revo l utio n a ry Wa r d ied with Wo rld Wa r One. Both in Ame rica a nd B rita i n d u ri ng
the yea rs betwee n the World Wa rs, there was a pathy, if n ot o pe n hosti lity, toward a l l thi ngs
m i l ita ry, i nc l u d i ng the study of the America n Wa r" 8 . I n B rita i n fo r the most pa rt, only the
Roya l Navy co ntinued to p u b l i s h vo l u mes o n nava l doc u m ents, occa sio n a l l y p u b l is h i ng a
work that f ocused o n t h e Ame rica n war. H owever, the re w e re i nfl u e ntia l h istoria ns who d i d
fu rther t h e study of t h e B ritish Army i n N o rth America . Perha ps s u rp risi ngly, a l l three
h isto ria ns were fro m N o rt h A m e rica; J a ne Cla rk, a Ca n a d i a n, and two America n s, Richard E.
Curtis a nd Sta n l ey P a rge l l is .
For the most pa rt Cla rk's wo rk exp l o red the tactica l p la n n i ng of the B ritish effort,
a n d especi a l ly l oo ke d at the a rmy's fa i l u re at Sa ratoga . The refo re, I fee l that her work is not
re l eva nt to this h istoriograp hy beca use s he did not exa m i n e the so l d i e rs who l ived a nd
fought a n d d ied d u ri ng t hese yea rs . This ca n not be said of R i c h a rd E . Curtis h owever. I n
192 6,
Curtis, a n Ame rica n, p u b l ished "The O rga n ization o f the B ritish Army i n the America n
Revo l ution", which a ccord i ng to Syrett i m med iate ly mea nt that "the fie l d had for the first
6 Syrett,
7 Syrett,
8 Syrett,
p3
p3
p3
14
time a n a d m i n i strative h i sto ry of the British a rm y d u ring this time" . 9 The book does i ndeed
reco rd the a d m i n istrative side of the a rmy, b ut t h e re a re a lso fa i rly deta i led a ccou nts a bo ut
the so l d i e rs too, especi a l ly i n chapter one a nd to a l esse r extent cha pter three. Cha pte r
O ne, w h i c h is c a l led "The British Army at the O u t b reak of the Revo l utio n : A Genera l Su rvey"
begi n s by stating that there had been a l ot writt e n on the Co nti n e nta l (America n ) Army, but
not m uc h o n the B ritish Army. H e then s u m ma rizes the l ocati o n of the British tro o p s i n
1775 ( E ngl a nd, Scot l a nd, I re l a nd, M i norca, G i b ra lta r, the West I nd ies, America, a nd Africa ),
a nd states that the tota l n u m ber of troo ps a ro u n d the world at this point was 45, 123 . Curtis
exp l a i ns h ow m a ny officers a nd men were in the average reg i me nt, the d iffe rent ki n d of
regi m e nts ( a rti l le ry, l ight i nfa ntry etc), and fo r o u r p u rposes actu a l ly goes o n to exp l a i n h ow
a d m i ni st ra tive c h a l l e nges di rectly lead to p ractica l p ro b l e m s fo r the regu l a r s o l diers. The
fact that a rm y p hysicians we re not req u i red to h ave a ny kind of forma l medical tra i n i ng
meant that "the physica l we lfa re of the s o l d i e r was i l l-ca red fo r" 10 • Curtis a l so expla i n s that
each regim e nt was s u p posed to have a cha p l a i n, but i n rea lity this did not h a p pe n, a nd he
asse rts that the co m m o n so l d iers' "spiritua l welfa re was p ra ctica l ly neglected" . 11 C u rtis
describes other h a rd s h i p s facing the com mo n s o l d i e rs, such a s the i n a ppropriateness of
the i r u n ifo rm s ( " i l l ada pted fo r comfo rt a nd speedy m ove me nt" ), the fl i ntlock m u s kets
n i c k n a m e d " B rown Bess" ( u n re l i a b l e at a d ista nce greate r tha n o n e h u n d red" ya rds, a n d
"dep e n d e nt u p o n the weather" ), i nadeq uate pay i n com p a riso n to t h e cost of l iving, a n d
h a rs h disci p l i ne . H e re Curtis quotes Sergea nt R oge r La m b's j o u r n a l; " I wel l rem e m be r the
fi rst man I saw flogged . ! cried l i ke a ch i l d " .
.
9 Syrett,
.
p3
10
C u rtis, Ch 1, p 1 1
11
Cu rtis, Ch 1, p 1 1
15
Curtis a l so goes on to a d d ress some of the charges that h ave been b ro ught aga i nst
the B ritish s o l d i e rs d u ri ng the co nfl ict, n a m e ly d ru n kenness, ga m b l i ng, p l underi ng, a nd ra pe,
a n d the issue of genera l m o ra l ity. He a rgues that a d ri n ki ng c u lture p e rvaded B ritish society
fro m the top to the bottom d u ri n g this e ra, a nd does not deny the B ritish so l d ier's l ove of
d ri n ki ng a nd ga m b l i ng. I n rega rds to the m o re serious charges, wit h o ut denyi ng i nsta nces of
m isco n d u ct o n the p a rt of the s o l d i e rs, Curtis states that America n w rite rs have p ro ba bly
exaggerated the guilt of the " re dcoats" ., a nd he concludes that on the whole the forces
" m a n ifested u n usua l respect for the persons a nd p ro pe rty of n o n co m bata nts" when
com pared with the a ctions of E ighte e nth Century a rm ies i n E u ro pe, a statement m o re
i nte resting w ritte n by a n America n h i storia n tha n a British o n e .
T h e t h i rd cha pte r of C u rt i s' b o o k is e ntitled "The Recru iting o f t h e Army", a n d i t
d iscusses t h e c h a l l e nges fac i ng the B ritish gove rnment i n te rm s of expa n d i ng t h e Army to
m eet the s u d d e n demand fo r m o re troops. Curtis expla i ns how p a r l i a m e nt enacted,
repealed a n d m o d ified legislatio n to try to a d d ress the problem, a nd d elves i nto how the
gove rnment both sea rched fo r vo l u nteers a n d so ught to im p ress m e n who were i m p riso ned
in j a i l . H e a lso expl a i n s how the men we re distri b uted a m o ngst old a nd new regi me nts. The
l egisl ation he cites states that in o rd e r to b e successful ly recruited, so l d iers had to fol low
certa i n guide l i n es . For exa m p l e, in Dece m be r 1775, recru its had to be at least 5 feet 6 a nd a
h a lf inches ta l l, but i n 1778 the law was mod ified to a l low the e ntry of shorte r men i nto the
a rm y, a s l o ng as they were at l e a st 5 feet 4 i nches ta l l . H owever, m o st of this cha pter
d iscusses the logistica l difficu lties of "beati ng o rders" that we re designed fo r "ra isi ng men
fo r ra n k" .
16
Curtis used m a ny sources, a n d he l i sts them a l l . B ritish p ri m a ry sources incl uded
p a pe rs from the gove rnment offices of the Ad m i ra lty, the Audit Office, the Co l o n i a l Office,
the Wa r Office, a n d the Treas u ry. Curtis i ncl uded reco rds from the A n n ua l Registe r, Army
Lists, J o u r n a l s of the H o use of Com m ons and the H o use of Lo rds, the " London Gazette" (a
govern m e nt peri o d i ca l conce ntrati ng o n m i l itary n ews}, a n d re ports of P a r l i a m e nta ry
Com m ittees. Lett e rs a n d orderly books written by gen e r a l s s uch as Co rnwa l l is, Cli nton,
H owe, and B u rgoyn e were a lso co nsu lted, as was a p l et ho ra of officer eye-witness a cco u nts
and l ette rs . Curtis describes Se rgea nt Roge r La mb's J o u r n a l and M e m o i r a s "a m ong the few
works that fu r n i s h a p i ct u re of the l ife of the B ritis h so l d i e r as d rawn by h i mself'' . 12 La mb' s
j o u r n a l i s o ne o f t h e m ost vita l sou rces for students of t h e a rm y's co m m o n so ldiers i n N o rth
A m e rica, a n d it is used time a nd aga i n by l ater h isto ria n s . O n e eye-witness account Curtis
cites who a lso is of p a rticu l a r i nterest to us is Cha rles Ste d m a n, whose 1794 p ubl ication i s
i n c l uded e a r l i e r i n t h i s h i storiogra phy. A s w e have s e e n , i n 1958, N ewmye r h a i led
Ste d m a n's pubiicatio n as o n e of the most res pected eye-witness accou nts, a lthough a lso as
we h ave seen, he h ypothesize d that Sted m a n p lagia rized from the A n n u a l Register. H e re, i n
1926, Curtis ca l ls Sted m a n's p ublication "disa p poi ntingly m eager i n its yield o f facts
res pecting B riti s h a rm y o rga n ization d u ring the wa r" . 13
Betwee n the world wa rs, the third major h i storia n of the B ritish Army i n North
A m e rica was Sta n l ey M cCro ry P a rge l lis. P a rge l l is l o o ke d m o stly at the British Army in the
1750s a nd 1760s, yea rs t hat saw B ritish soldiers p re p a r i n g fo r o r e ngaged i n co nflicts with
the F rench and the i r s pecific I nd i a n a l l ies. M ost of the m odern day h isto ri a ns who study the
B ritish Army cite P a rgel l i s, a n d d u ri ng my resea rch I have c o m e to refe r to h i m as "th e
1 2 Cu rtis,
13 Cu rtis,
B i b l i ogra p h y
B i b l iogra p h y
17
d a d dy" . Li ke Curtis, P a rge l li s is a n Ame rica n, a n d i n 1933, his work "Lo rd Lou d o u n i n N o rth
A m e rica" was p u bl ished for the fi rst ti m e. Lo u d o u n was the British Co m m a nd e r-i n-Chief of
the Arm e d Forces i n N o rth Ame rica from 1756- 1758, and l i ke a l l of the co m m a nders-i nc h ief, h e faced l ogistica l a nd p o l itica l p ro b le m s a d m i n isteri ng an a rmy 3,000 m i l es from
h o m e. H e was a l so fo rced to negotiate with co l o n i a l asse m b l ies a n d gove r n o rs who
i nte r p reted B ritish l aw a nd pol i cy i nconsiste ntly, a s i ndeed did diffe re nt B ritish
a d m i n ist ratio ns. M uch of the book looks at these p o l it ica l a n d logistica l frustratio ns.
H oweve r, P a rge l l is a l so s pends some time d iscussi ng the soldiers. Perh a ps u nfa i rly, he
b l a m es the a rmy's loss at M o n o nga hela, w h e re the previo u s com mander-i n-ch ief, Edwa rd
B ra d do c k was ki l led, on the fact that the tro o ps were u nd isci p l i ned, cla i m i ng that "over half
the men in t h e B ritish regi m ents were eith e r I ri s h d rafts, the worst sol d i e rs in the I rish a rmy,
or raw A m e ri ca n recru its". 14
P a rge l l i s ta kes a m ajor look at how the B ritish government sought to a d d ress the
p roble m of col o n i a l defen se, descri b i ng t h e d iffere nt proposed p l a ns. One of the major
resu lts of so m e of those plans was that p rovi ncial troo ps we re ra ised at d iffe re nt times,
d e pe n d i ng o n the d i rectio n of the po l itica l winds, a nd at oth e r times, m ostly B ritish troo ps
were p refe rred. P a rge l l is exa m i nes from a p u re ly a d m i ni strative positio n how the two
gro u ps co m pa red, a nd concl udes that B ritish troops did m o re a nd were paid a l ot less. H e
s hows t h a t a p rovi ncial private was p a i d ove r 1 0 "d" ( pence) a d a y a nd c o u l d k e e p i t a l l . A
B ritish p rivate was paid 8d, b ut cou l d o n l y keep 3 d o r 4d d u e to va rious "stoppages"
( ex p enses), both in E ng l a n d a n d America, a fact that Parge l l is says " i l l ustrates a d iverge n ce
b etwee n E ng l a n d a n d the co l o n i es i n t h e ideas of a m a n's socia l a nd eco n o m i c worth". 1 5
14
15
P a rge l l i s, p 3 6
P a rge l l i s, 1 0 1
18
Later h i sto ria n s bega n to study desertion wit h i n the Britis h a rmy, a nd with these fina ncia l
figures, it is not h a rd to see w hy desertion was rife .
P a rge l l is a lso c l e a rly states his bel ief that by the t i m e h e w rote this work, Ame rica n s
had d evel o ped a s e n s e of m i s u n d e rsta n d i ng of t h e past, a nd a n u nj u stly negative view of t h e
B ritish so l d i e ry . H e a rgues, that w h a t has deve l o ped h a s b e e n a " latent hostil ity o f t h e
ave rage Ame rica n towa rds t h e B ritish a rmy", a nd that sto ries ove r the yea rs of British
reg u l a rs have "exaggerated the evi l s a nd s u p p ressed the truth" He goes o n to o p i ne that
"echoes of that po p u l a r fee l i ng .... . sti l l sound fa i ntly thro ugh t h e yea rs and e m body
t h e m se lves in our text-books." 16
P a rge l l is used si m i l a r sou rces to Curtis. I n B rita i n, he co n s u lted papers from the
p u b l i c Record Office, the Ad m i ra l ty, the Navy Boa rd, the Wa r Office, the Treasury, the
p rivate pa pers of i m po rta nt i ndivi d u a l s (such as the Duke of C u m berl a n d ), a nd
co nte m po ra ry eye-\Nltness a ccou nts. Secon d a ry so u rces a re divided u p by s u b-topic such a s
ge nera l wo rks o n t h e Seven Years Wa r, the con stitutions of roya l colon i es, B ritish pol itics
a nd gove r n m e nt, the a rm y (fo r exa m p le, wo rks by S i r Joh n F o rtescue), a n d biograph ies.
So, a s we have seen, Curtis a n d P a rge l l is were the fi rst h i sto ria n s to begin to look at
some of the deta i l s co n ne cted to the regu l a r troops, the p rivates of the B ritish Army. Eve n
tho ugh these two p i o n ee rs sti l l focused m o re d i l ige ntly o n the ove ra l l a d m i n istration of the
a rmy, and l o o ked at the l ea d e rs in m o re d e pth, they did ded i cate portions of the i r wo rk, a n d
i n Curtis' case a w h o l e c h a pt e r, to the com mo n sol d i e rs, a nd t h ey beca me, especia l ly
P a rge l l is, vita l seconda ry s o u rces that greatly h e l ped late r ge n e rations of h isto ri a ns.
16
P a rge l l i s, p 125
19
Post Second World Wa r Study:
I fo u n d that d u ring the 1950s a nd 1 960s, America n h i storians came to two m ajor
co n c l u s i o n s a bo ut the B ritish so ldiers i n N o rth A m e rica i n the l ate Eighteenth Centu ry.
F i rstly, the s o l d i e rs were we l l-tra i ned, h ighly d i sc i p l i ned a n d b rave p rofession a l wa rri o rs
worthy of res p e ct. The i r seco nd co nclusion was t hat the B ritish sol d iers were ruthless a nd
i m mo ra l h oo l iga n s d escri bed by the noted m i l itary h isto ria n, J o h n Shy as "cast-offs" a n d
"crim i na l s" . 1 7 H i sto ria n s o f t h i s e ra c l a i m ed t h a t t h e i r "ba rba rity" w a s for two reaso ns; the
sold i e rs we re scra ped fro m the d regs of British society, and then de-h u m a n ized by t h e
a rc h a ic B ritish c l a ss syste m, w h i c h w a s itse l f re peated i n the m i l ita ry.
I n t h e w o n d e rfu l ly written a n d fascinating " R e b e l s a nd Redcoats" ( p u b l ished i n
195 7 ) co-a uthors G e o rge F . Scheer a n d H ug h F . R a n k i n refe re nce a n Ame rica n eye-witness,
G e ne ra l J o h n G l over. G love r descri bes the B ritish s o l d i e rs who fo ught at the Batt l e of
Sa ratoga ( 17 7 7 ) i n com pl i m e nta ry terms, o pi n i ng t hat they "were bo l d, i ntre pid, a nd fought
l i ke h e roes" . 18 The h i stori a ns a l so evoke sym pathy fo r the s o l d iers by i nc l u d i ng a fi rst-hand
acc o u nt by B ritish Lie utenant Anburey, who was give n the d uty of b u ryi ng the dead
( perha ps b e ca use of h is n a m e ? ? L a task he descri bed a s easy com p a red to bri nging i n the
wo u nded. "They had rem a i ned out all night. . . som e of them begged they m ight lay a nd
d i e . . . some u po n the least m ove ment we re p ut i n t h e m ost h orrid to rtu res" 19 I n J o h n Shy's
1965 "Towa rd Lexi ngto n : The Role of the B ritish Army in the Co m i ng of the Ame rica n
Revo l ution", t h e h i sto r i a n rem i nds readers that m a ny co l o n i a l s i n p re-revo l utionary days
o utwa rd ly p ra ised t h e regu l a r t roops of the B ritish a rm y, a n d i ncl udes an acco u nt of a
17 Shy, p363
18 Schee r an d
19 Schee r an d
Ran k in, p 2 7 5
Ran k in, p277
20
B o sto n preac h e r ca l led Thom a s B a l c h d escri b i ng the sol d i e rs i n 1763 a s "ski lfu l a nd
b rave ... (for) cru s h i ng the pa pist e n e my (the French}" 20
H owever, the h i stori a n s of t h is t i m e period pai nted the s o l d i e rs a s m o re ba rba ric
a n d base tha n h e roic and hono u ra b le, a nd there a re m a ny exa m p l es give n of p l u nder a n d
b a rba rity. Scheer a nd Ra n ki n reco rd the b ruta l ity o f British troops o n the i r retreat fro m
Co n co rd, their c ri m i na l behavio u r d u ri ng t h e Ame rica n siege o f Bosto n, a nd the p l u ndering
of both re b e l a nd l oya l i st private p ro perty i n New J e rsey, South Ca ro l i na, a nd North
Ca ro l i na . The h i sto ria ns a lso a rgue that p l underi ng was cou nter-pro d u ctive to m i l ita ry
strategy, as i n New J e rsey these a ct i o n s turned loya l ists agai nst the B ritish, a nd i n So uth
Ca ro l i na rebels received va l u a b l e a d d itiona l time to fortify Cha rlesto n beca use the British
s o l d i e rs {/co u l d n ot pass u p the m o n ey, jewel ry, and si lve r plate of the p l a ntatio n ho uses" . 2 1
P a u l H . S m ith agrees with Sch e e r a n d Ra n ki n i n {/Loya l ists a n d Redcoats", h i s study of the
B ritish Army and their l oya list co m patriots. Acco rd i ng to Sm ith, the B ritish fo rces had
"a l i en ated tho usa nds of pote ntia l ly l oya l s u bj ects" 22
In {/Towa rd Lexi ngto n" J o h n Shy conce ntrates on the B ritis h Army of the 1760s a n d
e a rly 1770s. H e d iscusses t h e b e haviour of the tro o ps d u ri ng the i r l ong soj o u rn i n Bosto n
u nd e r G e n e ra l G age befo re the Revo l utio n a ry Wa r bega n i n the Spring of 1775 . He
h igh l ights i nc i d e nts of d r u n ke n ness, fighti ng, petty theft, p rostitution, a nd eve n the
o rga n izatio n of h o rse-racing on Bosto n co m mon, a l l behaviou rs that the p u rita n ica l leaders
of M a ssach usetts fo und a bhorrent. Acco rd i ng to Shy, re l igio us Bosto n reside nts eve n fe lt
s orry for the s p i ritua l ba rre n ness a n d ba n kr u ptcy of the troops. He a lso a rgues that i n
1 766, recru ite rs i n B rita i n were u n s u ccessfu l i n o bta i n i ng sound n ew m e n, a nd were fo rced
20 S h y, 147
2 1 Schee r and
22 S m it h, p42
R an kin, p393
21
i nto se nd i ng to the co l o n ies o n l y "co nvicts a n d d regs" . H i storia n J a mes Ki rby M a rtin
concu rred, c l a i m i ng that "ne'er-do-we l ls, the l uckless, and the poore r so rt i n ge neral fi l l ed
the ra n ks" . 2 3 Shy does h owever attem pt to exp l a i n why the tro o ps did u n d o u bted ly
sometimes be have i n this fas h i o n , layi ng a la rge pa rt of t h e b l a m e at the B ritish class system
a nd the h i e ra rchy of t h e a rmy. He a rgues that the i ndivi d u a l s o l d i e r "was treated i n the
Eightee nth Centu ry l ittl e bette r than an a ni m a l, a nd ( h e ) b e haved l i ke one whenever he
d a red" . 24 H e devel o ps this the m e of the u n ha ppiness of t h e B ritish tro o ps by cla i m i ng that
i n the 1760s, when B ritish regi m e nts retu rned home at the end of the i r tou rs of d uty, a
growing n u m be r of sol d i e rs c hose to stay i n the col o n ie s i n stea d .
These h i stori a n s u s e d si m i l a r so urces t o t h e h i sto ria ns o f t h e p revious ge neratio n .
Shy's "core o f the b o o k is the c o l l ecti o n o f Thomas G age ( t h e B ritish com m a nder-i n-chief)
pa pers", a nd othe r p ri m a ry sou rces, l i ke ea rlier works, a re l ette rs between members of the
u p p e r echelons of the B ritish h i e ra rchy. Secondary s o u rces a re few, b ut Shy does mention
"the d addy", P a rgel l is, whose " Lo rd Loudoun i n Nort h Ame ri ca h e ca l l s "a thorough piece of
resea rch" and "i m p ressive" . Scheer and Rankin a d m it in t h e i r i ntrod uctio n that they did n ot
attem pt to fi nd new s o u rces, a nd asserted that they felt that the known so u rces we re
rel i a b l e a n d i m p o rta nt e no u g h . They rel i e d on pri m a ry s o u rces such as news pa pers, l etters,
a n d d o cu m e nts, a n d eye-witn ess accou nts written by the great Ame rica ns of the e ra such a s
Fra n kl i n a n d Was h i ngto n . T h e y a lso u s e d periodica l s fro m both ea rly a n d latter-day
h i storica l societie s . Pa u l H . S m ith too used many of the sa m e sou rces such a s British
govern ment reco rds from diffe re nt departme nts (fo r exa m p l e, the colo n i a l office a nd the
23
M a rt in, p 120
24
S hy, p277
22
war office), m a ny l ette rs aga i n fro m the u p pe r eche l o ns of B ritish m i l ita ry a n d po l itica l l ife,
contem po ra ry a ccou nts, a nd of co u rse m a ny seco n d a ry wo rks.
F o r the m ost p a rt d u ri ng this ti m e p e riod, it a p pe a rs that America n h isto r i a ns
sought to criticize the B ritish so l d iers of the co l o n i a l a nd revo l utio n a ry e ras, a nd d raw
atte nti o n to the i r m o re n egative behaviou rs. By d o i ng so, they tried to d i s p l ay the se nse of
i nj ustice fe lt by re b e l ( a n d i ncreasi ngly, l oya l ist) co l o n ists and trum pet the victo ries agai nst
B ritis h tyra n ny, tyra n ny that was i m posed o n t h e co lon ists by the to p of British society as
we l l a s the botto m. Of course it is o n ly nat u ra l that Am e ricans ( i ncl u d i ng Ame rica n
h isto ria ns ) s h o u l d b e proud of the b rave a nd l a u d a b l e achieveme nts of the i r a ncesto rs, the
gen e rati o n that l ived, fo ught, a n d d ied t h ro ugh this e ra. Perha ps in these early post-Second
World Wa r days, with the America n ( a n d Russi a n ) led A l l ied victory aga i nst Fa scist tyra n ny
sti l l ve ry m uch fres h i n their m i nds, whe n A m e ri ca n h isto ria ns looked at the so u rces
ava i l a b l e t o them, they saw Ame rica n exce pti o n a l ism and perseve ra nce aga i nst a cru e l a nd
ra b i d o ld -wo rld m o n ster d r u n k with rum a nd crazy with a n o bsess i o n for i m peria l
d o m i nation. Alt h o ugh these h i storians concede that the B ritish sol d i e rs a re both we l l­
tra i n e d a n d b rave u nd e r fi re, they pa int t h e m a s l ittl e better than d u ped slaves whose
natu ra l d i s positio n a nd wretched place i n society m e a nt that they were machi ne-l i ke pawns
of an E ightee nth Ce ntury axis of evi l . H oweve r, in h i s own wo rds, h isto rian J o h n Shy reve a l s
the fol ly of j u m p i ng t o co nclusions. "M u c h l ess", Shy states, "ca n b e l e a r n e d a bout t h e ra n k
a nd fi l e t h a n a bo u t office rs. Records o f e n l isted m e n were prim itive a t t h e regi m enta l l evel,
a nd n o n e a t a l l we re m a i nta i ned at the Wa r Office", and that "only occasio n a l l y is there a
g l i m pse of a s o l d i e r h i mself i n a n officer's cha n ce rem a rk, a record of a cou rt- m a rtia l , or a
23
l i st of disch a rged m e n" . 2 5 If h isto ri a n s re ly o n the occasional office r, with a l l of his pote nti a l
b i a ses, t o record the sto ry of t h e B ritish sold ier, readers s h o u l d a pp roach with cautio n .
T h e Vietnam Comparison :
D u ri ng the Ame rica n c o nfl i ct i n Vietn a m , comm e ntators b ega n to com pare G reat
B rita i n's experie nce d u ring the A m e rica n Wa r of I ndepende nce with the experience of the
U n ited States in Vietna m . Altho ugh there a re some major d iffe re n ce s, so m e of the
c o m parisons a re i ndeed convi n c i ng. For i n sta n ce, the bette r-tra i n e d B ritish tro o ps in N o rth
A m e rica co u l d not defeat a m o re i nexperie nced and hasti ly e sta b l i s h e d col l ecti o n of fighters
w h o ofte n used the tactics of g u e ri l la wa rfa re a nd who be nefitted from defe n d i ng their
b e loved territo ry, fa m i l ies a nd com m u n ities. This o utcom e was a lso expe rien ced by the U .S.
m i l itary in Vietna m . Additi o n a l l y, on the i r return home, both a rm ie s we re rece ived by a
p u b l ic that was less than e nt h u siastic a bo ut their toi l s a n d the i r highest of sacrifices.
H istoria n J a m es W. Pohl state d that in "th e e a r l i e r struggle, a s p l it P a r l ia m e nt and a d ivided
citize n ry re nt the B ritish state, a s a to rn Co ngress a nd cl eaved peo p l e rent the U n ited
States" . Add ressing troo p m a ltreatme nt of the populace, he a lso w rote that " B ritish
atrocities u po n the civi l p o p u l a ce in Staten I s l a n d a nd N ew J e rsey rem i nd one of the Song
M y a nd My La i massacres" . A n oth e r com pa rison is that the com mo n foot-so l d ie rs on the
gro u nd had to e n d u re i ncoh e re nt a nd co nfused pol i cy m a ki ng, contro l led by men re m oved
from the rea l ities of a rmy l ife by thousands of m i les.
In h i s a rticle e ntitled " E n d i ng the Wa r a nd Wi n n i ng the Peace: The British i n Ameri ca
a nd the Am e rica ns", p u b l ished i n 1987, historian N e i l L. Yo rk com pa re s the confused a n d
i l logica l decisio n-m a k i ng of t h e B ritish gove r n m e nt d u ri ng the wa r fo r America n
25
S hy, p358-9
24
I nde pende n ce with that of the Ame rica n gove r n m e nt i n rega rds to the Vietnam Wa r,
e specia l ly u n d e r t h e l e a d e rs h i p of P resident Richard N ixo n . For exa m p le, o n e of the Hessia n
com m a nders se rvi n g i n the B ritish Army named Ca pta i n J o h a n n Ewa l d, said that he had
" noth i ng but disda i n fo r the way the B ritish ha n d l e d the e nt i re contest", a nd that the
{/B ritish had no rea l plan fo r victo ry, no rea l strategy" . 2 6 Critics of the Vietna m Wa r have
echoed this o p i n i o n in re lation to Ame rica n pla n n i ng in Vietna m . H oweve r, York a lso
criticizes the ge n e ra l p u b l i c o n the home fro nt d u ri ng t h e two co nfl icts. H e wrote that by
"supporti ng a w a r e ffo rt that s putte red a l o ng fo r e ight yea rs, the B ritish had i ndeed suffe red
fro m se lf-de l us i o n . They l i ke Am e rica n s of a late r ge n e rati o n, a lso o pened the door fo r
gove r n m e nta l a buse ... Yet if B ritons had been deceived by t h e i r leaders, they had to ass u m e
p a rt o f the gui lt. The i r d rea m s o f nati o n a l greatness a n d fea rs o f nation a l dec l i n e m a d e t h e
dece ption poss i b l e . " 2 7
M a ny oth e r h i sto ria ns a n d com mentato rs h ave w ritten a rticles com pa ri ng the
B ritish experience in N o rth A m e rica with the U n ited States' experie nce i n Viet na m .
H oweve r, m o st of t h ese a rticles conce ntrate greatly o n the p o l itica l fol ly of the two
governments. To a m uc h lesser exte nt they com pa re t h e experien ce of the B ritish s o l d i e rs
with that of the A m e rican so l d i e rs i n Vietna m . H isto ri a n s a rgue that l i ke American s o l d i e rs
i n Vietna m, B ritis h s o l d i e rs had to co nte nd with gue ri l l a tactics i n N o rth Ame rica tha t they
were com pletely u n a ccusto med to . H oweve r, i n 1978 a revision ist a rticle written by Pete r E .
Russe l l w a s p u b l i s h e d. I n it, h e a rgued that the B ritish A r m y had i n deed ga ined expe rien ce
with gueri l l a wa rfa re d u ri ng e a r l i e r ca m pa igns o n the E u ro pe a n conti n e nt. British
com ma nders 11h a d a m pl e o p po rt u n ities to o bse rve, com bat, and occasiona l ly to cond u ct
26 York,
2 7 York,
p466
p466
25
gue ri l l a ta ctics" 28 i n the 1740s, i n the B a l ka ns, F l a n d e rs a nd Scotla nd, a nd t hey had the
a bi l ity to a pply what they had lea rned to North Ame rica wel l befo re the A m e rica n Wa r of
I nd e p e n d en c e . In Brita i n, l iteratu re h a d been p u b l ished on gueri l l a tactic s . For exa m p l e, a
life of the fa m o u s Austri a n leader a nd g u e ri l la leader Ba ro n Fra n z vo n d e r Tre nck was
p u b l ished in E ng l a n d in 1747, a nd a p u b l i catio n o n F rench i rreg u l a r wa rfa re ca m e out in
175 2 . Accordi ng to Russe l l, "British officers were fa m i lia r with this l ite ratu re", 29 a nd
a lt h ough R ussel l is a rguing that this knowl edge of gueri l la tactics benefite d t ro o ps e ngaged
in the F re nch a nd I ndia n Wa r, it is rea s o n a b l e to concl ude that the a rmy as a u n it had even
m o re time to stu dy gueri l l a wa rfa re by the time the Wa r of American I nd e p e n d e nce
e r u pt e d .
H oweve r, at the o utbreak of w a r i n 1775, there were as histo ria n R i c h a rd M .
Ketc h u m o bserves, "th oughtfu l Englis h m e n" who d o u bted if the America n p e o p l e o r thei r
a rm y co u l d eve r be d efeated, a nd h e records that t h e Whig pol itician J o h n Wi l kes ta u nted
the P ri m e M i n iste r Lord North by warni n g him of Am e rica n gueri l las waiting fo r h im in the
b u s h e s if he ever d a red to travel to the America n col onies "eve n if he rod e o ut at the head
of the e nt i re E ng l i s h cava l ry" 30 I m po rtantly, Ketc h u m states that a s " l o ng as t h e British were
a b l e to s p l it u p their fo rces a n d fa n out ove r the co u ntryside i n rel ative ly s m a l l u nits, they
were fa irly s uccessfu l i n p utti ng down t h e i rregu l a rs' activities a n d cutting off their s u p p l ies,
b ut t h e m o me nt they had to co nce ntrate aga i n on the Continenta l s, gueri l la wa rfa re b u rst
o ut . . o n the i r fla n k a nd rea r" 31
28
29
3°
31
R u sse l l, p630
R u sse l l, p 64 1
Ketch u m, p2 ( pa ge n u m be rs n o t a l igned with page n u m be rs of t he o rigin a l a rt i c le ).
Ketch u m, p 3
26
So, as we have see n there h ave been a lot of com pa riso n s m a d e betwee n the
i m p l e me ntation of po l i cy, b ut not a great deal of s pecifics writte n a bo ut the whether the
s o l d i e rs of the two co nfl i cts ca n be com pa re d . G e n e ra l exce ptio n s i nc l u d e the fact that both
sets of sol d i e rs had to e nd u re i n a n e p o l itica l leadership, that t h ey were fight i ng re latively
u n p o p u l a r wa rs, that they s o m etimes com m itted atrocities, and that they suffe red at the
h a n d s of the u nconve ntion a l tactics used by their enemies. The study of m o re s pecific
co m pa riso n s wo u l d not be u n we lcome, es peci a l ly stud ies of the eth n i c m a ke-up of the
sold i e rs . For exa m ple, were Africa n-Ame rica n s as heavily rep rese nted in the Ame rica n Army
in Viet n a m as I rish and Scott i s h tro o ps i n the a rmy of King G e o rge ?
The Detai led Study of t h e Soldier:
I n the last thi rty yea rs o r so, there has bee n a movement a m o ngst a sma l l gro u p of
histo ria ns l i ke Sylvia R. F rey, F re d Anderson, Ste phen Co nway, Richa rd H o l m es a nd Step h e n
B r u m we l l t o exp l o re i n a s m uc h d e pth as poss i b l e the eve ry-day life of the common B ritish
s o l d i e r. In his 1999 a rticle e ntitled "The B ritish Arm ed Fo rces in the A m e rica n Revo l utio n a ry
Wa r: P u b l icatio ns, 1875-1998", David Syrett co ncl uded that the " h isto riogra p hy of the
B ritish fo rce s d u ri ng the Ame rica n Revo l utiona ry War is in m a ny respects rather tra d iti o n a l
i n co nte nt. Ve ry l ittl e i ntere st h a s been s h o w n i n the so-ca l le d new h istory, race, gen d e r
a n d class. Com p a red w i t h oth e r co nfl icts, such a s the Ame ri c a n Civil Wa r, the two Wo rld
Wa rs, or the America n side in t h e Ame rica n Revo l utionary Wa r, there have been
com pa ratively few historica l stud ies of the forces of the C rown" . 3 2 H owever, the h isto ria ns
at the begi n n i ng of this pa rag ra p h a re schol a rs who have i nd ee d bee n passionate a bo ut
studyi n g to the maxi m u m extent possi bl e the eve ry-day l ife of t h e British sol d i e rs . O n e of
3 2 Syrett,
p7
27
the m ost i m p o rta n t of those studies is histo ria n Sylvia R. F rey's book e ntitled "The B ritish
So l d i e r i n Am e ri ca : A Socia l H i story of M i l ita ry Life in the Revo l utio n a ry Pe riod", p u b l ished in
1981.
I n F rey's i ntro d u ction, she exp l a i ns that B ritish a nd Ame rica n h istorians h ave written
exte nsively o n t h e o rga n izatio n a n d a d m i nistratio n of the a rmy, o n its ca m paigns a n d
tactics, a nd o n its leaders. "What is co nspicuously m issi ng" s h e rea sons, " i s a scho l a rly
treatme nt of the com m o n s o l d i e r".33 She l a m e nts t hat the Wa r Office did not kee p reco rds
on the ra n k a nd fi l e d u ri ng the E ightee nth Cent u ry, a nd that "what we know a bo ut t h e
com m o n so l d i e r is i nsign ifica nt a n d probably i ncorre ct" /4 acknowledging t h a t t h e
ste reotypes of t h e B ritish so l d i e rs a re t h a t of " begga rs", "vagra nts", a n d "cri m i n a l s" . S h e
exp l a i n s t h a t t h i s is part ia l ly u ndersta ndable d u e to her assertion that there a re s i m p l y not
e n o ugh docu m e nts, m e m o i rs or j o u rnals from the common so l d i e rs of this age . H oweve r,
F rey b e l ieves that it is poss i b l e to asce rta in i nsights i nto the l ives of the so l d iers by studyi ng
" h i m" in an o rga n i zatio n a l setting, i . e . by stu dying t h e i n stituti o n of the B ritish a rmy. S h e
a l so expl a i ns that some perti n e nt documents d o exi st, pri nci pa l ly " recruiti ng returns a nd
regi m e nta l reco rds" . 3 5
Frey exp l a i ns t h e two systems of a rmy rec r u itment, vol u ntee rism a nd i m press m e nt.
She a rgues t hat B ritish s o l d i e rs we re a d ive rse b u n c h , a nd that the vol u nteers d i d so "fo r a
va riety of reaso n s, the m o st com mo n which was e c o n o m ic" . 36 She i m mediately attacks the
stereotype of t h e i m p ressed soldier from Brita i n's gaols, a nd c l a i m s that the maj ority of the
so l d i e rs were n ot crim i n a l s o r "the scum of society" . She i nte l l igently a rgues that cha nging
33 F rey,
34 F rey,
35
36
p xi
p xi
F rey, p9
F rey, p3
28
e c o n o m ic co n d itions i n B rita i n m e a nt that casua l l a bo rers a nd eve n s ki l l ed l a b o re rs fou n d
t h e m selves o ut of wo rk, with a rmy l ife a m o re attractive o ption fo r this gro u p than i t m ight
have o nce been, a n d she c l a i m s that the a rmy was a heteroge neous com positio n .
From Wa r Office records o n s p ecific regi m ents, Frey is a b l e t o d e d u ce i nteresti ng
p ieces of i nfo rmati o n a bo ut the so l d i e rs . In the regi m e nts exa m i ned, the ave rage British
i nfa ntryma n was t h i rty yea rs of age, a nd h e had bee n in the a rmy since h e was a bo ut
twenty. The ave rage h eight of the i n fa ntry m a n i n these specific regi m ents was five feet
s eve n in 1782, a n d in the m o re e l ite u n it, the D ragoons, was five feet n i n e in 177 5 . I n
C h a pte r Four, e ntitled "Cri mes a nd Co u rts", Frey exp l a i ns that previous h i sto rians have
re l i e d heavi ly o n the reco rds of the a rm y' s J udge Advocate G e neral, records that
d o c u m e nted the a rmy's court p ro ce e d i ngs. These cou rt proceedi ngs natura l ly b rought us
i nsta nces of so l d i e r m isco nd uct, w h i c h has "tended to weight the ba l a n ce co nspicuo usly on
the side of cri m i na l ity" 3 7
F rey exa m i nes the d i et of t h e so l d i e rs of the British a rmy. She c l a i m s that " i n a l l
p ro ba b i l ity", t h e so l d i e rs' diet i m proved w h e n they e ntered the a rmy. D u ri ng t h e actua l
ca m pa igns, she n otes how B ritish tro o ps p l u ndered a n d foraged t h e A m e rica n countryside
in o rd e r to s u rvive. So l d i e rs fel t as if they had been a ba ndoned by the B ritish people,
beca use as o n e officer wrote i n a lette r to his fa m i ly, "What i n God's n a m e a re you a l l a bo ut
i n E ngla n d ? H ave you fo rgot us?- o r a re yo u fasci nated?- fo r we have n ot had a vessel i n
t h re e m o nths with a ny sort o f s u p p l ie s a nd therefore o u r miseries a re become m a nifo l d " . 38
The s h i p p i ng of food from E ngl a nd was a lso o n e fra ught with da nger fo r t h e so l d iers . Food,
s o m etimes pac kaged ca re l ess ly, a rrive d co nta m i nated and m o u l dy, sometimes with l ive
37 F rey,
38 F rey,
p71
p33
29
m a ggots to boot. D i s e a se a nd feve r were a lso seve re p ro bl e m s for the B ritish so ldier. It is
we l l known that so l d i e rs were m o re l i kely to d i e of d isease a nd feve r than from wa r wo unds.
O n e of the a rmy doctors, Dr. Brocklesby put this figu re a t e ight times as m uch.
Next Frey t u r n s to the tra i n i ng of troo ps. She a rgues that B ritish m i l ita ry l ife was fu l l
o f tra i n i ng a nd regu lati o n . She c l a i m s that i ngen u ity was disco u raged, a nd u n iform
o bedie nce to a utho rity a nd com p l ia nce were drum med i nto the com m o n so l d iers. She
expl a i n s that d u r i ng ca m pa igns they were often sta rvi n g a n d exhausted, a nd she cites
writi ngs fro m Se rge a nt Roge r La m b's as evidence of this. A lso, accord i ng to Frey, l ove of a
s o l d i e r's regi ment a n d com m itment to its re putatio n a n d h i story was o ne of the greatest of
m otivators to the co m mo n s o l d i e r.
O n e of F rey's p ri m a ry a rgu m e nts is that eve n i n t h e l ate E ighte e nth Ce ntu ry, the
a rmy offered its tro o ps a prim itive col lection of services and benefits; pay, food, shelter,
rned ica l ca re, the o p p o rt u n ity of a sma l l pension, a n d ca m a raderie a nd frate rn ity. H oweve r,
s h e a lso exp l a i n s t h e negative com po ne nts of a rmy l ife, o f which there were m a ny. "Army
l ife wa s a series of d e p rivations and frustrations. It was d a nge ro us a nd unco mfo rta b l e ." 39
As J a m es Ki r by M a rt i n p o i nted o ut i n his review of F rey's wo rk, s h e "co rrectly states that the
s o l d i e ry, howeve r l ow l y its o rigi ns, d id d eve l o p a se nse of d uty, despite the cruel system
that co ntro l led i nd i vi d u a l l ives" . 40
Three yea rs aft e r the p u b l ication of Sylvia Frey's b o o k, h i storian Fred Anderson
p u b l ished "The P e o p l e' s Army" . Although it is a look at the co l o n i a l troops who fought for
the King d u ri ng t h e Fre n c h a nd I nd i a n Wa r, it is a wo rk s i m i l a r i n p u rpose a nd a m bition to
F rey's book. Cha pter Fou r exa m i nes the i nteractio n s betwee n the p rovi ncial a nd regu l a r
39
40
Frey, p 13 6
M a rtin, p 169: Revie w o f F rey
30
troo ps, a nd is e ntitled "There I s No Spare of the W h i p" . I n his preface, Anderson exp l a i n s
that h e h a s "avo i d ed the classica l a p p roaches o f m i l ita ry histo ria ns . ! have foc used o n t h e
.
.
m u nd a ne a s p ects of so l d ie r i ng - d a i ly l ife, d isci p l i ne, co m m o n attitudes to wa r, a n d so o n" 4 \
words that co u l d have been writte n by the h a nd of F rey. Eve n tho ugh the m a i n part of his
book discusses the p rovi ncia l troo ps, the so u rces that And e rson co nsu lts p a i nt a fasci nati ng
and i ns ightfu l pict u re of the reg u l a r B ritish s o l d i e rs a s descri bed by thei r p rovi ncial co usins.
O n t h e one h a nd, p rovi nci a l s greatly a d m i re d the redcoats, "especia l ly the i r co u rage u nder
fi re, t he i r a b i l ity to rem a i n hea lthy o n ca m pa ign, a nd the i r greate r d i s positi o n to o rd e r l i n ess
a n d tea m wo rk" . 42 H owever, on the oth e r h a nd, they we re shocked by m a ny of their
behavi o u rs, s ee m i ngly most of a l l, the i r u n wi l l i ngness to respect the Sabbath, a nd their
ta ki n g of t h e Lord's name i n va i n . One dia rist, Ca l e b Rea, saw i n the B riti s h d efeat by the
Fre n c h a t Fort Tico nderoga, d ivine i nte rve nti o n aga i n st the s i ns of the so l d i e rs i n the British
Army.
In h i s a rticle {{/The G reat M ischief Co m p l a i n' d Of' : Reflections o n the M isco n d u ct of
Britis h S o l d i e rs in the Revo l utio nary Wa r", p u b l ished in 1990, histo ria n Ste p h e n Conway reexa m i n e s the traditio n a l theme of the atrocities a nd cri m es comm itted by s o m e British
sold i e rs d u ri ng the cam paigns of North A m e rica . Co nway eva l uates rem a rks m ade by some
of the officers who c l a i m ed that the com m o n tro o ps were recruited from the "d regs of
m a n kind", by cou nte r-a rg u i ng that most so l d i e rs who were i ndeed ex-co nvicts were in fact
sent by t h e m i l ita ry to tro pical a reas such as the West I ndies where the rate of death fro m
d isease was the h ighest a m o ng a ny of B rita i n's geographical spheres of i ntere st . Co nway,
echoi ng F rey, a l so a rgues that of the troop s "a s u rprisingly la rge p roportio n h a d bee n
4 1 An d erso n ,
42 A n d erso n ,
p viii
p116
31
a rtisa ns o r c raftsmen". 43 F ro m this poi nt, Conway next asse rts that i n p re-Lexi ngton days,
m a ny Briti s h sol d i e rs actua l ly s o ught a n d fo u n d work amongst the c o l o n i a l civi l ia n
p o p u lation, lead i ng to te n s i o n i n the l a b o u r m a rket betwee n B ritish so l d i e rs a n d the native
work fo rce . "Th is mea nt that that so l d i e rs we re sometimes as m uc h si n ned aga i nst a s
s i n n i ng" . 44
Te nsions o bviously a ug m e nted ra p i d ly d u ri ng wa r-t i m e too . To cou nte r the charges
of B ritish ba rba rity, Co nway re-te l l s the story of the America n s o l d i e rs who "poiso n e d their
m us ket ba l ls to i nc rease t h e agon ies of British casua lties" 45 F rey a ls o cites one B ritish
s o l d i e r, who recorded that t h e " provi ncia ls charged the i r m uskets w ith old n a i l s a nd a ngu l a r
p i eces o f i ro n", purposefu l ly n ot ki l l i ng the B ritish so ldiers, b ut bayo neting t h e m i n the l egs,
"to l eave them as b u rdens o n u s, to exha ust o u r p rovisions a nd to e ngage o u r attention as
we l l as to i ntim idate the rest of o u r soldiery" 46 Another historia n, R egi n a l d H a rgreaves, i n
a n e a r l i e r work p u b l ished i n 1 9 68, e ntitled "The B loodybacks" goe s t o great pa i n s t o defe nd
the B riti s h sol d i e rs . H e cites the b rave ry of British troops at Sa ratoga a nd e lsewhere, the
m agna n i m ity of Ca pta i n Patrick Fe rguson who had George Was h i n gto n is h i s sights b ut who
chose chiva l ric l e n ie ncy, Bosto n ro pe-ma ke rs i n itiati ng brawls with B ritish gua rds, America n
s o l d i e rs shooting a n d ki l l i ng B ritish so l d i e rs afte r a mock surre n d e r after the British had rew o n Fort Ticonderoga, prov i n c i a l s com m itt i ng cri m es in the " b l a c k m a r ket" red coats of
B ritish deserters a n d British s o l d i e rs t u r n i ng o ut en masse to assist citizens in exti ngu ishing
t h e fi res of Bosto n i n 1769 and of N ew Yo rk i n 1776. Fi n a l l y h e a ls o c h a rges that Bosto n i a n s
were respon s i b l e fo r t h e " Bo ston M a ssacre " . Ca l led " Bioodybac ks" by p rovincia l s d u e t o t h e
43 Co nway, p375
44 Co nway, p376
45 Co nway, p378
46 Frey, p47
32
resu lts of floggi ng fo r d iscip l i n e reasons, the British s o l d i e r h a s se l d o m e nco u ntered a m o re
u ndersta n d i ng h i sto ria n .
Of today's s peci a l i sts, pe rha ps the most i nfl u e ntia l h i storians a re Ste phen B r u mwe l l
a n d Richa rd H o l m es . I f I ca l l Parge l l is "the daddy", I refe r t o these modern British histo ria ns
as "the you n g c ha l l e ngers" . I n B r u mwel l's "Redcoats", p u b l ished i n 2002, he looks at the
B ritis h s o l d i e rs who fo ught d u ring the F rench a nd I nd i a n Wa r ( 1755-1763), a nd cha l l e nges
the o l d stereotypes of the men who made up the B ritish Army. This is a theme close to the
hea rt of H o l mes too, a lthough in " Redcoat: The British Sol d i e r In the Age of Horse a n d
M us ket", p u b l is h e d i n 2001, H o l lywood is a lso critic i ze d fo r its lazy genera l iz i ng. I n h i s
i ntrod ucti o n h e writes that H o l lywood h a s give n t h e British s o l d i e r a ro l e that is
"de p ressingly rem i n i scent of that assigned to the G e rm a n a rm y after the Second Wo rld War.
B ruta l o r l u m pi s h s o l d i e rs a re led by n i ncom poo ps or sad i sts ... Watch Rob Roy/ Last of the
Mohicans o r, m o st rece ntly, The Patriot, a nd you w i l l wo n d e r how this a rmy of th ugs a n d
i ncom pete n ts m a n aged t o fight its way across fo u r contin e nts a n d sec u re t h e greatest
e m pi re the world h a s ever see n" . 47 Although t h i s q u ote co u l d be viewed as rathe r j i ngo istic,
his p o i nt is we l l ta ke n . Brumwe l l a rgues that t h i s "hackneyed a n d hostile overview of the
B ritish Army has e nj oyed a p a rticu l a r reso n a nce i n N o rth A m erica, for reasons which a re not
d ifficult to fatho m : at a 'po p u l a r' level it fits sn ugly with the comfo rting knowl edge t hat such
' professio n a l' B ritish redcoats we re subsequently worsted by 'a m ate u r' Ame rica n
patriots" . 48 H oweve r, with a dedication to the truth, B ru m we l l a d m its that these
ste reotypes have e n d u red beca use they have usua l ly conta i ned a kernel of truth a b o ut
them, but h e co rrectly asserts that the picture is o n e of com pl exity a n d diversity . Even i n
47 H o l m es, pxv
48 Bru mw e l l , p3
33
E ng l a nd, sta n d i ng a rm ies we re viewed with suspicion, a n d we re see n as i nfri nge m e nt to
E ng l ish l i be rties. As B rumwe l l reco rds, {{d istrust of the soldier we nt to the ve ry core of the
nati o n a l c h a racter" . 49
B r u m we l l a n d H o l mes a re p i o n e e rs i n their own right i n the a rea of s o u rces they
have searched fo r a nd consu lte d . B r u m we l l notes that m a ny histo ria n s have m o u rned the
a bs ence of p r i m a ry documents that cou l d h ave tol d the story of the com m o n redcoats from
t he i r own pe rspective . He c l a i m s that {{th e voices of both officers a nd oth e r ra n ks who
fo ught . . . reso nate fro m the pages of a s u rprising n u m be r of memoirs" . H e a lso states that
{{l ette rs from private sol d i e rs a n d N COs occasi o na l ly su rface a m ongst the p a pers
a cc u m u l ated by s e n i o r officials; however the b u l k of such co l lections com p rise
corres p o n d e nce betwee n fe l low office rs" . 50 H o l mes too consu lts the l ette rs of the l owly
p rivates of the British a rmy, but h e re h e is at a n adva ntage, beca use i n his book he n ot o n ly
d is cusses t h e red co ats who served i n N o rth Ame rica at the e n d of t h e E ighteenth Ce ntury,
but a lso those who se rved in E u ro pe a n d I nd ia d u ri ng the fi rst h a lf of t h e N i n eteenth, when
l ite racy rates a m o ngst the ra n k a nd fi l e were sl ightly h igher. In his i ntrod u ctio n H o l mes l ists
m a ny of these p rivates . H owever, m ost of them served i n the l ater ca m pa igns. On l y a few,
l i ke J o h n P e e b l es a n d Se rge a nt Roge r La m b sent their m issives home from t h e North
A m e rica n ca m p a igns.
H o l mes d i sc u sses the diversity of the B ritish a rmy i n North A m e rica . There were the
G e r m a n m e rce n a ries, but there was a l so a m a ssive B ritish ( rather tha n English) core . It had
n ot bee n l o n g s i nce the J acobite re b e l l io n had bee n q ua shed at last i n Scot l a nd, a nd
H ig h l a n d regi m e nts were fo unded with i n the struct u re of the B ritish a rmy. H o l mes is not
49
50
Bru mw e l l , p55
Bru mw e l l , p9
34
the fi rst h i sto ria n to s how i nte rest i n the d iversity of the troo ps, b ut h i s assertion that the
a rmy was very Britis h i n n at u re a s o p posed to E nglish i s i nte resti ng. H e shows that "at the
time of the America n Wa r of I nd e pe ndence, 60 per cent of its ra n k and fi l e were English, 24
per cent we re Scottish a n d 16 per cent l rish." 5 1 H e is a lso i nterested i n the wo men of the
B ritis h a rmy. Aga i n, h e i s n ot the fi rst h i sto ria n to reco rd the fact that the B ritish a rmy ofte n
ca m pa igned with a n u m b e r of wom e n a n d childre n . H owever, we learn that i n the B ritish
a rm y i n ge n e ra l d u ri ng t h i s ti m e, "most se rgea nts a nd a ro u n d seve n per cent of the ra n k a nd
fi l e were perm itted to m a rry" . We a l so l e a rn that " i n 1758, te n wom e n per com pa ny were
a ut h o rised to acco m pa ny six regime nts of foot se nt to the West I nd ies", and that "wo m e n
who refuse to wo rk for t h e m e n . . . . wou l d be sent to the p o o r h o use" . 52 Army wives a nd their
ch i l d re n were expected to graft, a nd a s a result m a ny beca m e ski l led cooks a n d nurses.
Conclusi o n :
It is perhaps t h e m o d e rn day American histo ri a n M ichael Ste phenson who bri ngs us
the greatest of sym pathy fo r the B ritish so l d i e r and the i ma ge of crim i n a l ity h e has had to
e n d u re t h ro ugh the ages. Cha pte r two of his book "Patriot Battles", p u b l ished in 2007, is
ca l le d " Lo bsterbacks" . I n it h e w rites, " i n e ightee nth century B rita i n it d id not ta ke m uch poachi ng, the theft of a loaf of b read, re nt a rrea rs, trespassi ng, l itera l ly h u n d reds of petty
cri m es - to l a n d t h e h a pl ess c u l prit i n the s l a m mer. Fo r exa m pl e, a j ustice of the peace i n
Su rrey wrote i ngratiatingly to Lo rd Ba rri ngton, secreta ry o f wa r, o n 1 0 Septe m be r 1777 that
{Jo h n Qu i n n an I ri s h A m erica n 2 9 Yea rs of Age near six feet high very d i rty a nd ragged
seem i ngly of slow u n d e rsta n d i ng was this morning co nvicted befo re me of Orchard R o b b i ng.
51
52
H o l m es, p54
H o l mes, 2 94
35
He is wi l l i n g to s e rve as a so l d i e r" . 53 We have s e e n that some of the m ajo r de bates that
have bee n d iscussed by h isto ria ns of the B ritish s o l d iers in N o rth Ame rica have centered on
the co n d u ct of t h e s o l d i e rs, whether they were from Brita i n's "dustbins", how they had
come to s e rve in the a rmy, what they got out of it, whether they ca n be com pa red to
so l d i e rs from differe nt ages and d ifferent wa rs, how they perfo rmed u nder d u ress, h ow they
we re treated by thei r s u periors, a n d what services a nd b e nefits they received from b e i ng i n
t h e a rmy to n a m e a few . I n h e r a p pe ndix t o "The B ritish So l d i e r I n Am e rica", Sylvia F rey
notes that B rita i n's fa i l u res in Ame rica d u ri ng t h e Wa r of I n d e pe nd ence trigge red fu rious
de bate in B rita i n's corrid o rs of powe r. See m i ng l y with p ride she states that " M e m b e rs of
Parl ia m e nt b l a m ed m i n i sters; m i n isters b l a m e d ge n e ra ls; ge n e ra l's b l a m ed each othe r,
m i n i ste rs, a nd a d m i ra l s . Sign ificantly, no o n e b l a med the performa nce of British s o l d i e rs" . 54
53 Ste p h e n s o n ,
54 Frey, p139
p37
36
B i b liography:
Books :
1 ) A n d e rson, F re d : "A People's Army" . The University of North Carolina Press. 1984
2) B ru mwe l l, Ste phe n : "Wo lfe's M e n " . History Today. Septe m ber 2009
3} B ru mwe l l, Ste p h e n : "Redcoats : The B ritish So ldier a nd the Wa r in the Ame ricas, 17551763" . Cambridge University Press. 2002
4) C u rtis, Edwa rd . E: "The Orga n ization of the British Army i n the America n Revo l ution" .
Ne w Haven Conn. : Yale University Press. 1926
5) F o rtescue, J. W : "A H i story of t h e British Army, Vol u m e I l l " . Lon d o n, Macmillan. 1 9 1 1
6 ) F rey, Sylvia . R : "Th e Britis h S o l d i e r I n Ame rica : A Social H isto ry of M i l ita ry Life i n t h e
Revo l utio n a ry P e riod" . University of Texas Press, A ustin. 198 1
7 ) H a rgreaves, Regi n a l d : "Th e B l o odybac ks" . Walker and Company. 1968
8) H o l mes, Rich a rd : "Redcoat: The B ritish So l d i e r"
9 ) M a rtin, J a mes Ki rby: " I n t h e Co u rse of H u m a n Events". AHM Publishing Corporation.
1979
10} P a rge l l is, Sta n l ey M cCrory: " Lo rd Lo udoun i n North America" . Yale University Press.
1933
1 1 ) Scheer, G e o rge F . a n d Ra n k i n, H ugh F . : "Rebe l s and Redcoats" . World Publishing
Company, 1957
12) Shy, J o h n : "Toward Lexingto n : The Role of The British Army in the Com i n g of the
A m e rica n Revo l utio n" . Princeton University Press. 1965
1 3 } S m ith, P a u l H . : "Loya l ists a nd Redcoats : A Study in British Revo l ution a ry P o l i cy" . The
University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill. 1964
14) Ste d m a n, Charles: "The H i sto ry of the Origin, P rogress, a n d Te rmi natio n of the
A m e rica n Wa r" ( 2 vo l s ) . Lon d o n, 1794. R e p ri nted by The New York Ti mes & Arno P ress,
1969.
37
Articles:
1 ) Cla rk, J a ne : " Re s po nsi b i l ity fo r t h e Fa i l u re o f the B u rgoyne Ca m pa ign" . The American
Historical Review. Vol. 35, No. 3 (Apr., 1930} pp 542-55 9
2 ) Co nway, Ste p h e n : 111The G reat M i sch ief Com p l a i n' d Of' : Reflections o n t h e M isco nd uct
of B ritish So l d i e rs i n t h e Revo l ution a ry Wa r" . The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series,
Vol. 4 7, No. 3 (Jul., 1 990}, pp3 70-390
3 ) M a rtin, J a m es Ki rby: Review of "A Socia l Histo ry of M i l ita ry Life i n the revo l utio n a ry
Pe riod" by Sylvia R . F rey
4) N ewmye r, R. Kent: "Charles Sted m a n's H i story of the A m e rica n Wa r" . The American
Historical Review, Vol. 63, No. 4 (Jul 1 958}, pp 924-934
5) Pohl, J a mes W . : "Th e A m e rica n Revo l ution and the Vietna mese War: Pertinent m i l ita ry
Ana l ogies" . The History Teacher, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Feb., 1 9 74}, pp 255-265
6) R usse l l, Pete r E . : " Redcoats i n the Wilde rness: B ritish Officers a n d I rreg u l a r Wa rfa re i n
E u ro pe a n d Am e rica, 1740-1760" The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol. 35, No.
4 {Oct., 19 78}, pp 629-652
7) Syrett, Davi d : {/Th e B ritish Armed F o rces in the Ame rica n Revo l utio n a ry War:
P u b l icatio ns, 1875- 1 998" . The Journal of Military History, Lexington: J a n 1999. Vol 63, Iss 1;
pg 1 4 7, 1 8pgs
8) Yo rk, N e i l L. : " E n d i ng the Wa r a n d W i n n i ng the Peace : The B ritish i n America a nd the
Americans i n Vietna m" . Soundings. 1 987, Vo. 70 Issue 7{ p445-4 74
38
PART TWO
I nt roduct io n :
Fee l i ngs o f d isco ntent amo ngst a growing n u m be r o f Ame rica n co l o n ists gathered
pace in the yea rs after the French a n d I nd i a n Wa r ( 1756-1763), a war that u n ited the British
p e o p l e . In that wa r, Britis h-Am e rica n res i d e nts and B rito ns fro m the mothe r cou ntry fought
a ga i n st F ra n c e a nd certa i n I nd i a n tri bes a l l ie d to the French {{fathe r", King Lo u i s XV.
On ly a
d o z e n yea rs afte r the co nclusion of this w a r, a noth e r o n e erupted . Ange r d i s p laced
d iscontent, a nd the shots that we re h e a rd a ro u nd the world at Lexi ngton a nd Conco rd i n the
s p r i n g of 1775 signa led the begi n n i ng of h osti l ities b etwee n former pa rt n e rs a nd fe l l ow
B ritish cou ntryme n . I n itia l ly seen by B ritish eyes as a civi l war, it beca m e a n o rga n ized a n d
vigoro u s re b e l l i o n a ga i n st B ritish i m pe ri a l m ight. The British Army i n a l l i t s d iversity,
stre ngth a n d powe r, a nd stee ped i n a l o ng h i story of experie nce with the a rt of wa rfa re, wa s
give n t h e task of cru s h i ng the Ame rica n re b e l s . It was expected that the B ritish Army, with
its h ig h l y efficient a d m i n istrative expe r i e n ce, its wel l -d r i l led batta l ions a n d regiments, its
wa r m a c h i n e ry, and its s u p p o rt from the Roya l Navy a nd the British gove rn m e nt, wo u l d
d efeat t h e reb e l s who were fi rst a n d forem ost thought of as tra itors a nd a ls o conve n i e ntly
p a i nted as rustic si m pl etons with no expe rie nce of wa r.
We a re a l l fa m i l ia r with the o utco m e of the Ame rica n Wa r for I nde pende nce. At
school, A m e rica n s lea rn a bo ut General Was h i n gton, the Co nti n e nta l Congress, the
Conti n e nta l Army, m aj o r battles such a s Sa ratoga a nd G e rm a ntown, the fi n a l B ritish defeat
at Yorktown , a n d the u lti mate victo ry for t h e U n ited States. Ame rica n s a re ta ught a bo ut
the i r a ncestors a n d the many sacrifices t hat they m a d e fo r the twi n ca uses of freedom a n d
39
l i be rty a nd each ge n e ration w ith its m i l l i o n s of schoo l-ch i l d re n m a ke s the d a i ly p ledge of
a l l egiance to the natio n's flag.
The re i s no discussio n of a nd l ittl e i nte rest i n the p l ight of the B ritish soldiers. I n this
resea rch pa pe r I w i l l e xa m i n e what h a ppened to the Britis h s o l d i e rs after the wa r. Did they
a l l retu rn home? Cou l d t h ey h ave stayed if they had wanted to? I ndeed, did so me of them
stay? By the e n d of the war in 1783, whe n each regi ment wa s o rdered to leave the
b o u n d a ries of the 13 A m e rica n col o n i es, co u l d it be said that B ritish s o l diers had made a ny
k i n d of mea n i ngfu l co ntri butio n to America n society and l ife? Or, had they (as many
A m e rica n sources wa nted us t o be l i eve) o n ly had a negative i m p a ct on Ame rica n l ife i n the
fo rm of ra pe, p l u nder, m u rd e r a n d death? It i s my assertion that B ritish sol d ie rs d i d m a ke
m e a n i ngful contri butio n s to A m e rica n l ife. I p ro pose that j ust as t h e a rmy was a dive rse
body, the expe rie nces of the i ndivid u a l so l d i e rs were a l so d ive rse . P rovi ng this with p ri m a ry
s o u rces w i l l be cha l l e ngi n g because there is n ot a h uge a rray of s o u rces from the late
e ightee nth cent u ry c h ro n icl i ng the l ife of the average British p rivate . Rough l y spea king this
i s true whe n exa m i ni ng b oth B ritish a nd American sources . Howeve r, I wi l l seek to
i nvestigate what h a p p e n e d to the British so l d i e rs after they we re o rd e red to l eave American
s h o res, a nd I wi l l seek to p rove that even d u ri ng times of confl ict, British sol d i e rs a n d the
B ritish Army i n genera l did to som e degree l eave some sort of positive l egacy i n America .
Then, using B ritish a n d A m e ri c a n newspa pers from the late e ighteenth a nd early n i n etee nth
ce ntu ries, I wi l l atte m pt to fi n d sto ries of the B ritish service-me n . Befo re I bega n my
resea rch it was my ass e rt i o n t hat not m a ny sto ries a bo ut i nd ivid u a l so l d i e rs, especia l ly the
ra n k and fi l e of the army, wo u l d have been pri nted i n the co nte m po ra ry newspa pers. It was
my assertion that news pa p e r from both cou ntries wo uld b e m o re i nte rested i n pri nti ng
sto ries a n d n a rratives a bo ut t h e e l ite officia l s of each society.
40
The H istoriography:
La st s e m este r, I wrote a histo riogra phy on how the British soldier in N o rth A m e rica
i n t h e e ighte e nt h ce ntu ry h a s been studied by h istoria n s . The historiogra phy was t h e fi rst of
three pa rts to m y thesis. I looked at how both B ritish a nd Ame rica n h istoria ns have studied
the British s o l d i e r i n N o rth A m erica over the years. U s i ng a va riety of books a n d a rticles as
sou rces, I fi rst l o o ke d at how eye-witness a cco u nts of the America n Revo l ution were
recorded, a n d h ig h l i ghted Cha rles Stedman a s one of the o utsta n d i ng B ritish ch ro ni c l e rs . H e
m ostly reco rded t h e actions o f the officers b ut w h e n h e d i d discuss the ra n k a n d fi l e o f the
B ritish Army h e ofte n did so in favo ra ble te rms. N e xt, I tu rned to l ate n i neteenth century
writers, s u c h a s S i r J o h n Knox La ughton a nd especia l ly J . W . Fortescue. The l atte r p u b l ished
a m u lti-vo l u m e work e ntitled A History of the British Army, vo l u mes that we re p u b l is h e d
between 1 8 9 9 a nd 1920. Vo l u me three, w h i c h covered the Ame rica n wa r, w a s p u b l ished i n
1 9 1 1 . I n it, F o rtescu e focuses o n t h e officer class a nd j udged t h e p o l itici a ns w h o m a d e the
decisio ns from Lon d o n a s i n e pt. When he m e ntioned the B ritish so ldiers, it wa s m o stly fo r
the purpose of showing how they were u n d e rm i n e d by system i c p ro b lems such as l ow pay,
'vv hich he a rgued u n d e rm i ned mora l e, h i n d e red recruit m e nt a n d foste red desertio n .
I n 1926 R i c h a rd E . Curtis, a n America n, p u b l ished The Organization of the British
Army in the American Revolution . I e m phasized that in this wo rk, he exp l a i ned how
a d m i ni strative c h a l l e nges di rectly lead to p ro b l e m s fo r the regu l a r so ldiers; pro b l e m s such
a s p hysicia ns without medica l tra i n i ng, a lack of c h a p l a i n s a ltho ugh each regiment was
req u i red to h ave o ne , u ncomfo rta b l e a nd c u m b e rs o m e u n iforms, u n re l ia ble fi rea r m s,
i nadequate pay a n d i n h u m a n e treatme nt by officers. H e a l so add ressed persistent c l a i m s
that British s o l d i e rs routi nely a bused colonia l civi l i a ns a nd p rison e rs, conc l u d i ng that
41
A m e rica n w rite rs have p roba b l y exagge rated the guilt of the 'redcoats' . H e a lso stated that
on the whole, B ritish fo rces {{m a n ifested u n usua l res pect fo r the p e rso n s a nd property of
n o n co m bata nts." 1
I n 1933, Sta n l ey Parge l l is, a noth e r Ame rica n, wrote a n enormously i nfl uentia l work
n a m ed Lord L oudoun in North A merica . Altho ugh Lo rd Lo udoun was the B riti s h
Com m a nd e r-i n-Ch ief of the Armed F o rces i n N o rth America from 1756- 1758, a nd therefo re
b efo re the America n Wa r of I nd e pe n d e nce, Parge l l is' work sheds a great d e a l of l ight upon
t h e a d m i nistrat i o n a nd worki ngs of t h e B ritish Army i n N o rth America d u r i ng the last yea rs
of B ritish co l o n i a l r u l e . I nterest ingly, h e chose to com p a re B ritish regu l a r troops a nd
p rovi ncial troo ps. He concl uded that B ritish regu l a r tro o ps were m o re va l ua b l e, despite
b e i n g paid l e ss, a fa ct that u nd e rsta nd a bly e ncou raged desertion, a n d o n e that {{i l l ustrates a
d ive rgence betwee n England a nd the co l o n ies i n the ideas of a ma n's socia l a nd eco n o m i c
w o rt h ." 2 P a rge l l is a lso recorded h i s b e l ief t h a t America ns over the yea rs h ave suppressed
t h e truth a bo ut the British troo ps, and h ave deve l o ped certa i n de- h u m a n izing myths a bo ut
t he m .
Cu rtis i n 1929 a n d P a rge i i is i n 1933 were soi ita ry a dvocates for t h e B ritish soi d i e r.
M ost h i storians of their time a d h e re d to the myths of the {{redcoats" as vicious crimina ls,
a n d this tre nd co nti n ued after the Seco n d Wo rld Wa r. M a ny histo ria ns a rgued that B ritish
t ro o p s were the {{d regs of society," eve n downright c ri m i na l s . As h istoria n J a m e s Ki rby
M a rt i n wrote, "ne'e r do wel ls, the l uc k le ss, and the poorer sort i n gen e ra l fi l l e d the ra n ks." 3
1
E d ward E. Curt i s : The Organization of the British Army, C h a pter 1, p28. Corn er H o u se H i storica l
Prod u ct i o n s . 1998 ( Origi n a l l y p u b l is h e d i n 192 5 )
2 Sta n l ey Parge l l i s : Lord Loudoun i n North A merica, p101 Ya l e U n iversity Press, 193 3
3 J a m es Kirby M arti n : I n the Course of Human Events, p120 AH M P u b l i s h i n g Cor p oration,
42
1979
J o h n Shy c l a i med that t h e i nd iv i d u a l soldier 11Was treated i n t h e Eightee nth Century l ittle
bette r than an a n i m a l, a nd (he) be haved l i ke o ne whenever h e d a red." 4
D u ri ng a n d afte r the Ame rica n-Vietnam Wa r, A m e rican troops i n Vietnam were
com pa red to British tro o ps in A m e rica d u ri ng the revol uti o n . Both sets of troo ps, h istori a n s
com m e nted, were h a n d ica pped b y pol icy m a kers a n d po l iticia n s w i t h i nsufficient
u n d e rsta n d i ng of the rea l ities o n the gro u nd, a nd both sets of troo ps faced the p ro b l em of
fighti ng a fo rce that a d o pted gueri l l a tactics. In addition, h isto ria n s a rgued that both a rm ies
faced an o p posit i o n that wa s fighting o n the i r own l a nd, a nd fighti ng fo r the i r own fa mi lies
a n d com m u n ities.
In the l a st t h i rty yea rs, a new gen e rati o n of h i sto ria n s ( both America n a n d B ritish)
seri o us ly attem pted to re-h u m a n ize the B ritish soldiers . Refuti ng that the so ldiers were
mostly cri m i na l s, h i sto ri a ns such as Sylvia R . Frey a n d Ste p h e n Co nway i nte l l igently a rgued
that c h a nging eco n o m ic c o n d itions in B rita i n d u ri ng the seco n d h a lf of the eightee nth
cent u ry mea nt that cas u a l l a borers a nd even skil led l a b o re rs fou n d t h e m se lves unem ployed,
with a rmy l ife an attractive a lte rnative to sta rvatio n . H oweve r, h i storia n M ichael
Ste p henson explo res t h e idea that the troops we re cri m i n a ls fro m a d iffe re nt, sym pathetic
pers p e ctive . With truth h e says that "in e ighteenth century B rita i n it did not ta ke m uch poachi ng, the theft of a l oaf of b read, rent a rrea s, trespassi ng, l itera l ly h u n d reds of petty
cri m es - to l a n d the ha p l ess c u l p rit in the slam mer." 5
Rece ntly, h isto r i a ns a re trying to study the l ives a n d experie nces of the soldiers as
m uch a s the so u rces a l low. F rey looks at regi menta l reco rds that l i st height, age, a n d le ngth
4 John Shy:
Toward Lexington: The Role of the British Arm y i n the Coming of the A merican Revolution,
p277 Pri nceton U n iversity Press, 1965
5
M i c h a e l Ste p h e n so n : Patriot Battles H arper Col l i n s, 2007
43
of service . R i c h a rd H o l me s w rites a bo ut t h e d iversity of the B ritish Army; i n America, 60% of
the sol d i e rs we re from E ngla nd, 24% fro m Scotl a n d, a nd 16% from I rela nd; figure s that do
not eve n i nc l u d e the H essia n troo ps. H e a lso stud i es wo m e n a nd c h i l d re n in the regi m e nts,
expl a i n i n g that there were strict l i m its on the n u m be r of wom e n a l l owed, a nd that they
were p ut to wo rk, in the fo rm of cooki n g, clea n i ng, and n u rsing.
H oweve r eve n tho ugh some histo ria n s such as Step h e n Brumwe l l o pt i m istica l ly try
to a rgue t h a t "the voices of both officers a n d o th e r ran ks . . . . resonate from the p ages of a
s u r p risi ng n u m b e r of m e m o i rs," 6 there is not a wea lth of p r i m a ry s o u rces from the p rivates
in the a rm y . Eve n Roge r La m b, whose j o u rn a l i s m o st often cited a s the p r i m a ry fi rst-ha nd
a cc o u nt fro m t h e n o n-officer class, was a sergea nt, not a p rivate, a n d eve n Bru mwe l l
co n cedes that t h e b u l k o f written l ette rs a re " between fe l l ow officers." As the fa m o us
Ame rica n m i l ita ry h i stori a n, J o h n Shy co n c l u d e d i n 1965, "m uch less . . . ca n b e lea rned a bo ut
the ra n k a nd fi l e than a bo ut officers. Reco rds of e n l isted m e n we re prim itive at the
regi m e nta l l evel, a nd none at a l l were m a i nta i n e d a t the wa r Office." 7
1775 a nd Mobilization :
With the historiogra phy of my topic e x p l a i ned, I next wa nt to turn to my
exa m inati o n of the British Army i n Nort h Ame rica at the o utbrea k of the Ame ri ca n Wa r of
I nd e p e n d e nce, a nd it is h e re that the re p o rting of m y resea rch begi ns. What did the B ritish
Army l o o k l i ke in 1775 ? What was its co m posit i o n ? How m a ny regi m ents were there ?
W h a t k i n d of u n its re p resented t h e a rmy? I n h i s 1 9 2 5 study, Edward E . Curtis reported that
by the s p r i n g of 1775, when the fi rst shots were fi red at Lexi ngton and Con cord, the tota l
6
Ste p h e n B r u m w e l l : Redcoats: The British Soldier a n d the War in the Americas, 1 755-1 763, p9
Ca m b ri d ge U n ive rsity P ress, 2002
7 Shy,
p 3 5 8-9
44
n u m be r of B ritish l a n d fo rce s t h ro ug h o ut the wo rld, not i nc l u d i ng t h e d o mestic m i l itia,
officia l ly tota led "48,647 m e n, of which 39,294 were i nfa ntry; 6,869 cava l ry; and 2A84
a rti l le ry." 8 The B ritish Army was d ivided i nto an E nglish esta b l is h m e nt a n d an I rish
e sta b l is h m e nt, a nd at the ti m e of the o utbreak of the wa r, the re "we re ro ughly spea king
1 5,000 m e n i n E ngland, 12,000 men in I re l a n d a n d 8,000 men i n A m e ri ca . The rem a i ni ng
10,000 were d istrib uted a m o ng t h e West I nd ies, Africa, M i norca, G i b ra lta r, a n d Scot l a nd ."9
I nfa ntry regime nts at this ti m e, the la rgest p a rt of the a rmy, were n u m bered o ne to seve nty,
a lt h o ugh m o re were soon created to meet the needs of wa r, a nd a typica l i nfa ntry regi m e nt
i n c l uded a b o ut 475 m e n . The othe r two l a rge u nits with i n the a rm y were the cava l ry a nd
t h e a rti l le ry . There we re 18 regi m e nts i n Ame rica i n 1775 n u m bering a tota l of 8,580
i nfa ntrym e n . 10
One i nfa ntry regim e nt was com posed of one batta l i o n d ivided i nto ten
com pa n ies. Each com pa n y h a d a bo ut 3 8 p rivates. The rem a i n d e r of the com pa ny ( a bo ut 9
o r 10) was of the officer class. I nfa ntryme n were regu l a r foot so l d i e rs . Each i nfa ntry
regi m e nt was co m posed of t h e reg u l a r i nfa ntry, who made u p the l i o n's s h a re of the
regi m e nt, b ut they were a lso j o i ne d by m o re e l ite troops, who we re m o re u n iq u e a nd who
s e rved a d isti n ct m i l ita ry p u rpose. These were the grenad iers a nd t h e l ight i nfa ntry.
G re na d iers were ta l l a nd stron g ( t h e i r trad ition a l p u rpose had bee n to h u rl e m b ryon ic, b ut
h e a vy gre n a des, a ltho ugh these ea rly gre nades were a ntiq uated by t h e time of the
A m e rica n co nfl ict ) . The l ight i nfa ntry was com posed of men who w e re expert s kirm ishers.
They were of l ight build a n d w e re good m a rksm e n . As Curtis poi nts o ut, "the grenadiers a n d
l ight i nfa ntry h a d com e t o con stitute the picked m e n of a regi m ent." 1 1 When exa m i n i ng o n e
pa rticu l a r regiment, t h e 2 3 rd R oya l Wel s h F u s i l i e rs, Curtis re po rts t h a t it w a s co m posed o f a
8 C urtis,
Cha pter 1, p 1
9 Curtis, C h a pter 1 , p 2
1°
C urtis, Cha pter 1, p 3
11
C urtis, c h a pter 1, p4
45
co l o n e l, a l ie ute n a nt co l o n e l , a cha p l a i n, a n adj uta nt, a s u rgeon, a nd a mate . The regu l a r
i nfa ntry co m pa n ie s were com posed o f o n e ca pta i n, two l i e utena nts, two se rgeants, three
corpora ls, a d ru m m e r, two fife rs, a n d thirty-eight p rivate men. A co m p a ny of l ight i nfa ntry
was com posed of exactly the sa me n u m be r of perso n n e l as a regu l a r infa ntry com pa ny, a n d
a com pany o f gre n a d i e rs w a s a l so com posed o f t h e s a m e with o n e exce pti o n; they
e m ployed two fife rs . 1 2
Role Ca ll of t h e Conflict :
So who exa ctly was stationed i n America d u ri n g the America n co nfl ict by the B ritish
gove r n m e nt betw e e n t h e yea rs 1775 and 1783 ? As we have seen, some regi ments had a
histo ry of se rvice i n A m erica, d u ri ng a nd/ o r afte r t h e French a nd I nd i a n Wa r. However, the
m aj ority of regim e nts were o n ly m o b i l ized for Ame rica with the com ing a nd the
contin uati o n of t h e A m e rica n Revo l ution itself. I resea rched w hich regi m ents saw A m e rica n
s h o res d u r i ng 1775 to 1783, wh ich I wi l l turn to now.
The a rm y s e nt regi m ents from the cava l ry, the a rti l le ry, but m ostly from the
i nfa ntry. In a d d itio n , a regi m e nt of E nginee rs and t h re e b rigades of G u a rds we re a ls o sent.
The fo l l owing c h a rts doc u m e nt p recisely which regi m e nts were e m p l oyed i n America d u ring
the revo l utio n .
1 ) THE CAVALRY:
I
CAVALRY REG I M EN T NAME
16 TH La nce rs
1 2 Curtis,
c h a pter 1, pS-6
46
2) T H E ARTI LLERY:
ARTI LLERY R EG I M ENT NAM E
The Roya l Regi m e nt of Arti l l e ry (especi a l ly
the 4th Batta l i o n )
3) TH E E NG I N EERS:
TH E E N G I N E E RS
The Corps of Roya l E ngi neers
4) T H E BRIGADE OF G UARDS:
THE B RIGADE OF G UARDS
G re n a d i e r G ua rd s
I
Co l dstrea m G u a rds
Scots G u a rd s
5 ) T H E I N FAN RY: T h e fo l lowi ng c h a rt i n c l udes the regi m e nta l n u m be rs, t h e official n a m es ( if
i n existen ce ) , a nd/or the cou nty na m e s that were n ewly a dded i n 1782 as t h e war was
wi n d i ng d ow n . By that poi nt, defeat i n Ame rica wa s i n evita b l e, a n d re-structuri ng was
occu rri ng, a l ready with an eye to the futu re . Obvious ly, fo r most of the d u ra ti o n of the Wa r
47
of I nd e pe nd ence, the cou nty n a m es had n ot yet been a d o pted . Al l regi m e nta l n u m bers
were fol lowed with the title "Regi m e nt of Foot."
I N FANTRY
COU NTY (or region)
REGIM ENTAL NAM E
DATES IN AMERICA
REG I M ENT
AFFI LIATION
(if given one)
(leading up t o and
N U MBER
(adopted i n 1 782}
duri ng wa r of
Independence)
r
3d
East Kent
4th
5 th
The Buffs
178 1-2
The King's Own
1774-8
N o r' u m b e rl a n d
177 5-8
N o rt h u m be r l a n d
Fusl iers
6t
h
Wa rwicks h i re
7th
gt
h
gt
h
Roya l Wa rwicks h i res
1776-7
The Roya l Fusi l i e rs
1776-83
The Ki ng's
1776-82
N o rfo l k
1776-8 1
1 0t h
N o rt h Li n co l n s h i re
1767-1778
14th
West Yo rks h i re
1 5 th
East Yorks h i re
1776-8
1 6 th
B edfo rd s h i re a n d
1767-82
Pri nce of Wa l e s' Own
1776-7
H e rtfo rds h i re
1 ih
Leiceste rsh i re
1775-1783
1 8th
Roya l I rish
1767-1776
1 9 th
Yorks h i re
Princess of Wa l es'
Own
48
178 1-2
20t
h
La n ca s h i re
2 1 st
22 n d
h
1777-8 1
Roya l Scots Fusi l i e rs
1777
Ches h i re
1773-83
2 3 rd
24t
La n ca s h i re F u s i l iers
So uth Wa les
Royal We lsh Fusi l i e rs
1773-84
S o uth Wa les
1777-8 1
B o rde rers
26 th
Ca m e ro n i a n s ( 2 n d
1767-79
B att)
2 ih
l n n is ki l l ing
Royal l n n is ki l l i ng
1775-8
F u s i l i e rs ( 2 n d Batt)
28 th
G l o uceste rsh i re
2 9th
Worcesters h i re
1777
East La nca s h i re
1781-2
30t
h
3 3 rd
34t
h
35 t
h
G l oc. ( 2 n d Batta l i o n )
West Riding (2 n d B att)
D u ke of Wel l i ngton's
h
38t
h
40t
h
1776-8 1
C u m b e rl a nd
1775-83
Roya l Sussex ( 2 n d
Sussex
Batt)
3t
1775-8
1775-7
I
I
H a m ps h i re
H a m pshire (2 n d Batt)
1665-83
South Staffo rdshire
So uth Staffs ( 2 n d Batt)
1775-83
South La ncashire
Pri nce of Wa les
1775-1783
Vo l u nt's/ S . La ne ( 2 n d
B)
42 n d
Roya l Highland (2 n d
T h e Black Watch
49
1775-8 1
Bat)
43 rd
44 t
h
45 t h
M o n m o ut h s h i re
1774-83
Essex ( 2 n d Batt )
177 5-80
Notti ngh a m s h i re (2 n d
Sherwood Foreste rs
1776-8
D u ke of Cornwa l l's
1776-8
B)
4 6t h
Light I nfa ntry (2 n d
Batt)
4t
h
Loya l N . La nes ( 2 n d
1773-83
Batt)
49 t h
Roya l B e rks h i re ( 2 n d
1775-8
Bat)
5 ot
h
Que e n's Own
1776
5 2 nd
Oxfo rd s h i re
1 774-8
5 3 rd
S h ro p s h i re
1777
West N o rfo l k
1776-83
\tVestmo re l a n d
1776-82
West M id d l esex
1776-83
2 nd N otti n gh a ms h i re
1775-6
54t
h
5 5 th
5 7t
h
5 9t
h
60 th
Ki ng's Roya l Rifle
1776-83
Corps
6 2nd
Wilts h i re
6 3 rd
West Suffo l k
Duke of Edi n burgh
1776-80
1775-8 1
50
64 t
h
2 n d Staffo rdsh i re
1773-82
65 t
h
2 n d Yorksh i re ( N .
1769-75
Ridi ng)
70t h
1778-83
East Su rrey
7 1 st
74t
h
76 th
Fraser' s H igh l a nd e rs
1778-84
Argyl e H ig h l a n d e rs
1778-83
MacDo n a l d's
1778-84
H igh l a n d' s
82 n d
D u ke of H a m i lto n's
1780-83
83 rd
Roya l G l a sgow
178 1-3
Vo l u nt's
105 t h
Vo l u nte e rs of I re l a n d
West I ndia n
1777-83
1779-8 1
Regi m e nt
Roya l M a ri nes
1775-9
So u rce fo r a l l five c h a rts: Charles H . Stewa rt The Service of British Regiments in Canada and
North America. Depa rtment of Nati o n a l Defe nse Li b ra ry, Ottawa, 1964
The End of the War: What Next ? :
O n Octo b e r 1 9 , 178 1, t h e British Army u nd e r Lieute n a nt G e neral Lo rd Co rnwa l l is
s u rre ndered at Yorktow n i n Vi rgi n i a . This was see n as t h e d ecisive Ame rica n victo ry of the
A m e rica n Wa r of I nd e pe nd e nce, a ltho ugh the wa r was n ot officia l ly over u ntil Septe m be r 3,
51
1783 w h e n t h e B ritish a nd the Ameri ca n s s igned the Treaty of Pa ris, which forma l ly
re n o u nced a ny B ritish right to gove rn o r o w n the America n co lonies. As we h ave see n, the
Britis h h a d m asses of tro o ps o n Am e rica n soi l . G etting the troops o ut wo u l d be a logistica l
n ightm a re . I w i l l now turn to exa m i n i ng what h a ppened to the British tro o ps afte r the
B riti sh gove r n m e nt fo rm a l ly agreed to end the war a nd thei r claim to the A m e ri ca n co l o n i e s .
Where d i d t h e troops go? D i d they a l l retu rn h o m e ? Did some o f them stay i n the America n
colo n ie s ? D i d some of them rem a i n i n B ritis h Ca nada? If so, how m a ny? And fin a l ly, a re we
awa re of w hether a ny i nd ivid u a l sol d i e rs a ctua l ly rem a i ned in the America n states?
The Regimenta l H istories :
F o r t h e fi rst ti me, i n 1836, the B ritish gove rnment o rdered that a rm y regi me nta l
h isto ries be w ritte n a nd reco rded . These regi m e nta l h isto ries a re exce l l e nt so u rces when
attem pt i n g to exa m i n e where the British Army we nt after they left the fo rmer America n
co l o n i e s . The i ntro d u ctions a nd prefaces to the h i storica l records of the regim ents m entio n
the reaso n s a s to why these h istories were o rd e re d . It was ho ped that gen e r a l readers
wo u l d b e i nte rested i n these h i stories, b ut e s peci a l l y m e n who had se rved i n t h e specific
reg i m e nts. Also, the reco rd s' goa l s we re "to h o l d fo rth these b right exa m p l e s to the
i m itati o n of the youthfu l sol d i e r, and thus to i ncite h i m to e m u late the m e rito rious cond uct
of those who have preceded h i m ." 13
The E ightee nth Regi m e nt of Foot:
In t h e o pe n i ng rem a rks (a sectio n c a l l e d 'Ge ne ra l Orders') of the " H i storica l Reco rd
of the E ightee nth, or The Roya l I rish Regi m e nt of Foot", the adj uta nt ge n e ra l of the B ritish
13
Th e Historical Record of the Eigh teen th, Prefa ce, p i
52
Army, J o h n MacDona ld, writ i ng i n h i s n a m e a nd i n the na m e of t h e a rmy's Com ma nder-inChief, G e n e ra l Lo rd H i l l, exp l a i n e d the reaso n i ng behind the decision to write a nd p u b l ish
the reco rds . " H i s M ajesty h a s been pleased to com m a nd that, with the view of d o i ng the
fu l l e st j u stice to regi me nts, a s we l l as to I nd ivid u a l s who have d isti nguished themse lves by
the i r b ravery in action with t h e e n e my, an a cco u nt of the s e rvices of every regi ment in the
B ritish Army sha l l be p u b l is h e d . " 14 H e goes o n to exp l a i n what the record is expected to
i nc l ude, specifica l ly, "The period a nd circu m sta nces of the o rigi n a l fo rmatio n of the
regi m ent; The stations a t w h i c h it has been from time to t i m e e m p l oyed; The battles, s ieges,
a n d othe r m i l ita ry o pe rations in wh ich it has been engaged, p a rticu l a rly specifyi ng a ny
ach i evem e nt it may have p e rfo rmed, a nd the co l o u rs, tro p hi es, a n d such, it may have
captured fro m the e n e m y." 1 5 It is who l ly re l eva nt to my study that the adj uta nt genera l
notes that it has bee n o rd e re d that the record m ust i nclude t h e n a m es of officers ki l led i n
actio n, a nd "the n u m be r o f n o n-co m m issioned officers a nd privates kil led o r wounded by
the e ne my." 16 Appa re nt ly, it was deemed that if yo u were a p rivate or a non-co m m issioned
office r k i l led i n action, it was not worthwh i l e l isti ng yo ur n a m e i n t h e regim e nta l reco rd .
Altho ugh it m ay be partia l ly d u e to sheer n u m be rs a n d co n s i d e rati o ns of space, this decision
a lso reeks of class i ne qu a l ity. ! f a n office r t h ro ugh h i s actio ns e a rn e d "titles, m ed a l s, o r
oth e r m a rks o f H i s M ajesty's gracious favo u r" 1 7 he h a d h i s n a m e recorded i n t h e reco rd .
P res u m a b ly, p rivates d i d not. Howeve r, officers a n d privates wou l d have their n a m e s
i ncl uded i n the reco rd if "th ey s pecia l ly sign a l ized themse lves i n battle" 18 .
14
15
16
17
18
Th e Historical Record of the Eig h teen th, p i
Th e Historical Record of the Eig h teen th, G en er a l Orders, p i
The Historical Record of the Eig h tennth, G en er a l Ord ers, p i
The Historical Record of the Eig h teen th, G e n er a l Ord ers, p i i
Th e Historical Record of the Eigh teen th, G e n er a l Ord ers, p i i
53
The E ightee nth Regi ment of Foot e m b a rked fo r Ame rica from I re l a n d i n 1767 afte r
the F re nch a nd I nd i a n Wa r, at a ti me whe n it was d ecided i n Lo ndon that troops we re
needed to defe n d t h e p rizes of that co nfl ict. The E ig htee nth was at Lexi ngto n, Concord a nd
B u n ke r H i l l ( recorded as B u n ke r's H i l l ) . It e n d u red Was h i ngton's siege of Boston a nd was
part of the retreat to H a lifax, N ova Scotia . That was the tota l ity of its expe rience i n t h e
A m e rica n wa r, a n d by J u ly, 1 7 7 6 it had a rrived back i n E n gl a n d . It w a s statio ned at D over
Ca stl e i n Kent fro m 1776 to 1778, and then e n ca m p e d at a s uccessi o n of p l a ces; Coxheath,
Wa rley, F i n c h l ey. At what is descri bed as the "te r m i nation of the American wa r" 19, t h e
E ighteenth was t ra n sfe rred t o the Cha n ne l I s l a nds, B ritish te rrito ries off the coast o f
n o rthern F ra n ce, fi rst t o the i s l a n d o f J e rsey a n d t h e n to the i s l a n d of G ue rnsey. I n 1 783,
w h i l e in G ue rn sey, the so l d i e rs of the E ightee nth h e l ped to q u e l l a m utiny of the 104t
h
Regi ment of F oot, a nd " re ceived the tha n ks of the Lie ute n a nt Governor, a nd of the States of
the I s l a nd, a cco m p a n ie d by o n e h u ndred guin e a s for d istribution a m o ng the noncom m issioned officers a nd s o l d i e rs, fo r their loya l and spi rited co nd uct." 20
The Fortieth Regi m e nt of Foot:
Anot h e r regi m e nt, the Fortieth Regim e nt of Foot wa s m uch m o re i nvolved in the
A m e rica n Wa r of I nd e pe n d ence than the E ighteenth. Accord i ng to the H i storica l Records of
the F o rtieth Regi m e nt, the regi m e nt set sa i l for the A m e rican col o n i es from Cork in I re l a nd
o n M ay 8, 1 77 5 . I t m ight be tem pti ng to t h i n k that t h e regim e nt's e m ba rkation was a res u lt
of Lexi ngto n a nd Co ncord . H oweve r, this is clea rly w ro ng d u e to the fact that May 8 is less
than three wee ks a fte r those begi n n i ng shots of the revo l utio n . It too k between two a nd
h
thre e mo nths to cross the Atl a ntic, so news of the eve nts of Apri l 19 t wo u l d not yet have
19
20
Th e Historical Record of the Eighteen th, Contents, pxxx i
The Historical Record of the Eigh teenth, Conte nts, pxxx ii
54
reac h e d B rita i n . It wo u l d tho ugh be reaso n a b l e to assu m e that it was a res ponse to the
gen e ra l a cts of d istu rba nce in America. The records name the officers of the Fortieth who
s a i l e d fo r Ame rica, a nd one such offic e r m a kes for i nteresti ng readi ng. I n the footnotes, it is
recorded that u po n a rriva l i n Ame rica, Ca pta i n J. G reene l eft the Fo rtieth to join o n e of the
p rovi ncial Loya l i st a rmies. " Li ke m a ny offi cers at this ti me, Ca pta i n G re e n e sold out soo n
afte r a rriva l i n A m erica, to ta ke h ig h e r ra n k i n o n e of the corps of Loya l ist P rovi ncia l s then
for m i ng." 21 The footnote goes o n to d iscuss the l ife of Ca pta i n G reene in some deta il,
attri buting the re port i ng of the i nfo rmation to a great gra nd-nephew. G re e n e was born i n
G re e nvi l l e, Cou nty Ki l ke n ny i n 1746, j o i ned t h e Fortieth i n 1767, a n d w h e n h e j o i n e d the
l oya l i st p rov i n c i a l tro ops, h e was a pp o i nted as a m aj o r in the regi m e nt of O l iver De La ncey,
of N ew York, who was a leading l oya l ist. G reene fo ught in the wa r "fro m B osto n to the
F l o ri da s," and s uccessfu l ly defe n d e d a key fort aga i nst the America n G e ne ra l N atha n ie l
G re e n e . Accordi ng t o t h e h i storica l reco rds o f t h e Fortieth, t h e two G re en e s were " re l atives
a n d i nt i m ate frie n ds," and the l oya l ist M aj o r G reene was offe red the ra n k of genera l in the
A m e rica n a rmy by his fa mous re l ative, an offer which wo u ld have m e a nt t u rn i ng his back o n
t h e B ritish, a nd o n e that h e never a ccepted . At t h e e n d o f the wa r, h e w a s given a gra nt of
l a n d in Canada, b ut h e a l so very soo n ret u rn ed to I re l a n d . H e was made a m aj o r in the
K i n g' s a rmy i n 1 789, a nd he d ied at Waterfo rd i n I re l a nd, i n 1830, aged 84.
The Fo rtieth Regi ment of F o ot was at the Batt l e of Long I sl a n d, the Batt l e of
B ro o klyn, the Battle of "Princetownn, a nd the Batt l e of G e rm a ntow n . W h e n docu m e nting
the reg i m e nt's p rese n ce at the Batt l e of B roo klyn, we e nco u nter a good exa m pl e of the way
21
Th e Historical Records of the Fortieth Regiment, p39
55
that deaths were u ne q u a l ly reco rded. "Of the Fortieth regi m e nt, Lie ute na nt-Co lon e l G ra nt
was ki l led; o ne ra n k a n d fi l e ki l l ed; a n d five ra n k a n d fi l e wo u nded." 22
By m o nitori ng the m ove m e nts of the "Fighti ng Fortieth" we ca n see the tota l ly
i nte rnati o n a l a n d tra ns ito ry nature of the B ritish Army. Afte r the F re nch declared wa r o n
G reat B rita i n i n e a rly 1 778 a nd e ntered i nto a treaty with t h e America n s, t h e Fortieth was
o rd e red o ut of the co nfl ict in N o rth Ame rica, and i nstea d, o rd e red to the Ca ribbean to
p rotect B ritish possession s a nd i nterests there. America n s u s u a l l y thi n k of B ritish troops a l l
being bogged down i n A m e rica from 1775 to 1783, but i n N ovem be r 1 778 the Fortieth was
rem oved from o ne a re n a a n d sent to a nother, with the m ission of p rotecting Britis h
possessions i n the Ca ri bbea n a nd/ or fighti ng the F renc h . B etwe e n 1778 a n d 1781, the
Fo rtieth, a lo ng with other regi m e nts, was in Ba rbados, St. Lucia, St. Vi nce nt, G renada, St.
Ch risto ph e r a n d Antigua . After nea rly three yea rs, in J u ne 1 7 8 1, t h e regi ment was o rdered
to return to Staten I s l a n d . It was at a pp roximate ly half stre ngth from whe n it left for the
Ca r i b be a n nearly t h re e yea rs e a rlier. It ca n be a ssu med that m ost of the regiment e ithe r
died of sickness or were ki l le d i n battle, or were left i n Ca ri b be a n hospita l s .
T h e regi m e nt 'vva s i n Ame rica u nti l the e n d o f the w a r, a n d t h e y a rrived b a c k i n
E n g l a n d o n Dece m b e r 1783 . H owever, it w a s a l m ost i m m e d iately aga i n o n t h e move, a n d
w a s tra nsferred from Chiche st e r to Ta u nton a nd t h e n t o P l ym o uth, town s that a re a l l eith e r
o n o r close t o t h e s o uth coast o f E ngla n d . The regi ment w a s therefo re strategica l ly p laced
for both defe n d i ng a ga i nst a possi b l e attac k from the F re nc h a nd a poss i b l e i m m ed iate
e m ba rkation to a n ot h e r corner of the globe. H owever, i n A p r i l 1786, the Fortieth was s p l it
u p, a n d s p read o ut betwee n Ca rlisle, B lackbu rn, Liverpool, W h itehaven, P reston a n d
2 2 Historical Records of the Fortieth Regiment,
p43
56
Cheste r, towns a l l i n the north-west of E ng l a n d , a n a rea of E ng l a n d at the heart of t h e
I nd ustri a l R e vo l ution . I n the s u m me r of 1 7 8 7 six compa nies of the regiment "owi ng to the
p reva l e n ce of p o p u l a r d isco ntent i n Live rpo o l . . . . were su bseque ntly sent to aid the civil
power [the re] ." 2 3 I ca n not he l p d rawing a com p a rison h e re between the Fo rtieth q u e l l ing
a nd q ua s h i n g an i nte rnal d istu rba nce i n Live rpool, a nd A m e rica n tro o ps bei ng used to
fo rcefu l ly c o u nt e r l a bo r u n i o n gro u ps i n the A m e rica n n o rth-east, and I nd i a n tri bes in the
Far West, in the t i m e period succeed ing the U .S . Civil War.
The 1 6t h "Queen ' s La nce rs" Cava l ry Regi m e nt
I n t h e h istorica l records of "The Sixtee nth . . O r . . The Que e n's Regi m e nt of Light
D ragoo n s, La nce rs", the i ntroduction of this regi m e nt to Ame rica n shores in 1775 is cove red
very i ntere st i ngly. The histo rica l records begi n by stating that the confl ict betwee n B rita i n
a nd h e r co l o n ie s bega n i n 1775, a n d the n g o o n t o o pi n e t h a t t h e co nfl ict "not b e i ng e nte red
i nto by the B ritish gove r n m e nt with suffic i e nt vigo u r at the com m e ncement, was p rotracted
d u ri ng a p eriod of e ight yea rs," there by removi n g a ny thought of s uggesting that t h i s
regi m ent, o r a ny oth e r, w a s at fa u lt for the l o ss of this w a r . The po l iticia ns a re b la m ed .
\N h e n w e r e m e m b e r that t h e historica l reco rds were written with the i ntent o f tru m pet i ng
the m i l ita ry ach i evem e nts of the regi me nts we c a n u n d e rsta nd why. With pride, it is
docu m e nted that tro o ps fro m the Sixtee nth La n ce rs ca ptu red G e ne ra l Charles Lee, one of
the m o st i m porta nt a nd infl u e ntia l of the Am e rica n genera l s . In fact, u p to that poi nt, the re
had b e e n r u m o rs that Lee m ight even rep l a ce Was h i ngto n as com m a n de r-i n -ch ief of the
Conti n e nta l Army. The 16 th fo ught at the Batt l e of W h ite P l a i ns, were statio n e d at N e w
J e rsey d u ri ng the w i nte r of 1776/7, occu pied P h i la d e l phia, a nd fo ught at G e rma ntown. The
23
Historical Records of the Fortieth Regiment, p62
57
h i sto rica l reco rds i n d icate that t h e cond uct of the wa r was go i ng we l l u nt i l "the King of
F ra nce had co ncl uded a treaty w ith, a nd a greed to a id, the revo lted B ritish s u bjects, which
s o com pl etely cha nged the nature of the co ntest," a decla rati o n that resu lted i n the 16 th
retreati ng fro m the P h i l a d e l p h i a a rea to N ew Yo rk i n the s u m m e r of 1778, a nd then back to
E ng l a n d after giving its horses to oth e r regi m e nts . We ca n see that it is this regi m e nt's
assertion that o n e of the p ri m a ry reason s the Ame rica n won the wa r was d u e to the fact
t hat tro o ps had to be removed fro m the America n theate r.
Th e re is then a big j u m p t o 1781 in the records, when it record s that the regi m e nt
was e nca m ped i n Le n ha m i n Kent. Why is the re such a leap? Why is there this ga p of two
to t h ree yea rs ? Altho ugh, perha p s there was noth ing of note worth a d d i ng to the records
d u ri ng these yea rs, give n that the B ritish lost the wa r, it is perha ps n ot s u rprisi ng that this
reco rd "fast fo rwa rds" the n a rrative . The reco rd, as p reviously m e ntio ned, has a l ready
e a r l i e r s uggested rea so n s as to w hy t h e wa r was lost, a n d whe n o n e considers that some of
the goa l s of writi ng the regi m e nta l reco rds in the n i neteenth centu ry were to i n sti l l pride i n
t h e m i nd o f t h e rea d e r, a n d t o i ns p i re t h e reader with tho ughts o f futu re g l o ries, o u r
q u e stions ca n b e a nswere d .
T h e Thirty- F o u rth a n d Fifty- F ifth Regi m e nts of Foot:
In 1875, George Noa kes, a Qua rter-Master Se rgea nt p u b l ished a com bi ned h istorica l
reco rd of the t h i rty-fo u rth a n d fifty-fifth regi m ents of foot, two regim e nts that had been
"stra ngers to each other, but now d esti ned to be sister batta l i o n s, they havi ng bee n, under
t h e new l oca l i zation sch eme, l i n ked togeth e r i n the C u m be rl a n d a nd Westmo re l a n d
B rigade." 24 B o t h reg i m ents we re e ngaged i n Ame rica extensively. The thi rty-fou rth was
24 Historical Records of the Th irty-Fourth and Fifty-Fifth Regiments,
58
by G e orge N oa kes, 1885, pvi
with G e n e ra l B u rgoyn e at Sa ratoga, a n d when he s u rre n d e red to the America ns, the reco rd
i n d icates that u nd e r G e n e ra l G ates, the America ns agreed to a l low the British troops to
" m a rch to M a ssa c h u setts Bay, fo r e m ba rkation fo r E ng l a nd, to serve no m o re in North
A m e rica d u ring the wa r." 25 H owever, the record a ngri ly re ports that the "America n
Congress s h a mefu l ly re pud iated this Conve ntion, a nd t h e troops, o n a rriva l at
M a ssach usetts, we re d eta i n e d prisoners of wa r." 26
M e a n w h i le, t h e fifty-fifth conti nued in the A m e rica n a rena, but a lso fo ught the
F re nch i n the Ca r i b b e a n, and at the concl usion of the A m e rica n wa r was statio ned i n
Ca n a d a . I t retu rned t o E ngl a nd i n 1785, moved t o Scot l a n d i n N ove m be r 1788, and the n
was stationed over to I re l a n d i n Se pte m be r, 1790 . Fro m there, the regi ment was m oved to
assist British a l l i e s i n E u ro pe, lest "the detesta b l e doct rines which t h e French revo l utio n a ries
we re d isse m i nati ng t h ro ughout the Conti n e nt s ho u ld t a ke root i n their own cou ntries." 2 7
So, we ca n see t h at fo r m a ny of the British regim ents, t h e re wa s l ittl e respite betwee n m aj o r
co nfl icts. A s o n e d o o r closed, a nother one ope n e d .
British Engin eering a nd Sweat : The Forts :
When l o o k i n g at how the British so ldiers affecte d the Ame rica n landsca pe, pe rhaps
n o exa m pl e is m o re stri king t h a n the physica l re m a i n s of e ightee nth century fo rts. I n
col o n i a l days, B ritish, F re nch, a n d col o n i a l s designed a n d b u i lt a series of forts with the
p u rpose of p rotect i n g their possessio ns, ga i ns, a nd tra d e routes. Eve n today there i s
p hysica l evi d e n ce of h ow the s o l d i e rs i m pacted Ame rica . Although n o t meant t o be a n
exhaustive com p i lation of fo rts b u i lt i n t h e e ighte e nth ce ntu ry, w h a t fo l l ows is a brief l i st o f
25
26
27
34th
34th
34th
th
a n d 55 ' p2 5
a n d 55
a n d 55
th
:
2 5 -6
th p 3 3
59
certa i n fo rts b u i lt by the sol d i e rs of these two m ajor E u ro pe a n powers, with a specia l
e m p h a sis o n fo rts that a re i n the n o rth-east of the modern day U n ited States, a nd es peci a l ly
N e w Yo rk State.
N a m e of Fort
Who built it,
If captured, by
Near modern
Sti l l physical
a nd it what
whom, and
day .........
evidence today?
yea r?
when
F o rt N iaga ra
F re nch, 1726
B ritish, 1759
You ngstown, NY
Yes
F o rt O nta rio
B ritish, 1755
A m e rica n s,
Oswego, NY
Yes, but a n ew
fo rt
1788
F o rt Oswego
B ritish, 1727
F re nch, 1755
Oswego, NY
No
F o rt
F re nch, 1755
B ritish, 1759
Ticonderoga, NY
Yes
Crown Poi nt, NY
Yes
Tico n d e roga
1
Ame ricans,
1775
Fort Crown
Point
F o rt Wi l l ia m
B ritish, 1759
Ame rica ns,
1 1775
I
B ritish, 1755
H e n ry
I
Destroyed by
I
I
La ke George, NY
R e p l ica o n ly
Fre nch, 1757
F o rt Sta nwix
B ritish, 1758
Aba n d o ne d
Rome, NY
R e p l ica o nly
F o rt D uq ue s ne/
F re nch, 1754
B ritish, 1758
Pittsb u rgh, PA
B rick o ut l i n e i n
F o rt P itt
t h e gro u n d
( re - n a m ed Fort
P itt
F o rt Ligo n i e r
B ritish, 1758
Aba n d oned
60
Ligo n i e r, PA
Reconstruction
S o u rces: 1 ) Charles M o rse Stotz: Outposts o f the war for empire; the French and English in
Western Pennsylvania; their armies, their forts, their people 1 749-1 764 . H isto rica l Society of
Weste rn Pen nsylva n i a . D istri buted by the U n ive rsity of P itts b u rgh P ress
2 )www . d m n a . state . ny. us/fo rts/fortsindex . htm
Fro m this ve ry s m a l l l ist of eightee nth centu ry fo rts, we ca n see that they were
ofte n the ta rget of e n e m y attac k d u ri ng the French and I nd i a n Wa r, a n d by America n troops
d u ri ng the America n Revo l uti o n . Some fo rts were a bandoned q u ickly, but we ca n a l so see
that the l a b o r of the B ritish s o l d i e rs p ro d u ced b u i l d i ngs that h ave s u rvived to the present
day, a nd se rve ve ry usefu l p u rposes for the c u ltura l and fi na n c i a l e n ric h m e nt of Ame rica n
com m u n ities today.
Post-Wa r:
After the America n Wa r of I nd e p e n de n ce, a s w e h a v e s e e n , the B ritis h Army moved
on to d iffe re nt co nfl icts a nd d uties. So m e returned home in rea d i n ess fo r a poss i b l e attack
on B rita i n by the F re n c h .
S o m e were stationed i n other fa r-off geogra p h ic a reas, especia l ly
the Ca ri b b e a n . The newly fo rmed U n ited States wa s one a rea that the B ritish hierarchy was
forced to remove from t h e i r l i st of a reas of i nfl uence. B ritis h m e rcha nts wished to
i m m ed iate ly co ncentrate on tra d e re lations with the for m e r N o rt h Ame rica n co l o n i es, b ut
the B ritish m i l ita ry was not req u i red to p l ay a ny fu rther p a rt i n what wo u l d becom e the
U n ited States of Ame rica until the wa r of 1812. Howeve r, that did not stop relations
betwe e n G reat Brita i n and the U n ited States fro m sitting co n s picuo usly i n the m inds of
those cou ntry's citize ns, a n d from m e m o ries of the l ate wa r i nvad i ng the culture of b ot h
cou ntries.
61
Newspaper Accounts :
O n e for m of expressio n that com m u nities from both co u ntri es partici pated i n was i n
the p u b l icatio n o f n ewspaper sto ries i n the late e ighteenth a n d e a rly n i n eteenth century
newspa p e rs . I n Lo n d o n a nd i n the biggest Ame rica n cities, newspapers p ri nted accou nts
a nd m e m o ries of the wa r. When exa m i n i ng these newspa p e rs, two general i m pressi o n s a re
fo rmed, o n e fro m the B ritish point of view, a n d o n e fro m the Ame rica n .
The Ame rica n po i nt of view:
O bvious ly, a s t h e America ns were t h e victo rs of the co nfli ct, there we re a l ot of
acco u nts d o c um e nting the h e ro ics of the Co nti n e nta l Army. It is easy to co nclude that s uch
sentime nts were o n ly natura l i n a new nation that was seeking to build a co u ntry and a
c u lt u re . I a lso fo u n d seve ra l com p l a i nts a bo ut t h e a ctions of the B ritish a rmy d u ri ng the
war. For i nsta n ce, very soon afte r the Wa r of 1 8 12 (the seco nd wa r betwee n B rita i n a n d the
ex-co l o n i es, by then the U nited States), the Independent Chronicle of Bosto n, re ported on
the fortieth a n n ive rsa ry of the Battle of Lexi ngto n t hat "the so l d i e rs of Geo rge
l l l . . com m e n ce d a confli ct, barba rous i n its o nset, a nd cowa rd ly i n its persecution . . . . a nd i n
.
.
t h e most waxto n m a n ne r fired u po n a com pa n y o f m i l itia, without givi ng them t h e least
wa rni ng," 28 a n d c o m p a red the B ritish troo p s to a "ho rd e of savages." 29 The sa m e
newspa per p u b l ished a n a rticle i n 182 1 a b o ut the h eavy-ha nded actions o f t h e Britis h
tro o ps d u ri ng t h e Bosto n " M a ssacre" o f M a rch, 1770. I n a n a rticle e ntitled {{Reco l l ections of
a Bosto n i a n" w ritte n by M r. Russe l l , a Britis h so l d i e r beat aa negro" who had ca l le d h i m a
l obster. ( Lo bste r o r " l o bster-ba ck" was the d e rogato ry term for a B ritish sol d i e r, d u e to the
28
Independe n t Chronicle, Bost o n , M assa c h u setts. 04-20-1815, p 2
29
Independen t Chronicle, Boston, M ass. 04-20- 1 8 1 5 , p 2
62
b e l ief that the B ritish so ldiers' b a c ks were a l ways red d u e to the m a ny w h i p p i ngs a n d
beati ngs they e n d u red at t h e h a n d s of t h e officer class . ) S o m e "ro pe-me n", i nc l u d i ng M r.
G ray, "a very respecta ble m a n" 3 0 to l d the so l d i e r to return to his ba rra c ks, at wh ich point a n
a rg u me nt e nsued, leading t o a p hysi ca l fight. At that poi nt, the ro pe-ma kers we re joi ned by
othe r town s- m e n, a n d they "so o n o bta i ned a tri u m ph ove r a n i d l e, i nactive, e ne rvated, a n d
i nte m perate, though brave sold i e ry . " 31 Acco rd i ng t o t h e writer, over the n ext co uple of
days eve nts c u l m i nated in what we know today as the Bosto n M assa cre .
These two a ccou nts were p ri nted l ong afte r t h e war, a n d i n M a rch, 1 815, the same
p a p e r rep o rted the cruel actio n s of B ritish so l d i e rs i n the then very rec e nt co nfl ict, the Wa r
of 1 8 1 2 . I n a signed l ette r to the e d ito r of the Independent Chronicle, n i n e officers of the
N ew York m i l itia com pl a i ned a bo ut t h e i n h u m a n treatm e nt they received when they were
ca ptu red by the B riti s h . H oweve r, a lt h o ugh re porting on the cru e l a ctio n s of B ritish so l d i e rs
was q uite com m o n-pla ce, I a ls o fo u n d seve ra l d iffe rent kinds of refe re n ce s to B ritish m i l ita ry
p e rs o n n e l i n t h e newspa pers of t h e post-wa r period. I n the Daily A dvertiser, i n 1786, a
rewa rd of te n d o l l a rs was offered to a nyone who cou ld fi n d a ru n away i n d e nt u red s e rva nt,
w h o a p pa re ntly was n a m ed J o h n G . H offm a n . It was c l a i m ed that t h e se rva nt "is a
H a n overi a n, was a soldier i n the B ritish a rmy i n the l ate war . . . . ca l ls h imself a ga rde ner; a nd
fifty yea rs o l d, b ut looks o l d e r, nea r s ix feet h igh, s l i m b u i lt, red faced, a n d often sore eyed;
l oves stro ng d ri n k, his h a i r dark, m ixed with grey. Whoeve r will sec u re h i m in a ny gao l i n the
U nited States, sha l l h ave the a bove rewa rd ." 3 2
Anothe r fo rmer m e m be r of t h e B ritish a rmy who chose to reside i n the U nited
States is m e ntio ned in the Providence Gazette. H oweve r, in com pa riso n to J o h n G. H offm a n,
3° Columbian Centinel,
31 Columbian Centinel,
32
Bosto n , M ass, 1 2 - 0 1 - 1 8 2 1, p1
Boston, M ass, 1 2 -0 1 - 1 8 2 1, p 2
Daily Advertiser, N ew York, N e w York, 10-07-1786, p3
63
the newspa per s pea ks defe re ntia l ly of h i m, a nd close exa m i n ation reve a l s that he was a n
officer. I n a death notice i n October, 1810, t h e news p a p e r reported that Lie ute nant Co l o n e l
G e o rge Tru m b u l l , d ie d i n B l o o m i ngda le, N e w Yo rk, i n the h e a rt o f w h a t is n ow the
Adirondack state pa rk. The o bitua ry reported that "for u pwards of s ixty yea rs h e susta i n e d
i n the B riti s h army, i n eve ry respect, t h a t characte r which d i sti nguishes the s o l d i e r a nd t h e
gent l e m a n ; nor was h e l e ss known o r l ess e steemed by h i s fe l low-citizens fo r the p ra ctice of
those mora l a n d soci a l d uties which i ns p i re res pect, a n d give true d ign ity to the m a n . " 33
The case of a n ot h e r fo rmer B ritish soldier was d iscussed i n t h e Columbian Centinel
of Bosto n, which re po rted o n J u ne 1 1, 1823 that t h e M a ssach usetts H o use of
Represe ntatives was to hea r the case of George Ph i ps . T h e pa per reported that the
q ue stio n befo re t h e H o use i s a s fo l l ows; "Has George P h i ps, who was born i n E ngla nd a n d
c a m e t o t h i s co u ntry a s a sol d i e r i n t h e B ritish a rmy, i n the yea r 1776 a n d w a s ta ken prison e r
a t t h e s u rrender of G e n e ra l B u rgoyne, a n d h a s eve r si nce resided i n t h e town o f C. i n this
State, a nd who h a s held rea l estate, a n d been taxed therefo re, i n said town, but has now
beco m e a p a u p e r, ga i ne d a sett l e m e nt in said town , o r i s h e an a l ie n, e ntitled to a
m a i ntena nce fro m t h e State ." 34 O n e ca n i magi ne d iffe ring o p i n io ns from the paper's
rea d e rs h i p o n t h i s q uestio n, p e rha ps especi a l ly a m o ngst forme r sol d i e rs, but it goes to show
that whatever t h e citize ns a nd i nstitutions of the U n ited States tho ught of the British
s o l d i e rs, these m e n e nj oyed the right to l ive, e a rn m on ey, own l a nd, and receive benefits i n
the U n ited States, a n d were not lega l l y ba rred from such p rivi l eges .
H oweve r, o n e l a st a rticle fo l lows t h e typica l tre n d e m pl oyed b y the Ame rica n
n ewspa pers. In t h e Providence Gazette, o n August 22, 1821, a lette r is p u b l ished a bo ut a
33
Providence Gazette, Provid e n ce, R h o d e I s l a nd, 10-20-1 8 10
34
Columbian Centinel, Boston, M ass, 06-11-23, p 1
64
B ritish s o l d ie r, which l eaves the rea der awe-struck. Whethe r the rea der co n c l udes that the
s o l d i e r i s re m a rka bly ded icated o r rem a rka bly foo l ish is a matte r of o p i n i o n . H owever, h is
b ravery a nd dedicatio n ca n not be questi o n e d . The l ette r re l ays a second-ha nd story of two
B ritis h s o l d i e rs going i nto a house a n d a b usi ng a yo u ng woma n . A third so l d i e r, despite not
bei ng i nvo lved i n the i nci d e nt, as vo uched to by the wo man, hid the ide ntity of the other
two fro m the a rmy's officials. When Lord Co rnwa l l is a pproached the m a n, w hose name was
Ca m pb e l l, h e said "Ca m p be l l ... what a foo l a re you, to die thus. Disclose the n a m es of the
gui lty m e n, a nd you s ha l l be i m mediate ly re l ea sed; othe rwise yo u have but
15
m i n utes to
l ive." Ca m pb e l l re p l ied to Cornwa l l is, "Yo u a re in an ene my's co u ntry, m y Lord . . . . yo u ca n
bette r s p a re o ne m a n t h a n two ." 3 5
We ca n see that i n the post-wa r yea rs there was a m ixtu re of treatme nt i n t h e
Ame rica n n ewspa pers of the troops who h a d fo ught for the Ki ng. There was refe re nce to
the i r c r u e lty, b ut a lso to their b ravery, a n d some i n d eed who beca m e Ame rica n residents
were re p o rted on briefly. Eve n from t h i s l i st of brief a rticles, we ca n con c l u d e that the
B ritis h a rm y was a ve ry dive rse gro u p of peo p l e . So m e we re not eve n Britis h, such a s the
H a n ove ria n, Hoffm a n , and l i ke Hoffm a n, some were se m i-ski l led, o r ski l led l a bo re rs . Oth e rs,
as we h a ve seen, we re officers. Othe rs fitted i nto the typica l a n d n eat ste reo-type that
Ame rica n s l i ked to foster, such a s the b rave, but l oya l to the poi nt of stu pid ity, Ca m pb e l l ,
who p rotected h i s cri m i n a l com rades, o r l i ke the ruth less, ba rbaric so l d i e rs who b ro ke a l l
eth ica l r u l es o f wa rfa re a n d i nstigated te rri b l e deeds aga inst the citizen ry. Others eve n
fou n d a cc e pta n ce i n Ame rica, a lthough from these newspaper a rticles, it see m s that the
m i l ita ry m e n who were m o re l i ke ly to be m e ntio ned, a nd in m o re glowing terms, we re fro m
3 5 Providen ce Gazette,
Provi d e n ce, Rhode I s l a n d , August 2 2, 1 8 2 1
65
the officer cl a ss. This may s e e m ironic i n the ea rly days of the re p u b l ic, i n a co u ntry which
p u r po rted to cherish eq u a l ity a m o ngst m e n .
T h e B ritish poi nt of view:
In B ritish news p a p e rs the re were a lso a n u m be r of death notices, adve rtizing the
d eath of officers who had lead men in the America n wa r. For i nsta nce, on J a n u a ry 6, 1792,
The Times recorded that W i l l i a m B radfo rd, Esq, d ied in Ph i l a d e l p h i a . H is occu pations a re
l i sted as "author, pri nte r a nd s o l d i e r. D u ri ng the America n wa r, he wrote, pri nted a n d
fo ught for h i s co u ntry . . . H i s ra n k i n the a rmy had b e e n o f co l o ne l . Dr. Fra n klyn said of h i m,
that h i s writing was spi rited, h i s p ress was correct, a nd his sword a ctive." 36 I n 1828, the
sa m e news p a pe r wrote that Sir Alan Ca m e ron had d ied . " By b i rth a H ig h l a n d e r, - i n hea rt
a nd so u l a true o ne- i n fo rm a nd fra m e the bo l d a n d m a n l y m o u nta i n eer," the news pa per
stated, and conti n ued that few cou l d e q u a l Ca m e ro n's "brave ry a nd e n e rgetic zea l ." 3 7
Ca m e ro n wa s a priso n e r of w a r fo r two yea rs i n P h i l a de l p h ia aft e r b e i ng accused of tryi ng to
recruit ce rta i n I nd i a n tri bes a s a l l ies to the British. Trying to esca p e the j a i l, he shattered his
a n kl es, a n d n ever co m pl ete l y recovere d . H e ra ised and fo u nd e d the 79 th regim e nt of foot in
17 9 3 at his own expense, a n d bestowed h i s name upon the regim ent. H e ied h i s reg i m e nt in
the Nethe rla n ds, the West I nd ies, the S p a n ish peni nsula, Egypt, Zea l a nd, D e n m a rk, Sweden,
Portuga l, a n d u lti mate ly at t h e Battle of Wate rloo where N a po l e o n wa s defeated . As his
obituary p ro u d l y reco rded; 11A great suffere r i n body from s evere i nfi rm ities, contracted by
conti n ued exposures and fatigues o n service, S i r Ala n neve rt h e l ess l ived to a n adva n ced age .
B ut h e was doomed t o s e e h i s fa m i ly d r o p a ro u nd h i m - h i s you ngest so n, whe n h i s a ide-deca m p, early in the P e n i n s u l a ca m pa ign, from p rivations and fatigues, - his e l d est, when
36
The Times, Lo n d o n . J a n 6, 1 7 9 2
37
The Times, Lon d o n . M arch 1 7, 1828
66
ga l l a ntly l e a d i ng o n the i m m ed iate adva nce of t h e B ritish a rmy at F u e ntes d'Onor, - h i s
n e p h ew a n d h i s o rp h a n gra ndson, both o f whom p e r i s h e d from the ba nefu l effects of West
I nd i a n se rv i ce ." 38 Seve n yea rs l ate r, Ca m e ro n's s u p e rior offi cer, Earl Cathca rt d ied, a nd his
death was a lso p r i nted i n The Times. The notice recorde d that Earl Cathca rt bega n his
m i l itary ca re e r in A m e ri ca, se rvi ng " i n the 16th a nd l i h Light D ragoons, a nd as Aide-deCa m p to S i r H. C l i nto n, the Co m ma nder-i n-Chief." 39
O n e a rt i c l e in The Times re ported the ghast ly fate of sol d i e rs from the th a nd gt h
regi m e nts of foot, who had a rrived back i n Engl a n d i n 1 809, afte r a te rri b l e o rdeal at sea
d u ri ng the i r h o mewa rd voyage from the island of M a rti n iq u e i n the Ca ribbea n . The rep o rt
stated that t h e "s ke l eto n s of the 7t h a nd gth Regi m e nts of Foot were on Th u rsday la nded at
Plymouth ... They w e re on board fo u r tra nsports w h i c h ca m e u nd e r co nvoy of the Captain
Intrepid� a n d Express� a nd fo rmed p a rt of the u nfo rtu nate homeward West I ndia fle et, which
s uffered so d re a d fu l ly i n the l ate ga les. Not 100 of either of the a bove regiments have been
l eft a l ive, and t h o se who l a nded were i n the most d e pl o ra bl e co n d ition fro m fatigue a nd
d isease." 40 This s e n satio n a l sto ry is a n exa m p l e of w h e n it was l i kely that ave rage B ritish
s o l d i e rs m a d e it i nto the news p a p e rs . I fo u n d one m o re post-wa r a rticle that menti o n e d
B ritish sold i e rs, a nd it a lso had a sensational ist b e nt . I n fact, t h e a rticle reflects very b a d l y
o n the so l d i e r i n q ue sti o n . O n J u ly 3 rd, 1790, The Times re ported t h a t "a n officer of t h e
a rmy ...w h o s e d e m ea n o r seemed t o i n d icate a d e ra n ged m i nd" 41 a pproached a fa m i l y that
was o ut wal ki ng o n a com mon, a nd attacked them vio l ently, s u p posedly without a ny
p rovocatio n . T h e a ssa i l a nt, who had l ost a n a rm i n t h e A m e rica n war was friends with
38
Th e Times, Lo n d o n, M a rc h 17, 1828
39 Th e Times, Lo n d o n , April 8, 1836
40
41
The Times, Lon d o n, S e pte m b e r 25, 1809
The Times, Lon d o n, J u ly 30, 1790
67
"seve ra l cred ita b l e ge ntl e m e n," who attended his "exa m i nati o n ." H oweve r, the a rticle
c o n c l uded t hat "as no bond co u l d be give n fo r h i s peace a b l e a nd goo d behavior i n futu re, h e
was s e n t t o a private mad-ho use at H oxto n ." 42
O n B oxi ng Day, Dece m be r 2 6, 1788, The Times pri nted a l ette r to the e d itor fo rm
s om e body who used the m o n i ke r, "a s o l d i e r's frie nd." The l etter i s writte n a bo ut a m a n
w h o a p pa re ntly "rece ived three ba l ls i nto h i s body a t B u n ke r's H i l l . . . . . a s soo n a s he was a b l e
to m ove, h e was s e nt t o Long I s l a nd, a nd there . . . h e was wou nded i n t h e l eft a rm . " U po n h i s
ret u rn to England, h e got m a rried, sta rted a fa m i l y, a nd retu rned t o h i s o l d profession, that
of "some branch of the cloth ing b u s i n ess."
Acco rd i ng to the l ette r w rite r, the ex-soldier
h a d a l ot of tro u b l e o bta i n i ng "his p e n s i o n from I re l a nd", where he " h a d fo u r years pay due,
a nd ca n n e ither o bta i n it, nor is h e a b l e to fetch it i n perso n." He a nd h i s fa m i ly we re fo rced
to seek s h e lte r in a "hay rick, b ut at p resent a poor fa m i ly, not I n a m uc h better situation,
have perm itted them to s lee p u po n a few shavi ngs i n a corner of their room ." In conclusion,
t h e writer b egs t h e M a rq u is of B uckingh a m to "ord e r it to be paid wit h o ut the perso n a l
a pp e a ra nce of the u nfortu nate m a n to w h o m it i s d u e ." 43 This hea rt-fe lt a p pe a l o n b e h a lf of
a vete ra n who " b l e d i n the service of h i s co u ntry," is a classic exa m p l e of the ave rage foot
s o l d i e r in t h e British a rmy d u ri ng the A m e rica n revo l utionary war; i . e, e co n o m i ca l ly
cha l l e nged, b ut with some tra i n i ng i n s ki l led l a bor. Howeve r, it is u n us u a l i n perso n a l ,
c o m pass i o n ate, a nd e m pathetic sty l e, e specia l ly i n its advocating fo r a com mo n so l d ier.
The B ritish newspapers then, were j ust as l i ke l y to pri nt stories a bo ut the death of
the offic e rs who had se rved with d isti n ct i o n, as the Ame rica n news pa p e rs were, and a lso
42
43
The Times, Lon d o n , J u ly 2 0 , 1790
The Times, Lon d o n , Dece m b e r 2 6, 1 788
68
were attracted to t h e m o re se nsatio n a l a nd wo nderfu l sto ries, t h a n perso n a l stories a bo ut
com mo n foot so l d i e rs .
Conclusions:
A s I had pre d i cted i n the i ntrod uctio n t o this resea rch pa per, i t w a s i ndeed d ifficult
to fi nd m uch info r m at i o n a b o ut B ritish so l d iers fro m the ra n k and fi l e of the a rmy. M ost
a ccou nts re port a n d exa m i n e i nfo rmation a bo ut so l d i e rs fro m the u pper echelons of the
a rmy. In fa ct, the higher the ra n k, the m o re l i kely that a n e ws p a p e r wo u l d re port o n the
i nd ivid u a l co ncern e d . U s u a l l y, o n ly when there was e ith e r a se n satio n a l story, or if a so l d i e r
b ro ke the law wo u l d t h e s o l d i e rs m a ke i t i nto t h e newspa p e r, a nd eve n t h e n , there wo u l d
n o t be m a ny basic fa cts reco rded a bo ut t h e perso n .
A s w e saw, t h e re we re m a ny tho usa nds o f so l d i e rs s e rvi ng i n N o rth Ame rica d u ring
the wa r of i ndepe n d e nce, and dozens of a rmy regim e nts. We saw that they were sent to
d iffe re nt geogra p h i ca l a reas of confl ict at the e nd of the w a r, and even d u ri ng the wa r. The
B riti sh a rmy was a ga rga n t u a n o rga nizati o n that was co n sta ntly b e i ng re-de ployed,
re m oved, a nd re-statio n e d . The ave rage foot so ldier cou l d n eve r be sure where he was
goi ng to be stati o ned, a n d w h e n he was goi ng to be re- located .
H oweve r, t h e B ritish Army a nd its sol d i e rs d i d leave pa rt o f th e m selves beh i nd i n
A m e rica . The war d e a d o f course rem a i ned, b u ried o r scatte red ove r the eastern pa rt o f the
U n ited States . Othe rs s u rvived and chose to re m a i n s uch a s H offm a n, the H a noveri a n . P a rt
of their daily wo rk a nd l a bor rem a i n s a lso, a nd is visited d a i l y a nd wee kly by peo ple
i nte rested i n the past . A stri ng of forts b u i lt by the Britis h (and the French) p rovide h isto rica l
69
m o n u m e nts to fut u re ge nerations i nte rested i n lea r n i ng a bo ut the past, a n d p rovid e a
co r n e r of t h e A m e rica n c u ltura l ta pestry .
70
B I B L I OG RAPHY:
Secondary Sources
1} Ste p h e n Brumwe l l . Redcoats: The British Soldier and the War in the Americas, 1 7551 763. Ca m b ridge U nive rsity P re ss, 2002
2} Edward E . Curtis. The Organization of the British Army in the A merican Revolution .
Corner H o use H i storica l P ro d u ctio n s, 1928
3} J a mes Ki rby M a rt i n . I n t h e Course of Human Events. AHM P u b l is h i ng Co rporation, 1979
4) Sta n ley P a rge l l is . Lord L oudoun in North America. Ya l e U n iversity P re ss, 1933
5 ) John Shy. Toward Lexingto n : The Role of the British Army i n the Comin g of the American
R e volutio n . P ri nceto n U n ive rsity P ress
6 } M ic h a e l Ste phe nson. Patriot Battles. H a rper Co l l ins, 2007
7} Cha rles H Stewa rt. The Service of British regiments in Canada and North A merica.
D e p a rt m e nt of Defe nse Li bra ry, Ottawa, 1964
Primary Sources
N e wspape rs
1 } Columbian Cen tinel
2) Daily A dvertiser
3 ) Independent Chronicle
4} Providence Gazette
5 ) The Times
B ritish Regi m e nta l H isto rica l Reco rds
1 ) Historical Records of the 1 8th Regim e n t of Foot. Richard Ca n no n, 1848
2) Historical Records of the Fortieth Regiment of Foot. Ca pta i n Raym o n d Smyth ies, 1 894
3 ) Historical Records of the 1 6th "Quee n 's Lancers" Cavalry Regimen t. J o h n W. Pa rke r, 1841
4 ) Historical Records of the 34 th and 55th Regiments of Foot. G e o rge Noa kes, 1 885
71
PART THR E E
A : Co n necting to t e a c hing:
The n e xt ste p of my thesis connects my o rigi n a l research to teac h i ng the to pic. I
have studied t h e B ritish sold ier a nd the British a rm y i n N o rth Ame rica i n the mid to late
e ightee nth century. This of co u rse i nc l udes two m aj o r co nfl icts, The Fre nch a n d I n d i a n Wa r
a n d the Ame rica n Wa r of I nd e pe ndence. When perusing the New Yo rk State Education
D e p a rtment' s officia l cu rricu l u m for e l eventh gra d e U . S . h i story, it is i m m ediately
n oticea b l e to m e that the words " Fre nch a n d I n d i a n Wa r" a re a bsent. Ove r the cou rse of
the yea r, the nation's h istory i s b roken down i nto seve n u n its. U n it One covers the study of
geogra p hy, a nd U n it Two, the fi rst u n it in the study of U .S. h i story is e ntitled Constitution al
Foundations for the United States Democratic Republic. This u n it is d ivided i nto two
the m atic a n d c h ro n o logica l parts. Part one, entitled The Constitution: The Foundation of
American Society s p a n s from the col o n i a l e ra to the Wa r of 1812 a n d the M o n roe Doctri n e .
P a rt two, l a be led The Constitution Tested: Nationalism a n d Sectionalism begins b y focusing
o n t h e unique com po n e nts of America n governme n t, a nd p rogresses o n to sectiona l is m i n
the U n ited States, te rrito ria l expa nsion, a n d cul m in ates i n the Civi l Wa r. S o , t h e e r a t h a t I
have conducted m y research o n is clea rly squeezed i nto section o n e of u n it two . The
sections a re b roke n down fu rther i nto s m a l ler, m i n i-sectio n s, a nd the o n l y p lace that my
s pecific to pic of the B ritish s o l d i e r in the m id to l ate e ighteenth centu ry, and the broad e r
s u bjects o f T h e F re n c h a nd I nd i a n Wa r co u l d sq ueeze i nto is p a rt fo u r ( a ), e ntitled {(ca uses of
the revo l utio n" .
72
W h e n exa m i n ing a typical text-b o o k, such as The Americans by D a n ze r, Klare de
Alva, Kriege r, Wilson, and Woloch, a nd p u b l ished by the M cDouga l Litte l l p u b l is h i ng
co m pa ny, t h e re is at least a whole, a l beit very s ma l l su b-section o n the F re nc h a nd I ndia n
Wa r. The text-boo k has a tota l of t h i rty fo u r cha pte rs that run c h ro n o l ogica l ly from the
E u ro p e a n ({d iscove ry' of the Americas to t h e modern day. Each chapter consists of b etwe e n
thre e a n d five su b-sections, a nd c h a pte r t h ree, e ntitled The Colonies Com e of Age is d ivided
i nto fo u r s u b-sectio ns e ntitled, England and its Colonies, The Agricultural South, The
Com mercial North, a nd l a stly, The French and Indian War. H oweve r, this l a st su b-section
l a sts fo r a m e re five pages, a nd does a p e rfu n cto ry a nd rather boring job of expl a i n i n g the
com pl exities of F re nch, B ritish a nd I nd i a n c o nfl ict a nd co-existe nce. The fi rst page briefly
d iscusses the reaso n s fo r the wa r, the next two pages p rovide i nformati o n a bo ut the wa r
itself, a n d the l a st two pages cover the e n s u i ng te nsions betwee n G reat B rita i n a n d the
co l o n i e s . The c h a pte r does e m pha size that the French were i n N ew F ra nce b eca use of
tra d i ng i nte rests, a nd briefly mentions that B ritish a n d F re nch a m biti o n s at e m p i re c reated
te n s i o n s a l l a ro u n d the globe, but the cha pter does not offer m uch deta i l a bo ut these globa l
te n s i o n s . I n fa ct, there is not a great d e a l of deta i l or eva l uation i nto a nyth i ng, a fact that
s u p p o rts the assertion that a teache r sho u ld n eve r so l e ly re ly on a school text-book.
Of great i nte rest to m e is the way that B ritish so l d i e rs a re portrayed in this s u b­
sect i o n of t h is c h a pter. The reader is i nt ro d uced to the fa mous i ncide nt i n 1755 w h e n
G e n e ra l B ra ddock's B ritish fo rce fo ught a F re nch fo rce a n d the i r I ndia n a l l ie s n e a r F o rt
D u q u es n e i n the O h io va l ley. The text- b o o k states that the ({cowa rdice of the su pposedly
i nvi n ci b l e B ritish a rmy su rprised Washi n gto n, who h i mse lf showed i nc red i b l e co u rage. As
h e tried to ra l ly his troo ps, two ho rses we re s h ot fro m under him a nd fo u r b u l l ets pierced
his coat - a ltho ugh he esca ped u n ha rm e d . H e wrote to his mother that 1th e Virginia troops
73
s howed a good dea l of b rave ry, a n d were near a l l ki l led . . . . ( but the B ritish so l d i e rs) b ro ke a n d
ra n a s s h e e p p u rsued by dogs a nd it w a s i m poss i b l e t o ra l ly t h e m " . 1
F red Anders o n is o ne of the wo rld's m ost respected a n d knowledge a b l e h isto ria ns
o n the Fre nch and I nd i a n Wa r. When yo u read a bo ut t h e d isaster t hat befe l l the B ritish
tro o ps u n d e r G e ne ra l B ra d d oc k in his book The War Tha t Made A merica, it i s s hocki ng how
t re acherous with the truth the afore-mentioned text-boo k is. One does not know whether
to l a ugh o r cry. When d iscussing the same sce ne, Ande rs o n w rites that the " B ritish made it
su bsta ntia l l y easier for t h e I nd i a n m a rksmen to do thei r work. H ea ring fi ring e r u pt a head,
the m a i n body of the col u m n rushed fo rwa rd, co l l i d i ng with t h e retreati ng a dva nce
gua rd . . . Ta ngled i n c o nfu s i o n on a roa d l ittl e m o re than twe lve feet wide, the B ritish made a
s p l e nd id, use less ta rget . U na bl e to see the I nd i a ns who s n i p e d at them from cover, the
B ritish tro o ps fought a s best t h ey cou l d, d irecti ng vol l eys b l i n d ly i nto the woods - and a lso,
a l l too often, i nto one a noth e r . . . . .fo r a l l their confusion a nd fea r, h oweve r, the B ritis h troop s
d i d n ot flee u nt i l a m us ket b a l l s m a s h e d i nto B raddock's back . . . B y then m o re tha n two third s
of t h e 1,450 m e n a n d wom e n i n t h e British co l u m n h a d b e e n ki l l ed o r wou n ded . . . . F o r the
p a n icked, exhausted B ritish the next two days of fl ight b eca m e a n ew kind of he l l . Men too
serio usly wounded to wa l k were left to die as thei r com rades stu m b l ed down the roa d
wit h o ut food o r water" . 2
The d iffe re nce betwee n the two passages is sta rtl ing. J u m p i ng to l a zy conc l usions
wit h o ut a ny attem pt to a na l yze o r eva l uate does da mage to t h e study of history, and shortcha nges students. The text-b o o ks concludes that the B ritish s o l d i e rs we re cowa rd ly under
fire, whereas the history b o o k concl udes that they did the b est profess i o n a l j o b they co u l d
1
Th e Americans, p84-5 by D a n ze r, K l o r d e Alva, Krieger, Wilson, a n d Wol o c h . P u b l i s h ed b y M cDouga l
Litt l e
2 F r e d And e rs o n .
The War Tha t Made America, p70- 1 : Viki ng/ P e n g u i n G ro u p, 2005
74
u n d e r the m ost h a rrowing a nd u nfa m i l ia r of circumsta nces. Did the text-boo k write rs com e
t o t h e i r co n c l u s i o n s o n ly fro m Was h i ngto n's l etter h o m e ? It is t h e o n l y evide nce they give,
a n d so it is reaso n a b l e to co ncl ude that they d id, especia l ly when yo u co nsid e r that
histori a n s co n c u r with Ande rso n . In addition, I c a n not h e l p but q uestion whether
Washi ngt o n h i m s e lf was a very rel i a b l e re porte r, a nd wh eth e r he eve n wrote the afo re­
m e ntioned n ote to his m othe r, a bo ut this partic u l a r batt l e . H oweve r, ass u m i ng that h e d id
write it a bo ut t h i s eve nt, a h i story teacher ca n use these two passages to ma ke a pertinent
poi nt. Wa s Was h i ngton e m be l l is h i ng the a ctions of the B ritish tro o ps i n his l ette rs h o m e ? I f
this wa s i ndeed t h e case, w h y w a s i t s o ? D i d e m be l l is h m e nts exist because of his sense o f
frustrati o n towa rds the British hiera rchy? W e k n ow of h i s frustrations late r w h e n Lord
Lo u d o u n d e n ied his request for a com m iss i o n in the regu l a r B ritish a rmy. Howeve r, even if
we a ssu m e that Washi ngto n gen u i nely bel i eved the troops had acted in a cowa rd ly m a n n e r,
responsi b l e h i st o r i a n s a n d teachers s h o u l d ask w h ether this was a reaso n a b l e concl usion to
com e to . To s ki l le d h isto ria n s such as Fre d Ande rson, who ca n eva l uate a l l of the docu m e nts
that re ported on t hat day, we ca n lea rn so m uc h m o re . We ca n lea rn that these p a rtic u l a r
B ritish tro o p s we re fac i ng o bstacles they d id n o t have a l ot o f expe rience of. Although som e
tro o ps i n t h e B ritish a rmy h a d experie nced s u c h battles befo re, t h e norm w a s fo r l o n g a n d
w i d e co l u m ns o f m e n m a rc h i ng towa rds e a c h o t h e r o n flat, wide-open E u ropean l a ndsca pes
where the batt l e co u l d be o bserved a nd o rchestrated without too m a ny u n knowns. For the
text-book w riters a nd p u b l ishers to l eave Was h i n gton's rem a r ks i n the text-b o o k without
some fu rt h e r eva l uation a nd putting it i nto co ntext, is a c u rio us, worryi ng, a n d potentia l ly
da m aging a ct, a n d it eve n smacks of unas h a m e d pro paga n d a . While the British troo ps "ra n
a s sheep p u rs ue d b y dogs", Washi ngto n 11S howed i ncred i b l e cou rage" . 3
3
Th e Americans, p84-5
75
The next cha pte r, cha pte r fo u r is e ntitled The War for Independence/ a n d a l l fou r
s u b-sections cove r t h e b u i l d u p to t h e Ame rica n Wa r o f I ndepende nce ( 1775-8 3 ) a n d the
war itse lf. The cha pte r's fou r su b-sections a re ca l l ed The Stirrings of Rebellion Ideas Help
Start a Revolution/ Struggling To ward Saratoga; a n d Winning the War. I do u ndersta nd
when cove ring the American Wa r of I nde pendence in the U n ited States, it i s i m porta nt to
h e l p Ame rica n stude nts cel e b rate the fo u n d i ng of the i r cou ntry and u n d e rsta nd the
sacrifices that so m e Ame rica n s m a d e . In The Stirrings of Rebellion, the n a rrative cove rs the
te n s i o ns betwe e n the B ritish gove r n m e nt a nd the co lon ies, especia l ly M a ssach usetts, a n d
t h e n t h e fi rst shots of t h e wa r at Lex i n gton a nd Conco rd . T h e text-b o o k correctly asserts
that o ne of the p r i m a ry reaso n s for the p re-wa r te nsions was eco n o m i c . The story of the
({B osto n M assac re" is to ld, and the text-boo k b riefly descri bes how the c ity of Boston was
ve ry tense at this time. Approp riately, it records how there was ten s i o n betwee n col o n ists
a nd the l ow-paid so l d i e rs, as both gro u ps com peted fo r j o b o p po rt u n ities a nd that this
te n s i o n u lti m ate ly led to the ({m a ssa cre" . H oweve r, it does not m e ntio n a ny of the other
so u rces of tension such as c u lt u ra l a nd pol itica l . Through my resea rch, I lea rned that in
G reat Brita i n, it wo u l d have bee n u n a cce pta ble to have had a l a rge sta n d i ng a rmy i n a ny
town or city, l i ke the presence that was conce ntrated i n Bosto n . Li ke E ng l i s h m e n i n the
co l o n ies, E ngl i s h m e n at home w e re s u s picious of l a rge sta nding a rm ies and it was
u n a ccepta b l e to fo rce citizen s to q u a rter troops in the i r homes. The t e r m (fa n Engl i s h m a n's
home is h i s castle" a p p l ied on both sides of the ocea n . Addition a l ly, col o ni sts were a n noyed
by some of the s o l d i e rs' behavio rs, such a s ga m bl i ng, d ri n ki ng a nd swe a ring. H oweve r, as
p reviously m e ntioned, the o n ly ti m e t h e troops of the B ritish army a re m e ntioned i n the
su b-section a bo ut the lead up the war is i n re lation to p rovid i ng com petiti o n fo r low-paid
jobs. In the seco nd su b-sect i o n, Ideas Help Start a Revolution, the na rrative skips q u ickly
76
fro m The Battle of B u n ke r H i l l to the O l ive B ra nch Petition, Thom a s P a i ne's Common Sense,
the Declaration of I nd e pe nd en ce, a n d fi n ishes with a good discuss i o n of how people in the
colo n ies to i led h a rd over the decisio n of whether to join the rebe l s, rem a i n loya l, or stay
neutra l .
I n t h e t h i rd s u b-section, Struggling Toward Saratoga, t h e early stages o f the wa r a re
told, especi a l ly the d ifficu lties a nd h a rdships facing Was h i ngto n, a nd then the Ameri ca n
victo ries a t Tre nto n a nd Sa ratoga . The British ge n e ra ls a re m e ntioned m uch more than the
reg u l a r tro o ps whose sto ry seems to be com pl ete l y re m oved from the na rrative . H owever,
these ge n e ra l s a re po rtrayed a s b u ngl i ng buffoons. For exa m pl e, G e nera l Bu rgoyne wa s
s l owed down o n the m a rch to Sa ratoga because of extras such as "fi ne clothes a nd
cha m pagne" 4 At P h i la d e l p h ia, i n the wi nte r of 1777/8, t h e "pleasure-loving Genera l Howe
settled in to e njoy the hosp ita l ity of P h i l a d e l p h ia's gratefu l l oya l ists." 5 W h i l e it is true that
the B ritish gen e r a l s m a d e cruci a l m ista kes i n N o rt h A m e rica d u ri ng the Revo l ution a ry w a r,
the text-book i m p l ies that the British j ust decided to ta ke a hedon i stic vacation i n the m idd l e
o f a wa r-zo n e . M y resea rch h a s ta ught m e that i n t h e eightee nth century, a rmies a lways
we nt i nto w i nte r q u a rters, and o n l y ca m pa igned from the l ate s p ri ng to the l ate fa l l .
The refore, i t m a d e s e n se t o settle fo r t h e wi nter i n a town where there was l oya list s u p po rt .
I a m n o t d e n y i n g that the ge n e ra l had a heavy soci a l ca l e n d a r, but it is i m portant t o exp l a i n
t h e context o f these actio n s, otherwise w e risk losing t h e i nterest of o u r stude nts, a n d
there by d iscou raging t he i r tho ughtfu l a na l ysis. I m po rta ntly, t h e text-book does have o n e
s m a l l i nsert that ve ry q ui c kly com pa res t h e m i l ita ry stre ngths a n d weaknesses o f t h e B ritish
sold iers with t h e Ame rica n rebels. Although the B ritish a rmy i s described as strong a n d we l l -
4
5
The Americans, p 109
Th e Americans, p 1 08
77
tra i n e d , t h e text-book o n ly very b riefly i nc l udes b road, swe e p i ng genera l izatio n s, a n d the re
i s a severe l a c k of i n-de pth i nq u i ry based l e a rni ng. The rem a i n d e r of the s u b-ch a pte r
d iscusses d a ily l ife a nd h a rd s h i p fo r the col o n ists d u ring the co nfl ict. The fi n a l s u b-section,
e ntitled Winnin g the War, begins with the southern ca m pa ign and q u ickly goes o n to discuss
the B ritish ca p it u l atio n at Yo rktown in Vi rgi n i a .
N ow h e re t h e n i n t h e text-boo k, be i t i n t h e su b-section o n t h e F re nc h a nd I nd i a n
Wa r o r t h e cha pter o n the American Wa r of I nd e pe nd ence is there a ny sensi b l e d iscussio n
of t h e B ritish a r m y i n t h e e ighteenth ce ntu ry i n N o rth A m e rica . Where t h ey a re b ri efly
m e nt i o n e d the s o l d i e rs a re portrayed a s coward s a nd the ge nera l s as im beciles. I m ust re­
iterate t hat I b e l i eve t hat in studying the A m e rica n Revo l ution i n today's U n ited States, it is
c ruc i a l that stud e nts lea rn a bo ut the vita l ity of those ti mes a nd the u n iq u e cha l le nges facing
that ge n e ration of Am e rica ns. H oweve r, b eg i n n i ng with the F rench a nd I nd i a n Wa r,
p rogressing t h ro ugh the i nte r-war yea rs, a n d e nd i ng with the Wa r of I nd e p e n d e nce, British
s o l d i e rs a nd the B riti s h a rm y in genera l p l a ys an i m porta nt rol e in Americ a n h i story, a n d
t h e y d e s e rve t o b e exa m i ne d m o re c l os e ly. Stude nts deserve t h e cha nce t o study
i ndivid u a l s a nd gro u ps who had vita l a nd i nt rigu i ng experie nces i n what wo u ld b eco m e the
U nited States, a nd how these expe ri e n ces i ntera cted with the experiences of other gro u ps
a nd i nd i vi d u a l s . Such study is of cou rse e m bedded i n the N ew York State Lea rn i ng
Sta n d a rd s .
M y o rigi n a l resea rc h exa m ined t h e com position of the a rmy a nd the g l o b a l
assig n m ents it was give n . I exa m ined regim e nta l h i stories, recorded i nfo rmation a b o ut
s o m e of the forts that the B ritish a n d F re n c h a rm ies built a nd ma i nta i ned i n N o rth A meica,
a nd exa m i ned n ewspa per accou nts a bo ut s o m e of the vete ra ns fro m the Ame rica n Wa r of
78
I nd e pe nd e n ce . I n studyi n g a nd reco rdi ng the h i storiogra phy of t h e B ritish so l d i e rs a nd the
British a rmy, I a lso d iscove red what ge ne rations of historia n s have conce ntrated on
thro ughout the ove r two h u n d red years s i nce the B ritish a rmy l eft the U n ited States i n 1783 .
I o bserved t h e s o u rces a nd footnotes of h i storia ns, so urces s u c h a s gove r n m e nta l records
a nd perso n a l d i a ries a n d l ette rs. The nature of the regu l a r B ritish p rivates in these yea rs
was o n e of i l l iteracy. It was a p p a re ntly ve ry ra re that privates h a d l ite racy ski l ls. Therefo re,
w h e n p a i nting a p i cture of t h e m we usua l ly a re forced to rely o n s o u rces w ritten by oth e rs,
such as officers a nd gove rn m e nt officia ls. H i sto ria ns have bee n a bl e to b l e n d these sources
with d i a ries and l ette rs that p rivates from succeed i ng yea rs w rote, a n d a s i s their ta sk,
fo r m u late o pi n i o n s a bo ut these m e n .
T h e ge nera l co n s e n s u s a m o ngst h i sto ri a ns today i s t h a t t h e p rivates were mostly
fro m lower socio-eco n o m ic g ro u ps . I n the past, the image of B ritish p rivates of the m i d to
late e ighte e nth century h a s b e e n that of crim i n a l s whose behavior m a naged to attract
s u p po rt for the rebels. If we b e l i eve this story, they a l l h a d c ri m i n a l record s, they a l l d ra n k,
swo re a n d ga m bled i ncessa ntly, they a l l ra ped a n d looted the i r way i nd iscri m i nate ly a ro u n d
N o rth Ameri ca, a nd t h e y a l l w e re d o m i nated b y a b loodt h i rsty nature t h a t they h a d l ea rnt
fro m an o ut of contro l code o f d isci p l i ne that rel ied heavi l y on p hysica l beati ngs. H owever, a
m o re ca refu l look shows us a n other sto ry. Yes, the re was co rpora l p u n is h m e nt designed to
m a i nta i n disci p l i ne, yes, t h e re were i ncide nts of cri m es aga i n st civi l i a n s, j ust as there were
fro m a l l sides i n c l u d i ng A m erica n re bels towa rds America n l oya l i sts a n d British priso ners of
war.
H oweve r, the a ccepted pictu re that is d rawn today by h i sto ri a n s of the ave rage
British s o l d i e r is o n e of d ive rs ity. M a ny p rivates came from pa rts of B rita i n where there was
79
h igh u n e m p l oy m e nt. They had had a degree of tra i n i ng a nd work experience i n a rtisa n
tra d es such as s hoe-ma ki ng, weavi ng, a nd clothes- m a ki ng. The eco no m i c cl imate of the m i d
t o l ate eighte e n t h centu ry i n G reat Brita i n fo rced m a ny sta rvi ng a n d destitute i ndivi d u a l s
i nto acce pting a post i n t h e B ritish a rmy. Sol d i e rs were geogra p h ica l ly d ive rse too . T h e fi na l
term i nati o n of t h e J a co bite th reat at the batt l e of C u l l o d e n i n 1745 mea nt that wh o l e
Scottish regi m e nts were i ncorporated i nto t h e B riti s h a rmy. My resea rch shows that t h e re
was a ma ssive I ri s h a rmy. There were m a ny We l s h m e n too, a n d fa mo usly i n the A m e rica n
Wa r of I nd e p e n d e n ce, there were m a ny G e rm a n " He ss i a n" troops, troo ps whose s e rvice
King George I l l had n egotiated for using his G e rm a n co n n ectio ns.
I b e l i eve that when teac h i ng histo ry, it is i m porta nt not to turn a ny gro u p of peo ple
i n a faceless body of ste reotypes. Do i ng so does t h e gro u p a great d isservice, whoever t hey
a re . It a lso does a h uge d isse rvice to the stude nts t hat we a re tea c h i ng. As teachers, we
need to safe-gu a rd the s u bj ect of histo ry fro m those who would turn it i nto an i ns i p i d a n d
sta l e co l lectio n o f to pics that w e need t o d rudge t h ro ugh t o m eet some vague b u n d l e of
expectatio n s . I wa nt to repeat how i m porta nt it i s t hat Ameri ca n stude nts lea rn a b o ut the
actions of those who hel ped esta b l ish the U n ited States . H owever, it is a l so i m p e rative that
the students h e a r a l l sides of the sto ry, a nd lea rn e a rly on that Socia l Studies is partia l ly
a bout m u lti-fa ceted a p p roaches to com plex h i sto rica l a nd contem porary themes a n d issues.
Stude nts w i l l have a richer u ndersta n d i ng of the ea rly yea rs of the America n re p u b l i c if they
have a broa d e r u n d e rsta n d i ng of the B ritish e m p i re of these yea rs, a n d the e m p i re's
i nte rests, a s p i ra t i o n s and cha l le nges.
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8 : A Course P o rtfolio of Source s
Source # 1 : Topic I ntroduction : I nteractive lecture:
M y cou rse portfo l io o n the B ritish Army i n North America wi l l begi n by i ntrod uci ng
the stude nts to the gen e ra l h istorica l content of mid to l ate e ightee nth ce ntu ry North
A m e ri ca . Witho ut the stude nts learning a bo ut the wider co ntext, j ust l e a r n i ng a bout the
B ritish s o l d i e rs stationed i n N o rth A m e rica wo u l d have no mea n i ng . The o bjective is to
p rovide stu d ents with a gen e ra l u n d e rsta nd i ng of the chain of eve nts that sha ped; fi rstly,
the l e a d up to wa r in North A m e rica b etwe e n G reat B rita i n a n d Fra nce in the m id eightee nth
century; second ly, the wa r itse l f ( i n A m e rica, ca l led the " French a n d I nd i a n Wa r", 1756-63);
a nd t h i rd l y, the lead u p to the A m e ri c a n Revo l utio n . These fu nda m e nta l eve nts of early
A m e rica n h i sto ry a re vita l fo r stude nts to explore if they a re to have an a ccu rate pict u re of
their natio n's story. With good reaso n i ng, h i storia n F re d Ande rso n ca l l s the F re nch a n d
I nd i a n Wa r, "Th e Wa r That M a d e A m e rica ." T h e eve nts o f this e ra p rovid e a d i rect l i n k
between t h e E u ro pea n past a n d t h e A m e rica n fut u re . They h ighl ight t h e m u lti-cu ltu ra l
e l e m e nt o f the Ame rica n experience. They a re vita l com po n e nts o f t h e n ati o n a l a n d state
c u rricu l u m a nd p rovide many o p po rt u n ities to synthesize the l ea r n i ng sta n d a rds.
To i ntroduce the co nte nt I wi l l s i m u ltaneously p resent a n i ntera ct ive l ectu re a nd a
power p o i nt p rese ntatio n . For a print o ut of the power point p res e ntation, p lease see
a pp e ndix I ( l ette r ) . Both of these too l s wi l l h igh l ight i m po rta nt com po n e nts of the c o ntent.
Stu d e nts w i l l receive a m u lti-se nsory l esson on confl ict in eighteenth century North America,
a l e sson w h ich wi l l i nco rpo rate m a ps, a rtwork a nd e m bedded questi o n i ng. The pu rpose of
81
i nc l u d i ng a l l of these d iffe re nt too l s is to a ppea l to diffe re nt l e a rn i ng styles a nd to kee p the
stude nts e ngaged, focused, a ctive, cha l le nged a nd involve d .
I have ca l le d t h e p o w e r point p resentation "Co nfl ict i n Co l o n i a l N o rth America ." I
begi n by try i ng to g ive t h e stude nts some co ntext a bo ut the trad iti o n a l a n i mosity a nd riva l ry
betwee n G reat Brita i n a n d F ra nce, but a lso a bo ut how t h e i r a cri m o n i o us re lations h i p was
u n i q ue l y p layed out in N o rth A m e rica . I i ntroduce the idea that both cou ntries subscri bed
to the bel ief that if t h ey stre n gthened their hand i n N o rth A m e rica, there by gathe ring access
to reso u rces and tra d i n g rights, the stre ngth, powe r, a nd i nfl u e nce of the home cou ntry
wo u ld i ncrease. I n that vei n of thought, I exp l a i n to the stu d e nts that French settlers were
m o stly based i n m o d e r n d a y Ca nada, especia l ly Acadia, M o ntrea l a nd Que bec, but that
Fre nch explore rs, t ra d e rs and m issio na ries were enco u raged by the French gove r n m e nt to
m ove westwa rds a nd s o uthwa rds. My fi rst em bedded q ue stio n of the p resentation is "Why
did the F rench gove rn m e nt e n co u rage th is?" By havi ng a q u e stio n i nc l uded in the
prese ntation ea rly o n, I set the to n e for l etti ng the stude nts know that they a re expected to
be p a rtici pa nts a n d not m e re ly m e m b e rs of an a udience.
One of the m a i n o bj ectives of this p rese ntatio n is fo r stude nts to be a bl e to
u n de rsta nd that the te rrito ry that the F re nch cla i med was a lot l a rger tha n the co m bi ned
size of the B ritish co l o n ies, and that by 1745, N ew Fra nce e nvelo ped the B ritish co l o nies.
This beco mes very clea r to the stude nts when they witness slide n u m be r six wh ich i s a m a p
o f the easte rn h a lf of t h e N o rth Ame rica n conti nent i n t h a t y e a r . I have a l ways be l i eved that
m a ps a re fa ntastic e d u catio n a l too ls to use whe n tryi n g to teach a bo ut a to pic. I discuss the
b u i l d i ng of F rench forts in these a reas, a n d then ask my seco n d e m bedded questio n ; "Why
were fo rts b u i lt nea r l a ke s or rive rs?" Altho ugh this seems l i ke a very o bvious question that
82
is m o re a p p ro p riate fo r e le m e nta ry age stude nts, the p u rpose of i n c l u d i ng it is to e nco u rage
discuss i o n . A d iscussi o n a bo ut eightee nth century tra n s p o rtatio n w i l l p rovide the stude nts
to t h i n k h i sto rica l ly. The maj o r rive rs a re o ut l i n e d o n s l i d e n u m be r six, a nd I wi l l e m phasize
that roa d- b u i l d i ng was at a ve ry nascent stage d u ri n g this e ra .
T h e p rese ntation next turns to t h e ea rly stages o f the wa r a n d the ea rly F rench
victo ries. I l ist these victories ( Fo rt Oswego, Fort Wi l l ia m H e n ry), but I do not d e lve i nto
the m at a l l, as my o bjective is not to have stu d e nt m e m o rize dates of battles. I next exp l a i n
t h a t t h e cha n ge of a d m i n istration i n Brita i n t h a t s a w Wi l l i a m P itt domi nate the B ritish
gover n m e nt, had a d i rect effect o n the wa r, a s P itt o rdered 25,000 British s o l d i e rs to be
d e p l oyed to the A m e rica n theater.
I t h e n retu rn to a noth e r e m bedded q u e stio n ( n u m be r thre e ), which is; "The F rench
a n d t h e B ritish saw t h i s confl i ct a s vita l t o their natio na l i nterests. Why?" By d o i ng so, we
re-visit e a r l i e r i nfo rmation p resented i n a p revio u s s l ide, which was that Brita i n a n d F ra nce
were e m b ro i led in b e l iefs a bo ut the im porta nce of m a i nta i ni ng thei r power a n d strengt h .
w i l l a s k a f e w stu d e nts ra ndo m ly t o sha re their a nswers, s e n d i ng t h e message t h a t every
stud e nt m ight be ca l l ed o n to exp l a i n t h e i r a nswe r at a ny m o m e nt . The p u rpose of this is to
e n co u rage fu l l p a rtici pation . Why re-vis it t h i s i m po rta nt theme? The o bjective h e re is to
e m p hasize t h e i m porta nce of this conce pt, a nd to e ncou rage c la ss d i scussio n . M o re dates
a re d iscussed q u ickly that s h ow that the wa r was sta rti n g to favor the Britis h ( Lo u is b o u rg,
Fort D u q u e sn e, M on trea l, a nd the fa mous vict o ry at Que be c . ) Slide n u m be r e leve n is a
fa m o us pa i nting by Benj a m i n R ush depicting t h e death of G e n e ra l Ja mes Wolfe at Que bec.
Wo lfe, who m aste rm i nded a nd o rchestrated t h e battle, beca m e a British natio n a l he ro . I
chose the p a i nting fo r a n u m be r of reaso n s . F i rstly, Que bec was strategica l ly i m po rta nt a nd
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as a t u r n i ng p o i nt of the wa r is a n i m po rtant p a rt of any na rrative o n the war. Seco nd ly, by
s h o w i ng a p iece of a rtwo rk, I a m va ry i ng the style of the prese ntation, a n d a p pea l i n g to
stude nts with a rtistic a nd creative stre ngths. I a lso chose it due to t h e fact that G e n e ra l
Wo lfe w a s from m y h o me cou nty of Kent. I th i n k that t h e stude nts w i l l fi n d t h i s person a l
c o n n e ctio n i nte resti ng, a n d it wi l l p rovi de a n o pportunity t o s e e h o w soci eties a re i nte r­
co n nected in a h isto rica l a n d co nte m po ra ry way. I w i l l a lso m e ntio n that Wo lfe's home
v i l lage of Westerha m houses t h e Q uebec H o use m useum which is in h i s fa m i ly home, a nd
t hat the m useu m often houses exh i bits with a N o rth America n co n n ectio n . J ust as Ame rica n
stude nts m ight study British so l d i e rs, B ritish peo p l e study America n s u bj ects a nd events . I n
a nother aside, a noth e r fa m o u s s o l d i e r, Winsto n Church i l l, l ived i n t h e sa m e s m a l l vi l l age of
Weste rha m fo r ma ny yea rs.
Slide n u m be r twe lve i s an extre m e ly co l o rfu l map of the e a ste rn h a lf of North
A m erica at the e nd of the F re nc h a nd I nd i a n Wa r in 1763 . G reat B rita i n won of cou rse, a n d
t h e i r i ncreasing i nfl u e n ce i s e a s i l y seen when viewing this ma p . N e xt, I t u rn to t h e events
between the e n d of this co nfl i ct ( 1763 ) a n d the begi n n i ngs of the A m e rica n Wa r of
I nd e pe nde nce ( 1775 ) . My o bj ective h e re is to h e l p the stude nts a na lyze the d iffere nt
viewpoi nts that the B ritish a nd the Ame ri ca n coloni sts had, the a ct i o n s that both gro u ps
i m p l e m e nted, a nd the resulting events. The i nte ractive l ecture b riefly refers to Pontiac's
re be l l ion, a nd King George I l l's " P rocla mation" that settlement should not continue fu rther
west . I a lso introduce the co nce pt of fi na ncia l cost to the B ritish gover n m e nt of
a d m i n i ste ring t h e co l o n ies, a nd how these costs i ncrea sed fro m 70,000 pou nds in 1748 to
3 50,000 p o u n ds in 1763 . In a dd it i o n, I i ntroduce to the stude nts t h e British decision to l eave
troops in N o rth Ame rica to p rotect aga i n st fu rther poss i b le attack by I nd i a n gro ups, a nd
a ga i n st a ny poss i b l e French t h re a t, a n d a l so the fu n d a m e nta l q ue stion a bo ut whethe r the
84
colon ists sho u l d h e l p with the cost of paying fo r these troo ps. H e re, I have two more
e m bedded q uest i o n s fo r the stude nts to think a bo ut a n d w rite a n o pi n i o n o n . Quest i o n
n u m ber fo u r i s a s fo l lows; "I n yo u r o p i n i o n, do you t h i n k t h a t the B ritish we re right to l e ave
troo ps in N o rth A m e rica at the end of the French a n d I nd i a n Wa r?" Que stion n u mber five is
"if n o, why n ot? I f yes, do you thi n k that the co l o n i sts s h o u l d have pa i d for some, a l l, o r
n o n e o f the cost o f havi ng a n a rmy i n North Am e rica ?
I then exp l a i n some of the pa rlia m e nta ry Acts that a ngered the col o nists (Qua rteri n g
Act, Sta m p Act, Townshe nd Acts), t h e b u i l d i ng u p of m i strust i n Bosto n, a nd t h e Bosto n
M assacre . I s ho w t h e fa m o u s p ro paga nda print p a i nted by P a u l Revere, a n d exp l a i n w h at i s
a ctu a l ly k n o w n a bo ut t h e events of t h a t d a y . As a visu a l re p resentatio n fro m t h e ti m e
period, i t serves t h e p u r pose of b e i n g a h isto rica l so u rce that is a n a lte rnative t o the w ritte n
a n d s poken wo rd . I t h e n d iscuss the tea tax, the Bosto n "tea pa rty", a n u m be r of the
s pecific " I nto l e ra b l e Acts", a nd fi n a l ly, the fa m o u s day at Lexi ngto n a n d Co ncord. The
Ame rica n Revo l ut i o n itself will be a who l e oth e r u n it, b ut I briefly m e ntion that the wa r
l a sted fro m A p ri l 18, 1775 u nt i l Septe m ber 3, 1783 w h e n the B ritish eve ntua l ly signed the
Treaty of Paris. T h e p e n u lti m ate s l ide is of the fi rst fl ag of the U n ited States, a nd the l a st
s l ide a s ks stude nts to d ivide i nto gro u ps, exa m i n e o n e of the s pecific disagreements
between B rita i n a nd the col o n ies, a nd actua l ly p ro pose a so l utio n . This activity provid e s
stude nts w i t h t h e o pportun ity t o w o r k col la bo rative l y, a pply t h e i r u ndersta ndi ng, a n d ta ke a
position a b o ut a co ntrovers i a l topic of Soci al Stud i e s .
After the c lass h a s fi n i s h e d t h e power p o i nt p rese ntation a n d the fi n a l gro u p
q uestion, I wi l l assign t h e stu d e nts o n e m o re assign m e nt. T h e stude nts w i l l remain i n t h e i r
gro u ps a n d wi l l a l l d esign a gra phic o rga n izer from a n u m be r of d iffe rent gra phic o rga n izers
85
t hat t hey a re fa m i lia r wit h . The stude nts m ust choose o n e of the fo l lowing themes o r to pics
related to t h e power p o i nt p resentatio n t h ey have j ust fi n ished experie nci ng. The poss i b l e
t h e m e s a re "outbrea k of wa r betwe e n B rita i n a nd F ra nce i n North Ame rica", "trade with t h e
I nd i a n tri b e s", " m aj o r battles a n d sieges of the F re n ch a n d I ndia n Wa r", "th e c o l o n i e s re bel
a ga i n st G reat B rita i n" , " H ow to attract s u p port fo r rebe l li o n", a n d "the shot heard a ro u n d
t h e world" . The students a re a l so given a l i st of gra phic o rga n izer tool s t h a t t h ey have
l e a rn e d , a n d m u st a d a pt the i r theme to be portrayed by their choice of gra p h i c o rga n izer.
This a ss ig nm e nt is s hown in Appe n d ix C.
For reference the stude nts will be g ive n a copy of a deta i l e d c h ro n o l ogy of the m a i n
eve nts of t h e ti m e p e r i o d cove red i n the p owe r p o i nt p resentati o n . For this c h ro n o logy,
p l ea s e refe r to A p pe n d ix B. For the p ri nt o ut of the act u a l powe r point prese ntation, please
refe r to A p p e n d ix A.
Source #2 : Comparing the text-book The Americans with The War That
Made A merica:
As I previously d i scussed ea rlier i n this thesis, a typ ical schoo l text-book such as The
Americans by D a n ze r, K l o r d e Alva, Krieger, Wi l son, a nd Woloch relayed a l etter that George
Wa s h i ngto n s u p posedly wrote to his m othe r a bo ut the defeat of G e neral Edwa rd
B ra d dock's B ritish a n d c o l o n i a l Ame rica n t roops by the Fre nch a nd the i r I nd i a n a l l ies in the
woods near Fort D u q u e s n e . Washi ngto n's l ette r wa s d i s p a raging of the co n d u ct a n d
b ravery of the B ritish fo rce, a n d t h e text-book m a kes swe e p i ng j udgme nts a bo ut the
c o n d u ct of the B ritish troops too . G e o rge Was h i ngton from his p la ce in t h e h eated a n d
86
co nfusing batt l e ca m e to co n c l usions that may or may n ot h ave been rea so n a b l e a n d based
on fa cts. H owever, respo nsi b l e h i sto ria ns a na lyze more t h a n o n e so u rce. The writers of the
text-book a ppea r not to have d o n e this. As p reviously m e nt i o n e d, h isto ria n Fred Anderson,
after a na lyzi ng m a ny o rigi n a l s o u rces, ca m e to a very diffe rent co ncl usion a bo ut the events
of that d readfu l day.
I wi l l p rovide stud e nts with copies of these two s o u rces t hat see m i ngly descri be the
sa m e event. I wi l l a lso p rovid e the students with a copy of E d w i n Wi l la rd D e m i ng's 1903
p a i nting The Shooting of General Braddock at Fort Duquesne� 1 755 . Altho ugh painted at a
m uch later date, this pa i nt i n g gives stude nts a sense of what rec e nt scho l a rs say a bo ut the
batt l e . After s howi ng the stu d e nts these thre e sou rces, I wi l l add a series of q u estio n s for
t h e m to wo rk with. Stude nts wi l l work co l l a boratively i n s m a l l grou ps, a n d there wi l l be a
l a rge gro u p d iscussion after t h e gro u ps have co m p l eted thei r a na lysis. Co pies of the
s o u rces and the s pecific q uestio ns a re outli ned in Appendix D.
Source #3 : The Specia list H istoria n and her sou rces :
I n 1 979, h i sto ria n Sylvia F rey's gro u nd-brea king study, The British Soldier in America
was p u bl i s h e d . She used a va riety of secon d a ry so u rces to study a nd eva l uate the B ritish
s o l d i e rs who fo ught i n Ame rica in the mid to late eighte e nth ce n t u ry. In the power point
p resentation, I i ntroduced t h e students to the gen e ra l na rrative o f the topic. N ext, I w i l l use
F rey's acco m pl ished a n d s pe cific study to i ntrod uce stude nts to the wo rld of the histo ria n,
a nd to focus o n s pecific i nfo rmati o n a bo ut the men who m a d e up the B ritish a rmy. I w i l l
87
show stude nts t h e k i n d of p ri m a ry sou rces F rey accessed a nd wi l l eva l uate how she ca m e to
her concl u s i o n s .
Fi rstl y, I w i l l te l l students w h i c h sou rces F rey a ccessed. These a re m ostly eighte e nth
century offic i a l B ritish gove r n m e nta l records, reco rds fro m offices s uc h a s the Wa r Office
and the Col o n i a l Office . I wi l l ha nd o ut copies of some of the offici a l records that Frey
resea rched a n d a lso ta b l es that she com piled after studyi ng these s o u rces. One of F rey's
ta b l es of i nfo rmation i nc l udes the age, the height, t h e nati o n a l o rigi n, a n d the yea rs of
service of t ro o ps in a partic u l a r regi ment in the yea r 1782. Frey looked at the Wa r Office's
h
h
reco rds of s p e cific i nfa ntry regi m e nts such as the 2 9 th , the 3 15\ the 44t , and the 8t ( Ki ng's),
and d rago o n reg i m e nts such as the 1st ( King's}, a nd the 1 st ( Roya l ) . By receiving co pies of
these ta b l e s com pi l e d by Frey, stude nts will l ea rn s o m e i ntroductory pieces of i nformation
a bo ut the B ritish a rm y, such as ro ugh ly how m a ny men were i n a regi m e nt, how m a ny men
wit h i n each regi m e nt fel l wit h i n certa i n heights, ages, n ationa l ities, yea rs of service, what
the averages of e a c h of these categories ca l c u l ate to, a nd what kinds of d iffe re n ces existed
betwee n i nfa n t ry a nd d rago o n s .
Seco n d i y, i w i i i p rovide the stude nts w i t h p a ragra p h s fro m F rey's a ctua l text. \tV h i l e
t h i s is n ot a p ri m a ry sou rce, students w i l l lea rn a bo ut s o m e o f the conclusions that F rey
ca m e to a bo ut the sol d i e rs, a nd who they were . I nstead of the stereo-type of the B ritish
sol d i e r that has reigned supreme i n America n c lassro om s for decades, students wi l l h ave the
opport u n ity to e xa m i ne the troops a s l ivi ng, breat h i ng i nd ivid u a l s . Cha pte r o n e of F rey's
boo k is e ntitled Volunteers and Conscripts, a nd i n it F rey d iscusses the l a rge societa l cha nges
that were occ u rring in B rita i n in the m iddle of the e ightee nth century.
88
Stu d ents wi l l be d ivided i nto grou ps, a nd I wi l l p rovide them with p re-chosen
segme nts of this cha pter. Each gro u p's task wi l l be to s u m m a rize the pa ragra phs, a n d then
p re s e nt this i nfo rmation to the rest of the c l ass. As each gro u p prese nts the s u m ma ries of
t h e pa ragra phs, the rem a i nder of t h e class wi l l be writing down these s u m ma ries. I wi l l
n e e d t o m o n itor cl osely what t h e students a re p resenti ng t o their class-mates t o ensure that
vita l i nformati o n is n ot o m itte d .
Stude nts wi l l learn that certa i n segme nts of B ritish society faced t h e biggest
c h a l l e nges. S ki l led worke rs fro m s pecific geogra p h i ca l a reas a n d from s p e cific i nd ustries
faced som e of the m ost u n iq u e p ro bl e m s . As tec h n o l ogy adva nced, t h e re was a surpl us of
l a bo r a m ongst men who were weave rs, s h oe-m a ke rs, a n d clothes- m a ke rs . I wi l l p rovide
pa ragra p h s from the text fo r the stu d e nts to read and discuss. U ns ki l l ed l a bo re rs were a lso
re p rese nted in thes e records a nd d o c u m e nts, and they a lso re prese nted a s u r p l us in l a b o r at
t h is t i m e . Pove rty ra n rife in B ritish society, and a lthough being a sol d i e r was monotono us,
h a rd a nd d a ngero us in the mid to l a te e ighte e nth century, F rey exp l a i n s t hat the sol d i e rs d i d
n ot sta rve, w h ic h w a s a ve ry rea l p ro spect i n a cha ngi ng society with n o socia l se rvice
n etwo rk. B re a d Riots in B rita i n were com mo n pl ace, as we re pove rty a n d d isease . By
rea d i ng sectio ns of F rey's text, the stude nts wi l l l e a rn to m a ke glo b a l c o n n ections. When
one p a rt of the world underw e nt e co n o m ic c h a l l enges, a nother pa rt of t h e world saw an
i nfl u x i n m a n powe r. Although A m e rica n patriots may have been fighti ng for lofty idea l s, in
rea l ity t h ey we re often a lso fig hti n g a ga i n st B rita i n' s sta rvi ng a n d d i s enfra nchise d poor.
In co n c l u s i o n, using this sou rce h a s three p u rposes. F i rstly, it a l l ows the students to
e n c o u nter the A m erica n story of the B ritish sol d i e r, an i nd ividual whose d ive rse a n d
com pl i cated past w a s as rich a n d i ntrigu i n g as t h o s e w h o fought fo r i nd e pende nce.
89
Secon d ly, it a l l ows stu d e nts to view the too ls, the c raft, a nd t h e p roduct of the h isto ri a n .
A n d t h i rdly, i t a l lows stu d ents t o wo rk co l la borative ly a nd t o p ractice t h e i r vita l s u m ma rizi n g
s k i l l s . I n addition, it is wo rth re m i n d i ng o u rselves t h a t by w o r k i n g w i t h this source, stude nts
a lso get to see the co m m o n p rivate sold iers a n d the i r sto ry, a story that has been m issing
fro m the na rrative, a n a rrative that mostly focused on t h e expe rie n ce of the office r class.
For the ta b le s a nd text fro m Frey's book, refe r to A p p e n d ix E .
Source #4: Newspapers :
B ritish so l d i e rs of this pe riod a re ofte n portrayed as rat h e r stupid, cri m i n a l ly­
i n c l i n ed, a l co h o l - l oving m ac h i nes who were beate n i nto s u b m issio n by their officers. By
p rovid i ng stude nts with a n u m be r of newspaper a rticles fro m the l ate e ightee nth ce ntu ry
a nd e a rly n i n etee nth century, stude nts wi l l be exposed to a n a rray of d ive rse stories a bo ut a
n u m b e r of d iffe re nt so l d i e rs . F o r the specific n ews p a p e r a rticles, p l ease refer to Ap p e n d ix F .
T h e fi rst a rticle i s a l ette r written o n Boxing Day, 1 788, t o t h e Edito r o f The Times
( Lo nd o n ) by a n i n d ivi d u a l who ca l l s h i mse lf "A So l d i e r' s F r i e n d " . It is a sym pathetic l ette r
a bo u t a n i m pove rished B ritis h vetera n, w h o w a s wo u nd e d d u ring t h e America n Wa r, at
B u n ke r H i l l and aga i n at Long I s l a nd, and who o n his ret u r n to B rita i n struggled to s u p po rt
h i mself a n d his fa m i ly. T h e l ette r gives a n u m ber of i nt e resti ng d eta i l s a bo ut the sol d i e r;
that h e is h a rd-worki ng, h o n est a nd i nd u strious, that by t ra d e he h a d a lways been p a rt of
the c l othing business, that the l oca i " Pa rish Officers" w i l l n ot h e l p h i m, a nd that at the time
of t h e writi ng of t h e l etter, h e and his fa m i ly were destitute and homeless. By heari ng
a b o ut the p l ight of t h i s vete ra n, stude nts wi l l have the o p po rt u n ity to t h i n k a bo ut h a rdsh i ps
90
that vete ra n s had to e n d u re when they retu rn e d to G reat B rita i n . This opport u n ity to
process a nd exa m i ne the post-wa r experi e n ce s of l ate eighteenth century vete ra n s w i l l
serve t w o p ri m a ry p u rposes . Fi rstly, i t w i l l a l low stude nts t o thi n k a bout B ritish s o l d i e rs a s
i ndivid u a l s w h o h a d rea l l ives a n d rea l strugg l e s . Secon d ly, i t wi l l p rovide a l i n k to t h e
m o d e rn wo r l d by p rovi d i ng stude nts w i t h the o p portunity t o d i scuss a nd co m pa re the
expe rie nce s of m o d e rn vetera ns.
The seco n d news p a p e r docum e nt i s an advertise ment p u b l ished on 7 Octob e r, 1786
i n t h e Daily A dvertiser of New Yo rk, written by the master of a m issi ng i nd e nt u red s e rva nt.
The writ e r i s a ppea l i ng for he l p in recove ri ng the e sca ped serva nt, with a n offe r of te n
do l l a rs rew a rd if t h e i nd e ntured serva n t is fo u n d . Accord i ng to the a dvertise m ent, the
i n d e nt u red s e rva nt is a H a noveria n who fo ught fo r the British Army i n the "l ate A m e rica n
wa r" . O n e of t h e i nteresting thi ngs a bo ut t h i s i nd e ntured servant is that a ccord i ng to the
a rticle, h e made t h e tra n s-At l a ntic journey at least three times. H e i n itia l ly ca m e to Ame rica
a s a so l d i e r of the B ritish Army, he l ate r retu rn ed to Ha nove r fo r some unspecified rea so n,
a n d he retu rned to Ame rica aga i n as a n i nd e nt u red serva nt. This a rticle wi l l give stud ents
the o p portu n ity to learn that the B riti s h Army was a ve ry d ive rse orga n izat io n . Al so, by
con necti ng t h i s sto ry to the i ss u e of i m m igrat i o n, students wi l l experience the o pp o rt u nity
to e x p l o re l a rger issues that a re con nected to the New Yo rk State Social Studies c u rric u l u m
a n d to today's wider wo rld.
The t h i rd n ews p a p e r a rticle was o rigi n a l ly p u blished i n the American Federalist
Columbian Centinel of Bosto n on 1 1 J u ne, 1 82 3 . This i nte resti ng a rticle re ported that the
Massach usetts S u p re m e Co u rt was asked to give its o p i n i o n o n whether a B ritish soldier
who was ca ptu red afte r the Battle of Sa ratoga i n 1777, {/a n d has ever since resided i n the
91
town of C, i n this State, a nd w h o h a s h e l d rea l estate, a n d been taxed the refo re, i n said
town, but has now beco m e a pa u p e r, ga ined a settlement in sa i d town, o r i s he a n a l ien,
e ntitled to a m a i nte na nce fro m t h e State" . This a rticle a bo ut a n i nd ivid u a l who fi rst came
to America n shores to fight fo r t h e B ritish aga i nst the fo u n d e rs of t h e U n ited States, but
who chose not to return to G reat B rita i n a n d settle i n M assa ch usetts i n stead, ra ises seve ra l
i ntriguing q uestio n s that wi l l req u i re students to fo rm u l ate o p i n i o n s a n d practice thei r
higher-level thi n king s ki l l s . L i ke t h e seco nd a rticle, i t wi l l a l so p rovid e a co n nection t o other
p a rts of the Soc i a l Studies cu rricu l u m, i n that it raises fu nda m e nta l issues a bo ut citize nship.
Does res i d i ng i n a state fo r a p e ri o d of ti me, payi ng taxes, and own i ng p ro pe rty
a utom atica l ly m a ke this m a n a l ega l resident a n d citizen, with a l l t h e rights that l ega l
resid ents a n d citize n s have? O r, s h o u l d he be d e n ied a s pecific right that other resid e nts
a nd citize ns h ave b ecause of c i rc u m sta n ces that ha ppened a b o ut fo rty years earlier?
Stude nts wi l l have the o p po rtu n ity to for m u late o pi n ions o n the a p p ro p riateness of
p rovid i ng fu l l rights to i nd ivi d u a l s who i n itia l ly came to the U n ited States to h e l p destroy it.
By choos i ng the t h re e a rticles that I have a l ready d iscussed , I have atte m pted to
show students that the re is a lways m o re d e pth to rea l peo p l e tha n c h a racteristics
conve n i e ntly attached to myths a n d ste reotypes. H oweve r, in the case of the B ritish
s o l d i e rs, the resea rc h clea rly s hows that som e B ritish sol d i e rs do seem to fit in with such
ste reotype s . Some so l d i e rs had i ndeed bee n cri m i n a l s i n G reat B rita in, som e indeed l i ked to
ga m bl e a nd get d ru n k, a nd so m e i ndeed did pa rtici pate in l ooti ng a nd p i l lagi ng the
reso u rces of the Ame rica n res i d e nts. The last two newspa per a rticles actu a l ly lend s u pport
to beliefs that B ritish so l d i e rs w e re e ither vi o l e nt cri m i na l s o r m i n d l ess, s u bservient s l aves.
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O n 3 0 J u l y, 1 790, a n i ncident was reported i n The Times ( Lo n d o n ) that a B ritish
officer attacked a m a n and his two da ughte rs i n t h e Cla pton a rea of London, nea r a p u b
ca l led "Th e Swa n " . W h e n t h e m a n was captu red i t w a s fo u n d o ut that t o some d egree, h e
wa s u nd e r t h e ca re of "Th e I nva l id's Office" i n Wh ite ha l l, the a rea of Lo ndon where m a n y
d iffe re nt offices of t h e B ritish gove rn m e nt a re l o cated, a n d t h e a rticle notes that t h e officer
had lost an a rm in t h e A m e rica n wa r. After the attac k, a gro u p of othe r officers took the
m a n to h i s res i d e n ce, a nd l eft o n e m a n to gua rd h i m . The officer then attacked his g u a rd
a n d th rew h i m o ut of the w i ndow. Concluding he was too da nge ro us a nd u nsta b l e to l eave
a lo n e, he was ta k e n fo r an exa m i natio n and so m e k i n d of fo rm a l p roceed i ng. Afte r seve ra l
of h is frien d s we re u n a b l e to give testimony that h i s futu re con d u ct wou l d be good, he "was
sent to a p rivate m a d- h ouse in H axto n" . This a rticle p rovides stude nts with the o p p o rtu n ity
to see how a ret u rn i ng vetera n a cted vio l e ntly i n B riti s h society, a nd p rovides many p o i nts
for d iscussion . Stu d e nts ca n d iscuss whether they t h i n k a lowly p rivate wou l d have received
som e fo rm of o n-go i ng ca re from a governmenta l office, whethe r he wo u l d have been
treated so rel a tive ly l e n ie ntly to begin with, a n d w h ether he wo u l d have actua l ly e n d ed u p
i n j a i l i nste a d o f a n i nsa ne asyl u m . Lea rn i ng a bout a n d d iscussing the B ritish class system
will be re l eva nt to stu d e nts beca use it wi l l he l p p rovid e a histo rica l co ntext for som e of t h e
causes of the Ame rican Revo l ution.
The fi n a l a rticle was pri nted i n The Providen ce Gazette, i n P rovid ence, Rhode I s l a n d,
a n d p u b l ished i n 2 2 August, 1 8 2 1, a ro u n d forty yea rs aft e r the sto ry a l legedly ha p p e n e d . An
u n n a med writer te l ls a sto ry that he heard a b o ut a B ritish so l d i e r who was executed by his
s u p e riors fo r a c ri m e h e did not com m it. Acco rd i ng to the sto ry, two B ritish so ldiers
"a bused a yo u n g w o m a n i n a m o st cruel a n d s h a m efu l m a n n e r" i n h e r home. A third s o l d i e r
u po n e ntering t h e h o use s a w the two m e n com i ng o ut, a nd h e w a s j a i led w h e n he refused
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to give u p t h e ide ntities of the oth e r two . Altho ugh the girl cleared h i m of a ny bla me, he
was se nte nced to d i e by a Co urt M a rti a l . Acco rd ing to the sto ry, G e n e ra l Lord Conwa l l is
h i m s e lf, told h i m not to be so stu pid a s to die for not h ing, and ordered h i m to give up the
n a m e s . The condem ned ma n rep l ied, "Yo u a re in an e n emy's cou ntry, m y Lord, you c a n
bette r spa re o n e m a n than two" . I wo u ld esti mate t h a t his poi ntless gestu re a nd futi l e
d evoti o n t o d uty wo u l d a maze a nybody who reads this a rticle. Stude nts wi l l be expected to
d iscuss h i s a ctio n, a nd the p u n itive system that was in place. H oweve r, stude nts wi l l a lso be
re m i n d e d a bo u t the date of this story, w h ich wi l l l ea d to a very va l ua bl e d iscussion a bo ut
h isto rica l accura cy a nd historica l m e m o ry. D i d this ta l e eve r ta ke place? We wi l l never
know. H oweve r, students will be give n the o pportunity to p ractice the s ki l ls of the
p rofession a l h i sto ria n i n that they wi l l b e expected to ta ke i nto acco u nt w h o it was who told
and re-tol d t h e sto ry, why it was d ee m e d i m portant e n o ugh to print in 1 8 2 1, what t h e story
m ight m e a n to the rea d e rs of the a rticle i n 1 8 2 1, a n d how it m ight co ntri b ute to the readers'
ove ra l l i m age of the B ritish so l d i e rs .
F o r c o p i e s of the newspa per a rticles a n d the q uestions t h a t I deve l o ped to
a cco m pa ny them, p lease refer to Appe n d ix F .
Sou rce #5 : DVD/ Fi lm:
I have highl ighted two docu m e nta ry series that wi l l be va l u a b l e i n h e l ping the
stu d e nts exp l o re the m id to late e ighte e nth century histo ry of N o rth A m erica, a n d the roles
of the B ritish s o l d i e rs i n pa rticu l a r. Both series a re P BS p rogra ms. The fi rst, n a rrated by
G ra h a m G re e n e, a n a ctor a nd O neida I nd ia n, is e ntitled The War That Made America, a n d it
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is a fo u r p a rt series o n t h e F re nc h a nd I nd i a n Wa r. The seco nd, a fou r part se ries e ntitled
Rebels and Redcoats, l o o ks at the tensions betwee n the B ritish crown a nd the Ame rica n
co l o n ies i n the yea rs l e a d i n g u p to the America n Revo l uti o n, a n d the eve nts of the wa r itse lf.
It e nd s with the B ritis h t ro o ps b e i ng defeated at Yorktown in 1 781, a n d the fi n a l B ritish
wit h d rawa l from the U n ited States two years later. It i s p rese nted by the B ritish m i l ita ry
h i sto ria n Richa rd H o l me s, a n d the write rs of the series m a ke n o b o nes a bo ut ca l l i ng it a
" B ritish poi nt of view." I w i l l ca refu l ly c hoose s n i p pets from t hese two docu m e nta ry se ries,
whose co m bined ru n n i ng ti m e is close to eight hours, s n i p pets that a re a l igned with my
tea c h i ng o bjectives.
Although my thesis as a whole has a l a rge focus on the sol d i e rs who s e rved in the
B ritish army d u ring this ti m e pe riod, it would not be accu rate, i nte resti ng, o r rel eva nt to
focus o n ly on the B ritish s o l d i e rs when s howing pa rts of these fi l m s, as they only re p resent a
s m a l l part of the whole story. It wi l l be e d ucati o na l ly n ecessa ry a nd h i storica l ly pertinent to
d iscuss the other protago n i sts too . I n these fi l m s, the cast of c h a racters i nc l u d e British,
F re nch, va rio us triba l I nd i a n, Ca n a d i a n, c o l o n i a l British-A m e rican, a nd U n ited States so ldiers,
com m a n d e rs, ge nera l s, p o l iticia ns and citize ns.
The overa l l o ut l i ne for teac h i ng using these DVD se ries is d ivided i nto three parts.
F i rstly, befo re we watch the fi l ms, I wi l l p rovide the stude nts with a l i st of pote ntia l ly
u nfa m i l i a r te rms, voca b u l a ry wo rds, peo p l e, p l a ces and eve nts that a re m e ntio ned i n the
fi l m s n i ppets, and we w i l l d iscuss the d efi n itions. Seco n d ly, I w i l l s how the students the c l i ps
fro m the fi l ms, but w i l l p rovide the m with a series of "knowledge-l eve l" o r "lower-o rde r"
questions fo r them to a nswe r w h i l e they a re watch i ng the fi l ms . This a ssign m e nt wi l l serve
as p rovi d i ng a fu n ctio n fo r t h e students to pe rform d u r i ng t h e fi l m s . Thirdly a nd lastly, after
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the fi l m c l i ps a re fi n is hed, I wi l l p rovide a s heet of writte n q uestions to each of t h e students
to a nswe r. These l a st questio ns w i l l be of a m o re " h ighe r-order" l eve l, a nd this l ast exe rcise
will serve the p u rpose of eva l uating what the stu d e nts have lea rned from the DVD s e ries.
For the i ntro d u ctory te rms, a n d fo r both sets of q uestio n s, p lease refe r to Appendix G .
Docum e nta ry F i l m # 1 : The War That Made A merica:
The fi rst d o c u m e nta ry fi l m se ries, The War Tha t Made America gives students the
o pportu n ity to e x p l o re m a ny of the majo r themes of the F re nch a nd I ndian Wa r. Of course,
one of the fi l m' s m aj o r themes is the struggl e fo r N o rth A me rica n s u p remacy b etwee n two
powerfu l E u ro pe a n n ation s, G re at B rita i n a nd F ra n ce, a nd t he i r battle for la n d a nd tra d i ng
rights. H oweve r, I devoted a l ot of time to that t h e m e i n the power point prese ntatio n . So,
d u r i ng the use of fi l ms, I have decided to d evote m o re time to othe r major t h e m es . The
fou r themes I wi l l concentrate on d u ri ng the showing of the fi rst fi l m a re fi rstly, the role of
I nd i a ns in the wa r, second ly, the cu ltura l d iffe re n ce s betwee n I nd i a n a n d E u ro pe a n war­
m a k i ng, t h i rd ly, t h e tensions betwee n the B ritish a n d t h e Ame rica n colonia l s, a tension that
i ate r ied to revo l ution, and fi n a i ly, the ro l e of wo m e n in the co nfli ct. I will s how the
students va rious c l i ps from the documenta ry fi l m, c l i ps that a re con nected to these themes.
This wi l l ta ke a lot of carefu l p l a n n i ng, a n d I wi l l need to be ve ry m i ndfu l of t i m e con stra i nts
a n d i n u n d ati n g t h e students with too m uc h s p u rious i nfo rm ati o n . The fi l m has fou r DVDs,
a n d to avoid a lot of d isc cha ngi ng, I w i l l d ow n l o a d the va rious c l i ps o nto fil e s that ca n be
played t h ro ugh a l a p-to p co m p ute r, a nd o nto a l a rge scre e n at the fro nt of the class-room .
Afte r choosing the c l i ps, I would n ee d t o co nsider which o f the voca b u l a ry terms,
peo p l e, eve nts a n d p laces that a re referred to i n the c l i ps a re potenti a l ly unfa m i l i a r to the
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stude nts. I wo u l d h a n d out a s h e et with these te rms l isted, a n d discuss the terms o n the
l ist. Stude nts wo u l d be expected to write in the defi nitio ns o n the i r s heets. Afte r the
stude nts had watched the c l i ps fro m the fi l m, I wo u l d then hand o u t a nother sheet with a
n u m be r of q uestions for the m to a nswe r. O bvi o us ly, I wo u ld need to b u i l d i n the res ponse
ti m e . This wo u l d act as the a ss es s m e nt p roced u re to eva l uate whet h e r the stude nts
u n d e rstood the m aj o r them e s of t h e fi l m .
The fi rst m aj o r them e t h a t I wou l d wa nt t h e stud ents t o b e exposed t o i s the rol e of
va rio u s I nd i a n tri bes i n the w a r . This theme is gri p p i ng b ut co m p licated . D u ri ng the power
p o i nt p rese ntation, I d iscussed with the students why the British a n d the F rench were
fighti ng, but not so m uch a s to why the I nd i a ns we re fighting. F i rstly, one of the most
i m p o rta nt concepts to d iscuss i s that t h e re we re both s i m i l a rities a n d m a rked d iffe re nces
betwee n d iffere nt I nd i a n tri bes a nd their goa l s a nd a m bitions. The situation o n the gro u n d
w a s very co m p lex. For i nsta nce Ca n a d i a n M o hawks sided with the F r e n c h , whereas New
York M o hawks were e ither n e ut ra l or sided with the Britis h . S pecifi c tribes chose as a l lies
w h i c h eve r E u ro pea n nation they thought more l i ke ly to honor thei r l a nd rights, a nd they
s k i l lfu l ly p l a yed the British a n d the Fre n ch off aga i nst each other. S o m eti m es, d u ri ng times
of crisis, I nd i a ns stuck with a nd fo ught side by side with their E u ro p e a n a l l ies. Other times,
for various reaso ns, l i ke the I nd i a n a l lies of the Fre nch d u ri ng the B ritish s iege of Fort
N iaga ra i n 1759, they did n ot, a nd they s l i p ped q u i etly away.
Different B ritish a n d F re nc h com ma nd e rs felt d iffere nt e m otions towards their
I nd i a n a l l ie s . O n e F re nch offic e r, D a n i e l Lie n a rd d e Bea uj e u, d o n n e d I nd i a n wa r paint d u ring
batt l e a s a m a rk of respect a nd s o l id a rity to h i s I nd i a n a l l ies. Othe rs, such a s Genera l
M o ntca l m the F re n ch com m a n d e r- i n -c h i ef i n N o rth Ameri ca rese nte d h i s I nd i a n a l l i es, a nd
97
refe rred to t h e m as s avages. The B ritish ge nera l , Am he rst, a l l owed his hatred to go eve n
fu rther. D u ring "Po ntia c' s re be l l i o n", he doused b l a n kets i ntended fo r I ndians with s m a l l
p o x i n a n attem pt t o exte r m i nate the m .
To expl o re t h i s theme, I wo u l d show o n e cl i p from n e a r t h e begi n n i ng o f t h e fi l m ,
w h i ch runs from m i n ute n in e a n d fifty seco nds to m i n ute eighte e n a n d thi rty seconds. The
c l i p shows h ow one triba l leader, known as "The H a lf King" attem pted to secure new l a nds
for h i s peop l e in t h e Ohio regi o n, d u e to h i s peo p l e having b e e n p us hed westwards because
of I nd i a n tri ba l w a rfa re a nd E u ro pe a n l a nd e ncro a ch m e nts. H e d i d this by a l lying his peo pl e
w i t h t h e B ritish, a n d h e cam paigned with George Was h i ngto n o n t h e a rea o f Fort D u q u e s n e
w h e re t e n s i o n s betw e e n F re nch a nd British c l a i m s were the most vo lati l e . T h e fi l m does a n
exce l le nt job of exp l a i n i ng t h a t diffe rent tri bes had som etimes o p posing age ndas. The re
we re m o re powerfu l I nd i a n tri bes i n the gen e ra l region that the H a lf King d i d not have t h e
a ut h o rity t o re p rese nt. T h e best exa m p l e w a s the I ro q u o is Leagu e o r the "Five (and later
"Six") N ations." The fi l m exp l a i n s this com plex po l itica l situation a s clearly as poss i bl e, a nd
my chosen fi l m s n i pp et i nc l udes wonderfu l visua l i zati o ns of the m a p of the l a n d from the
Atl a ntic Ocea n in t h e east to the M ississi ppi Rive r i n t h e west, a nd Ca nada i n the n o rth to
t h e G ul f of M exico in t h e south. This m a p h e l ps viewers u n d e rsta n d what the d iffe re nt
gro u ps were trying to a c h ieve, a nd what logistica l c ha l l e nges a nd co nstra i nts they were
fac i ng. I n a dd ition, s howing a c l i p that incl udes t h e I ro q u o is League is i m porta nt beca use it
a l l ows stude nts to see how the i r loca l co m m u n ity p l ayed such a n i m po rta nt rol e in t h e war.
M y students a nd I a re reside nts of Rochester, NY, which is i n the geogra phic region of the
I ro q uois League
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Another m aj o r theme of the fi l m is the c u ltura l d iffe rences betwee n E u ropean
a rm i e s and I nd i a n a r m ies. In h ighlighting t h i s i m po rta nt them e, I wo u l d p l ay the students
d isc two, begi n n i ng at m i n ute forty-e ight a nd e nd i ng at m i n ute fifty-thre e . T h i s c l i p s hows
the fa m o us batt l e ove r F o rt Wi l l iam H e n ry at the so uthern e nd of La ke G e o rge, New Yo rk,
a nd it a l l ows stude nts to explore the cultural diffe re nces i n war-m a k i ng betwe e n E u ro pe a n s
a nd I nd ia ns . U nd e r G e n e ra l M u n ro, the B ritish, who were holed u p i n the fo rt, were b e i ng
l a i d s i eg e to by F re nch a n d I nd i a n troops. E a rly i n the siege, the B ritish h a d sent a
messenger to a n other B ritish regi m e nt req uesting h e l p, but the Fre nch had i nte rcepted the
re p l y t hat n o help wo u l d be forth-com i ng. When, u nder a flag of truce, the F re nch s howed
the m essage to G e n e ra l M u n ro, they gave h i m the o pport u nity to s u rren d e r. H owever,
t h ro ug h watc h i ng the fi l m , we l earn that t h e eighte e nth century E u ropean r u l e s of wa rfa re
d i d not a l low an h o n o ra bl e su rrender u n l e s s the fo rtifications had been breached (wh ich
t hey had n ot ) . O n ly an h o nora b l e s u rren d e r wou ld have a l l owed the defeated a rmy to keep
t h e i r c h e rished " h o n o rs of war" (such as regi m e nta l flags a n d other sym bo l s ) . A
d is h o n o ra b l e s u rren d e r would have bee n u n a ccepta ble to M u n ro . So, he d e c l i ned the
i nvita t i o n to surre n d e r, a nd the siege res u m ed . When late r, the fortificat i o n s were in fact
b reac h e d, �/l u n ro d i d s u rren d e r and t h e batt l e "Na s over. After the batt l e, to the a mazement
of t h e i r I nd i a n a l l ies the F re nch officers sat d own a n d d i n ed with the British office rs, toasti ng
each oth e r' s honora b l e cond uct. Next, to the chagrin of his I nd i a n a l l ies, G e n e ra l M o ntca l m
o rd e re d t h a t t h e B ritish a n d America n t ro o p s wou l d a l l be a l l owed t o l eave t h e fort
u n h i nd e red, kee p a l l of their belongi ngs a n d wea po ns, a nd return u n ha rmed to the safety of
t h e i r h o m es .
I nd i a n t ro o p s bega n t o fee l t h a t t h e wa r w a s i ndeed a "wh ite m a n's wa r." They had
fo ught, s p i l l ed b lood, a n d l ost some of thei r com rades. They had expected to be rei m b u rsed
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for their l osses. As eve rybody knew o r wo u l d soon find o ut, wa r- m a ki ng does not come
chea p . Goods and p riso n e rs w o u l d have offset some of t h e i r fi n a ncial and person n e l losses.
The I n d i a n s expected goods a n d p riso n e rs. Prisoners cou l d be either ra nsomed fo r fi nancial
rea sons, h e l d o n a n d i ntegrated i nto tri b a l society i n order to rep l a ce fa l l e n wa rriors, o r
k i l led for s p i ritu a l rea so n s . M o ntca l m's co nti n ued d isrega rd fo r a nd d isres pect towa rds t h e
c ustom s of h i s a l l ies e n d e d u p b e i ng se lf-destructive t o Fre nch a m bitio n s i n N o rth America .
T h e t h i rd major t h e m e o f the docu m e ntary that I wa nt t h e students t o exp l o re i s the
tension between t h e B ritish a n d the p eo p l e of the B ritish c o l o n ie s . To h igh l ight this
i m porta nt the me, I will p l ay d isc three from m i n ute n i ne a nd t h i rty seco nds to m i n ute
fiftee n . The action begi n s with a m eeting between Lord Lo udo u n, the h ighest B ritish
a d m i n istrator i n N o rth A m e ri ca and George Washi ngton, where h e d e n ies the l atte r's
req uest fo r a com m issio n in t h e British a rmy. Was h i ngton wa nted away from hea d i ng
Virgi n i a n co l o n i a l troop s o n t h e re lative ly q u iet O h io front i e r, i n o rder to se rve i n the m o re
d ra matic cruci b l e of wa r i n Ca nada a n d the G reat La kes regi o n . B rita i n's rep resentatives i n
A m e rica were ofte n a t o d ds with col o n i a l t roo ps, l egislato rs, a n d citize ns. G e o rge
Washi ngto n a nd othe rs felt stro ngly that h i s co l o n ia l troo p s were treated i nferior to British
troo ps and ta ke n fo r gra nte d . Wa s h i ngto n is left frustrated and a ngry at Lo rd Loudoun's
rejectio n .
Next, t h e fi l m s hows a re-en a ctment o f t h e Massa c h usetts l egislatu re ve hemently
d iscussi ng B rita in's expectati o n s that they contri bute men to fight the F re nc h (and their
I nd i a n a l l ies), a n d a lso t h at they co ntri b ute fin a n ci a l resou rces to pay for a percentage of the
cost of the war. This disagre e ment is part of the begi n ni ngs of t h e fee l i ngs of co l o n i a l
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disco ntent a n d l e a n i ngs towa rds disunion with G reat Brita i n that eve ntua l ly lead to
Ame rican i nd e pe nd e nce .
Anot h e r i m portant theme portrayed we l l by the doc u m e nta ry is the ro l e of wo m e n
i n the wa r, a n d I w i l l show t h ree brief cl i ps that h ig h l ight their co ntrib ution . Firstly, b y
s howing d is c o n e m i n ute thi rty-fou r, students w i l l b e i nterested t o l earn t h a t in the B ritish
a rmy, som e wives trave led o n ca m paign with their h usba nds, a n d that they were e m p loyed
a s cooks a nd l a u nd resses. With their h usba nds' regi m e nts, they ofte n had to trave l vast
dist a n ces u nd e r diffi c u lt conditio ns . I n the fi l m, a ct resses replay conversati o ns that cou ld
have ta ken p l a c e between wome n who travel e d with the a rmy. They d iscuss tro o p
moveme nts a n d a d m i n i strative decisions. Seco n d l y, i n d isc o ne m i n ute t e n , t h e first I nd i a n
w e meet i n t h e docu m e nta ry, "Th e H a lf King", b e l o nged to a tri be t h a t stro ngly va l ue d the
co u nsel of wom e n . In the docume nta ry we see "th e H a lf Ki n g" d iscussi ng strategic
d i p l omacy a nd p o l itics with a fem a l e e l de r, a nd l isten in g to her advice. Lastly, in disc two
m i n ute n i n eteen, a n d aga i n in d isc fo u r m i n ute t h i rty-fo u r, we a re i ntrod uced to the sto ry of
M a ry J e m i so n . Stu d e nts w i l l be i nterested in her sto ry beca use fi rstly, it i s an i n he re ntly
fasci natin g, frighte n i ng and rom a ntic story, b ut seco ndly beca use there i s a ve ry stro ng l oca l
con n ection . J e m ison l ived with t h e Seneca peo p l e i n what is now centra l Livi ngston Co u nty,
a n d re prese nted the Seneca peo p l e in negotiati o n s with wh ite traders in the town of
G e n eseo at t h e Treaty of Big Tre e . The docu m e nta ry te l ls a nd shows us the acco u nt of how
afte r being ca pt u re d with h e r fa m i ly by I nd i a ns, s h e rea l ized that the rest of her fa m i ly had
b e e n ki l l e d a nd s ca l p e d . When s hown the sca l ps, s he even recogn ized the hair of h e r dead
m other a nd h e r dead yo u nge r s i b l i ngs. Desp ite a l l t h is, she chose to re m a i n with t h e I nd i a n s
fo r the rest of h e r l i fe, even w h e n she w a s give n t h e choice to l eave the m .
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At the e n d of show i ng t hese c l i ps, the stude nts w i l l com p l ete a n a ssignm e nt . The
o bj e ct ive of the assig n m e nt is fo r stude nts to u ndersta n d how I n d i a n s d iffe red from the
E u ro pe a ns ( e ithe r the British or the F re nch}, a n d how they we re s i m i l a r. A n exa m pl e of a
diffe re n ce m ight be that d u ri ng batt l e s if o n e E u ro pea n side surre n d e red that was the e n d
of t h e battle, a n d no m o re blood co u l d be spi lt. F o r Native Ameri ca n tri bes, ca ptives co u l d
b e ta ken a n d i ntegrated i nto tri b a l fa m i l ies, o r t h e ki l l i ng co u l d co nti n u e for spi ritua l
p u rposes. An exa m p l e of a s i m i la rity m ight be that both Native Ame rica n s a nd E u ro pea ns
oft e n too k physical possessions to off-set the fi na ncial costs of wa r-m a ki ng. For this
a ssign m e nt I wi l l p rovid e the stude nts with gra phic o rga n ize rs such a s Ve n n D i agra m s .
D o cu m e nta ry F i l m # 2 : Rebels and Redcoats:
The seco nd docum e nta ry fi l m that I wi l l play the students s n i p pets of is e ntitled
" R e b e l s and Redcoats," a fo ur p a rt series that s hows a "British p o i nt of view" a bo ut the lead
up to the America n Revo l ution, and t h e wa r itself. As a whole, the fi l m s e ries has severa l
m aj o r themes. For i n sta n ce, w h e n t h e n a rrator, P rofessor H o lm e s, a na l yzes the reasons fo r
co l o n i a l d isco nte nt, he comes to a d iverse set of co nclusions. On t h e o n e h a n d, the col o n ie s
p a i d o n e fiftieth the a m o u nt of t a x that peo p l e i n B rita i n pa id, a n d H o l m e s i nfe rs t h a t t h e i r
com p l a i nts a bout h igh taxes were g ro u nd l ess. O n the othe r, H o l m e s co n cedes that B ritish
d e m a nds that the co l o n ies o n l y trad e with B rita i n restricted col o n i a l b u s i n ess o pport u n ities.
Aga i n, on the one h a nd, col o n i sts h a d to pay a rel atively sma l l percentage of the cost of
t h e i r own d efense, b ut on the oth e r hand sta n d i ng a rmies we re a nathe m a i n B ritai n a n d to
B ritish society ge n e ra l ly, a nd a s the ove rwhe l m i ng m ajo rity of co l o n i sts saw themse lves fi rst
a nd fo rem ost as B rito n s, the idea of a sta nd i ng a rmy in the col o n i es was a n a nathe m a a lso .
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It seemed a l ie n a nd tyra n n ica l, a nd it co u ntered the expectations that E ngl ishmen had
earned d u ri ng the E ng l i s h Civ i l wa rs of the m i d seve ntee nth century. H o l mes views the
A m e rica n co lonies a s t h e fro nt battle line fo r the te nsion that existed between l i be rty a nd
a ut h o rity.
Anoth e r m aj or t h e m e of the fi l m is the rol e of the B ritish a rmy i n the America n Wa r.
H istoria ns have often p o rtrayed B ritish so l d iers a s bruta l c ri m i n a l s who were p ressed i nto
the a rm y fro m B riti s h j a i l s . There a re t h ree brief sectio n s of the se ries that I wi l l show the
stu d ents that a l l ow stu d e nts the o pport u nity to a na l yze the experience of the B ritish
s o l d i e rs d u r i ng the war. The fi rst s n i ppet is on d isc one a n d runs fro m m i n ute five and fifty
seco n d s to m i n ute e ight a n d forty-five seco nds. This sect i o n is a re-e nactment of Sa m u e l
Ada m s, Thomas H a n co c k, Pa u l Reve re a n d othe rs m eeti ng i n a tave rn d iscussing thei r a nti­
B riti s h ru l e rheto ric. H o l me s expla i ns that these men d i d n ot have e no ugh p o p u l a r su pport,
but that the Boston M a ssacre p roved to serve that p u rpose. We a re shown the pri nt of the
m assacre that Pa u l R eve re c reated, and H o l m es exp l a i n s how it was used in the co l o n ies as
re be l p ro paga n d a . T h e faces of the British so l d i e rs a re shown u p close. Evi l looks adorn
the i r fa ces, a nd a cowa rd ly s n i pe r fi res at the crowd fro m a secl uded s pot i n an uppe r-story
w i nd ow. This p r i nt is w i d e ly acknowledged as histo rica l ly i naccurate . Crispus Attucks, the
Native-Ame rica n/Africa n -America n p rotesto r who was k i l l e d i n the i ncident is com p l ete ly
m i ss i n g fro m the pri nt, p res u m a b ly beca use his eth n i city was j u dged u n l i kely to i nvo ke
e n o ugh sym pathy.
The seco n d c l i p I wi l l show the students is a l ittl e l onge r. I t is p a rt of d isc o ne, a nd
runs fro m m i n ute s ixte e n a n d fo rty-fou r seco nds to m in ute twe nty-eight. I wi l l need to
exp l a i n som e backgro u nd to the st ude nts; G e n e ra l G age wa nted to send a m essage to the
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re bel fo rces, a nd h e sent British troops to ta ke co ntrol of a l a rge wea pons cache, which
i nvolved a l o ng-d i sta n ce m a rch to the town of Concord t h ro ugh the vi l lage of Lexi ngton .
T h e video j u m ps betwee n re-e nacto rs a cting o ut t h e d ra m a d ressed as British s o l d iers
m a rc h i ng i n l o ng c ol um n s a l o ng the act u a l ro ute, wea ri ng red, m i l ita ry u nifo r m s, ca rry i ng
their m us kets, a n d m a rc h i ng to pi pes a nd d ru m s, a n d P rofessor H o l mes na rrati ng the sto ry,
l o o ki n g i nto t h e ca m e ra a lso fro m the a ct u a l ro ute. There is a h igh d ra m a a nd H o l me s
descri bes t h e n e rvousness a n d pa ra no i a of the B ritish troops. H e exp l a i ns the m i l ita ry
tactics of t h e troo p s of both sides, a nd s hows how m i l itia tro o ps used some of what they
had l e a r n e d from fighting with the British d u ri ng the F re n c h a nd I nd i a n Wa r. This visu a l re­
e n a ct m e n t is exce l le nt for stude nts to witness, es pecia l ly as the fil m -write rs a re using the
a ctua l t e rra i n of that day. We hear a bo ut the "fi rst atrocity sto ry of the wa r" ; a ccord i ng to
B ritish tro ops, they fo u nd a dying Britis h so l d i e r who had had h i s b ra i n a nd ea rs remove d .
D u ri ng t h e p u rsued retreat to Bosto n, B ritish so l d i e rs too k o ut the a nge r o n peo p l e i n the
town of A rl i ngton, ki l l i ng s n i p e rs and citize n s a l i ke . One old man was shot for refusing to
l eave his h o u se, citi ng the fa mous Britis h a p h o rism, "a n E ng l i s h m a n's home i s his castle."
The l a st c l i p I wi l l s h ow is on disc t h ree a nd runs fro m m i n ute twe nty-o n e to m i n ute
twen ty-fou r a nd fifty-th ree seconds. I wi l l n e e d to expla i n to the students that the story has
m oved on to the co nfl ict i n the south. This s n i p pet begins with a British ca pta i n riding i nto
the B ritis h c o nt ro l l e d city of Charleston in South Ca ro l i n a . P rofesso r H o l m e s ta l ki ng d i rectly
to the ca m e ra gives us an insight i nto the t h i n ki ng that m ight have gone on i n the m i nds of
i n d ivid ua l s as they tho ught a bo ut which s i d e t h ey wo u l d choose to su pport. I t h i n k that this
will a l l ow t h e stu d ents to rea l ly t h i n k a bo u t what m ight h ave been h a p pe n i ng i n the m i nds
of i n d ivid u a l s caught u p i n the midst of the wa r. It a l l ows us to dispel the m yth that co l o n ia l
p e o p l e a l l i m m ed iately ra l lied to the re b e l cause. We a re i nt rod uced to the t h oughts of E l i za
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Wi l ki nson, t h ro ugh the fo rm of a n a ct ress spea king the words that s h e w rote i n he r d ia ry.
At fi rst she was supportive of the B ritish, but as she witnessed the a ctions of some of the
so l d i e rs, she cha nged her m i n d . Eve n her own household was ra nsacked by British soldiers
who wa nted to gather va l ua bl e possessio ns i n o rder to m a ke som e m o ney. Seeing these
h a rsh actio ns by British so l d i e rs s e rves the o bjective of showi ng the behavior of so m e of the
troo ps.
By l e a rn i ng a bo ut some of t h e a ctions of both sides, t h e stu d e nts a re i ntroduced to
t h e d ra matic rea l ity of events, events which ca n never be dull o r bori ng. Like befo re the fi rst
fi l m, I w i l l a ga i n need to i ntrod u c e so m e specific te rms, voca b u l a ry, events, peo p l e a nd
p l aces to the students befo re I s how c l i ps from this seco nd fi l m . As a cla ss, we wi l l n eed to
d iscuss these te rms to avoi d co nfusi o n whilst watc h i ng the fi l m . Exa m ples of this are
G e n e ra l G a ge, Charl esto n, E l iza W i l ki nson, Lexi ngton, Concord, Arl i ngton , a n d the m i l ita ry
term 'fla n ke rs' . Aga i n, l i ke d u ri ng the fi rst fi l m, I wi l l provide a l i st of "lower- l eve l" q uestio n s
for t he stu d ents t o a nswer d u ri ng t h e fi l m, a n d a l i st o f "high e r- l eve l" q ue stions for them t o
a nswer after the fi l m has fi n i s h e d . F o r t h e s e q uestions, please refe r to A p p e n d i x G .
Sou rce #6: livi ng H i story: P rivate Best of the 64th :
A frie nd of m i ne, M r. F o rd B est, is a Ca n a d i a n who has re-located to the Rocheste r
a rea . He i s a n expert o n m a tters p e rta i n i ng to B ritish m i l ita ry l ife i n the l ate eightee nth a n d
e a rly n i neteenth centu ries, a n d ofte n gives p resentations t o c lasses of stude nts i n l o ca l a re a
schoo ls. I n his p rese ntatio n s h e i s d ressed as a private so l d i e r fro m t h e B ritish a rmy's
i nfa ntry regi m e nt. The regi m e nt was fi rst esta b l ished in 1758, a nd a ltho ugh it d i d n ot
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64th
partici pate i n the F re nch a n d I nd i a n Wa r i n N o rth A m e rica, it d i d p a rtici pate i n the wider
Seve n Years W a r that was p l ayed o ut a ro u nd the g l o be, seeing act ion i n the Ca ri b bea n . It
was h eavi ly e m b r o i led i n the American Wa r of I nd e pe n d e nce, a n d i n 1782 the 64th beca m e
t h e 64th (2 n d Staffo rds h i re ) Regi m e nt o f Foot.
F o rd bri ngs m a ny a rtifa cts with h i m ; a rtifacts
that a re eithe r a ut h e ntic or c lose re p l icas. I witnessed F o rd givi ng his o utsta nding
p rese ntati o n to a class of stude nts i n the Ch urc hvi l le-Ch i l i Scho o l D i strict, a n d was extre mely
i m p ressed by both h i s e nthusiasm fo r a nd knowledge of the top i c, a nd by the gen u i n e ly
u nyi e l d i ng a tte nti o n of the students. The refore, my fifth s o u rce fo r teaching my to p i c is to
i nvite Fo rd i nto my classro o m to speak to my stude nts. The fol lowing is i nformatio n a bo ut
his p rese ntatio n .
The s o l d i e rs : W ho were they? :
Fo rd s p e n d s p a rt of his prese ntation ta l ki n g a bo ut who the B ritish soldiers a re . H e
exp l a i ns a bo ut t h e k i n d s of con d itions i n Brita i n a t t h e t i m e that ca used peo p i e t o e it h e r
e n l ist o r so m eti m e s be p ressed i nto t h e a rmy. O n e of the m aj o r reasons w a s t h e eco n o m i c
c l i m ate at t h e ti m e . I n t h e m i d t o late e ighteenth c e nt u ry, B rita i n w a s mov i ng ra p i d l y from a
m o re agricu itura i cou ntry to a m o re i n d ustrial a nd fi n a n c i a l eco n o my. There was a ls o a
series of eco n o m i c d e p ressio n s, fo rci ng m a ny s ki l l ed a rtisa ns o ut of wo rk a n d into d e e p
poverty. The B ritish a rmy i nc l uded m a n y a rtisa ns such a s s hoem a ke rs a nd weave rs. It i s
a lso t r u e that so m e were fo rced i nto t h e a rmy by m agistrates to {/pay' restitution fo r crimes.
H owever, a s t h e h isto ria n M ichael Step he nson sa i d {/i n e ighte e nt h centu ry Brita i n it did n ot
ta ke m uch - poachi ng, the theft of a loaf of bread, rent a rrea rs, trespassi ng, litera l ly
h u n d reds of petty cri m e s - to l a n d the h e l p less cu l p rit i n the s l a m m e r." 6 Ford a lso ta l ks
6
M ic h a e l Ste p h e n s o n : "Patriot Battles" . H a rp e r Co l l i n s, 2007
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a bo ut t h e d ive rsity of the a rmy a n d those that l ived with it. The a rmy was m a de u p of
Scott i s h H ig h l a nders, I rish, E nglish, We l s h, G e rm a ns, and America ns, a nd w o m e n a n d
c h i l d re n ofte n l ived a nd worked side b y s i d e .
C l othes:
F o rd wea rs the m i l itary ga rb of a p r ivate so l d i e r i n the British a rmy's 64th i nfa ntry
regi m e nt. H i s red, wool e n regi m e nta l coat is l i ned o n the i nside with l i n e n . O n the o utside,
the coat i s a d o rned with laci ngs a n d b utto n s that a re d isti nct to his regi m e nt. The b utto ns
a l l h ave the n u m be r 64 showi ng, a nd t h e 64th 's u n ique l a ci ngs which l i n e the coat i n a
vertica l l i ne c lose to the b uttons a n d o n t h e s leeve c uffs a re recta ngu l a r a n d colored wh ite,
b l a c k a nd red . I ntere stingly, the p rivates we re issued new coats o n ce a yea r on the Ki ng's
b i rt h d ay . As p revio usly m e ntioned, the coats were distinct to the wea re r's regi m e nt. Al l of
the oth e r c l othes were u n iversa l a c ross regi m e nts . The soldier wore a basic l i n e n shi rt, a
w h ite vested waist-coat, b reeches, a nd n o u nderwea r. On his i egs, h e wo re wool stocki ngs
with gaite rs ove r t h e m . The ga ite rs were p a i nted, a n d they h e l ped to kee p ston es out of
s h o e s, and offe r p rotectio n from the ro ugh terra i n and the wet. The shoes of the "foot
so i d i e r" were made of i eathe r, had ste e l hee l s, a nd had a s i m p le buckle a d o rned to the to p .
O n e fi n a l i nte resting fact a bo ut the s h o e s t h a t I l ea rned from Ford i s t h a t i n t h e l ate
e ighteenth century the foot sol d i e rs' shoes were made so as to be a bl e to fit on to e ither of
the feet. The re was no left shoe or right shoe.
F o rd a lso owns m a ny diffe re nt k i n d s of hat which he i s a b l e to show students. H e
h a s a bi-corne h a t a nd a tri-corne hat, both of which a re made from fe lt. T h e y a re kept
"fo l d e d" i n s h a pe by laces, a n d t h e re a re s m a l l pa rts of rope attached to t he o utside; the
p u r p o se s u p pose d ly bei ng for the rope to a bsorb ra i n -water a nd moist u re . As Ford expla i ns,
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eve ryt h i ng that the foot s o l d i e r ca rried had a pu rpose. N oth i ng was s p u rious a n d
red u nda nt. Anothe r hat i s t h e Light I nfa ntry's "jockey-sty l e" h at, with a v i s o r at t h e fro nt
that ca n sit u p, a red co l o re d ri m a ro u n d the base, a nd a " M o h i ca n-style" p l u me of a n i m a l
ha i r t h a t r u n s i n a t h i n ce ntra l strip fro m the fro nt o f the ca p to t h e b a c k . M ost i m p ressive i s
the bea r-skin h a t of the G re na d i e r G ua rds. Although this hat wo u l d not have b e e n w o r n by
the 64t h regi m e nt of foot, it is t h e m ost dyn a m ic of Ford's hats, a n d a lways receives the most
i nte rest. It is a bout two feet h igh, a nd it made the a l ready b ig gre nadier a ppear h uge.
Regi m e nta l sym bols a do r n t h e hat's fro nt plate, a wh ite p l u m e peppers the d a rk ha i r of the
bea r skin, and wicks fo r g re na d es were ca rried in a s m a l l a re a in the back of the hat.
Weapo n ry:
Fro m o n e of F o rd's s h o u l ders to the o pposite h i p, an o rigi n a l cross belt traverses his
c he st h o l d i ng a woo d e n ca rt ridge box that is cove red and p rotected by a double laye r of
l eather. From his oth e r s ho u l d e r to h i s o pposite h i p ru n s a b e l t that h o l ds a steel bayonet
and a fa irly sma l l b ut s o l i d sa b re, which was used to bre a k b o n es rather than to pierce ski n .
W h e re t h e b elts cross, a regi m e nta l p l ate is i n p l a ce . The ca rtridge b o x h o l d s a tota l of
thi rty-six ca rtridges, w h i c h a re a l l t u be-sha ped paper ca n iste rs that hold g u n- powd e r. This
gun-powd e r is made from a com bi nation of ca rbon, su l p h u r a n d sa ltpeter. Fro m the safety
of h i s own home, F o rd d e m o n strates fo r me how so l d i e rs fi red their m us kets. I wou l d want
him to do this in the c l assroom too, but permission fro m t h e principal wo u l d n eed to be
sought o ut fi rst. The d e m on strat i o n does n ot i nclude fi ring a n act ua l m us ket ba l l of cou rse.
Eve n without the m us ket ba l l, fi ring the m usket does i n d u ce spa rks however. If a m usket
ba l l were in the ba rre l , it wo u l d ( h o pefu l ly for the fi re r) have caused the m us ket ba l l to be
fired in the genera l d i rectio n of the e n e my. Fo rd exp l a i n s to t h e students how u n re l ia b l e
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the m us kets co u ld be, a nd a lso how re lative ly slow re-load i ng was, which accord ing to Fo rd
too k a bo ut fiftee n seco nds for a com pete nt p rivate . I n the "fi ri ng" demonstration, Ford
s hows t h e stu d e nts that the p u rpose of pa rts of t h e m us ket such as the cock a n d the
ha m me r was to snap vio l e ntly down on a strategica l ly p l a ced fl i nt . When the ste e l h a m m e r
a nd the c o c k s n a p ped d own o n t h e fli nt, s pa rks w e r e i nd uced, a n d gasses were s e nt i nto t h e
gun-ch a m be r, w h ich resu lted i n t h e ignitio n of t h e g u n - powd e r, a nd ( h o pefu l ly) the fi ring of
the m u s ket b a l l .
The e m pty haversack of the British i nfa ntryma n was handed i n eve ry day, a nd
re p l a ce d by a n other o n e with the day's ratio n s i nside. Exa m ples of food that the so l d iers of
the B ritish a rm y ate in the m id to l ate eighte enth centu ry were d ried peas, d ried bea ns,
d ried rice, o ats, sa lted po rk, sa lted beef, a nd sa lted fish, a nd these goods we re s h i pped from
E ngl a n d i n ba rre l s . They cou l d buy other good s such as m a p l e suga r, tea, coffee a n d
tobacco . T h e y w e r e e n c o u raged t o grow vegeta b l e ga rdens when they were stationed, b ut
d isco u raged to h u nt d ue to a co ncern that they m ight desert. Six so l d i e rs fo rmed a " m ess
gro u p", a nd they co m bi ned their rations, ofte n coo king stews in a big cast i ro n pot that was
used m a ny t i m e s befo re some poor u nfo rtu nate had to scra pe out the scum, a n d clean the
pot o ut . P e rha p s su r p risi ngly the scum was left o ut to d ry with the i ntenti o n of eating it.
Ford te l l s t h e students that this is how the fa m o us poem " Pease P u d d i ng H ot" was d e rived;
" Pease Pudding H ot, Pease P u d d i ng Co l d
Pease P u d d i ng I n t h e Pot, N i ne days O l d " .
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E a c h so l d i e r was a lso rationed with a pound a nd a ha lf of flo u r, w h i c h the baker ba ked i nto a
five po u n d loaf of b read eve ry fo u r days. On cam pa ign, the flo u r was m ixed with wate r a nd
s o m e yeast to m a ke "hard-ta c k" , which rese m bled a coo kie, a nd w h i c h co u l d survive fo r a
long time.
T h e Thi ngs They Ca rri e d :
F o rd ca rries a l a rge back-pack, which is i m med iately notice a b l e fo r its bushy, s now­
w h ite, goat fu r exte rio r. In h i s p resentations, F o rd e ncourages the stude nts to to uch the
goa t fu r to fee l the la n o l i n, a gre a sy texture that is secreted from goats and other woo ly
a n i m a ls, which acts as a water re p e l l a nt. An o rigi n a l to m a hawk d a ngles from the back-pack,
w h i c h e ither it, o r a n ax wo u ld h a ve been used fo r c h o p p i ng wood a n d other l a bo rious tasks.
He u n b uckles and u n-wra ps the back-pac k, and u nfo lds it on a desk in front of the stude nts .
T h e biggest item i nside is a b l a n ket m a d e of u n bleached wool w h i c h wo u l d have been e ithe r
w h ite, o r m o re i i ke iy, grey. F o r e ating a nd d r i n king, he ca rries an a ut he ntic wooden p l ate, a
c o u p l e of wood e n s poons, a s p o o n m a d e of cow h o rn which h e a l l ows students to tou c h .
H e stresses that the so ldiers d i d not need o r use kn ives a n d fo rks fo r eati ng, a s most mea ls
were stews, and cou l d be eate n u s i ng the spoo ns. H e a l so has a t i n ca ntee n fo r ca rry i ng
water a nd m o l a sses a n d a t i n c u p .
W h e n y o u s e e t h e a m o u nt of d ifferent ite ms that Ford carries i n h is back-pac k, it
s u r prises yo u how m uch the p a c k ca n h o l d . For tra d i ng p u rposes, h e ca rries trade beads
that were used for tra d i ng w ith t h e i nd i a ns, and a uthentic coi n s such a s a British fa rth i ng,
s h i l l i ng, pen n y, a nd a ha' p e n ny, a G er m a n t h a l e r, a n d a D utch guil d e r, fo r using i n the E u ro­
A m e rica n m a rkets. For pers o n a l groom i ng he ca rries an a uthe ntic razor, tooth-brush, soa p,
a s h avi ng- b rush, a clothes b rush, a n d a com b m a d e of cow-ho rn. F o r clea n i ng items h e
1 10
carries a " b lack ba l l " a nd a "wh ite ba l l" . Both of t hese a re ba l l -s h a pe globules of a n i m a l fat
m ixed with othe r item s ( soot fo r the b l a c k ball, clay fo r t h e wh ite ba l l ), a n d a re a bo ut the
size of a ten n is ba l l . The b l a c k ba l l is used fo r p o l i s h i ng a nd water-proofi ng items such a s
shoes a nd ga iters, a nd fo r m a i nta i n i ng the musket, a nd t h e wh ite ba l l for whiten i ng t h e
cross b e l t . Oth e r ite m s i nc l u de a ch u n k of rope, extra c l othes, a fl i nt a nd steel kit fo r
sta rti ng fi re, s m a l l too l s s uch as kn ives, a n d a sew i ng kit which i nc l udes thread, nee d l es, a
t h i m b l e, a p a i r of scissors, a nd pi ns that date back n e a r l y 500 yea rs to E l iza bethan E ngla n d .
Ford l i ke s to e m phasize that the re w a s a l ot of d o w n time i n t h e a rmy, a nd that l ife
c o u l d be d u l l a nd m o noto no us. F ighti ng was o n l y a s m a l l pa rt of a rmy l ife . For this rea so n,
F o rd shows stu d ents t h e kind of recreatio n a l activities that s o l d i e rs partici pated i n . F o rd
s h a res with stu d e nts so m e of the item s that sol d i e rs oft e n ca rried for e nterta i nm e nt, such
a s a deck of cards. The re a re no lette rs o r n u m bers o n t h e i ndivi d u a l cards due to h igh
i l l iteracy in the a rmy; t h e re a re o n ly the s u it s h a pe s, a n d t h e re is no u n iform patter n on the
backs of the cards l i ke there a re for modern decks. H e ca rries d o m i noes, m a rbles, d iffe re n t
pa i rs of d i ce m a d e o ut of either wood o r bone, a nd a s m a l l wooden board ga m e for playing
a ga m e ca l led "fox a nd geese" . H e a l so has a co u p l e of s m a l l m us ica l i nstru m e nts, a tin
pe n ny w hi st l e and a n o rigina l jaw ha rp.
Ford i s a tre m e n d o u s wea lth of knowledge on t h i s to pic, a nd after his prese ntation I
wo u l d wa nt the stu d e nts to h ave a m p l e time to a s k q uestio ns, a ltho ugh having see n Fo rd's
p resentati o n, I know that h e asks good q ue sti o n s to stu d ents a s h e is goi ng a l o ng. Afte r t h e
q ue stions were ove r, I w o u l d wa nt t h e stude nts to tha n k F o rd a n d give h i m a w a r m ro u n d o f
a pp l a use. It is l i ke ly t hat there wo u l d n o t be time left e no ugh t o a s k the stude nts t o
111
u n d e rgo a fo rm of assessme nt, so I w o u l d g ive them ho mework fo r this p u rpose. Fo r this
a ssess m e nt, p le a se see Appen d ix H .
Sou rce #7 : The Field Trip: Fort Niaga ra :
Luckily, we l ive i n a n a rea rich i n c o n n ections to the Fre nch a n d I nd i a n Wa r, a nd o n e
of o u r m o st va l ua bl e of l oca l reso urces i s F o rt N iagara. I t i s s ituated o n the s outhern shore
of La ke O nta rio at the po i nt where t h e N iaga ra Rive r flows o ut i nto the l a ke after its 35 m i le
j o u r n ey fro m La ke Erie. When the F re nch b u i lt the fort i n 1726, its fu n ctio n was to control
the flow of t ra d e i n the U pper G reat La kes a rea . Waterways were the p ri m a ry mode of
t ra n s po rting goods, a nd its l ocation at the top of the Niagara Rive r a l lowed t h e holders of
t h e fort t h e key to c o ntro l tra d e to t h e great America n i nterior. By bui l d i ng strategic forts
l i ke F o rt N ia ga ra, the French bega n a p o l icy of try i ng to co n nect their stro ng h o lds in Ca nada
a nd t h e G reat La kes regi o n to Louisia n a i n the so uth . F o rt N iaga ra was o n e of the most
i m po rta n t of those forts.
D u ri ng the s u rn m e r of 1759, t h e French and I nd i a n \/'Ja r was at its h e ight, and the
B ritish p l a n n e d a ha ndfu l of i m portant m i l it a ry stri kes on F rench stro nghol d s in o r near
Ca n a d a . A n attac k on F o rt N iaga ra was one such operatio n . This exce ption a l h i storica l site
w i l l a l l ow stude nts to see with the i r own eyes a loca l site that h e l ped s ha ped Ameri ca n a n d
wor l d h i sto ry .
As I a m a m e m be r of the O l d F o rt N iaga ra Association ( O F NA), staff t h e re kindly se nt
me i nfo rm atio n a bo ut their histori c a l to u rs . M y p l a n that I am a bo ut to s h a re for to u ri ng
the fort is based o n t h e l e a r n i ng o bj e ctives that I wi l l set for my students, my resea rch i nto
1 12
the siege of Fort N iaga ra i n 1 7 5 9, a n d to u r i nfo rmation that t h e O FNA k i n d ly shared with
me.
Stage O n e : The Approa c h :
T h e fi rst stage of the t o u r is to sto p t h e schoo l b u s outs i d e t h e pa rk. W e w i l l not b e
d riving stra ight t o t h e pa rking l ot n ext t o the fo rt. B y getting off the b u s at t h e edge o f the
pa rk, we will review the i nfo r m atio n a bout the fo rces that were chosen to com pl ete the
tas k, a nd the fo rces that were defe nd i ng the French fo rt. I wi l l re m i n d the students that the
B ritish had p l a n ned t h re e m aj o r s i m u lta n eous offe nsives aga i nst the F re nch i n 1759. The
si ege on F o rt N iagara was o n e of t he m . The other two were fi rstly on Que bec a nd seco n d ly
o n a se ries of fo rts i n n o rt h e r n New York, La ke Cha m p l a i n a nd u lti mately M o ntrea l . The
B ritish force o n N iaga ra , led by Briga d ie r Genera l John Pridea ux, was sent fro m Schenectady
in N ew York, over l a nd, up rive rs, a cross l a kes to Fort Oswego, a n d t h e n by boat a lo ng the
s o uthern s h o re of La ke O nta r i o to a point close to where the stude nts a re now sta n d i ng.
Acco rd i ng to the O F NA, Pridea ux's fo rce consisted of 11 1,640 B riti s h so l d i e rs ( redcoats), 760
New York troops, a nd a bo ut 945 I roquois wa rriors," a nd the 400 m i le j o u rney from
Schenectady had ta ke n six w e e ks . I w i l l a s k the students to t h i n k a bo ut somet h i ng they
were d o i ng six weeks ago, a n d then to consider the thought of having been on a gru e l l ing
m a rc h through difficult a nd u nfa m i l i a r territory eve r since . I wi l l a lso a s k them to consider
the d iversity of the force m a rc h i ng u nd e r the B ritish flag. We will be ta l ki ng as we ta l k, a nd
ca rrying o u r l u nch-packs . I w i l l c re ate a sense of tension by rem i nd i ng the students that
a lthough the B ritish had i nte l l ige n ce a bo ut the fort, most of the fo rce h a d n ot seen the fort
b efo re, a n d h a d n ot b e e n to t h is p a rt of the cou ntry befo re .
Stage Two : The B ritis h set up ca mp:
1 13
Accord i ng to the O F NA guide, "the B ritis h m oved i n l a n d a nd set up a ca m p a bo ut a
tho usa nd y a rd s to t h e east. Each tent held five s o l d iers . " 7 H e re I w i l l exp l a i n to the stude nts
that P ridea ux's second in co m m a nd was Sir Wi l l i a m J o h nso n, a n d that he was chose n n ot fo r
m i l ita ry l e a d e rs h i p s ki l ls b ut beca use of his frie n d s h i p with a nd respect from the I ro q u o is's
"Six Nati o n s" . H i sto ri a ns assert that without the a ssista nce of the I roquois Nations, the
B ritish co u ld n eve r have attacked Fo rt N iaga ra . I will ta ke the stude nts to the s pot w h e re,
one thousa n d ya rds to the east of the fort, the B ritish set up ca m p, a nd bega n to dig siege
tre nches.
The F re nc h com m a nd e r, Ca pta i n Pa u l P o uc hot d i d not know that the I ro q u o i s were
a l l ie d to the B ritish a nd no l o nge r neutra l . At t h e begi n n i ng of the s u m m e r he had a l l owed
the b u l k of h i s fo rce to head westwa rds in o rd e r to a ssist oth e r F re nch regi me nts to try to
rega i n the F o rks of the O h i o . I wi l l rem i nd t h e stu d e nts of the strategic i m porta nce of the
Fo rks, a nd that it h a d bee n the scene of the begi n n i ng of the war i n North Ame rica . I w i l l
expl a i n t o t h e students that d u e t o t h e size of t h e B ritish force, P o uc hot's o n ly h o p e w a s to
sta l l fo r l o ng e n o ugh to a l low for re-enfo rce m ents to a r rive. It was part of his d e l ayi n g
strategy to ca l l a t h re e day t r u c e t h a t a l lowed fo r t h e F re nch-a l l ied Se neca I nd i a n s to pa rley
with their B ritish-a l l ie d ki n s m e n . However, u n h a p pily fo r Pouchot, at the end of the
co nfe re n ce t h e Se n e ca peop l e, persuaded t hat t h e French were u nder th reat, l eft t h e fo rt.
As t h e stu d ents a n d I wa l k closer to the fo rt, I w i l l expl a i n that d u ri ng the truce, the
B ritish had b e e n b u i l d i ng newer tre nches closer a nd closer to the fort. A B ritish attac k over
o p e n l a n d aga i n st fortified defe nses wo u l d have been suicide. I wi l l a lso exp l a i n to t h e
students t h a t s o o n after t h e Seneca I ndians l eft, t h e s iege began, a nd that t h e B riti s h q u ickly
7 Old
Fort N ia g a r a : R iva l s fo r E m pire. Tou r Scri pt, p 3
1 14
l ost t h e i r com m a n d e r, P ridea ux. The stude nts w i l l learn that his h e a d was b l own off by a
siege ca n n o n that he i nadve rte ntly wa l ked i n fro nt of.
Stage Th ree : The Siege of F o rt N i aga ra a nd La Bel le Fa m i l l e :
I wi l l t h e n te l l t h e stu d e nts t hat a few days i nto the siege, t h e F re nch re­
e nfo rce m e nts a rrived a n d we re s e e n by the B ritish at a spot just two m i les so uth a l o ng the
N iaga ra R iver ca l led La Belle Fa m i l le . Aga i n, I will h igh l ight the i m p o rta nt ro l e of the I n d i a n
t r i b e s . T h e B ritish-a l l ied I nd i a n s aga i n cou nseled t h e French-a l l ied I nd i a n s n ot to i nvo lve
t h e m se lves in the batt l e, and a ga i n the n egotiating worke d . I wi l l t h e n exp l a i n that the
B ritish d efeated the French a n d the i r Ca n a d i a n m i l itiamen, and with this l oss a ny hope of
defe nd i ng the fo rt d isa p pea re d . P o uchot and his troops held out fo r a s l o ng as they poss i b ly
c o u l d , b ut the fo rt fi na l ly fe l l i nto B ritish h a n d s three weeks afte r they had fi rst la nded
w it h i n a few m i le s of it.
Stage F o u r: The M use u m :
Visito rs t o the fo rt e nte r the s m a l l m useum fi rst. O n e of the fi rst exhi bits i n the
m us e u m, and in my o pi ni o n the m o st i m po rta nt is a gia nt map of t h e l o ca l a rea d i s p l ayed on
t h e fi rst wa l l that visitors see. This visual is a wonderfu l way of tea c h i n g the conce pt of how
trade i n the eightee nth centu ry wa s com p l ete ly re l i a nt o n m ove m e nt a l o ng wate r c h a n n e ls,
a nd that if you h e l d Fort N iagara, yo u contro l le d trade i n the vast a re a s betwee n the
Appa lachian M o unta i n s and the M i ssissi p p i R iver, and beyo n d . The fi rst time I saw this wa l l ­
m a p, I rea l ly fe lt t h a t it w a s the fi rst t i m e t h a t t h i s co ncept h it h o m e fo r m e .
Stage Five : To uring t h e Fo rt :
115
U po n l eaving t h e s m a l l m useum, visitors to the fo rt m a ke a b rief wa l k to a d raw­
b ridge a n d gate-way ca l led Le Porte des Cinq Natio n s . I w i l l po i nt out t o the stude nts a n d
com m e nt t h a t u p o n a pp ro a ch i ng the gate-way, w e ca n n ot see m uc h t h a t is i nside t h e fo rt.
w i l l a s k students to offe r a n swe rs as to why this wo u l d b e . The a nswe r is of co urse that
m a ssive e a rthen wo rks where b u i lt a ro u nd the exte rio r designed fo r defense. After a rriva l
at the gate-way, I w i l l t e l l the stude nts that this sto n e b u i l d i ng was actua l ly ca l led The
Dauphin Battery, n a m e d after the F rench D a u p h i n, t he s o n of King Lo uis XV, a nd that the
F re nch b u i lt it i n 1 7 5 6, t h ree yea rs befo re the siege that we have j ust d i scussed.
I m m ed iate ly afte r wa l ki ng t h ro ugh the batte ry, we m eet a nother sto ne b u i l d i ng, ca l led the
South Redo u bt, b u i l t by the B ritish i n 1770. A redo u bt i s a batt l e m e nt b u i lt fo r defe nse, a nd
t h i s o n e is a bo ut twenty feet high. Sta i rs l ead to a top flo o r gua rd-room that h oused u p to
twe nty men a nd w h e re ca n no ns we re p laced .
After passing t h ro ugh the redo u bt, i m m ediately to o u r left is the p rovisions
sto re house . This b u i l d i ng was b u i lt by the B ritish i n 1762, t h re e yea rs after they ca ptu red
the fort, on the s ite of a n e a r l i e r F rench sto re ho use . Co nta i ne rs used fo r ca rryi ng food
s u p p lies a re ava i l a b l e t o see and to uch. N ext to the storeh o use is the powder magazine,
where gun powd e r was stored. B u i lt by the F re nch in 1757, it was, acco rd i ng to the fo rt's
p r i nted to u r i nfo rm a t i o n , {{o ne of the l a rgest powd e r m a ga z i n es i n all of New Fra nce,
i ntended to store powde r n ot o n ly fo r use at Fort N iaga ra, b ut fo r F rench o pe rations in the
Ohio Va l l ey a s wel l ." 8 T h e b u i ld i ng s its deep in the g ro u n d in o rd e r to avo i d being hit by
c a n non-ba l l s . It was ve ry i m portant that this roo m was kept d ry, as a lot of moistu re co u l d
p ote nti a l ly re nder t h e powd e r usel ess . T h e b u i l d i ng's wa l ls were e ncased b y wood to lock
o ut m oisture . In a d d it i o n, a l l i ro n was avoided as a s o u rce fo r pote ntia l s pa rks. Fo r
8
O l d Fort N iaga ra : Riva l s F o r E m p i re Tou r Script, p 7
1 16
exa m p l e a l l o f t h e woodworks i nside the roo m were joi ned togethe r by woode n pegs
i nstea d of n a i ls, a n d the barre l s that sto red the powder were rim med using cop p e r o r
woo d e n b a n d s i n stea d o f i ro n ones.
T h e p rovisio n s sto re house a nd the powder roo m a re i n o n e co rne r of the fo rt
wedged b etween the south red o u bt a n d t h e N iaga ra River. By wa l ki ng u p som e steps next
to the powd e r room students wi l l see t h e N iaga ra River. On the other side of the rive r is
modern d a y O nta rio, Ca n a d a . Ca n no n s p rotrude the wa l kway a nd it is h e re that students
get to u n d e rsta n d the strategic i m porta nce of the fo rt. Nothi ng cou l d have passed by a l o ng
the river w it h o ut the holde rs of the fort s e e i n g it. Conti n u i ng a long the wa l kway that l i nes
the rive r, towa rds the m o uth of the rive r w h i ch flows i nto La ke O nta rio, the stude nts wi l l
e ncou nter two m o re b u i l d i ngs; fi rst the ba ke-house a n d then fi n a l ly "The F re nch Castle" .
For school to u rs, the O l d Fo rt N iaga ra Association p l a ces i nd ivi d u a l s thro ugho ut the fort
who ca n s pe a k a bo ut p a rticu l a r b u i l d i n gs a nd p a rticu l a r topics re l ated to l ife i n the fort
d u ri ng t h e m id to l ate e ightee nt h cent u ry. Accord i ng to the Old Fort Niagara: Rivals For
Empire to u r scri pt, t h e associati o n p laces som e body h e re to ta l k to stude nts a bout food a n d
foo d p re p a ratio n . I wi l l not g o i nto the deta i ls o f t h i s to pic here as I a l re a dy d i scussed food
a n d foo d prepa ratio n d u ri ng my d iscuss i o n a bo ut Private Best's p rese ntati o n . However, the
stude nts w i l l experien ce this pa rt of the to u r from the i n d ivid u a l p l a ced t h e re by the O l d
Fort N i aga ra Associat i o n's to ur p l a n ners.
The m o st i m p ressive b u i l d i ng in t h e fo rt i s the French Castl e, p laced a t the very
corne r of t h e p e n i n s u l a whe re the rive r m eets t h e l a ke . It was h e re o n my very fi rst visit to
the fo rt, l o o k i n g o ut at the l a ke fro m one of the windows where I fi rst rea l ized what a sense
of l o n e l i ness m ight have pervaded a m o ngst p e o p l e ga rriso ned here . The b u i l d i ng was b u i lt
1 17
i n 1726 a n d o rigi na l ly wa s o n l y e nc losed by a "si m ple wooden sto c ka de" 9 • The I roq uois had
o n ly co nsented to the Fre nch b u i l d i ng it o n the co n d ition that it was only fo r trade a nd that
it n ot be s u rro unded by regu l a r fo rtifications.
Ove r the years m o re b u i l d i ngs were
constructed a n d the size of t h e fo rt grew. Befo re e nteri ng t h e F re nc h Castle, a nothe r
pers o n from the a ssociation's school to u r ta l ks t o the stude nts a bo ut who the F rench
s o l d i e rs we re, the i r u n ifo rms, p e rs o n a l possessions, and d uties, and a l so shows the stude nts
a m us ket fi ring demo nstratio n .
The fi rst roo m o f t h e French castle that t h e students to u r i s the trade room, where
tra d e goods were stored . Acc o rd i ng to the guide, the "fu r tra d e i n vo lved the excha nge of
E u ro pe a n m a d e goods l i ke c l ot h , b l a n kets, guns, too ls, kettles, a nd c l ot h i ng for fur p e lts
tra p ped o r h u nted by Native A m e ri ca ns. Thro ugh the trade, the N ative peo p l e cou l d acq u i re
t h i n gs that made their l ives e a s i e r. I n excha nge, the Fre nch received fu rs that could be used
to m a ke fas h i o n a b l e clot h i n g fo r the upper c lasses back i n F ra nce" . 10 I wi l l expla i n to the
stud ents how these goods were tra nsported, a nd explore some of the l ogistica l d iffic u lties,
such as having to ca rry goods a nd ca noes rou n d u n-naviga b l e p a rts of the N i aga ra Rive r
ca l l ed p o rtages . Other room s i n t h e b u i l d i ng a re t h e Si r Wi l l i a m J o h nson Room, the
b o u l a ngerie (the French wo rd for bakery, where the French b a ked b read d u ri ng the i r te n u re
at the fo rt), the Second floo r Vesti b u l e (wh e re the associatio n p l a ce s a cha racte r ca l led
M a d a m e D o uvil le, who d iscusses ga rrison life from a fe male p o i nt of view}, the cha p e l
(where the F rench a n d I nd i a n c o nverts wo rshi p pe d ), t h e office rs' s l e e p i n g q u a rters (where
the associatio n p la ces c h a ra ct e r ca l led Lieuten a nt Daniel l e- M a ri e C h a b e rt d e Jonca i re, a
F re n ch office r with fi rm a ssociations with Seneca I ndia ns), the office rs' d i n i ng room, a nd the
9 O l d F o rt N iaga ra : Riva ls fo r E m p i re . To u r Scri pt, p 8
10
O l d Fort N iaga ra : Riva ls fo r E m p i re . To u r Scri pt, p8
1 18
co m ma nda nt's bed-c h a m ber. Acco rd i ng to the to u r scri pt, d u ri ng the siege of Fo rt N iagara
i n 1759, Ca pta i n P i e rre Pouchot, was resting i n his q u a rte rs, when a British ca n non fi red
fro m the oth e r s i d e of the rive r, "struck the ch i m n e y of the com m a n d a nt's room, p i e rced
the fl ue, crashed down the fi re pl a ce, and ro l led across the fl oor in fro nt of the asto u nded
Pouchot"
.11
O utside a ga i n, I wi l l show the students the t h re e h i storica l flags that fly from the
three flag poles. These fl ags re p resent the three nations that have occupied the fo rt; the
wh ite fl ag of pre-revo l ution a ry Fra n ce, the Briti sh U ni o n J a ck, a nd the fiftee n-star, fifteen­
stri pe, U n ited States fla g . Lastly, I will ta ke the stude nts o n to the wa l k-ways that l i n e the
top of the e a rthwork d efenses rem i nding them of how fro m o utside the fort, they could not
see i nside. I wi l l rem i n d the stude nts of scenes fro m the DVD The War That Made A merica
that showed a typ i ca l attack on a fort ( i n the cas e of the DVD, it was the F rench a nd I nd i a n
attack o n Fort W i l l i a m H e n ry), a n d w i l l ve ry briefly d iscuss som e o f the wea pons a nd tactics
that both sides used.
At this p oi nt I will p rovide the stude nts with a n assig n m e nt that I made prio r to the
fie l d trip, a n d a rra nged with the a ssociation's t ou r o pe rators. For the rem a i nder of t h e fie l d
tri p, stude nts w i l l be expected t o wo rk o n their assign m e nt a nd move a bout t h e h isto ric site.
For the specifi c a ssign m e nt, p l ease refer to a pp e n d i x I .
11
O l d Fort N ia g a ra : Riva l s for E m p i re . To u r Script, p lO
119
Syn t h esizing the Sources : The Project t hat serves as assessment :
Afte r the class has expl o red a l l of the sou rces i n the u n it o n the B ritish troops i n
N o rt h A m e rica i n the m i d t o late eighte e nth ce ntu ry, t h e stude nts w i l l b e expected t o
com p l ete a deta i led p roject that d e m o nstrates what they have lea rned . M y eva l uati o n of
the i r p roje cts wi l l se rve a s the u n it's b iggest assess m e nt com pon e nt. I n s h o rt, the p roject
w i l l s e rve a s a perfo rm a n ce o r a uthentic assess m e nt.
Stu d ents wi l l be req u i red to d e m on strate their u nd e rsta n d i ng of the to pic by
c h o o s i ng from a l i st of fo rmats that I have co m pi l e d . The fo rmats that ca n be used to
d e m o n strate their knowl edge a re a s fo l lows; a p lay, a histo rica l scra p-boo k, a j o u rna l, a
seri e s of l etters, a poem, a l e cture that i n co r p o rates both a ud i o a n d visua l c o m po nents, o r a
newsp a p e r . The stu d ents m ust use o n e of these fo rmats to s how the i r knowle dge of o n e of
the fol lowi ng top i cs which a re co n nected to the u n it we have j ust com pl eted . Stude nts ca n
choose from the fo l lowi ng topics a nd t h e m es; N ew Fra nce, the French a rmy, the I roquois
Co n fe d e ra cy, P o ntiac's rebel l io n, t he daily l ife of the British soldier, ca uses of the American
revo l utio n , wea pons a nd m i l ita ry tactics, t h e rol e of wom e n i n the British a rmy, foo d a nd
foo d p re pa ration, a nd the o rga n izati o n of the B ritish a rmy at the time of t h e Ame rica n
revo l utio n .
F o r so u rces, the stude nts w i l l b e a b l e t o use the o n es that we have a l ready a na lyzed
a nd t h ey w i l l be a bl e to i nc l ude i nformation t hat they learned w h i l e co m pleti n g the u n it.
wi l l a lso n eed to p rovid e the m with n ew res o u rces that they haven't yet seen, such as
p ri m a ry d o c u m e nts ( m a ps, l etters, p h otogra p h s of a uthentic a rtifacts, a nd official
gove rn m e nt docu m e nts), text-boo ks, secon d a ry texts, a nd we b-sites from t h e i nternet. One
exa m pl e of a deta i l e d seco n d a ry text i s from the Osp rey se ries o n m i l ita ry h i story,
120
s pecifica l ly British Redcoat, 1 74 0-1 793. Fro m rea d i ng this work, stude nts ca n co mbine the i r
p rior knowledge with new knowledge, synthesize t h e i nfo r m ation, a nd construct the i r
s pecific p rese ntatio n . Exa m p l es o f perti n e nt w e b sites a re www . a m e rica n revo i uti o n . o rg.
I wi l l d ivide the stud e nts up i nto the i r sma l l gro u ps a nd each gro u p wi l l co nsist of
t h ree or fo u r students. Al l students wi l l be expected to p a rtici p ate in the resea rch a n d the
p rese ntati o n . For exa m p l e, if a gro u p decides to prese nt a play that teaches the class a bo ut
the d a i ly l ife of the B ritish s o l d i e rs, there wi l l need to be a s m a ny cha racters i n the p l ay as
there a re in the gro u p.
I wi l l provide each stu d e nt w i l l a n o ut l i n e that d escri bes thei r p roject, a n d a guiding
r u b ric, a bo ut twenty m i n utes b efore the e n d of class . The stu d e nts wi l l be put i nto their
gro u ps a n d w i l l i m m ed i ately begi n b rai n-sto rming ideas fo r thei r p rese ntat i o n . They wi l l
n eed t o have made t h e i r d e ci si o n b y the ti m e they return t o the n ext class. They wi l l be
give n two more c lass pe riods to cond uct their resea rch a nd p i a n t h e i r p rese ntatio n .
Students wi l l perform o r p resent t h e i r top i c at t h e third a nd fi n a l c l a s s period. I n assessing
their p roject, I wi l l of co u rse stick c l osely to the pre-a rra nged ru bric.
For the deta i i ed assig n m e nt that I wi i i hand to t h e stude nts, a n d fo r the rubric,
p l ease see a p pe ndix J
121
C : THE E DUCATIO N A L RES EARCH
I ntrod u cti o n :
I n p a rt B of this thesis, I descri bed a n d e x p l a i ned the diffe re nt so urces that I w i l l use
fo r teach i ng t h e topic I have chose n . Here, i n pa rt C, I wi l l next expla i n the strategies that I
wi l l i ncorporate i nto my tea c h i ng a nd show how t h ey a re strategies that a re based o n sol i d
ed ucati o n a l res e a rch. F o r t h i s com ponent o f m y thesis, I wi l l h igh l ight t h e resea rch-based
ed ucati o n a l strategies that a re o utli ned in Classroo m instruction That Works: Research
Based Strategies For Increasing Student Achie vement by Robert J . M a rza no, D e b ra J .
P i ckeri n g, a n d J a ne E . P o l l ock. I w i l l a lso exp l a i n w h e re wit h i n m y thesis I used these
rese a rch-based e d ucational strategies, a n d at w h i c h p o i nt I used a s pecific strategy to he l p
teach a specific to pic. I n the i ntroduction t o Classroom Instruction That Works, the a uthors
state that o n e of t h e i r p ri m a ry goa l s "was to i d e ntify those i n struction a l strategies that h ave
a h igh p ro ba bi l ity of e n h a nc i ng student a c h ieve m e nt fo r a l l stude nts in a l l s u bj ect a reas at
a l l gra d e l eve l s" . 12 In this fi n a l com ponent of my t hesis, I deta i l which specific resea rchbased strategies I used, and in which context .
Strategy O n e : I d e ntifyi ng Si m i l a rities a nd D iffe re n ces:
M a rza n o et a l expl a i n that the strategy of "ide ntifying si m i l a rities a nd d iffe re n ces" is
an extrem e l y powerful too l for teachers. I use this strategy in at least two a reas. F i rstly, in
my l esso n w h e re I use docu m e nta ry fi l m s to teach the F rench and I nd i a n Wa r, I a s k the
stude nts to i de nt ify the s i m i l a rities a n d diffe re nces betwee n I nd i a n a n d E u ro pea n wa rfa re.
For exa m p l e, one of the c l i ps of the fi l m I chose to s h a re with the students shows how
12
Classroom Instruction That Works: Research Based Strategies For Increasing Student Achie vement.
R o b e rt j . M a rz a n o , D e b ra J . Pi c keri ng, a nd J a n e E. P o l l o c k . Pea rson E d u cation, I nc, 2005, p 6-7.
122
tra d itio n a l E u ro pe a n wa rfa re was ofte n u ns u ited to North Ame rica, a nd that
m i s u nd e rsta n d i ngs occu rred between the B ritis h a n d their I nd i a n a l l ies, and betwee n the
F r e n c h a nd the i r I nd i a n a l l ie s . For e xa m p le, after the French and I nd i a n s iege on Fort
Wi l l i a m H e n ry, the I nd i a ns expected to be give n the {/spoi l s of wa r", na m e ly priso n e rs a n d
va l u a bl e com modities t o he l p p a y fo r t h e i r h u m a n a nd fi na ncial expenses. It w a s a s hock to
t h e m w h e n t h e Fre nch office rs sat d own to d i n e with the B ritish officers. Although the
F re nch guara nteed the B ritish and their America n colonial a l l ies safe passage from the fort,
t h e I nd i a n a l l ies of the F renc h bega n c l a i m ing what they saw as t h e i r right to p l u nder,
ca pt u re a nd to ki l l . Another d iffe re n ce was that i n N o rth Ameri ca, I nd i a n tri bes fro m this
p a rt of N o rth America were used to cond u cting wa rfa re i n wood l a nds, w h e re there were
p l e n ty of nooks a n d cra n n ies to h i d e i n, o r shoot fro m . I n E u ro pe, a ltho ugh this kind of
wa rfa re did exi st, it was defi n itely n ot co m m o n- p lace . E u ro pea n a rm i e s p refe rred to battle
it o ut on wide o pe n spaces. Afte r s h owing the c l i ps fro m the docu m enta ry fi l m , The War
Tha t Made America, I set a n assig n m e nt fo r the students where t h ey h a d to use a Ve n n
D iagra m t o catego rize these d iffe re n ces a n d si m i la rities. U se o f t h i s gra p h i c o rga n izer is a
u sefu l too l for the stude nts to use a nd by t h i n ki ng through the d escri ptio ns to add to the
Ve n n D i agra m , the students a re wo rki ng on and o rga n iz i ng maj o r t h e m e s of the top i c .
A p p e n d ix E a l so i n c l udes questi o ns a bout the docu m e nta ry fi l m t h at force the stude nts to
i d e ntify s i m i l a rities a n d d iffe re nces.
The second p l a ce I use t h i s strategy is d u ri ng the i m pl e me ntatio n of sou rce n u m be r
two, where I ask students t o co m p a re two d iffe re nt texts . T h e text-book, The Americans
a n d the h i sto ry book, The War Tha t Made America by historian F red A n d e rson, describe the
sa m e event, the d i sastrous batt l e that befe l l G e nera l B raddock a n d his B ritish tro o ps in the
wood s near F o rt Duq uesne in the O h io Va l ley. H oweve r, they seem to te l l a d ifferent sto ry.
123
The A mericans i n sists that the B ritish were cowa rd l y, w h e reas F red Anderson tel l s the
rea d e r that the B ritish troops suffe red massive casua lties, a nd fought a s best a s they co u l d
u nd e r d ifficu lt, da nge ro us, a nd u nfa m i l i a r ci rcumsta nces. Appe n d ix C is a l i st o f questi o n s
t h a t is t h e a ssign m e nt t hat a cco m pa n ies t h e reading of these two texts, a n d a l l o f the
q uestio ns req u i re that stude nts com pa re and co ntrast these so u rces, and that in effect, the
stude nts a re noticing a nd weigh i ng u p the s i m i l a rities a nd d iffe ren ces of these sou rces,
befo re writi ng a nswe rs.
Strategy Two : S u m m a ri z i ng and N ote-taki ng:
The seco nd strategy ela borated on a n d recom m e n d ed in M a rza no, P ickering a n d
P o l lock's wo rk is "s u m m a rizi ng a nd note-ta ki ng" . T h e a ut h o rs assert t h a t s u m m a rizing a nd
n ote-ta ki ng {/a re two of the most powe rfu l s ki l ls stu d ents ca n c u ltivate . They p rovide
stude nts with too l s fo r i d entifying a nd understa nd i ng t h e m ost i m porta nt a spects of what
they a re iearning" . 1 3
My u n it o n t h e B ritis h a rmy i n North America p rovides a very e a rly opportun ity for
stude nts to practice t h e i r s u m m a rizing ski l l s, while at t h e s a m e time p rovid i ng a cha l l e nge .
Power poi nt prese ntat i o n s c a n be a wonderfu l too l fo r re laying i m porta nt i nfo rmati o n .
However, i n so m e w a y s t h e y a l ready p rovide a sum m a ry of the m a i n points. T h i s co u l d
c a u s e a p ro bl e m beca u s e o n e o f t h e benefits of sum ma rizing i s the act u a l p rocess o f doing
t h e s u m m a rizing. I f t h e tea c h e r a l ready provides a s u m ma ry, o n e cou l d reaso n that the
p rocess of s u m m a ri z i n g has been rem oved . H owever, M ic rosoft Word's Power Point
package a l so p rovid e s s pa ce s for the students to ta ke n otes o n l i ned s paces n ext to print o ut
of the power poi nt s l i d e s . The refo re, my powe r p o i nt p resentation actua l ly p rovides
13
Classroom Instruction That Works, p48
1 24
stu d e nts with m o re of a n o p portu n ity to uti lize the note-ta king strategy rathe r that the
s u m m a ri z i ng strategy. M a rza no et a l wo u l d ca l l the powe r po i nt p resentation "teacherp re pa red n otes", which "provide stude nts w ith a clear p i cture of what the teac h e r conside rs
i m po rta nt" 14 H oweve r, I bel ieve that t h e power point prese ntation is indeed s u m m a rizi ng
the co nte nt, a nd the s u m m a ries ca n be ke pt, refe rred to, a nd used a s study g u i d es by the
stude nts.
The second p lace that I use this strategy is when I i ntroduce source n u m be r three to
the stu d e nts; "the specia l ist h istorian a nd her so u rces" . As o utl ined i n pa rt B of my thesis, I
give stu d e nts p hoto-co pies of sections from h isto ria n Sylvia R . F rey's boo k e ntitled The
British Soldier In A merica. The assign m e nt is fo r the stude nts to s u m m a rize these sectio ns
a n d t h e n p resent the s u m m a ries to the rest of t h e class. From the p rese ntati o ns of these
s u m m a ri es, t h e whole class will learn m o re i nfo rmation a bo ut the B ritish s o l d i e rs who
served i n N o rth America .
Strategy T h ree : Rei nfo rcing Effort a nd P rovi d i ng Recogn iti o n :
Acco rd i ng to M a rza n o, Pickeri ng a nd Pol lock, "rei nfo rci ng effort c a n h e l p teach
stu d e nts one of the m ost va l ua b l e lesso ns t h ey ca n lea rn - the h a rder yo u try, the m o re
successfu l you a re . I n addition, provid i ng recog n itio n fo r atta i n me nt of specific goa ls not
o n l y e n ha n ces achievem e nt, but it sti m u l ates m otivatio n" . 1 5 This seems l i ke com m o n sense .
Howeve r, t h e a ut h o rs ve ry clea rly state that u ndeserved p raise ca n actua l ly h a rm stude nts.
Acco rd i n g to the resea rch, "it a ppears that p ra ise given fo r acco m p l i s h i ng easy tasks ca n
u n d e rm i n e ach ieve m e nt" . 16 As a teac h e r, I wou l d need to work very hard at p rovidi ng the
14 Classroo m
15 Classroo m
1 6 Classroo m
Instruction That Works, p46
Instruction Th at Works, p59
Instruction That Works, p S S
125
a pp ro priate fee d back a n d praise to a l l of my stude nts where it is d e s e rved. G rading
assig n m e nts i n a timely fas h i o n a nd p roviding m ea n i ngfu l, specific fee d back i n respo nse to
these assign m e nts wi l l m e a n that the stude nts' effort wi l l be re i nfo rce d . Ta l ki ng in person
to a l l stude nts i ndividua l l y, h igh l i ghti ng their achieve me nts, b ut a lso deta i l i ng the a reas that
they need to i m prove wi l l p rovi d e them with recogniti o n . When gro u ps p resent the i r work
to t h e class, I wi l l have the o pp o rt u n ity to p rovide mea n i ngfu l fee d ba c k to the students. If
t h e i r work is as good as I h o p e it is, these p rese ntations w i l l be the p e rfect o p port u n ity fo r
m e to p rovid e the students with recognitio n . There w i l l a lso be o pp o rt u n ities to provide
recogn iti o n when I s pea k to the stude nts' pa rents. However, I sho u l d not wa it u nti l the
q u a rte rly rep o rt ca rd, and the p a re nt-teacher eve n i ng. This p ra ise a n d recogn ition s h o u l d
occ u r i nte rm ittently thro ughout t h e s c h o o l yea r, a n d in d i rect res p o n se to ach ieve m e nt.
Strategy F o u r : H om ework a nd P ra ctice :
As the a uthors of Classroom instruction That Works asse rt, !!ho m ewo rk a n d
p ra ctice a re ways of exte nd i ng t h e school d a y a n d p rovid i ng stude nts with o p po rt u n ities to
refi n e a n d exte n d their knowledge . Teachers ca n use both of these p ractices as powerfu l
i nstructi o n a l too l s" . 1 7 O n e of t h e t i m es I use homework to refi n e t h e i r knowledge of the
B ritis h so l d iers is i n my h o m ework assig n m e nt co n n ected to the l esso n where the class is
visited by P rivate Ford Best. P rivate Best's p rese ntation i s fu l l of s o m a ny i nte resting pa rts
that the re wo u l d i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d not be e no ugh ti m e for an a ssessm e nt d u ri ng c lass-time.
There wo u l d m o st l i kely not eve n be e n o ugh time fo r a quick "ticket o ut of the door"
assessment. Therefore, I designed te n q uestions that I wa nt the stude nts to a nswe r fo r
h o m ewo rk. M a rzano et a l state that the research i nd icates that t h e re a re two p u rposes fo r
17
Classroom Instruction That Works, p 7 1
126
h o m ewo rk, practice, a nd preparatio n or e l a bo ratio n . This assig n m e nt fa l l s i nto the latter
catego ry, specifica l ly, e l a boratio n . The students expe rie nced P rivate Best's p resentation,
a n d it is d u ri ng t he i r homework assign ment that they w i l l be e l a borating o n their new
u nd e rsta n d i ng. I have d evised d iffe rent types of q ue st i o n s fo r the stude nts. They a re n ot
j ust l ower level, o r " k n ow ledge" level q uestio n s . However, I w i l l exp l a i n this m o re w h e n
e l a b o rati ng later o n the "que stions, c u e s a n d a dvance o rga nizers" strategy.
Strategy Five : N o n - l i nguistic Represe ntatio ns:
The a ut h o rs w rite that "knowledge is sto red in two forms - a l i ngu istic fo rm and an
i magery fo rm . The i magery mode ... is exp ressed as m e nta l p ictu res o r eve n p hysica l
sensations, s u c h a s s m e l l, ta ste, to uch, ki nesthetic association, a nd so und .... It has eve n b e e n
s hown t h a t expl i citly e ngagi ng stude nts i n t h e crea t i o n of non l i nguistic representatio n s
stim u l ates a nd i ncreases a ct ivity i n t h e b ra i n"
. 18
O n e of t h e ways which I i n co rporate the n o n - l i nguistic re p resentations is by i nviting
P rivate Fo rd Best i nto the classro o m . Although he does p rese nt material l i nguistica l ly, the
stude nts a lso get to see, touch, and sme l l the a rtifacts that he prese nts. Exa m ples of t h i s
a re to uching t h e goat-ski n cove red back-pack t h a t B ritish s o l d i e rs ca rried whilst o u t o n
m a n o e uvers. W h e n to uching the goat-skin, the stu d ents ca n fee l the m oist l a nolin, a n d t h ey
l e a r n that t h i s secreti o n h e l ped to rep e l moist u re a nd water a n d keep the contents of t h e
back-pack d ry a n d t h e refore fu nction a l . T h e stu d ents see a l l of the d iffe rent a rtifacts that
Ford disp lays fo r t h e m . They get to witness how he loads a rifle, a nd the diffe rent ste p s that
had to be fo l lowed in o rd e r fo r it to be fi red com pete ntly. If the schoo l a l lows Fo rd to fi re
18 Classroom Instruction
That Works, p73
127
t h e wea p o n ( o bviously witho ut the m us ket-b a l ls}, the students get to sme l l the result of
spa rks igniting gun-powder.
Anoth e r n o n- l i nguistic opport u n ity is the showing of the two docu m e nta ry fi l ms.
Alt h o ugh t h e re is a lot of verba l info rm a t i o n p resented, there is a lso a l ot of d ra m atic re­
e n a ct m e nt in both fi l m s . Being a b l e to see re-e nactments of the battles in t h e woods or the
sieges of the fo rts i s a memora b l e o p p o rt u n ity fo r the students. Being able to see the
s u r p rise a nd t h e a nger of the faces of t h e I nd i a n warriors who fought with t h e F re n c h at the
siege on F o rt Wi l l i a m H e n ry a l l ows stu d e nts to rem e m b e r that a l l ies in the F rench a nd
I nd i a n Wa r often d istrusted each other. B e i ng a b l e to witness George Was h i ngton's
i nvo l ve m e nt in the s k i rm ishes of the wa r h e l ps students store the fact i n t h e i r l ong-term
m e m o ry that Was h i ngton was a n a ctive p a rtici p a nt i n the wa r, and h e l ps to pre pa re the
stude nts for their l ate r u nits o n the Ame rica n Wa r of I nd e pe n d e nce.
Anot h e r n on-l i nguistic o p p o rt u n ity that the students experi e n ce in these lessons is
t h e l esso n at the begi n n ing of the u n it w h e re I present a powe r-po i nt p rese ntation. I
i nc l u d e d n o n - l i nguistic rep rese ntation s such a s m a ps a n d h i storica l pa i nt i n gs that h e l p
stud e nts rem e m be r the maj o r poi nts of t h e to pic. The s l ide that shows the m a p o f N o rth
A m e rica in 1756 h e l ps stude nts visu a l ize how the eastern ha lf of the N o rt h A m e rica n
conti n e nt was mostly d ivided by N ew F ra nce a n d the British America n col o n ies. Altho ugh
the p a i nti ngs m ight stretch the historical accuracy somewhat, they a re vis u a l
re p re s e ntati o ns that show the d ra m a that u nfu rled throughout these b l oody years.
Another exa m pl e of the use of a n on-l i ngu istic strategy is when I ta ke students to
t h e O l d Fo rt N iaga ra M useu m . I begi n t h e to u r by sta rting o utside the fort, at the p l a ce
w h e re t h e B ritish troops bega n their m a rc h o n the fort. By re-enacting the m a rc h to the
128
fo rt, I am i n co rporati ng k i n e st h etic strategies. Although there is a lot of l i ngu istic
p rese ntatio n d u ring the fie l d tri p, there is a lso a lot of n o n-l i ngu istic re p rese ntations. It is i n
t h e m useum that stude nts ca n truly u ndersta nd how eightee nth century fo rts cou l d contro l
t ra d e, d u e t o t h e h uge wa l l m a p o f t h e great l a kes a rea . It i s o n t h e batt l e m e nts that
stude nts get to u nd e rsta n d that the fo rt was in a great strategic positio n, by witnessi ng La ke
O nta rio and the N ia ga ra R iver.
Strategy Six: Coope rative Lea r n i ng:
Coo pe rative Lea rn i ng is ve ry p o p u l a r in today's sch o o l s . The a uthors cham pion this
strategy a nd see it a s h i g h ly effective . They state that "of a l l t he gro u p i ng strategies,
coo p e rative learning may be the m ost flexib l e and powe rfu l" 19 • H oweve r, they do ca utio n
t h a t it n o t be ove r-used . So m etimes, stude nts get sick of wo rking i n gro u ps a n d pi n e for
q uiet time where they c a n concentrate a n d work s i l e nt l y o n t h e i r own . They cite studies
that wa rn that "coopera tive i e a r n i ng ca n be misused a n d is freq u e ntiy overused i n
e d u cation; it is m isused w h e n t h e tasks given to cooperative g ro u ps a re n o t wel l structured;
it is ove rused when it is i m p le m e nted to such a n extent that stude nts have a n i nsufficient
a m o u nt of time to pract ice i n d e pe nd e ntly the s ki l ls a n d p rocesses that they m ust master"
. 20
I n my thesis, I h a ve used coo perative learning fo r a n u m be r of d iffere nt tasks. At
the fie l d tri p, after stu d e nts have had a tou r of Fort Niaga ra , I assign them i nto sma l l gro u ps
to work o n their assig n m e nt. As is reco m m e nded i n the M a rza no book, the grou ps a re
s ma l l . I ta ke great ca re to p l a n this assign m e nt, a n d pla n to have each gro u p at d ifferent
parts of the fo rt at diffe re nt t i mes, in o rder to avo i d la rge concentrati o ns of students at o n e
particu l a r statio n . I w i l l need to pla n wh ich stude nts a re a ssigned to each gro u p . My p l a n
19
Classroom Instruction That Works, p91
2° Classroom
Instruction That Works, p88-9
129
wo u l d be fo r m e to d ecide which stude nts a re i n each gro u p i ng. I wo u l d ta ke i nto a cco u nt
diffe rent l e a rn i n g styles of the students, a nd wou l d try to avoid having a gro u p m a d e o ut of
stude nts w ith t h e sa m e learning style.
Anot h e r p l a ce that I use coo perative l e a rni ng i s fo r the assig n m e nt that I give to the
students afte r t h ey have partici pated i n the power p o i nt p rese ntatio n . Thei r assig n m e nt is
to craft a gra p h i c o rga n izer that te l ls the sto ry of one of the themes that I have l i sted that
was d iscussed in t h e power p o i nt p resentati o n . Students work in s m a l l gro u ps to a c h i eve
this, a n d I p rovid e t h e m with a l i st of gra p h i c o rga n i ze rs that the M a rza no book
reco m m e n d s . As p reviously m e ntioned, the M a rza n o boo k reco m mends that the p roject be
wel l stru ct u re d . The o bjective of the assig n me nt is clea rly stated i n the i nstru ctions, and I
wi l l have e n s u re d that before I use this strategy, a l l of the stude nts a re aware of how to use
a l l of these gra p h ic o rga n i ze rs.
P e rh a p s t h e assign ment where coo pe rative l e a r n i ng is i ncorporated the m o st is in
the fi n a l p roje ct . Aga i n, stude nts work i n s m a l l gro u ps a nd design a project whe re t h ey ca n
d e m onstrate w h at they know. Students a re clea rly to l d that their gra d e w i l l rely o n every
m e m be r of t h e g ro u p;s p a rtici patio n i n the resea rch a n d the p resentation of the p roject.
For exa m ple, if the gro u p decided to p rese nt a p l ay a bo ut the d a i ly l ife of British so l d i e rs,
there wo u l d n e e d to be fo u r cha racters in the p l a y, a l l with rough l y the same a m o u nt of
responsi b i l ity. U s i ng cooperative learn i ng fo r t h i s a ctivity is h ighly usefu l, beca use it
p rovides stu d ents with the o p p o rt u nity to p ro b l e m solve togeth e r a nd to pra ctice t h e i r
negotiati o n s ki l l s .
130
Strategy Seve n : Setti ng O bjectives a n d P rovid i ng Feed back:
Th ro ughout my thesis I h ave co n sta ntly refe rred to my o bj e ctives. I wi l l have set
l e a r n i ng o bjectives fo r the stu d e nts. H oweve r, I have not exp l i citly i n c l uded m a ny
o pp o rt u n ities for the students to set t h e i r own l ea r n i ng o bj ectives. I t h i n k that
o p p o rt u n ities fo r stude nts to set t h e i r own goa l s wo u ld o n ly a rise d u ring m y actua l tea c h i ng
of this topic. Havi ng said that, I c a n point to the fi n a l project which gives the stude nts a lot
of choice, fi rstly in terms of c h o os i ng a to p i c to rese a rch and p resent, a nd seco nd ly, to
choose a fo rmat of prese nti n g it. I n a d d ition, I have a l lowed the stud e nts to choose t h e i r
own to p i c a nd/ o r the i r o w n fo rmat if they fee l t h a t they have s o m et h i ng t h a t they wo u l d
l i ke to l e a rn m o re a bo ut that I h a ve n ot i nc l uded i n my l i st. T h i s p roje ct is i n a ccorda nce
with the guide l i nes of goa l sett i n g that M a rza n o et al state as b e i ng backe d u p by so u n d
e d u catio n a l resea rch. With i n m y writte n descri ptio n o f t h e proje ct, stude nts a re i nfo rmed
of t h e expected performance ( "what a l e a r n e r i s expected to b e a bl e t o do" ), the con d itions
( " u n d e r which the perfo rma n ce i s to occ u r" ), a nd from the rubric, stu d e nts a re
com m u nicated what the exp e cted crite rion (a descriptio n of "how we l l the learner m ust
p e rform in order to be consi d e re d a ccepta b l e" is. 21
I b e l i eve that it is e a sy to b u i l d i n o pp o rt u n ities for fee d b a c k fo r this, o r a ny topic.
H oweve r, it does ta ke time. It a lso req u i res a comm itme nt to the stu d e nts. Part of a
tea cher's j o b is to be a d iagnostici a n . Teachers need to be specific a bo ut the strengths of a
student, a nd where the stu de nt is m a king p rogress, as wel l as a bo ut the s pecific a reas that
they need to i m prove . I thi n k that the n ewspa per a rticle assign m e nt wou ld be a good
o p po rt u n ity for m e to p rovid e feed back to the students. The assig n m e nt req u i res that the
21
Classroom Instruction That Works, p94
131
students read five newspaper a rticles a bo ut peo p l e w h o s e rved i n the B ritish a rmy i n N o rth
A m e rica . Afte r each a rticle there a re fou r of five q ue stio n s t hat the students a re req u i re d to
a nswe r. I wi l l d iscuss the p u rpose of these questions when I turn to the fi n a l strategy
( strategy n u m b e r n i n e : q uestions, cues a n d adva nce o rga nizers), b ut when I co l lect the
a nswers that the stu d e nts w rote, it wi l l be a great o p p o rt u n ity to p rovide conte m plative
fee d back to the stud e nts a bo ut how they a re progre ss i n g w h e n writing their responses to
q ue stions that a re s pe cifica l ly co n n ected to the ce ntra l tenet of this thesis, the Britis h
s o l d iers w h o l ived, w o rked a nd fo ught i n N o rth Ame rica .
Strategy Eight : G e n e rati ng a nd Testing Hypotheses:
One of the ways that students generate a nd test hypotheses is thro ugh histo rica l
i nvestigation a nd a n a l ys is . As the a uthors of Classroom Instruction That Works write,
"stude nts a re e ngaged in h i sto rica l i nvestigation w h e n t hey construct p l a us i b l e sce n a rios fo r
eve nts fro m t h e past, a bo ut which there is no ge n e ra i agreem e nt" . 22 i n the iesson where
students a n a lyze two co ntrasti ng reco rd i ngs of the sa m e histo rica l event (the d isaste r t hat
befe l l G e ne ra l B ra d do c k and his B ritish troops i n the woods n e a r Fort Duq uesne i n the O h io
Va i iey), students a re p e rfo r m i ng a h istorica l i nvestigatio n . A i so, by worki ng o n the i r fin a l
p roject, students a re rese a rc h i ng a specific su b-t opic, a n d i n d o i ng s o they a re perfo rm i ng a
h i storica l i nvestigatio n .
Strategy N i n e : Questio ns, cues, a nd a dva nce o rga n izers :
My thesis p roject h a s a l ot o f q uestio n i ng e m bedded wit h i n it. I m mediately i n the
fi rst part of this u n it, the powe r point presentation, t h e re a re e m bedded questions that the
stud ents m u st work on. It is n ot e no ugh for me to sta n d at the fro nt of the class-room a nd
22
Classroom Instruction That Works, p 107
132
l ectu re . To e n s u re that the students a re a ctive ly engaged, I i ncl ude em bedded q uestions.
i nc l u d e five q uestions i n the p resentati o n . For the fi rst question, I i ncl ude a p l a usi ble
a nswe r fo r the stude nts. Fo r the rema i n i ng questio ns, I d o not. I a lso c lea rly state with i n
t h e p resentation that I expect the students t o t h i n k fi rst a nd then write t h e i r q uestions.
Each q uestio n s hows the words "th i n k a nd write" . This {/t h i n k time" is a l so k n own as {{wa it
t i m e" . The I nc l u s i o n of "wa it ti me" is vita l , a n d its p u rpose is so that a l l of the stude nts ca n
a ctive l y t h i n k. If the teacher a l l ows the fi rst pe rson who ra ises their h a n d to give thei r
a nswe r, it is l i ke ly that a l a rge proport i o n o f stude nts wi l l stop worki ng. M a rza n o, P icke ri ng
a nd P o l lock write that the ed ucati o n a l researc h clea rly states that "wa it t i m e a ppears to be
a h i g h ly u sefu l i nstructio n a l tec h n iq ue" . 23
M ost of my other so u rces h ave q uestio ns that a re l i n ked to the m . Afte r P rivate Best
h a s given h i s p resentatio n, students a re given q uestions related to the p resentation to
p o n d e r ove r h o m ework. After the stu d ents h ave fi n ished watching the docu m e nta ry fi l m s,
they m ust a nswe r q uesti o ns . After they h a ve read the newspaper a rticles a bo ut B ritish
s o l d i e rs, they have q uestions to a nswe r. Thro ugho ut a l l of these assig n m e nts howeve r,
t h e re a re d ifferent kinds of q uestio n s . S o m e of the q uestions a re "lower l evel q uestions"
t ha t req u i re the stu d e nts to reca l l factua l k n owledge. A l ot of the q uestion s h owever a re
" h i g h e r l evel q u estio ns" that req u i re stu d e nts to a pply knowledge or a na l yze o r synthesize
i nfo r matio n . The resea rch s u p po rts the a ssertio n that " h igher leve l questio ns" a re m o re
d es i ra b l e t h a n l owe r leve l question s . M a rza no, Pic kering a nd Pol lock reco rd that "a fa i r
a m o u nt of rese a rc h i n d icates that q ue stio n s that requ i re students t o a na l yze i nformation ­
freq u e ntly c a l led h igher leve l q uestio n s - p roduce m o re lea rn i ng than questio n s that si m ply
req u i re stude nts to reca l l of recogn ize i nfo rmatio n - frequently referred to a s l ower o rder
2 3 Classroom
Instruction Th at Works, p 1 14
133
q uestions" . 24 For exa m p l e, s o m e of my q uestions ask stu d e nts to m a ke predictions. Others
ask them to e m pathize with a s u bject i n o rder to exp ress a n o pi n i o n or a n e m otio n . Others
ask students to pe rfo r m a ta s k . Othe rs ask them to make co m pa risons between the su bjects
of the q ue stions a nd p e o p l e today. O ne of the primary fu nction s of asking q uestions is to
provide the opportun ity fo r stude nts to pe rfo rm a thinking p ro cess. As M a rzano et a l l
concl ude, " h e l p i ng stu d e nts t h i n k a bo ut new knowledge befo re experi encing i t ca n g o a long
way towa rd e n h a ncing stu d e nt ach ieve m e nt. Teachers ca n u s e c ues, q uestio ns, a nd
adva nce o rga n izers to fac i l itate t h is type of t h i n ki ng i n a va riety of ways a n d fo rmats" . 25
Con c l usio n :
I n this fi n a l pa rt o f m y thesis, I have demon strated h o w I h ave i nco rporated the
strategies that M a rza n o, P ic ke ri n g a n d Pol lock have reco m m e nd e d as d e e p ly rooted i n
so u n d e d u catio n a l resea rch . T h e writers' b e l i efs a re that no i nstructio n a l strategy works
eq u a l ly we l l in a l l s ituatio n s;; . 2 5 D iffere nt teachers use d iffe re nt strategies at d ifferent times
to h e l p tea c h d ifferent top i c s . I t is i m porta nt for the indivi d u a l teacher to ca lculate based on
the research when a p a rtic u l a r strategy wo rks at a particu l a r m o m e nt. P ro ba bly the three
specific strategies that i have i ncorporated the most into my thesis a re coo perative learni ng,
questio n in g, a n d non- l i ngu i stic re p resentations. I bel ieve that re i nfo rc i ng effort a nd
p roviding recogn ition, a nd p rovi d i ng fee d back a re strategies that m u st be a ctively
perfo rmed, as they a re diffi c u lt to write a bo ut in a thesi s . The othe r strategies that a re
a na l yzed h e re a re a l l used i n my thesis but to a lesser extent t h a n the i n itia l three strategies
that I just refe re nced.
24 Classroom
25 Classroom
26 Classroom
Instruction Th at Works, p 1 1 3
Instruction Tha t Works, p 1 2 0
Instruction That Works, p8
1 34
L I ST O F A P P E N D I CE S :
A
T h e Powe r Poi nt P resen ta t i o n
B
T h e B ri t i s h Army i n N o rt h A m e rica t i m eli n e
C
G ra ph i c O rga n izer Assig n m e nt
D
Questi o n s for Texts o n t h e G e n e ra l B ra dd oc k D i s a st e r
E
F r ey's Text a nd Ta bles
F
N ewsp a p e r Articles a nd t h e Ass i g n e d Questi o n s
G
Questi o n s fo r t h e DVD fil m s
H
H o m ework Questio n s fo r t h e P rivate Best P rese nta t i o n
F ield Tri p Assig n m e n t
J
Fi nal P roje ct Assign m e n t
135
APPEN D I X A :
A p p e ndix A i s a powe r p o i nt print o ut that i m m ed iate ly fo l l ows t h i s page . The powe r po i nt
p re s e ntation is e ntitled Conflict In Colonial North America: British/ Fren ch Indian tribes/
A me ricans/ Canadians/ a n d it is the o pe n i ng co m po ne nt o n this to pic. I wo u l d begi n
teac h i ng the topic of this thesis with the powe r poi nt prese ntation as it wo u l d be a good
way to i ntrod uce F re nch, British, a n d I nd i a n confl ict and co-existe nce in N o rth America, the
l e a d up the Am e rica n Wa r of I nd e p e nde n ce, a nd the B ritish s o l d i e rs in N o rth Ame rica in the
m id to l ate e ighte e nth centu ry.
136
Confl ict in Colon ial N orth Ameri ca
F ra n ce a n d G re a t B rita i n
" Tra d ition a l enemies i n E u ro p e
•
I n N orth Ame rica
- French colonies, and British colonies
- Trade disputes. La nd disputes
- Religious differences
- Fra nce and Britain were a l lied to different Indian
tribes
N ew F ra n ce
•
M ost French colonists l ive i n Canada (Acadia,
Quebec, Montreal). However, i n the l ate
1600s a n d early 1700s, t h e French
govern m ent encourages F re n c h explorers a n d
m issiona ries t o push west a n d south.
" Question #1:
Why did the French gove r n ment encourage
th is?
A n swe r
•
By exploiting American reso u rces, French
wealth and power is increased . If French
power and wealth is i ncreased, they can
com pete with other E u ropean countries,
especially G re at B ritai n
T h e g rowth o f N ew F ra n ce
•
Frenc h b u i l d forts near major waterways
( rivers, l a kes, portages)
.. French regiments rem a i n to guard the forts,
a n d cultivate a l lia nces with I ndian tribes
" N ew Fran ce c i rcles the B ritish colonies
.. Question #2 :
Why were t h e forts built near rivers or l a kes?
N ew F ra n ce, 1745
175 6 : Beginning of war between
Brita in a nd France
Known i n America as "The French and I n di a n Wa r." Known i n Europe
as "The Seven Years Wa r."
Causes of the war;
Territory disputes
Rivalry for trade rights a n d land rights
sides see the other's fort-building as a d i rect threat
Long-term conflict between France and Great Brita i n . (Fourth time
they h a d been at war since 1689). However, this was the first time
that large-scale war between th em had reached N or th American
soil
Both Brita i n a nd France wanted to be the most influential European
power in North America, a n d they were willing to fight for
dominance
Ea rly sta ges
•
1756: F rench defeat B ritish at Fort Oswego a n d
Fort W i l l i a m H e n ry i n upstate NY
•
1757: I n Brita in, William Pitt rises i n pol itical
power, a n d bri ngs decisive l eaders h i p . H e sends
25,000 British troops to America
" Even though it wi l l be expensive, Pitt beli eves
Britai n can not afford to lose the wa r
Question #3: Think, and then write
your answer
3} The French and the British saw this
conflict as vital to their national
interests. Why?
Turning of t h e war in North America:
British victories
•
•
•
•
•
1758: Lou isbourg i n N ova Scotia
1758: Fort Duques n e ( re-n a med Fort Pitt) i n
the O h io Val l ey ( m odern d ay Pittsburg h )
1 7 5 9 : Quebec
1760: Montreal
176 3 : Treaty of Pa ris ends the war in Europe
a n d in America . The F rench lose ALL of New
Fra nce
Atlantic
Ocean
Gulfof
,lfexico
-(.:nexplored
Afte r t h e wa r
1763 : " Po ntiac's rebe l l io n ." Ottawa Chief
Pontiac a i m s to d rive the B ritish out of t h e
O h io Va l l ey. He a n d his followers destroy
m a ny British outposts
•
" 1 763, Oct: King George I l l's ({Proclamation".
Forbade colo n i a l expansion west of the
Appalach i a n M o u ntai n s
The cost to Great Brita i n of
adm i n isteri n g the colon ies
.. 17 48 : 70,000 pounds per year
.. 1763 : 3 5 0,000 pounds a yea r
B ritai n l eaves m a ny troops i n North America
to protect colo n ies from I n d ia n s, and from a
possible French return . B rita i n believed that
th e colon ists should help pay for this cost
•
Questions #4 and 5 : Thi nk and write
your a nswer
4)
In your opinion, do you think that the British
were right to leave troops in North A merica
at the end of The French and Indian War ?
5) a ) If no, why not?
b)
If yes, do you think that the colonists
should have paid for some, all, or none of the
cost of having an army in A merica ?
British laws that angered the colonists
176 5 : The Quartering Act: Colon ists forced to provide
food and q u a rters to British troops
1765: The Stam p Act: Goods sel l e rs forced to buy sta m p s
t o place on t h e i r goods. Colon ists see this a s a d i rect
tax. If people were accused of violati n g this Act, they
were tried in a d miralty courts without a j u ry. They
were presu m e d guilty u nless proven i nn ocent. Dissent
forces the British government to rep e a l the Act
1767: The Townshend Acts: D uties placed on i m p o rted
goods (ex. tea) . Customs official s cou l d search a ny
vessel, warehouse or home for smuggled goods
Bosto n : H ot-b e d of co nfl ict
.. 1768 : 2 British regiments sent to Boston
•
•
Boston citizens a n noyed at h avi n g such a
stron g m i l itary presence
M a rch 5, 1770: Tensions boil over. The
Boston Massacre. 5 civi l i a n s killed
T h e roa d to wa r
•
•
•
1773: British gover n me nt gives "The British East I ndia
Compa ny" a m o n o poly on sel l i ng tea i n America. The
u n popula r i mport tax on tea remains.
Dec 16, 1773: Boston Tea Pa rty
1774: British gover n ment passes a set of retaliatory
acts that t h e colonists ca i i /{The I ntolerable Acts".
( Exam ples; a) c losi n g of t h e port of Boston, b)
restrictio n s p l a ce d on town meetings, a n d c) colonials
who killed officia l s could be sent to England for trial)
Lexi ngto n , Co n co rd , a n d a l l out wa r
•
•
•
On Apri1 18, 1775, the British com m a nder-in-chief, General
Gage, sends troops to seize weapons. Fighting ensues
between his troops and Massach usetts m i l itia at Lexington
and Concord
About 300 British troops are ki l led, wou nded or missing.
About 100 America n m i l itia troops are ki l led, wounded or
missing
The American Revolution sees fighting lasts until the Treaty
of Paris (Septe m be r 3, 1783), when Britain formally agrees
to recognize the U nited States as an independent country
I n yo u r gro u ps
•
Exa m i n e the fol lowing disagreements a n d
pro pose solutions
1) The Qua rtering Act
2) The question of payi ng for troops
3) Tax on goods being i mported i nto t h e
colon ies
4) Violators of the Stamp Act
APPEN DIX B :
Timeline of B ritish a n d F rench tension I n America a n d then the road t o the American
Revolution :
1682 : French exp l o rer La Sa l le reaches the M ississi p pi d e lta, a n d ca l l s the a rea Lo u i s i a n a
1689-1763: D u r i n g this ti me, B rita i n a nd Fra nce fight fo u r sepa rate wa rs i n E u ro pe . The l a st
is the Seve n Yea rs Wa r ( 175 6-63), which s p reads to N o rth Ame rica where it is ca l le d The
F re nch a nd I nd i a n Wa r
1689-1763: Te n s i o n s exist b etwe e n French and British i n N o rth Ame rica . Rel igious
d iffe ren ces, t ra d e d i s p utes, E u ro pe a n wa rs spre a d to A m e rica . D iffe rent Native America n
tri be s a l ly t h e m se lves with e ither B ritish or Fre n ch
1690, 1704: F re n c h a n d thei r I nd i a n a l l i es atta c k B ritish co lonies. Sche nectady, NY ( 1690)
a nd Deerfi e l d, M a s s ( 1 704)
1 7 10: B ritish co l o n ists ca ptu re F re nch col o n ies in F re n c h 'Aca d ia', a nd re-n a m e Acadia,
' Nova Scotia'
1713: By now, N ew F ra nce is a vast a rea west of t h e B ritish co l o n i e s from Que bec a nd
M o ntre a l i n t h e n o rth a l l the way to Lou isiana i n the so uth
1 745 : B ritish co l o n i sts attac k fo rtress of Lo uisbo u rg in N ova Scotia, and defeat the Fre nch
1 748: B ritish gove r n m e nt gives Lo u i s bo u rg back to the F re nch, a nge ring the British co l o n i sts
1 749: I nfl u e ntia l V i rgi n i a l a n d specul ato rs ta rget l a nds in the O h io Va l ley that the F re nc h
c l a i m . Variou s I nd i a n tri bes forced t o choose s i d e s
1754: Fre n c h b u i l d Fo rt Duq uesne o n the ba n ks of w h e re the rive rs M o n o nga hela a n d
A l l egheny co nve rge t o fo rm t h e O h io Rive r ( a t m o d e rn day P ittsb u rgh)
1754: G ove r n o r of Vi rg i n ia sends George Was h i ngto n a nd a s m a l l band of m i l itia m e n to
cl a i m the a rea of the O h io Va l ley fo r Virgi nia . The F re n c h d efeat Was h i ngton's men on J u ly
4, 1754
137
1 75 5 : B ritish expel Aca d ia ns ( Fre n c h co l o n ists) fro m N ova Scotia
1756-1763 : The F re nch a nd I nd i a n Wa r (The Seven Yea rs Wa r) is fought in Ame rica, E u ro pe,
the Ca r i b b e a n, I ndia, and the Phil i p pi nes. Later Wi nsto n Churc h i l l refe rs to it a s "the fi rst
wo r l d wa r"
1756: Ea rly F re nch successes. G e n e ra l M o ntca l m's fo rces defeat the B ritish at Fort Oswego
a nd F o rt W i l l i a m H e n ry. Ame rica n co l o n i a l asse m bl ies u nwi l l i ng to pay for t h e a ppro p riate
wa r costs
1757: Wi l l i a m P itt reca l led a s Prime M i n ister of Brita i n . P itt offers ve ry stron g wa r
l e a d e rs h i p, a n d sends 25,000 regu l a r tro o ps to Ame rica
1758: British s iege Lo uisbourg a n d defeat the F re n c h troops there . B ritis h defeat French
tro o ps at F o rt Duq uesne, a nd re-na m e it Fo rt P itt
1759: Batt l e fo r Que bec. G e nera l J a m es Wol fe's B ritish troops seize co ntro l of Que bec fro m
the F r e n c h
1 7 6 0 : B ritish s e i z e contro l of Mo ntre a l from F ra n ce
1763: Peace sett l e m e nt of P a ris e nds t h e war. G reat B ritai n control s Ca n a d i a n a n d
Ame ri ca n colon ies. Fra n ce has virt ua l ly n ot h i ng left i n N o rth Ame rica
1 763, May: Po ntia c's rebe l l io n . Ottawa c h ief Pontiac so ught to d rive o ut B ritish from the
O h i o va l ley. H i s a rm y destroys eve ry B ritish post west of N iaga ra except Detro it
1763, October: P ro c l a m atio n of 1763. B ritish gove r n m e nt fo rbade co l o n i a l expansion west
of t h e A p p a l a c h i a n s
1763 : B ritish d e c i d e t o k e e p troo p s i n A m e rica t o e ns u re t h a t the Fre nch d i d not decide to
try to retu rn, a nd to gua rd aga inst I nd i a n raids. This "sta n d i ng a rmy" was a bone of
co nte nti o n to the c o l o n i a ls. E nglis h me n were p h i l osophica l ly o p posed to a sta nding a rmy.
An a rm y m ight i nfri nge o n individ u a l rights. Also, who wo u l d pay for it? The B ritish
expected the col o n i es to share the cost
1 763: Cost of co l o n i a l a d m i n istration in 1 748 was 70,000 pounds per yea r. By 1763, it was
3 50,000
138
1 765: The Qua rte ring Act. C o l o n i sts forced to p rovide foo d a nd q u a rte rs to B ritish troops
when needed
1 765 : The Sta m p Act. Sta m ps were req u i red o n bills of sale for a l m o st 50 trade ite m s . If
a ccused of violati ng t h e Act, peo ple were tried i n adm ira lty co u rts without j u ry. The b u rd e n
of p roof was o n t h e d efe n d a nts, who were seen as gui lty u n less p rove n i n nocent
1766: Po p u l a r u n rest aga i n st the Sta m p Act m a kes it im poss i b l e to e nforce . P a rl i a m e nt
re pea l s the Sta m p Act
1767: The Townshend Acts p l a ced i m port d uties on goods com i ng i nto the America n
colon ies. O n e exa m p l e w a s tea . Custo ms officials could sea rch a ny vessel, wa re house o r
h o m e for s m uggled goods
1 767: B ritish gove rn m e nt s uspe nds New York l egisl atu re for fai l i ng to com pl y with the
Qua rte ring Act
1768: B ritish l a nded 2 regi m e nts of troops at Bosto n
1770, M a rch 5: The B oston M a ssacre . 5 Bosto n ia ns ki l le d
1 7 7 3 : B ritish govern m e nt g ives 'The B ritish East I ndia Com pa ny' a m o n o poly o n sel l i ng tea
in A m e rica . B ritish gove rn m e nt a lso kee ps the i m port tax on tea . Co l o n ists o utraged
December 16: Bosto n 'Tea pa rty'
1774: B ritish govern m e nt p asses a set of reta i i atory acts that t h e colon ists ca l led the
" I nto l e ra bl e Acts"
1774,
18: Lexi ngto n a nd Concord . The Revo l utiona ry w a r begins
October 19:
Lord Co rnwa l li s su rrenders h is a rmy at Yorktown, Virgi n i a . The
wa r is effe ctively ove r
1 783, September 3 : Treaty of Pa ris gra nts i n d e pendence to the U nited States
139
APPEND I X C : ( G ra p hic O rga n izer assign m e nt that comes afte r the power poi nt
p rese ntatio n )
You have j ust see n a n d pa rtici pated i n the pow e r p rese ntation e ntitled Conflict in Colonial
North A merica. N ow, yo u r l a st assignment today is to re m a i n in yo u r gro ups a nd create a
gra ph i c o rga n izer that d escri bes a n d portrays o n e of the fo l lowi ng the mes:
1 } The o ut b re a k of wa r betwee n Brita i n a nd F ra nce i n N o rth America
2 } Tra d e with the I nd i a n tribes
3 } M ajor batt l e s and sieges of the Fre nch a nd I nd i a n Wa r
4 } Th e co l o n i es reb e l a ga i nst G reat B rita i n
5 } H o w t o a ttract s u p p o rt fo r rebe l l i o n
6 ) T h e s hot hea rd a ro u nd the wo rld
You may u s e a ny of the fol lowing gra phic o rga n izers that we have p racticed in the past:
1 ) Descri ptive Patte r O rga n izer
2 ) P rocess/ Cause - Effect O rga n izer
3) E pisode P atter n O rga n izer
4) G e n e ra l izatio n/ P ri nci ple Patte rn O rga n izer
5 } Co nce pt Patte rn O rga n izer
6 ) Ti m e Seq u e n ce P attern O rga nizer
140
APPEN D IX D :
I n s i l e nce, read t h e fo l lowing descri ptio ns o f the disaste r that befe l l t h e B ritish Army under
G e n e ra l E dwa rd B ra ddock n e a r t h e forks of the Ohio i n 1755 at t h e h a nd s of the F re nch a nd
t h e i r I nd i a n a l l ies. When I ca n see that eve ryo ne has fi nished read i ng, you w i l l work i n yo ur
gro u ps and a nswer the a cco m p a ny i n g q u estions. Yo u have ten m i n utes to work o n the
q uestio ns, and afterwards, we w i l l h ave a class d iscussion a bo ut these passages a nd yo u r
a nswe rs . Eve rybody s h o u ld be p re pa red t o partici pate i n t h e discuss i o n . A t t h e end o f the
d iscussion, I w i l l then col lect you r w ritte n a n swers.
Passage One: Ta ken from the text-b o o k The Americans by Danzer et a l, p84-5;
The cowa rdice of the s u p pose d l y i nv i n c i b l e British a rmy su rprised Wash i ngton, who h i mself
s howed i nc re d i b l e co u rage. As h e t ried to ra l ly the troops, two h o rses were s hot from
u n d e r h i m a n d fo u r b u l l ets p i e rced h i s coat - a lthough he esca ped u n ha rm e d . H e wrote to
h i s m o th e r that ath e Virgi nia troops s howed a good dea l of b rave ry, a nd were near a l l
k i l l e d ... . [ b ut the B ritish so l d i e rs] b ro ke a nd ra n a s sheep p u rsued b y d ogs a nd i t was
i m p o ss i b l e to ra l ly the m ."
Passage Two: Ta ke n fro m The War Tha t m ade America by Fred Ande rson , p70-1;
The B ritish made it s u bsta nti a l l y e a s i e r fo r the I nd i a n m a rksmen to d o their work. H earing
fi ri n g e r u pt a head, the main body of the co l u m n rushed fo rwa rd, col l id in g with the
retreating adva nce guard . Ta ngled in co nfusion o n a road l ittle m o re tha n twe lve feet wide,
the B ritish made a s p l e n did, d e fe ns e l ess ta rget. U na b l e to see the I nd i a n s who s n i pe d at
them from cove r, the B ritish tro o p s fo ught as best they cou ld, d i rect i n g vo l leys b l i n d ly i nto
the woods a n d a lso, a l l too often, i nto o n e a nothe r . . . . Fo r a l l thei r confu s i o n a n d fea r,
I h oweve r, the B ritish tro o ps d i d not flee u nti l a m us ket ba l l smashed i nto B ra ddock's back,
k n o c ki ng h i m from his ho rse afte r t h ree fu l l hours of fighti ng. By t h e n m o re tha n two-thirds
of t h e 1,450 men and women in t h e B ritish co l u m n had been k i l l e d o r wo u nd e d .
1 ) W hy do y o u t h i n k these t w o a cco u nts a re s o different?
2) W hat do yo u t h i n k was the p u rpose of the text-book o n ly usi n g G e o rge Washi ngton a s a
sou rce?
3) What p i ct u re of G e o rge Was h i n gton e m e rges from the text-book?
141
4) W hat su rprised you a bout rea d i ng F red Anderso n's passage afte r rea d i ng the text-book' s
passage?
5) W hat do you t h i n k a p rofessio n a l h i stori a n shou l d do b efo re p rese nti ng a n event to the
rea d e r?
142
APPENDIX E : (Assign m e nt that asks stud e nts to a na lyze a n d s u m m a rize i nformation
from text a nd ta b les from histo ria n Sylvia R . F rey's The British Soldier I n America. All text is
fro m her fi rst cha pte r e ntitled, Volunteers and Conscripts;
Passage O n e :
There was b o u n d t o be great d iversity i n t h e q ua l ity o f recru its. Witho ut d o u bt some o f t h e
scu m of society w a s n etted b y the press. Co nvicted crim i n a ls, h ighway ro b b ers,
s hee pstea l e rs, s m uggle rs, "despe rate rogues" awa iti ng tra n s po rtation to pena l co l o n ies, a nd
the b otto m o f society wasting away in taver n s, j a i l s a n d prisons were coerced i nto t h e a rm y
by p ress ga ngs. This i s the source o f the ste reotype of the com mo n so l d i e r, b u t i t is a
m isco n structi o n to su ppose that such m e n were a m aj ority i n the British a rmy.
Passage Two :
I n Engla nd, c h a nging eco no m ic conditi o n s p ro d uced a special ki nd o f recruit: a n urba nite
e ith e r by b i rt h or m igration, of l ower-class or l owe r-m idd le-class backgro u nd, with a defi ned
occu patio n a l s ki l l, the vict i m neither of c ri m ps (civi l ia n s who fo rci bly recruited m e n fo r t h e
a rmy) n o r of a p ress ga ng b u t of i ncipient i nd ustri a l ization - o f m a c h i n es, of tec h n o l ogy, o f
d e mo c ratic c h a nge.
Passage Th ree:
Although eco n o m ic h i storia n s cont i n u e to d e bate the q uestion of p recisely w h e n the
re lative ly static e co nomy of Brita i n bega n to grow at a more ra pid and susta i n e d rate,
expa n s i o n of the i ro n a n d coa l i n d ustry, the d eve l o p m e nt of the facto ry system , i n n ovatio n s
i n s u c h i n d ustries as text i l es, a n d cha nges i n agricu lt u ra l m ethods, together w i t h a
b u rge o n i ng a nd i ncreasi ngly m o b i l e p o p u l ation, p rod uced a s u rp l us of l a bo r i n some a reas
to fi l l the ra n ks of the army with average citizens fa l l e n o n h a rd times .
Passage Four:
t
The reco rde d civi l i a n occ u pati o ns of the so l d i e rs recruited by the G u a rds a nd by the 5 8 h
Regi m e nt esta b l ish o n e fa ct : as civi l ia n s t h e m e n had defined socioecono m i c ro les. The
great m aj o rity a ppea r to have been eit h e r p e rm a n e ntly o r tem po ra ri l y d i s p l a ced by cha nges
in the E ng l i s h economy. The text i l e i n d ustry felt the i m pact of i nd ustri a l izat i o n fi rst a nd it
was that i nd u stry wh ich fu rnished most recru its to the service . Twe nty perc e nt of both the
t
G u a rd s a n d t h e 5 8 h Regi m e nt were fo r m e r text i l e workers. Vo l u ntee rs e nrol le d by oth e r
regi m e nts d u ri n g t h e period o f the Revol ut i o n s h ow s i m i la rly h igh p ro portions of textile
worke rs; fifteen o ut of thi rty-fo u r recru its signed by the Roya l Welch F usi l i e rs i n 1772 were
th
text i l e wo rke rs, a s were t h ree o ut of e ight recruits e n l isted in 1780 by the 84 reg i m e nt . A
registe r of B ritis h deserte rs kept by Ame ri ca n s s h ows that o ne-fifth of the B ritish wa r
priso n e rs h e l d i n Ame rica n priso n ca m ps w e re fo rmer texti le worke rs.
143
Passage Five:
M e c ha n ization a nd ove rcrowd i ng were a l ready begi n n i ng to d i s p la ce wo rke rs is some crafts .
Although a rtisa n guilds sti l l p rotected the e co n o m i c status of m a ny c rafts m e n by l i m iting the
n u m bers in the tra de, the g u i l d s were l o s i ng their i nfl uence and va rious crafts were suffe ri ng
a l a bor glut lead i ng to i ncre as i ng n u m bers of u n e m p loyed worke rs . Shoe m a ki ng, fo r
exa m pl e, was o n e of the ea rl ie st t rades hit by cha nge . By m id-century, the self-e m p l oyed
m aste r, working a lo n e o r with o n e or two h e l pe rs, was gra d u a l ly b e i ng squeezed o ut by
l a rge s hoe-ma ki ng masters usi ng prim itive asse m b ly-l i n e tech n i q ues of p roduction. One
a lte rnative to unem p loym e nt was m i l ita ry service, a nd com pa rative ly l a rge n u m be rs of
co rdwa i ne rs e ntered t h e a rm y . O n e h u n d red a n d thirty vo l u nteered for the G u a rd s a n d the
5 8t h Regi m e nt - a n u m b e r exceeded only by weave rs a mong ski l le d workers . Shoem a ke rs
a p pe a red i n co nspicu o u s n u m b e rs i n the Lo ndon a n d M id d l esex roste rs of recruits a s we l l ,
u nd e rl i n ing the c h ro n i c m a l a is e i n the tra d e . By contrast, b ette r-orga n ized trades, s uch as
ca b i netm a k i ng, were able to l i m it the n u m bers of craftsmen a nd so m a i ntain h igh wages.
The i r re l ative ly secu re econo m ic status is reflected in the soci a l com position of the a rmy ­
o n l y t h i rtee n ca bi netma ke rs s e rved i n two regi m e nts studied.
Passage Six:
The m i l ita ry - a nd p a rtic u l a rly the i nfa ntry - tra ditiona l ly d rew from the l a bo ri ng c l asses,
ca pita l iz i ng on their c h ro n ic d istress. Almost 40 percent of the G u a rd s a nd ove r 16 percent
of the 58t h Regi m e nt we re l a b o re rs . O n ly 10 percent of the two regi m e nts came fro m the
a re a n o rth of the river H um be r i n t h e east a nd the M e rsey in the west, where l a b o r
re m a i ned at a prem i u m .
144
)�!ABU 2. The 29th Regiment of Foot, 1 782
National Origins
British
Foreign
Total
427
Years Service
1 -5
58
6- 1 0
485
16-20
Age
96
273
1 1 - 15
24
2 1 - 25
Over 25
Under 2 0
15
20-29
1 87
30-35
80
41
36-40
101
46
5
41 -45
28
16
46-50
Over .50
Average
service:
7
Average age:
9.7 years
•··
Size
Under 5'6"
1 02
5'6"-5'8#
292
5'8¥2"-5' 10"
103
5 ' 1 0 1!2"-6'
Over 6'
Average
5'7"
size:
18
1
27.6 years
Note: There are minor discrepancies in the regimental records upon which the above calculations
are based. Although the total strength of the regiment is given as 48s, the numbers listed under the
�e category total 484. those under· the category of size. 5 1 6.
.. · ·
·
Source: W.O. 28ho.
.•· (!ABLE 3· The .44th Regiment of Foot, January 1 , 1782
National Origins
· British
50 9
Foreign
16
Total
5 25
Years Service
1 -5
Size
Age
Under 20
25
6- 10
242
173
20-29
. 1 1 - 15
52
224
Under 5'6"
5'6"-5'8"
30-35
16-20
36..:...40
1 86
29
5'8lf2"- 5 ' 1 0"
2 1 -25
23
4 1-45
6
46-·50
Over 25
52
20
15
.3
Over 50
5'101!2"-6'
Over 6'
109
299
1 00
15
2
Avetag'!! size:
5 '7 1!2"
SQUTce: W.O. 28/10.
TABLE
4 The. 3 1st Regiment of Foot� 1 782
National Origins
British
488
Foreign
21
Total
509
Years Service
1 -5
6- 1 0
Age
38
Under 20
38
30--35
. 383
1 1 - 15
1 6 -20
2 1 -25
Over 25
Average
service:
Size
34
15
1
22
20--29
239
36-40
46
172
41 ..:_45
23
46-50
6
I
Over 50
Average age:
. �.9 years
29.4
Under 5 '6"
5'6"-5'8"
5'8W-5' IO"
5' JOW'-6'
Ov-er 6'
. Average
5'7"
146
23 1
1 09
19
"%
A
size:
years
Source: W..O. 28/1o.
(King,.s) Regiment of Foot 1 782
Age
Years Service
National Origins
TABLE
5· The 8th
British
Foreign
653
Total
695
42
,
1 -5
6-10
1 1 - 15
31
263
1 33
1 6-20
131
2 1 -25
l l8
Over 2 5
Average
service:
14 7
19
Size
Under 20
14
Under 5'6"
1 17
20-29
97
5'6"-5'6¥2"
131
5'7"-5'8"
5'9"-5' l l lf2"
287
30-35
36-40
22 3
198
92
41-45
46 5 0
Over 50
54
....
age:
�7
Over 6'
Average size:
156
7
5 '8"
.
Not8: Although the total.strength of the regiment is given as 6g5 in the regimental records. the
numbers listed under size total 6g8.
: .(tABLE 6. The 1st (King's} Regiment Dragoon Guards,. 1 775
Age
Years Service
National Origins
• British
275
Foreign
Total
276
1 -5
1 05
Under 20
6- 1 0
1 02
20-29
1 38
1 1 - 15
33
30-35
96
16-20
27
36-40
22
6
41 -45
12
3
46-50
3
Over 50
0
21 -25
Over 25
Average
5
Average age:"
service:"
Size
Under 5'7"
5
5 '7Yi'-5'8"
79
5'9"- 5' I I Y2"
6'-6' 1"
1 87
5
Average size:b
5'9¥2"
28.6
8.9
··"-Four years later statistics for the same regiment show average age of 26.6. average experience of
retliectmg the manpower shortage of the Revolutionary War years.
1779 show no change in average height.
· source: Vl.O. 27/33-
Size
Years Service
Total
1 86
1 -5
80
Under 2 0
12
Under 5'7"
6- 1 0
56
20-29
95
5 '7" -5 '8 ¥2"
I l-15
33
30-35
47
5'9"-5 ' 1 1 Yz"
10
Average
16-20
2 1 -25
Over 25
Average
service:"
8.5
10
J. V
5
2
36-40
41 -45
46-50
Over 50
Average age:"
28.5
18
2
2
6'-6 '2"
5'9"
size: b
6
82
95
3
APP E N D IX F :
Questions to be distributed to the students along with the
newspaper articles.
N EWSPAP E R ARTI CLE 1 : (A So l d i e r's Frien d ) :
1 } T h e l ette r states that t h e s o l d i e r h a d a h i sto ry o f working i n t h e "clothing business" . Why
do you th i n k h e joined the a rm y in the fi rst place?
2 ) W hy do you t h i n k that t h e B ritish government d i d not m a ke s u re that h i s a n d his fa m i ly's
needs were be i ng met?
3 } Why do you t h i n k that the l ette r was p u bl ished o n Dece m be r 26?
4} It a ppears that the so l d i e r h a s a n i nco m e ( pension} h e i s trying to cla i m , but that there is
some so rt of diffic ulty in a ccess i ng it. Try to specify what the d iffic u lty is.
5) Do you t h i n k that s o m e vete ra ns m ight experience diffic u lty is a ccessi ng resources today?
Expla i n why or why not.
N EWSPAP E R ARTICLE 2 : (The Escaped I nde ntu red Serva nt) :
1 ) The esca ped m a n i s fro m H a nover. Where i s H a n ove r? Why was the m a n i n the B ritish
Army?
2) W hy did peo p l e becom e i nd e ntu red serva nts?
3) H ow c o u l d h e have afforded the p rice of the three tra n s-At l a ntic tri ps?
4) Ass u m i ng that he was never fou nd a n d retu rned to h i s " m a ster", what do you th i n k m ight
have ha ppened to the m a n ?
5 ) If he was eve ntu a l ly ca ptu red, what do you t h i n k wo u l d have ha p p e ned t o h i m ?
N EWSPAP E R ARTICLE 3 : (The M a ssachusetts Reside nt) :
1 ) State whethe r yo u th i n k t h e ex-British se rvice ma n sho u l d a ) the fo rced back to G reat
B rita i n, b) be a l l owed to stay but receive no "ma i ntena n ce " fro m the state of
M a ssach u setts, or c) be a l l owed to stay a n d receive "ma i nte n a nce" fro m the state. Back u p
yo u r a nswe r with reason i ng .
145
2 ) W hy do you t h i n k that the so ldier did n ot ret u r n to G reat B rita i n at the end of the wa r?
3) U s i ng yo u r ti m e l i ne of the American Wa r of I nd e pende nce, exp l a i n what this so l d i e r's
part was i n t h e wa r.
4) In the b rief sto ry, the soldier goes from p riso n e r-of-wa r to owner of rea l estate . Expla i n
h o w y o u t h i n k t h i s ha p pe ne d ?
5 ) H ow d o yo u t h i n k so meone w h o w a s e n l isted i n a n a rmy t h a t had fo ught aga i n st t h e
U n ited States wo u l d be treated today i f he attem pted to l ive i n t h e U n ited States?
N EWSPAP E R A RT I CLE 4: (The vio lent officer)
1 ) W hat d o yo u t h i n k the " I nva lid's Office" was?
2 ) Why d o yo u t h i n k this officer was behavi ng vio l e ntly?
3) W hy d o you t h i n k h e was not i m m ed iate ly ta ken to ja i l ?
4) Do yo u t h i n k that he wou l d have been t reated d iffere ntly i f he h a d been a private i n the
a rmy, rath e r than an officer? Exp l a i n yo u r a nswe r.
N EWSPA P E R ARTI CLE 5 : (The needless exec utio n )
1 ) H o w accu rate d o yo u thi n k t h i s sto ry was? Exp l a i n yo u r a nswe r.
2 ) What did this sto ry say a bo ut British justice say to the rea d e rs i n 182 1 ?
3 ) How does t h i s sto ry relate t o what t h e reade r p ro b a b ly a l re a dy thought a bo ut t h e
America n Revo l ut i o n ? Ta ke i nto acco u nt w h e re t h e newspa p e r sto ry w a s p u b l i s h e d .
4) If it is a t r u e sto ry, w h a t d o yo u t h i n k a bo ut t h e British so l d i e r's a ctions? Do y o u t h i n k he
was b rave in a ny way?
146
The Times, Dec 26, 1 788; pg. 3 ; Issue 1 2 1 5 ; col C
To the EDITOR of the TIMES. A SOLDIER 's FRIEND. .
Category: Letters to the Editor
Full Text: Copyright 1 788, The Times
Headline: [No Headli ne]; Article Type: Advertisements
and Commercial; Date: 1 0-07- 1 786; Volume: I I ; Issue: 504; Page: [3};
Paper: Daily Advertiser, published as The Daily Advertiser: Political, Historical,
Location: New York, New York
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H O U S E O F R E P R ES E N TAT I V E S .
SAT U R DAY, J U N E 7 .
Ordered; T h a t t h e J u sti ce s o f t h e S u p re m e J u d i ci a l Co u rt b e
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fo l l ow i n g q u e st i o n , viz- H a s G e o rge P h i ps, wh o w a s b o r n i n
E n g l a n d, a n d ca m e t o t h i s c o u nt ry a s a so l d i e r i n t h e B rit i s h
a rm y, i n t h e ye a r 1776 a n d wa s t a ke n p ri so n e r a t t h e s u rre n d e r
o f G e n . B u rgoy n e, a n d h a s eve r s i n ce res i d e d i n t h e town of C i n
t h i s State, a n d w h o h a s h e l d rea l e state, a n d b e e n t a xe d
e refo re, i n sa i d tow n , b ut h a s n ow beco m e a p a u p e r, ga i n ed
e m e nt i n s a i d tow n , o r i s h e a n a l i e n, e nt it l ed to a
fro m t h e Sta t e .
The Times, Jul 3 0, 1 790; pg. 3 ; Issue
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Category: News
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From the Village Record; Article Type: News/Opinion
Paper: Providence Gazette; Date: 08-22- 1 821 ; Volume: LVI I ; Issue: 3092; Page: [1]; Location: Providence, Rhode Island
This entire product and/or portions thereof are copyrighted by NewsBank and/or the American Antiquarian Society.
2004.
APP E N D I X G :
PART O N E : LIST O F T E R M S :
A) list of Terms, Vocabulary, People, Places, and Events for film #1: The War That Made
America
The H a lf Ki n g
Fo rt D u q uesne
Pontiac's R e be l l i o n
Ohio cou ntry
G e n e ra l M o ntca l m
G e n e ra l M u n ro
Lord Loudo u n
M a ry J e m ison
Fort W i l l i a m H e n ry
B) List of Terms, Vocabulary, People, Places, and Events for Film #2: Rebels and Redcoats
Sa m u e l Ada m s
J o h n H a ncock
P a u l Revere
Boston M assacre
G e n e ra l Gage
Lexin gton , M a ss
Con co rd, M as s
Arl i ngton , M ass
E l iza Wi l ki n s o n
Cha rleston, S.C
Crispus Attu c ks
PART TWO : L I ST O F QU EST I O N S T O CO M P LETE W H I LE WATC H I N G TH E F I LM S :
A ) The War That Made America
1) W hat was the m a i n goa l of the H a lf Ki ng?
2) Which E u ro pe a n nation d i d the H a lf King choose t o a l ly his peo p l e to?
3) What is the I ro q u o i s Confede racy? Who were they a l l i ed to?
4) Which fo rt in the fi l m was the s u bj ect of a French a nd I nd i a n siege?
147
5 ) What d id the F re nch a nd B ritis h offic e rs do together at the end of the siege ?
6} H o w d i d the I nd i a n a l l ies of the F r e n c h react to this?
7 ) I n the fi l m , what did George Wa s h i n gton wa nt from Lo rd Lo udo u n ?
8) W h at w a s t h e M assac h usetts legislature a ngry a bout?
9 ) Acco rd i ng to G e o rge Washi ngto n, how did the B ritish treat the Ame rica n co l o n i a l troops?
10} Why d id wo m e n trave l with the B ritish Army?
1 1 ) Who was M a ry Jem ison?
1 2 ) What ha ppened to h e r fa m i ly?
B) R e bels and Redcoats
1} W hat was the n a m e of the part Africa n-Ame ri ca n a n d part Native Ame rica n p rotestor
who was k i l led d u ri ng the Boston M a ss acre ?
2 ) Was h e i nc l uded i n the fa mous pa i nt i ng of the m assac re?
3 ) Who p a i nted t h e fa m o us p ri nt of t h e m a ssacre?
4} N a m e some of the peo p le who t h e fi l ms shows a rgued fo r b reaking with G reat B rita i n
5 ) VV he re d id t h e B ritish Army a nd t h e America n m i l itia fi rst fight e a c h othe r?
6 ) W h o fi red the fi rst shots?
7 } Who led the B ritish ca m pa igns in the south?
PA RT T H R E E : QU E ST i O N S FOR STU D E NTS TO CCOM PLETE A FT E R WATCH i N G T H E
F I LM S :
A) The War That Made America
The m e 1: I nd i a n a i ms:
1 ) What i m porta nt factors d id I n d i a n gro u ps ta ke i nto considerati o n w h e n d eciding which
E u ro pea n nation to a l ly the m selves with?
2 } T o what exte nt was the H a lf King a uthorized to spea k on behalf of all I nd i a ns?
3) N a m e o ne t h i ng that surprised you in the d e piction of the negotiatio n s between the H a lf
K i n g' s tribe a nd t h e Vi rgi nia traders .
148
The m e 2 : Cult u ra l Diffe re nces i n wa r:
1 ) Afte r the batt l e at F o rt Wi l l i a m H e n ry, the I nd i a ns who had fo ught with the French
expected some fi n a n c i a l rewa rds. Why?
2) What s pecific cust o m fro m e ighteenth ce ntu ry E u ro pea n w a rfa re su rprised yo u? What
was su rprising a bo ut it?
3) H ow do you t h i n k yo u wo u l d have fe lt if yo u were an I nd i a n a l ly of the F re nch, and yo u
witnessed the B ritish a n d French officers d i n i ng togethe r after the B ritish s u rre nder?
4) What were some of t h e d iffe ren ces betwee n I nd ia n tribes a nd E u ro peans ( e ither the
B ritish o r Fre nc h L and what we re some of the simi l a rities?
The m e 3 : Te nsion between t h e British a n d the i r American c o l o n i es :
1 ) H ow do yo u th i n k Lo rd Lo u d o u n treated George Was h i n gto n ?
2 ) W h y were t h e Massa c h us etts state l egislators rel ucta nt t o p a y fo r t h e wa r a nd send
co l o n i a l m i l it i a m e n to fight t h e Fre nch a nd their I ndian a l l ies?
3 ) The M assach usetts state l egisl ato rs had stro ng feeli ngs a bo ut the cost of war. I nd i a ns
who fo ught at Fort Wi l l i a m H e n ry a l so had stro ng fee l i ngs a bo ut the cost of wa r? Exp l a i n
h o w these fee l i ngs we re s i m i la r.
The m e 4 : The Role of Wom e n :
1 ) What su rprised you a bo u t seeing wom e n with the B ritish a rmy?
2 } What ro l e d i d wo m e n p lay i n the tri be that the H a lf King b e l o nged to?
3 } M a ry J e m iso n had t h e c h a n ce to return to l ive i n a society that vvas d o m i n ated by whites.
I n stead, she chose to stay l iv i ng with the I nd i a n peo ple of the G e n esee, eve n though her
fa m i ly had bee n kil led by I nd i a ns . G ive n what we have l e a r n e d a bo ut I ndia ns, why d o you
t h i n k she made this decis i o n ?
Rebels a n d Redcoats:
Cl i p 1 : The Boston M a ssacre
1 ) How were the Britis h so l d i e rs portrayed i n Paul Reve re's pri nt?
2) By d e p icti ng the B ritish s o l d i e rs as h e d id, what message was Pa u l Reve re tryi ng to send,
a nd to who?
149
C l i p 2 : Lexi ngton, Conco rd, Arli ngto n a nd t h e Retreat to Bosto n
1} Why was t h e fi rst s h ot at Lexi ngto n known a s "the s h ot hea rd a ro u nd the worl d " ?
2 ) W h a t was t h e b iggest diffe re nce yo u noticed betwee n h o w t h e British fo ught a n d how
the m i l itia fo ught?
3) Why do y o u t h i n k m i l itia fighte rs were a bl e to i nfl ict such h eavy casua lties o n the B ritish
tro o ps?
C l i p 3: The Wa r in the South
1 } Why did s o m e p e o p l e choose to stay loya l to G reat B rita i n ?
2 ) If you'd have b e e n a l ive d u ri ng t h e Ame rica n Revo l ution, how would you have m a d e u p
yo u r m i nd w h i c h s i d e to s u p po rt?
3 } Do yo u t h i n k it i s possi b l e that you m ight n ot h ave decided to su pport eithe r s i d e ?
Exp l a i n yo u r a nswe r.
150
APPE N DIX H :
H o m ework: After viewi ng Private B est's p resentatio n today, p lease a nswe r the fol lowi ng
q ue stions fo r h o m ework.
1. What ki nd of materi a l s were the c l othes made from ? Where d o yo u t h i n k these clothes
w e re made? ( 3 poi nts)
2. What kind of person beca m e a B ritish so l d i e r? ( 2 poi nts)
3 . What wo u l d l ife have been l i ke for a wom a n who accom pa nied a s o l d i e r? What kind of
r e s p o n si b i l ities did she h ave? (2 p o i nts)
4 . Where d i d s o l d i e rs get their foo d ? What kind of food did they eat? ( 3 poi nts)
5. Why wa s the cartridge box i m po rta nt? What wa s i m po rta nt a bo ut the materia l it was
m a d e fro m ? (2 poi nts)
6. I magi n e that you a re a sol d i e r in the B ritish a rm y fighting in the Fre nc h a n d I nd i a n \Na r.
E it h e r : a ) Write a poem that ca ptu re s so m e of you r experiences. The 'voi ce' of t h e poem is
m o re i m po rta nt than the lengt h . H o wever, a s a g u i d e l i ne, it is u n l i ke l y you r voi ce wi l l say
m uc h i n m uch l e ss than fiftee n l i ne s .
O r : b ) Write a l ette r home t o a fa m i ly m e m be r o r friend that te l l of some of you r tho ughts
a nd/ or experi e nces.
N OT E : Although m a ny so l diers were i l l ite rate, fo r this assignment I am m o re i nte rested in
yo u r tho ughts a bo ut a rmy l ife a nd w h at yo u learned fro m P rivate Best's p rese ntati o n . ( 10
p o i nts)
7. When a B riti s h so ldier was k i l le d in batt l e d u ri ng the F rench a n d I nd i a n Wa r, what may
h ave h a p p e ned to h i s belongings ? ( 2 p o i nts)
8. Which is of the a rtifacts did yo u fi n d m o st i nte resting? Why? (2 p o i nts)
151
9 . N a m e o n e thing that s u rp rised you a bo ut P rivate Best's prese ntatio n ? Tel l me a bo ut why
you fo u n d it surpri s i n g . ( 2 p o i nts)
10. Each yea r, I se n d off som e fo l low- u p q uestions to P rivate Best. What q u estio n wou l d
y o u l i ke t o a s k P rivate Best? I t ca n be a bo ut a nyth ing c o n ne cted t o t h e t i m e period a n d
have a co n n ection t o N o rth A m e rica . (2 points)
152
APPE N D IX 1 :
Fo r this fie l d tri p assign m e nt, I wi l l b rea k the stu d e nts d own i nto a n u m be r of sections i n
order t o avo id over-crowding a t t h e sepa rate sites. Wit h i n each section, stude nts wi l l work
i n s m a l l gro u ps . I wi l l designate five stations t h ro ughout the site, and o rga n ize it so that
different sections of students work at the d iffe rent stations at d iffe re nt times.
Stati o n 1 : T h e F l ag-Poles
Stati o n 2: T h e ra ised earthen-works
Stati o n 3 : The ra ised wal k-way that overlooks the river
Statio n 4 : O n the gra ssy ba n k next to the Cast l e that ove rlooks the l a ke
Stat i o n 5 : O n t h e grass by t h e south red o u bt
At Stati o n O ne :
1 ) W h a t w a s t h e m o st i nteresti ng thing that y o u lea rned today?
2 ) What s u r p rised you the m ost today?
3) M o st visitors d rive to the parking l ot a nd begi n their tour at the m useu m . Why do yo u
thi n k I sta rt e d t h e to u r at the edge of the pa rk?
4) R e m e m b e ri ng the p resentati o n that P rivate Best gave, what were so me of the essenti a l s
t h a t yo u wo u ld h ave needed to carry i f you we re a B ritish sol d i e r i n the British force that
attacked F o rt N ia ga ra in 1759?
5 ) H ow long d i d the British s iege ta ke?
At Station Two :
1 ) A s yo u l o o k o ut from t h e e a rthen wo r ks a t t h e d i rection t h e British c a m e from, what d o
yo u see?
2 ) The F re n ch had l ong p repa red the fort fo r the eve ntua l ity of a siege . What cha nges to
the la n dsca p e i n fro nt of yo u had they made? W hy?
3) Which gro u p s of peo p l e were fighting with the B ritish ?
4) W h y w a s S i r W i l l i a m J o h nson a n i m p o rta nt p a rt of t h e B ritish force?
5) What wa s strategica l ly i m po rta nt abo ut the fo rt?
At Statio n Th re e :
153
1 ) W hy d i d the F rench b u i l d F o rt N iaga ra where yo u a re sta n d i ng tod a y?
2 ) At fi rst, what did they te l l t h e N ative Ame rica n tri bes fro m this a rea they wa nted with the
land?
3 } Late r, w h e n F rench troops w e re ga rriso n e d here, descri be so m e o f t h e characte ristics of
d a i l y l ife that they experie n c e d .
4} W h e n t h e y b u i lt the pow d e r m aga zi ne, w h a t ki n d o f considerat i o n s d i d they have to
consi der?
5 ) G o to the ba ke-ho use . The vo l u nteer there w i l l a l low yo u to to uch som e of the goods
a nd h e l p with the preparat i o n of b read-ma king. As you spend t i m e with h i m, ask him some
q uestio n s . Write down two q ue stions you a s ked h i m, and his a nswe rs .
At Statio n Fo u r:
1 ) W hy do you t h i n k that t h e B ritish d i d not attack the fo rt fro m t h e water?
2) How did tra d e with E u ro pea n s cha nge the l ives of the l oca l I nd i a n s ? In your a nswe r refer
to s o m e s pecifi c item s that w e re tra d e d .
3 ) W hat respo n s i b i l ities do you t h i n k F re n ch soldiers had d u ri n g t h e t i m e t h e y were
ga rrisoned at F o rt N iaga ra ?
4) W hat othe r i m porta nt s ieges o r battles were being cond ucted s i m u lta neously as the
s iege o n Fort N iagara?
5) W hat m ateri a l s do you t h i n k were used i n m a ki ng the F rench castl e ?
A t Statio n F ive :
1 ) I n silen ce, s p e nd a few m i n utes i ma g i n i ng yo u a re a F re nch so l d i e r o n guard . Write down
s o m e of the thi ngs yo u m ight h ave been th i n ki ng a bo ut.
2 ) W hat cha nges to the fo rt d i d the B ritish m a ke when they ca pt u re d it i n July 1759?
3 ) W h o was i n charge of t h e B ritish fo rce a nd who was in charge of the F re nch force? What
h a p pe ned to them ?
4 ) F i nd a nothe r pe rso n who gave a p rese ntati o n . Ask h i m o r h e r two q uestions. Write
d ow n what the q uestions were a nd wh at a nswers they gave yo u .
5 ) Today, Fort N iagara i s ru n b y t h e O l d Fort N iaga ra Associati o n . I n o rder fo r i t t o be run
s uccessfu l ly, what does the association need?
154
APP E N D I X J :
I n c lass we have studied the l a st yea rs of British r u l e i n N o rth Ame rica d u ring the
m i d to l ate e ighte e nth c e ntury, a nd have closely exa m i n ed t h e British troops stationed
t h e re . For your fi n a l p roje ct, i n a sm a l l gro u p of three o r fo u r students, you w i l l choose a nd
researc h a s u b-to p i c that is re lated to the m ajor to p i c that we have studied fo r the l a st few
weeks. O nce you have rese a rched the to pic, i n you r gro u ps you w i l l p resent you r fi n d i ngs to
the rest of the class. I n yo u r grou ps you wi l l choose h ow yo u wi l l p resent yo u r topic from
the l ist of o ptions l i sted b elow i n Part B . After your p re s e ntatio n, you wi l l a lso hand i n a
writte n fi na l pro d u ct. ( Fo r exa m p l e if yo u choose to present a p lay, yo u wi l l hand in you r
fi n a l scri pt) . Each stude n t wi l l be graded o n both the writte n p ro d u ct that is ha nded i n and
the p rese ntatio n .
Part A: Choose you r topic: T h e topics a re as fol lows;
1) New F ra nce
6) I nd i a n tri bes a l l ie d to the F re n c h The F rench Army
2 ) The I roquois Co nfe d e racy
7) P ontiac' s R e be l l io n
3 ) Da ily Life o f the B ritish So l d i e r
8) T h e Col o n i a l M i l itias
4) Vv'ea po ns a n d M i l ita ry Tactics
9) The Orga n ization of the British Army i n 1775
5 ) Food and Food P re p a ration
10) A to pic of yo u r c h o ice not i nc l uded here
B : Choose your mode of presentation: The modes a re as fo l l ows;
1) A set of j o u rna l s
5 ) A h i storica l scra p-book
2) A series of l ette rs ( at l e a st 3 l etters per student)
6) A set of poems o r short sto ries
3 ) A newspaper (that i n c l udes n ews stories, l ette rs, o p i n i o n s a nd e d ito ria l s )
4) A l ecture that i nc l udes both speaking a n d visual com po n e nts
choice
155
7) A play
8 ) A fo rmat of your
E a c h m e m be r of yo u r gro u p wi l l be expected to cond uct resea rch a nd p a rtici pate i n
t h e p rese ntati o n . For exa m p le, i f your gro u p d ecides to com p i l e a newspa p e r, the re m ust
be sto ries, l ette rs a nd/ or o p i n ions written by e a c h m e m be r of the gro u p .
F o r the rem a i nder o f today's class a nd d u ri ng two m o re w h o l e class pe riods, i n yo ur
gro u ps yo u will choose a top ic, resea rc h t h e to p i c a nd plan the p resentation . A l l of the
presenta t i o n s will b e p rese nted i n o ne fi na l class, a nd each p rese ntation wi l l l a st
a p proxi m ately 6-8 m i n utes. You w i l l be gra d e d o n you r d e m on strati o n of the materia l that
yo u l e a r n e d d u ri ng this u nit a nd d u ring yo u r resea rch . As yo u ca n see, it is a l so poss i b l e fo r
you to c hoose a top i c a nd/ o r a format of your c ho ice. P lease fee l free to p ro pose to me
yo u r o rigi n a l ideas. I ca n he l p you l ocate oth e r reso urces.
RUBRIC: The fo l lowing rubric is i ncl uded fo r yo u r guidance.
4
T h e p resentati o n s h owed that the stud e nt u n d e rsta nds the key com po n e nts of the
topic, a n d that these com po n ents were histori ca l ly accu rate. The student h a nded in high
qua l ity m ateria l s that were thoroughly researched using a variety of reso u rces. The
p rese ntatio n was h ighiy thoughtfu i, creative a n d e ngagi ng.
3
T h e p rese ntati o n s howed that the stu d e nt u n d e rsta nds the key com po n e nts of the i r
top i c, a n d t h a t m o st of the com po n e nts we re h i storica l ly accu rate . T h e stu d e nt ha nded i n
good m a te ri a l s that were resea rched using som e o f t h e reso u rces ava i l a bl e . The
p rese ntation wa s tho ughtfu l, creative a nd e ngaging.
2
T h e p resentati o n i nc l uded some h i sto rica l e rro rs, but the students i nc l uded some
key com p o n e nts of their topic. The stu d e nt h a n ded i n good m aterials that rel ied o n some
rese a rc h . The p rese ntation had some e ngagi ng com po n e nts, but lacked creativity a nd
d e pt h .
156
1
The p resentation m a d e so m a ny histo rica l e rrors that it ca n n ot be said that the
stud e nts d e m o n strated a ny u nd e rsta n d i ng of their topic. The p res e ntatio n was
u n i m agi native .
157