PROGRAM FOR THE APPLICATION OF THE GENERAL
PRINCIPLES FOR INTERNATIONAL REMITTANCE SERVICES
IN LATIN AMERICAN AND THE CARIBBEAN
Female migration
and remittance flows to Mexico
program for the application of the general principles
for international remittance services in latin
american and the caribbean
program for the application of the general principles
for international remittance services in latin
american and the caribbean
Female migration and
remittance flows to Mexico
center for latin american monetary studies
BANORTE
multilateral investment fund
inter-american development bank
Autor:
Jesús Cervantes*
First edition in English, 2015
Exclusive rights under the law
© 2015 Centro de Estudios Monetarios Latinoamericanos (cemla)
Durango 54, Colonia Roma Norte, Delegación Cuauhtémoc, 06700 México D. F., México.
E-mail:[email protected]
http://www.cemla.org
Opinions expressed in this document are those of the author and not necessarily reflect the point of view
of mif (idb group) or Banorte
*This document was written by Jesús Cervantes, Center for Latin American Monetary Studies (cemla),
but it is the outcome of a working group comprising officials from Banorte and cemla. From Banorte’s
side, the working group counted with the help and support of Ricardo Velázquez Rodríguez, General
Director of Banca Internacional e Instituciones Financieras, and Alberto Raúl Guerra Rodríguez, Executive Director of Pagos Internacionales; as well as with the participation and development of Ana Claudia
de la Garza, Director of Tecnologías de Información; and Normando Rojas Morgan, Director of Pagos
Internacionales. The working team of CEMLA was composed by, besides Jesús Cervantes,
Salvador Bonilla, Anahí Rodríguez, Cindy Sánchez and Emilio Menéndez.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Mexican economy is the world’s fourth largest recipient of remittances, behind
India, China and the Philippines (see Figure 1). In 2013, such inflows amounted to
21,892 million us dollars originating from 75 million transfers and in 2014 remittances
exhibited significant growth. Revenues from remittances have had a positive impact
on the Mexican economy by easing the budget constraint of millions of recipient families and reducing poverty levels. Remittances have allowed such families to achieve
a higher standard of living by helping to fund their expenditure on consumer goods,
education, health, housing, and in some cases investment in family business as well.
Given that a proportion of the revenues from remittances is paid or intermediated
by the financial system, opportunities, that up until now have been underleveraged,
for the financial inclusion of those receiving these funds from abroad have appeared.
It is commonly thought that remittance flows to Mexico, as well as other countries
receiving such resources from abroad, stem from a migratory process where men
leave their country to seek better employment and income opportunities, and then
send remittances to their wives and children back home. Although this idea reflects a
very important part of the migration and remittances phenomena, it is an incomplete view. The latter is in light of two factors. On the one hand, the results of different
surveys conducted among Mexican migrants, as well as those from other countries,
show that the principal group receiving remittances are the parents of migrants and
not their wives and children, although it is recognized that in the case of wives the
amount of money sent per remittance is larger and sent more frequently. On the other
hand, the referred view also ignores the millions of women that have migrated to other
countries and work and send remittances back to their countries of origin. As will be
shown below, in the case of Mexican migration, millions of women have migrated to
the United States and send thousands of millions of us dollars to their family members in Mexico every year.
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
1
Figure 1
worker’s remittances in selected emerging
and developing countries in 2013a
(Millions of us dollars and percentage of gdp)
India
China
Philippines
Mexico
59,491
26,700 9.8
21,892 1.7
Nigeria
Egypt
Pakistan
Bangladesh
Vietnam
Ukraine
Indonesia
Lebanon
Morocco
Russia
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Nepal
Guatemala
Dominican Rep.
Colombia
El Salvador
Jordan
Romania
Serbia
Honduras
Peru
Brazil
Ecuador
Czech Republic
Hungary
Armenia
Jamaica
Argel
Bosnia and Herzegovina
69,970
0.6
20,890 4.0
17,833 6.6
14,626 6.2
13,857 10.7
11,000 6.4
9,667 5.4
7,615
0.9
7,551 17.0
6,882 6.6
6,751 0.3
6,422 9.6
5,690 1.5
5,552 28.8
5,371 10.0
4,486 7.4
4,119 1.1
3,971 16.4
3,643 10.8
3,515 1.9
3,183 7.5
3,136 16.9
2,707 1.3
2,537 0.1
2,438 2.7
2,270 1.1
2,268 1.7
2,193 21.0
2,161 15.0
2,000 1.0
1,893 10.6
1,781 21.1
1,201 3.9
1,081 9.6
Costa Rica 596 1.2
Haiti
Bolivia
Nicaragua
Paraguay 591 2.0
Panama 418 1.0
2
Source: World Bank, except data for Mexico,
which was provided by Banco de México.
January, 2015
3.7
This paper is the result of a joint effort between the Center for Latin American Monetary Studies (cemla), Banorte and the Multilateral Investment Fund (mif), an agency
of the Inter-American Development Bank (idb). It attempts to estimate the contribution
of Mexican women that have migrated to the United States to Mexico’s income from
remittances. The study comes under the framework of activities of the Program for the
Application of General Principles for Latin American and Caribbean Remittance Markets that is implemented by cemla and mif with technical assistance from the World
Bank. Said program recognizes the fact that in order for remittance markets in Latin
American and Caribbean countries to be competitive, efficient and transparent it is
crucial to improve knowledge of the market’s different characteristics as well as those
of remittance senders and receivers.
The paper is divided into five sections, the first of which is this introduction. The
second section shows some indicators on international female migration. The third
section presents the main characteristics of the profile of Mexican women that have
emigrated to the United States, including their number and evolution during recent
years, their share in the total of Mexican migrants, their age structure, education, immigration status, participation in the labor force, the evolution of their employment
and unemployment rates, the economic sector they work in, average incomes and total
income, in both full-time as well as part-time jobs. In order to identify these aspects two
us Census Bureau surveys were employed: the American Community Survey (acs), an
annual survey gathered from over 2.5 million households in that country and the Current Population Survey (cps), a monthly survey that covers about 60,000 households
each month. The latter survey is the source for measuring the unemployment rate in the
United States. Information from the us Department of Homeland Security was also used.
The fourth section of the paper calculates how many of the 2,851,859 remittances
sent to Mexico in 2013 (2,848,862 sent from the United States and 2,997 from Canada) and handled by Banorte were made by women and what were the average amounts
remitted by women and men. These calculations also allowed Mexico’s income from
the remittances sent by Mexican female migrants to be estimated. The latter is the
first known exercise for a remittance receiving economy that identifies the gender of
remittance senders and the corresponding number of transfers and amounts sent based on individual registries of such transfers. One aspect that should be emphasized is
that, although the gender of the sender and recipient of each of the referred 2,851,859
remittances was identified, the confidentiality of participants at both ends of the transaction was maintained at all times given that the whole exercise was carried out using
only the first name of senders and receivers. Finally, the fifth section presents some concluding remarks.
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
3
This study focuses on the migration of Mexican women to the United States and
on the remittances originating from that country. As can be seen in Table 1, this takes
into account the fact that the United States was the destination for 97.8% of Mexican
migrants in 2013, and that it was the source of a similar percentage of Mexico’s income from remittances. The Table also shows how that country was the destination for
98.1% of male and 97.5% of female migrants.
Table 1
Number of Mexican Migrants by Gender and Destination Country, 2013
(Number of individuals and percentages)
Destination country
1. United States
Total
Number of
Mexican
Structure
migrants
(%)
Men
Number of
Mexican
migrants
Structure
(%)
Women
Number of
Mexican
Structure
migrants
(%)
11,584,977
97.79
6,133,744
98.09
5,451,233
97.46
2. Canada
69,982
0.59
33,428
0.53
36,554
0.66
3. Spain
47,441
0.40
19,560
0.31
27,881
0.50
4. Guatemala
16,716
0.14
9,819
0.16
6,897
0.12
5. Bolivia
16,193
0.14
8,216
0.13
7,977
0.14
6. France
12,370
0.11
4,380
0.07
7,990
0.14
7. United Kingdom
11,039
0.09
5,342
0.08
5,697
0.10
8. Italy
7,567
0.06
2,275
0.04
5,292
0.10
9. Germany
7,219
0.06
2,248
0.04
4,971
0.09
10. Switzerland
6,506
0.06
2,500
0.04
4,006
0.07
11. Belize
5,074
0.04
2,688
0.04
2,386
0.04
Rest of the world
61,484
0.52
29,068
0.47
32,416
0.58
11,846,568
100.00
6,253,268
100.00
5,593,300
100.00
Total
Source: American Community Survey for the United States, 2013, and United Nations,
Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Trends in International
Migrant Stock: Migrants by Destination and Origin, 2013, for the other ten countries and the rest
of the world.
2. DIMENSION OF INTERNATIONAL FEMALE MIGRATION
Considerable efforts have been made in recent years to measure the dimension of
international female migration, but there are practically no measurements of the
4
January, 2015
amounts of remittances associated to such migratory flows. The Population Division
of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs has made a significant effort to measure stocks of international migration by country of origin and destination, and to identify the gender of said migrants and their age structure. Figure 2
shows that in 1990 the total number of international migrants was 154.2 million individuals, representing 2.9% of the world’s population (5.3208 billion people). By 2013
the total number of migrants had risen to 231.5 million individuals and constituted
3.2% of the world’s population (7.1621 billion people). Thus, the dynamism of migratory flows over that 23-year period was greater than population growth given that the
latter increased 34.6%, while the total number of migrants did so by 50.2 per cent.
Figure 2
Migrant Population in the World and Female Migration 1990-2013
(Millions of individuals and percentages)
154.2
220.7
231.5
2010
2013
106.1
111.2
174.5
Total migrant
population
Female migrant
population
1990
2000
75.3
85.7
(48.8%)
(49.1%)
(48.1%) (48.0%)
Source: United Nations, Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Age and Gender,
September, 2013.
In 1990, the number of international female migrants amounted to 75.3 million,
figure representing 48.8% of all migrants and 2.9% of the world’s female population
(2,641.2 million individuals). In 2013, the total number of international female migrants reached 111.2 million people and constituted 48% of all migrants and 3.1% of
the world’s female population (3,551.6 million women). In the same 23-year period
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
5
the total number of women that migrated increased by 47.7%, while the world’s female population did so by 34.5%. International female migration was therefore more
dynamic than female population growth.
Another aspect of female migration flows worth pointing out is that they are mostly
made up of working age women. Figure 3 shows that, as of 1990, 71.8% of the female population that had migrated internationally fell within an age range of 15 to 64
years, surpassing the figure of 60.5% recorded for those in that age range among the
world’s female population. The more recent female migration flows contained an
even greater proportion of working age women. This takes into account the fact that,
as the referred figure shows, in 2013 the percentage of international female migrants
falling within the 15 to 64 year age range had risen to 77.1 per cent.
Figure 3
percentage of working age women in international migration
and world population, 1990-2013
Percentage of women
aged 15 to 64
Percentage of women
aged 20 to 60
77.1
71.8
74.7
76.7
1990
2000
2010
2013
60.5
62.7
65.4
65.6
60.1
64.0
66.5
66.8
1990
2000
2010
2013
50.9
53.3
56.9
57.5
Among
the migrant
population
Among world
population
Source: United Nations, Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Age and Gender,
September 2013.
3. THE PROFILE OF MEXICAN FEMALE IMMIGRATION
IN THE UNITED STATES
According to figures from the American Community Survey, in 2013, the immigrant
population in the United States totaled 41,348,066 individuals, of which 21,162,013
were women, i.e., 51.2% of the total. That year the number of Mexican migrants amoun-
6
January, 2015
ted to 11,584,977 individuals and was composed of 6,133,744 men and 5,451,233 women. Mexicans therefore accounted for 28% of all immigrants and constituted the
largest immigrant group in that country, in the case of both men (30.4%) and women
(25.8%) (Figure 4).
Figure 4
United States: Mexican immigrants’
Share of the total foreing born population, 2013
(Percentages)
30.4
28.0
25.8
Of total
immigrants
Of male
immigrants
Of female
immigrants
3.1 Female Immigration in the United States
The proportion of women in the immigrant population of the United States has increased over recent years, a trend that has been particularly influenced by significant
female immigration from Latin America and the Caribbean. Thus, women as a percentage of total immigrants increased from 49.7% in 2007 to 51.2% in 2013 (Table 2).
In the case of Mexican immigration, the percentage of women increased from 44.1%
in 2007 to 47.1% in 2013. Figure 5 shows that during the referred period the number
of women increased more than men in the majority of immigrant groups in the United States.
One important aspect when considering for 2013 the immigrants in the United
States from the 20 main countries of origin for female immigration is the fact that 10
of the latter are in Latin America and the Caribbean, with those from Mexico being
the most numerous (Figure 6).
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
7
Table 2
Percentage of Women in the Immigrant Population
of the United States and in that Originating
from Latin America and the Caribbean, 2007-2013
Years
Total Immigrants
Excluding
Latin
Total
Americans
From
Mexico
From
Central
America
From Latin
America
From the
Caribbean
From South
America
2007
49.7
52.8
47.0
44.1
46.4
53.8
52.1
2008
49.9
52.6
47.4
44.4
46.7
54.5
52.6
2009
50.0
53.0
47.5
44.9
46.2
53.5
52.4
2010
50.9
53.3
48.8
46.3
47.1
54.1
54.0
2011
51.1
53.2
49.1
46.7
47.5
54.7
53.7
2012
51.3
53.4
49.4
47.1
47.6
54.7
54.0
2013
51.2
53.0
49.3
47.1
46.9
54.7
53.7
Variation:
2007-2013
1.5
0.2
2.3
3.0
0.5
0.9
1.6
Figure 5
United States: change from 2007 to 2013 in the number of immigrants
by gender and country or region of origin
8
From
Latin America
From
México
From
From
From
Central America the Caribbean South America
January, 2015
1,137,961
854,116
147,544
48,641
342,892
223,759
227,219
227,095
275,360
−428,920
70,575
Total
immigrants
Women
993,015
1,034,571
2,253,801
Men
From
Asia
Figure 6
413,836
386,699
369,788
365,827
361,819
324,907
252,392
237,931
234,676
224,396
Jamaica
Colombia
Germany
United
Kinggdom
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Poland
Peru
Russia
556,968
Dominican
Republic
459,585
581,164
Cuba
Canada
602,244
610,091
Korea
El Salvador
680,216
Vietnam
974,610
India
1,104,549
Philippines
1,325,410
China
México
5,451,233
number of women in the immigrant population of the united states
by country of origin, 2013
(Number of women)
Note: Mexico has a different scale from other countries; China includes Hong Kong and Taiwan;
and Korea both Koreas.
3.2 Recent Evolution of the Flow of Mexican Female Migrants to the United States
During the period 2007-2013, the migration flow from Mexico to the United States
declined sharply and was actually negative in net terms as a result of factors such as:
• The persistence of high rates of unemployment in that country during the first
few years of the period. Although a sharp fall in said rate in 2013 and 2014 led
to a substantial annual increase in remittance flows to Mexico.
• The period of high unemployment affected the Mexican immigrant population to a higher degree because the weakness of demand for labor was most severe in the construction and manufacturing sectors where a large amount of
Mexican men work. Unemployment has also been higher among workers with
low levels of education as is the case of Mexicans.
• In some years of the referred period the performance of the Mexican economy
improved and this might have discouraged migration flows to some extent.
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
9
• The compulsory and in some cases voluntary return of Mexican migrants to
Mexico. Anti-immigrant feelings in some states of the United States such as Arizona significantly affected the number of Mexican immigrants.
• A considerable bolstering of border control by the North American authorities. This and the previous factor are probably the main causes for the decline
in Mexican migration to the United States.
Despite the above, statistics of the American Community Survey and the Current
Population Survey show that the net migration flow to the United States from some
Central American countries has continued, which could possibly be explained by a
greater wage differential between such countries and the United States than in the
case of Mexico.
The weakness of Mexican migration flows to the United States in recent years has
been the net result of a negative flow in the case of men and a positive one in that of
women. The same scenario is presented, as will be seen below, in the case of employment among Mexican immigrant workers. Thus, Figure 7 contains data from the acs
illustrating that from 2007 to 2013 the number of Mexican immigrants in that country fell by 156,560 individuals (1.3%), as a net result of an increase of 275,360 women
(5.3%), and a decrease of 428,920 men (6.5%). Figures from the cps for 2014 suggest
the scenario remained unchanged.
Figure 7
united states: mexican immigrant population by gender, 2007-2013
(Number of persons)
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Source: American Community Survey; us Census Bureau.
10
January, 2015
6,133,744
6,227,076
6,284,693
6,329,449
6,349,707
6,562,664
5,451,233
5,062,961
5,175,873
11,581,977
11,563,374
11,672,619
11,711,103
11,478,413
11,412,668
11,738,537
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
5,447,755
–428,920 (–6.5%)
5,445,543
+275,360 (+5.3%)
5,426,410
Men
5,148,964
Women
–156,560 (–1.3%)
6,115,619
Total
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
3.3 Proportion of Women in Mexican Immigration at the State Level
As mentioned previously, in 2013, 47.1% of the immigrant population in the United
States originating from Mexico were women. Nevertheless, this percentage varied
significantly from one state to another. Thus, taking into account for 2013 the states
with more than 30,000 Mexican immigrants those with the largest proportion of women among Mexican immigrants were Arizona, New Mexico, California and Texas
(Figure 8), while those with the lowest percentage of females were Virginia, Louisiana, Kentucky and Pennsylvania.
Figure 8
united states: proportion of women in the mexican immigrant
population at state level, 2013
(Percentages)
Tennessee 40.2%
Ohio 39.8%
Alabama 39.7%
Pennsylvania 38.7%
Kentucky 37.7%
Louisiana 34.7%
Lower percentage of female immigrants
Virginia 33.4%
Arkansas 47.3%
Nevada 47.5%
Texas 48.5%
California 48.9%
New Mexico 49.3%
Arizona 50.5%
Higher percentage of female immigrants
3.4 Age Structure of Mexican Female Immigrants and Labor Participation Rate
As a whole, the Mexican immigrant population in the United States has an age structure that potentially enables greater participation of this immigrant group in the labor market than in the case of the population in Mexico. In fact, in 2013, in the United
States the percentage of Mexican immigrants below 18 years of age was very small at
just 6%, while the corresponding percentages were 5.9% in the case of men and 6.2%
for women. That year 85% of Mexican female immigrants were within the working
age range, i.e., between 18 and 64 years old (Figure 9), a percentage above that observed for female immigrants as a whole (78.1%) and in female immigrants originating
from Europe (61.8%) and Asia (78.5%).
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
11
Figure 9
6.0
5.7
6.2
5.5
5.2
5.1
10.7
6.4
4.3
24.6
26.6
29.5
29.3
19.3
23.8
32.7
24.2
16.3
37.0
53.5
55.7
55.5
55.4
55.3
57.4
49.1
54.3
45.5
15.6
15.9
12.0
8.8
9.8
20.2
13.7
7.5
15.1
33.9
Native
population
Total
of immigrants
Latin America
and the Caribbean
Mexico
Central America
The Caribbean
South America
Africa
Asia
Europe
age structure in the united states of native and immigrant women
by origin in 2013
(Percentages)
Under 18
years
24.9
From 18
to 34 years
22.5
From 35
to 64 years
65 years
and over
In 2013, the participation rate of Mexican female immigrants in the us labor market, i.e., the percentage of women aged 16 or over in the workforce, was relatively small
at 52.9%, although it was above the rate of 50.5% registered in 2007. This participating rate was also higher than that registered for the female population in Mexico (Figure 10). Nonetheless, the referred participation rate of Mexican immigrants in the
United States was lower than that observed among native women (59.0%; Figure 11),
as well as among immigrants from Central America (62.8%), South America (63%)
and Asia (56.1%).
3.5 Education Level of Mexican Female Immigrants in the United States
One feature that characterizes Mexican immigrant workers in the United States is
their educational disadvantage as compared to other immigrant groups and the native population, which also implies –as we will see below– a disadvantage in their potential earnings. Nonetheless, one positive aspect is that indicators also show there is
a large number of Mexican immigrant women studying in that country, particularly,
12
January, 2015
Figure 10
economic participation rate of the mexican population in mexico and
the united states, 2013 a
Population in Mexico
Participation
rate
Mexican immigrants in the United States
Percentage
employed
Participation
rate
Percentage
employed
61.0
Total
58.0
69.5
Total
64.0
79.8
Men
75.8
84.2
Men
79.0
44.1
Women
42.0
52.9
Women
47.0
Source: elaborated with data from the us Census Bureau’s American Community Survey for the
United States and with data from Inegi’s National Employement Survey (enoe) for Mexico.
a
The participation rate is the ratio of economically active population, measured for the population
aged 16 or over, to the total population in that age range. The percentage of employed workers is
measured as compared to the population aged 16 or over.
Figure 11
united states: percentage of female immigrant population
participating in the labor force and female unemployement rate
by region of origin in 2013
Percentage in the labor force (women aged 16 or over)
59.0
56.1
57.4
52.9
62.8
61.3
63.0
65.6
56.1
48.8
8.1
8.9
10.6
11.1
10.0
11.1
8.8
11.8
6.9
6.1
Native
population
Total
of immigrants
Latin America
and the Caribbean
Mexico
Central America
The Caribbean
South America
Africa
Asia
Europe
Female unemployment rate: percentage of the labor force
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
13
undergraduate and graduate degree programs. The referred number is also higher
than that for Mexican immigrant men.
Figure 12 shows that when taking into consideration for the period 2011-2013 immigrants in the United States aged 25 or over originating from 121 countries with
the largest number of immigrants, Mexicans exhibit the highest percentage (58.6%)
of individuals with less than high school diploma and the lowest percentage (5.5%)
of graduates with a bachelor’s or graduate degree. Figure 13 illustrates that the same
scenario is presented among both Mexican male and female immigrants, although
education levels are slightly higher among women than men.
Figure 12
countries of origin of immigrants in the united states
with the lowest levels of education, 2011-2013 a
(Population aged 25 or over)
Percentage
with less
than high
school diploma
58.6
57.2
Mexico Guatemala
Porcentage
with Bachelor’s
or graduate
degree
5.5
7.0
53.7
51.7
47.5
45.3
20.1
El Salvador
Honduras
Yemen
Portugal
Immigrants
excluding
México
6.6
7.5
11.2
10.7
36.5
10.3
Native
population
29.4
Source: American Community Survey, us Census Bureau.
a
Considers immigrants aged 25 or over originating from 121 countries with more than 20,000
immigrants in the United States.
Figures generated using data from the Current Population Survey for the first three
quarters of 2014 show that in the United States formal schooling among the Mexican
labor force (sum of employed and unemployed) was 10.2 years, being 10.7 years in the
14
January, 2015
Figure 13
countries of origin for immigrants in the united states with the
lowest levels of education, by gender, 2011-2013 a
(Population aged 25 or over)
Percentage of individuals
with complete upper
secondary education or higher
Women
Men
Percentage with Bachelor’s
or graduate degree
Women
Men
42.0
Mexico
40.8
6.1
Mexico
5.1
44.6
Guatemala
41.6
6.8
El Salvador
6.4
46.6
El Salvador
46.1
7.7
Guatemala
6.5
52.2
Cambodia
64.9
8.5
Honduras
6.6
52.5
Somalia
73.7
9.7
Somalia
Total
inmigrants
18.0
Native
population
29.3
69.8
90.4
Total
inmigrants
Native
population
68.5
89.1
27.4
29.4
28.4
Source: American Community Survey, us Census Bureau.
a
Considers immigrants in the United States from 121 countries.
case of women and 9.9 years in that of men. Figure 14 presents more detailed data on
these education levels and shows that among the Mexican immigrant labor force the
number of years of formal schooling reached 10.8 years in the case of women with jobs
and 9.7 years in those that were unemployed, while the corresponding figures were 10.0
and 9.9 years in the case of men. Said figure also shows that the education of Mexican
female immigrants in full-time employments was higher than that observed among
those with part-time jobs.
Figures from the American Community Survey show that a significant percentage of
Mexican immigrants in the United States invest in human capital in that country. Thus,
in 2013, the total number of Mexican immigrants that studied amounted to 1,182,761
individuals, representing 10.2% of that immigrant group. This figure is composed of
581,254 men and 601,507 women (Figure 15), implying that a higher percentage of
women study in that country than men, 11.0% versus 9.5%. In fact, as Figure 16 shows,
the percentage of women that study is high among all the different immigrant groups.
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
15
Figure 14
number of years in formal schooling of the mexican immigrant labor
force in the united states by gender and type of employement,
january-september 2014
Workers
Employed
Employed
Full-time
Unemployed
Part-time
10.2
Total
9.8
10.24
Total
10.18
10.0
Men
9.9
9.98
Men
9.59
10.8
Women
9.7
10.89
Women
10.56
Source: Current Population Survey, us Census Bureau.
Figure 15
united states: mexican immigrant population attending school
according to gender
(Population aged 3 or over)
Men
Total
2013
1,182,761
581,254
2013
601,507
2012
1,215,811
595,023
2012
620,788
2011
1,257,539
625,478
2011
632,061
2010
1,330,259
654,717
2010
675,542
2009
1,320,532
652,615
2009
667,917
2008
1,323,901
660,930
2008
662,971
2007
1,459,734
731,488
2007
728,246
Source: American Community Survey, us Census Bureau.
16
Women
January, 2015
Figure 16
united states: percentage of female native and foreing born attending
school according to region of origina
Percentage that study
36.3
61.8
64.7
61.0
11.2
Europe
15.5
Asia
15.5
Africa
48.2
13.9
South America
55.1
10.9
27.9
Caribe
29.3
11.0
Mexico
12.2
Latin American
and the Caribbean
Total immigrants
Native
population
13.8
Central America
27.8
43.7
60.6
61.5
Percentage of the total studying a Bachelor’s or postgraduate degree
Source: American Community Survey, us Census Bureau.
a
As a percentage of all women aged 3 or over.
Another important aspect is that in the United States a large number of Mexican immigrants study bachelor’s or postgraduate degrees, figure that amounted to
393,000 individuals in 2013 and was composed of 218,000 women and 175,000 men,
representing 3.2% of Mexican male and 4.6% of Mexican female immigrants aged
between 15 and 64 years old (Figure 17). It is worth mentioning that in the United States individuals with student visas and their families are not considered as immigrants
by the authorities. In fact, statistics from the us Department of Homeland Security
show that in January 2012 the number of Mexicans with student visas and their families amounted to just 10,000 individuals.1
1
Bryan Baker, Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Resident Nonimmigrant Population in the United
States: January 2012, Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, February 2014.
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
17
Figure 17
united states: mexican immigrant population studying a bachelor’s
or postgraduate degree according to gender, 2007-2013
(Number of individuals and percentages)
Men
Men*
Women
Women *
175,000
2013
218,000
3.2
2013
4.6
176,000
2012
221,000
3.2
2012
4.7
165,000
2011
210,000
3.0
2011
4.4
157,000
2010
211,000
2.8
2010
4.5
144,000
2009
176,000
2.5
2009
4.0
142,000
2008
174,000
2.5
2008
4.0
143,000
2007
197,000
2.4
2007
4.4
Source: American Community Survey, us Census Bureau.
*
Percentages for the number of mexican immigrants of each gender aged between 15 and 64.
3.5. Sector of Activity and Employment of Mexican Female Immigrant Workers
in the United States
There are considerable differences among the sectors of activity where Mexican immigrants work according to gender. Table 3 shows for 2013 the sectoral distribution
of Mexican workers, highlighting the following: a) both men and women have a significant presence in the manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade sectors; b) the
construction sector is the main source of employment for Mexican male workers; c)
the presence of Mexican workers in financial, insurance and it activities, as well as
in the real estate sector is very small; d) there are more women than men working in
recreation and accommodation and food services, particularly in part-time jobs, as
well as in household services; and e) educational services and health care and social
assistance services represent an important source of employment for Mexican immigrant women, but not for men.
18
January, 2015
Table 3
united states: sector of activity of mexican workers by gender in 2013
(Percentage estructure)
Wholesale and retail trade
Transportation and warehousing, and utilities
Finance and insurance and real estate, rental
and information
Professional, scientific and management,
and administrative services
Educational services, and health care
and social assistance
Recreation, and accomodation and food services
Household services
Other services and public administration
Total
6.3
7.7
3.5
4.1
1.9
17.4a
25.4a
1.2
1.3
1.1
14.3
14.2
14.3
18.1
5.0
10.6
9.9
11.9
8.0
Manufacturing
Total
23.5
38.0
Construction
Men
19.0
Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining
Total
47.3
Sectors
Women: jobs
Full-time Part-time
11.7
12.4
3.9
4.7
2.4
2.8
1.3
2.9
2.3
4.0
4.4
3.2
13.3
13.6
12.8
11.8
15.5
8.3
2.7
19.6
19.9
18.7
15.8
13.7
20.1
17.4
26.3
1.7
0.3
4.6
2.8
9.1
5.5
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source: elaborated with data from the Current Population Survey, us Census Bureau.
a
In 2007, construction was a source of employment for 23.1% of Mexican immigrant workers and
32% of Mexican immigrant men.
According to figures from the Current Population Survey, from 2007 to 2011 the
employment level of Mexican immigrant workers in the United States contracted substantially by 631,285 jobs or 8.8% (Table 4), with decreases of 602,234 jobs in the case
of men (11.8% fall) and 29,051 jobs in that of women (1.4% decline). The composition
of employment also deteriorated as full-time employment fell by 1,040,693 jobs, which
was partly offset by an increase of 409,409 part-time jobs. However, wages in the latter
are around half those earned in full-time jobs. The weakening of employment and its
composition had a negative impact on remittance flows to Mexico.
From 2011 to 2013 there was an improvement in employment among Mexican immigrants in the United States which was fully absorbed by women, while that of men
declined again, if only slightly (Table 4). Nevertheless, in the last part of that period
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
19
Table 4
United States: Mexican Immigrant Population Employed by Gender and
Full and Part-time Jobs, 2007-2013
Number of employed
Total variation
2011/2007 20013/2007
Percentage variation
2011/2007 20013/2007
2007
2011
2013
Total
7,187,637
6,556,352
6,682,737
–631,285
–504,900
–8.8%
–7.0%
Full-time
6,432,916
5,392,223
5,603,422
–1,040,693
–829,494
–16.2%
–12.9%
Part-time
754,720
1,164,129
1,079,315
409,409
324,595
54.2%
43.0%
Men
5,086,515
4,484,281
4,458,986
–602,234
–627,529
–11.8%
–12.3%
Full-time
4,821,619
3,939,674
4,024,266
–881,945
–797,353
–18.3%
–16.5%
Part-time
264,896
544,607
434,721
279,711
169,825
105.6%
64.1%
Women
2,101,122
2,072,071
2,223,750
–29,051
122,628
–1.4%
5.8%
Full-time
1,611,297
1,452,549
1,579,156
–158,748
–32,141
–9.9%
–2.0%
Part-time
489,825
619,522
644,594
129,697
154,769
26.5%
31.6%
Source: Elaborated with data from the Current Population Survey of the us Census Bureau.
the composition of employment improved as full-time jobs increased for both men
and women.
During 2014 employment among immigrant workers from Mexico in the us labor
market grew significantly, for both men and women (Figure 18). This increase in job
opportunities was also accompanied by a change in the composition of employment
due to the fact that the improvement was stronger among full-time jobs (Figure 19).
Thus, during the first three quarters of 2014, employment among Mexican immigrants recorded an annual increase of 230,630 jobs, with increases of 144,349 jobs
in the case of men and 86,281 in that of women. Such behavior led to a significant reduction in the unemployment rate for these workers and led to an increase in their
total earnings, which in turn fostered an increase in Mexico’s income from worker’s
remittances.
3.6 Mean and Total Earnings of Mexican Female Immigrants in the United States
The mean earnings in the United States of immigrant women from Mexico and some
Central American countries are substantially lower than those obtained by female
immigrant groups from other countries and regions, which is generally a result of
20
January, 2015
Figure 18
united states: total and percentages varation of the mexican
immigrant population employed from january-september 2013
to january-september 2014
(Number of jobs and percentages)
Total variation
−14,373
Percentage variation
Total employment
230,630
Total employment
3.5
Full-time
217,779
Full-time
3.9
Part-time
12,851
Part-time
1.2
Men
144,349
Men
3.3
Full-time
158,722
Full-time
4.0
−3.2
Part-time
Women
Full-time
Part-time
86,281
59,056
27,225
Part-time
Women
3.9
Full-time
3.7
Part-time
4.3
their disadvantage as regards levels of education (Table 5). Figure 20 shows that in
the United States there is a positive relation between levels of education among female immigrant groups and their mean earnings in the labor market.
The improvement in 2013-2014 of employment in the United States among Mexican immigrant workers was accompanied by an increase in their mean earnings in
the case of both women and men. This performance of mean earnings has mainly
responded to the improvement in the structure of employment as the proportion of
full-time jobs increased, particularly in the case of men. All the aforementioned has
led –as Figure 21 shows– to a significant increase in the wage bill or total earnings.
Table 6 shows that during the year starting from the fourth quarter of 2013 to the
third quarter of 2014, total earnings obtained by Mexican immigrant workers amounted to us dollars 194,080 million. Out of that amount, us dollars 53,145 million were
earned by women, figure representing 27.4% of the total. Also, noteworthy, is the fact
that 16.4% of the income earned by Mexican immigrant women came from part-time
jobs, while in men the corresponding figure was just 4.8%. In addition, it stands out that
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
21
Figure 19
united states: number of employed mexican immigrant workers
(12-month moving averages)
7,200,000
2,300,000
5,050,000
7,100,000
Men
(left axis)
4,950,000
7,000,000
4,850,000
6,900,000
4,750,000
Total
6,800,000
2,250,000
2,200,000
Women
(right axis)
2,150,000
4,650,000
4,550,000
2,100,000
6,700,000
4,450,000
2,050,000
6,600,000
4,350,000
6,500,000
4,250,000
2,000,000
2008
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
95%
6,600,000
1,200,000
6,400,000
94%
93%
Part-time
employment
(right axis)
6,200,000
1,000,000
92%
91%
6,000,000
800,000
5,800,000
5,600,000
90%
89%
Full-time
employment
(left axis)
600,000
88%
400,000
5,400,000
Percentage
of full-time
87%
86%
5,200,000
200,000
85%
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Source: elaborated with data from the Current Population Survey, us Census Bureau.
22
January, 2015
Table 5
Countries of Origin of Immigrants in the United States with the
Lowest Levels of Education and Mean Earnings for Full-Time Workers,
2011-2013 a
(Percentage of immigrants and dollars per year)
Percentage of immigrants with completed
upper secondary education or beyond
Men
Mean annual earnings for full-time workers
Women
Men
Women
1.
Mexico
40.8
1.
Mexico
42.0
1.
Guatemala
30,879
1.
Mexico
26,934
2.
Guatemala
41.6
2.
Guatemala
44.6
2.
Honduras
32,655
2.
Guatemala
27,628
3.
Honduras
43.9
3.
El Salvador
46.6
3.
Mexico
33,424
3.
El Salvador
28,316
4.
El Salvador
46.1
4.
Cambodia
52.2
4.
Somalia
35,263
4.
Honduras
29,375
5.
Cape Verde
54.8
5.
Somalia
52.5
5.
El Salvador
35,290
5.
Dominican
Republic
30,379
Source: Elaborated with data from the American Community Survey, us Census Bureau.
a
Considers immigrants aged 25 or over originating from 121 countries with more than 20,000
immigrants in the United States.
Figure 20
united states: percentage of women among migrants by country
of origin that have completed upper secondary education and beyond
and mean annual earnings in full-time jobs, 2011-2013 a
(Dollars per year and percentages)
Mean annual earnings
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
Guatemala
30,000
20,000
Mexico
40
45
Honduras
El Salvador
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95 100
Percentage of women in the immigrants group
that have completed upper secondary
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
23
Figure 21
united states: mean monthly earnings and total earnings of mexican
immigrant workers by gender
(Dollars per month and 12-month moving averages)
2,000
2,600
2,400
2,550
Average earnings
2,350
1,950
2,500
2,300
Men
(left axis)
2,450
1,900
Women
(right axis)
2,400
2,250
1,850
2,350
2,200
1,800
2,300
2,150
1,750
2,250
2,100
2008 2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2,200
1,700
2008
2009
2010
2011 2012
2013 2014
Total earnings:
Million dollars and 4-quarter moving total
160,000
200,000
Total earnings
195,000
155,000
190,000
150,000
60,000
Total earnings by gender
58,000
56,000
185,000
145,000
180,000
140,000
175,000
135,000
170,000
130,000
165,000
125,000
Men
(left axis)
Women
(right axis)
54,000
52,000
50,000
48,000
46,000
44,000
42,000
40,000
120,000
160,000
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013 2014
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Source: Elaborated with data from the Current Population Survey,  Census Bureau.
24
January, 2015
Table 6
Annual Total Earnings of Mexican Immigrant
Workers in the United States
(Million dollars and percentages in the annual period from iv-2013 to iii-2014)
Total
Men
Women
Total
194,080
140,935
53,145
Full-time
178,606
134,192
44,414
Part-time
15,474
6,743
8,731
1,452
Total annual variation
Total
7,824
6,372
Full-time
7,468
7,259
209
Part-time
356
–887
1,243
Percentage structure of the total earnings
Total
100.0%
72.6%
27.4%
Full-time
100.0%
75.1%
24.9%
100.0%
43.6%
56.4%
Part-time
Percentage structure of total earnings by gender
Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
Full-time
92.0%
95.2%
83.6%
Part-time
8.0%
4.8%
16.4%
Source: Elaborated with data from the Current Population Survey, us Census Bureau.
the annual total earnings rose substantially by 7,824 million us dollars or 4.8%, mainly
as a result of wages earned by men. Nevertheless, as mentioned in previous sections, the
latter responds to the fact that the improvement in employment among women and the
increase in their total earnings began in preceding periods.
3.7 Immigration Status of Mexican Immigrants in the United States
In 2013, the percentage of Mexican immigrants in the United States that held citizenship
was 25.3% (Figure 22), figure below that of 46.7% for immigrants as a whole, and lower
than that registered among practically all immigrant groups originating from other
regions. One outstanding aspect is that the percentage of Mexican immigrant women
with citizenship, 26.9% in 2013, was higher than that observed among men, 23.9%. The
same can be seen among other immigrant groups, except for those coming from Africa.
Meanwhile, Figure 23 shows that during the period 2007-2013 the percentage of Mexicans immigrants with citizenship increased slightly, in the case of both men and women.
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
25
Figure 22
united states: percentage of immigrants holding citizenship
by country of origin
Total
59.2
57.7
46.7
35.3
25.3
Total
Latin
immigrants America
Mexico
50.3
51.1
South
America
Africa
31.9
Central
America
The
Caribbean
Asia
Women
60.1
60.0
52.1
50.4
South
America
Africa
49.3
38.7
63.9
Europe
65.7
37.4
26.9
Latin
Total
immigrants America
Mexico
Central
The
America Caribbean
Asia
Europe
Men
54.9
48.2
51.7
South
America
Africa
43.9
32.3
Latin
Total
immigrants America
26
23.9
Mexico
58.2
61.8
27.0
Central
The
America Caribbean
January, 2015
Asia
Europe
Figure 23
united states: percentage of mexican immigrants
holding citizenship by gender, 2007-2013
21.8
22.1
22.7
22.9
24.1
25.0
25.3
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
24.1
24.3
24.9
24.9
26.1
26.7
26.9
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
20.1
20.4
20.9
21.1
22.4
23.3
23.9
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Total
Women
Men
4. FEMALE MIGRATION AND MEXICO’S INCOME FROM REMITTANCES
In order to identify the gender of those sending remittances to Mexico, as well as
those receiving such transfers, the study worked with a database created by the commercial bank Banorte containing a registry of 2,851,859 remittances sent to Mexico
during 2013 mainly from the United States ( 2,848,862 sent from the United States
and 2,997 from Canada). This study therefore employed a sample of one out of every
26 remittances received by Mexico in 2013. The referred simplified database only included the following variables for each remittance sent:
• First name of the remittance sender
• First name of the remittance receiver
• Amount of the remittance sent
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
27
• If the remittance was paid in cash or deposited in a bank account
• Location and date on which the remittance was sent in the United States
• Location and date on which the remittance was collected/received in Mexico
Using the first names of senders and receivers allows their gender to be identified,
while maintaining the confidentiality of the individuals taking part in the transaction.
To identify gender, files containing approximately 1,000 men’s and 1,000 women’s names were initially employed, but were found to be insufficient. Thus, in order to minimize the amount of remittances without gender identification in the total, the name
files were increased to 5,423 men’s and 7,427 women’s names. As a result of this, the
number of transfers without gender identification became very low, just 0.4% in the
case of remittance senders and 0.6% in that of remittance receivers.
4.1 Gender of Remittance Senders
Figure 24 shows that out of the sample of 2,851,859 remittances, 30.1% were sent by
women (858,894 transfers), representing 27.2% of the total value in pesos and us dollars of such transfers. Meanwhile, 69.5% of the remittances were sent by men, accounting for 72.4% of the total value sent. Gender could not be identified in just 0.4% of
the number and value of remittances sent.
4.2 Who Do Men and Women Send Remittances to?
Women constitute the main group of remittance beneficiaries, with respect to both the
number of transfers and their value in pesos and us dollars. Thus, as Figure 25 illustrates, based on data generated by Banorte, women received 71.7% of the number of
transfers and 67.4% of the funds sent from the United States. Meanwhile, men received 27.7% of the number of remittances and 31.9% of total funds sent. The gender of
the receiver could not be identified in just 0.6% of remittances and such transfers represented 0.7% of the total value sent, in pesos and us dollars.
One interesting finding of the study is that women are the main beneficiaries of remittances sent by both men and women. Figure 26 shows that in the case of remittances sent by women, 66.9% of the number of transfers and 62.9% of the funds are sent
to women. The latter group most likely consist of the mothers, sisters and possibly
daughters of the women making such transfers. Meanwhile, in the case of remittances sent by men, 73.8% of the number of remittances and 69.1% of the funds sent were
received by women. Said group of beneficiaries probably consists of the senders’ partners, mothers, sisters and daughters.
28
January, 2015
Figure 24
structure of the number and value of remittance transfers
by gender of the sender
Percentage of the number
of remittances
Percentage of the value
of remittances
30.1
Female
27.2
69.5
Male
72.4
0.4
Not identified
0.4
Figure 25
structure of the number and value of remittance transfer
by gender of the recipient
Percentage of the number
of remittances
Percentage of the value
of remittances
71.1
Female
67.4
27.7
Male
31.9
0.6
Not identified
0.7
4.3 Average Remittance Value by Gender of Senders and Receivers
The main findings as regards the average amount remitted are: a) the average remittance is higher when the beneficiary is male, regardless of whether the sender is
male or female; and b) in general terms, remittances sent by women are for a smaller
amount than those sent by men, regardless of the beneficiary’s gender. Thus, according to Banorte’s database, in 2013 the average amount remitted (and received) was
5,980 pesos (468 us dollars), but was higher, 6,873 pesos (538 us dollars) when the be-
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
29
Figure 26
structure of remittances sent by gender of senders and receivers
Number of remittances
Men
32.5%
Women
66.9%
Sent by women
Value of remittances
Men
36.3%
Recipient
Women
62.9%
Not identified
0.8%
Not identified
0.6%
Sent by men
Men
25.6%
Not
identified
0.6%
Women
73.8%
Recipient
Men
30.2%
Women
69.1%
Not identified
0.7%
neficiary was male, and amounted to 5,624 pesos (440 us dollars) when the receiver
was female (Figure 27)
Figure 28 shows that the average remittance sent by women was 5,391 pesos (422
us dollars) as compared to 6,230 pesos (488 us dollars) for those sent by men. Thus,
remittances sent by men are around 20% to 25% larger than those sent by women.
4.4 Days of the Week When Remittances are Sent and Collected by Gender
The distribution of remittances sending throughout the week is presented in Figure 29. The latter shows that, in general terms, said transfers are mostly sent on the
four days from Friday to Monday. In the database employed in the study, 41% of remittances were sent between Friday and Sunday, but Monday had the most intense
activity with 18.3% of transfers being sent on that day. After separating by gender, it
is noteworthy that in the case of women, although the most intensive day for sending
30
January, 2015
Figure 27
average remittance by gender of the beneficiary
(pesos per remittance)
Male beneficiary
6,873
Female benficiary
5,624
Total
5,980
remittances is Monday, it is significant on all five business days of the week and very
small at the weekend. In contrast to this, Saturdays and Sundays account for 27.4% of
remittances sent by men.
The importance of the weekend for sending remittances implies a clear disadvantage
for remittance service providers that are not able to offer their services on such days.
Remittances are mostly collected on Friday, Monday and Tuesday, in the case of
both those received by men and women (Figure 29), given that 65% of remittances
are collected on those days, with percentages of 65.2% and 64.4% in those received
by women and men, respectively. The small percentage of remittances collected on
weekend could respond to a reduced supply of payers on those days. It is important
to point out that in order to identify the day when remittances were collected, the
516,617 transfers that were deposited in bank accounts were excluded from the database, given that for these transfers it is possible to identify the day when the deposit
was received, but not the day on which funds are withdrawn.
4.5 Speed of Collecting Remittances
The database used for this study allows the speed at which remittances are collected
to be identified as well as, therefore, the possible urgency of the need to obtain such
funds. This exercise only took into account the database of remittances collected in
cash (2,335,242 transfers) and not those deposited in a bank account. Figure 30 shows
that 24.6% of remittances are collected on the same day they are sent, suggesting that
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
31
Figure 28
average remittance sent by gender of senders and receivers
(pesos per transfer)
Sent by men
Sent by women
Male recipient
7,335
Male recipient
6,023
Female recipient
5,837
Female recipient
5,072
Total
6,230
Total
5,391
these funds were already expected. Meanwhile, 34.8% are collected on the next day
and another 16.5% on the day after that. Thus, 75.9% of remittances are collected
within two days. Although the data does not reveal any significant differences in the
speed remittances are collected according to the gender of the sender or receiver, it
does show that the percentage of remittances collected on the same day is slightly higher when they are sent by women, and when they are collected by men.
It is worth mentioning, as it is shown in Figure 31, that in the case of remittances
that are sent from Monday to Friday, 31.2% of those are collected on the sending day
and additional 36.5% on the day after that. Thus, two thirds of those transfers are already collected the day after being sent. The figure also shows that the higher percentage of remittances that are collected on the sending day corresponds to those that
are sent on Friday, with 35.4%. It also stands out that more than half of the remittances that are sent on Saturday and Sunday are collected the following Monday.
4.6 Remittances Collected in Cash or Deposited in a Bank Account
One indicator on the degree of financial inclusion of remittance receivers is whether
the funds are collected in cash or deposited in a bank account. Out of the 2,851,859 remittance transfers included in the database employed in this study, 516,617 were deposited in a bank account, representing 18.1% of the number of transfers (Table 7) and
32
January, 2015
Figure 29
days of the week when remittances are sent and collected by gender
(Percentage distribution of frequencies)
Total remittances sent
18.3
14.5
13.0
13.2
Total remittances collected
26.0
21.5
16.4
11.4
16.4
13.2
14.7
17.5
3.9
Monday
Tuesday
Thursday
Saturday
Wednesday
Friday
Sunday
Sent by women
Monday
0.0
Tuesday
Thursday
Saturday
Wednesday
Friday
Sunday
Received by women
26.4
21.6
19.6
16.5
14.9
14.8
16.2
16.1
9.5
14.4
17.2
8.6
4.1
Monday
Tuesday
Thursday
Saturday
Wednesday
Friday
Sunday
Sent by men
17.8
13.6
12.5
Tuesday
Thursday
Saturday
Wednesday
Friday
Sunday
Received by men
25.0
16.5
12.2
Monday
12.3
15.1
0.0
21.3
16.9
15.5
18.1
3.3
Tuesday
Thursday
Saturday
Monday
Wednesday
Friday
Sunday
0.0
Tuesday
Thursday
Saturday
Monday
Wednesday
Friday
Sunday
14.9% of the value of the remittances. Such percentages imply that the average value
of remittances is lower for those deposited in a bank account (4,916 pesos per transfer)
than those collected in cash (6,215 pesos).
Table 7 shows that the percentage of remittances deposited in a bank account is higher when they are sent by men than by women (19% versus 16%). It is also higher for
those sent by men to women (19.5%) than those sent to men (17.9%). One interesting
finding is that when the beneficiary of the remittance is a woman the percentage of tho-
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
33
Figure 30
remittances to mexico: difference between the day remittances
disbursed in cash are sent and collected
(Percentage distribution)
34.8%
Total of remittances
24.6%
16.5%
Same
day
27.8%
Next
day
Two
days
Three
days
Next
day
5.3%
Four
days
2.8%
1.6%
1.1%
2.2%
Five
days
Six
days
Seven
days
8 to 14
days
0.4%
0.2%
15 to 21 More than
days
21 days
Days after
33.2%
Sent by women
14.8%
Same
day
10.5%
Two
days
9.8%
Three
days
5.3%
2.9%
1.8%
1.3%
2.4%
Four
days
Five
days
Six
days
Seven
days
8 to 14
days
1.0%
2.1%
Seven
days
8 to 14
days
35.6%
0.4%
0.2%
15 to 21 More than
days
21 days
Sent by men
23.2%
17.2%
10.8%
5.3%
Same
day
Next
day
Two
days
Three
days
Four
days
2.8%
1.6%
Five
days
Six
days
0.3%
0.2%
15 to 21 More than
days
21 days
35.5%
Received by women
23.7%
16.8%
10.6%
5.3%
Same
day
Next
day
Two
days
Three
days
33.2%
15.6%
34
Next
day
1.6%
1.0%
2.1%
Five
days
Six
days
Seven
days
8 to 14
days
0.3%
0.2%
15 to 21 More than
days
21 days
Received by men
26.9%
Same
day
Four
days
2.8%
Two
days
10.1%
Three
days
5.3%
Four
days
2.9%
1.7%
1.2%
2.5%
Five
days
Six
days
Seven
days
8 to 14
days
January, 2015
0.4%
0.2%
15 to 21 More than
days
21 days
Figure 31
diffrence between the day remittance disbursed in cash are sent
and collected according the sending day of the week
(Percentage distribution)
Total of remittances
24.6
Same
day
Sent from Monday to Friday
34.8
31.2
16.5
Next
day
Two
days
10.5
13.6
Three
days
More than
three days
Same
day
36.5
Next
day
Sent on Monday
32.4
29.7
Same
day
Next
day
Two
days
6.4
7.9
Two
days
Three
days
13.2
More than
three days
Three
days
More than
three days
38.8
14.9
Same
day
Sent on Wednesday
Next
day
Two
days
7.1
6.8
Three
days
More than
three days
Sent on Thursday
48.6
40.6
28.2
30.1
17.0
1.1
Same
day
9.1
Sent on Tuesday
41.4
14.6
10.1
Next
day
Two
days
Three
days
20.3
11.2
More than
three days
2.9
Same
day
Next
day
Sent on Friday
Two
days
0.0
Three
days
More than
three days
Sent on Saturday
51.0
35.4
29.0
14.1
8.1
0.1
Same
day
Next
day
Two
days
21.5
21.4
Three
days
More than
three days
Same
day
Sent on Sunday
9.6
11.6
Two
days
Three
days
More than
three days
Three
days
More than
three days
36.9
14.9
15.0
Three
days
More than
three days
3.6
0.1
Two
days
Next
day
29.6
25.7
Next
day
0.1
Sent on weekend
53.0
Same
day
19.3
Same
day
Next
day
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
Two
days
35
Table 7
Percentage of Remittances Deposited in a Bank Account
Remittance
sender
Female
Remittance receiver
Male
Total
Number of transfers
Female
15.7
16.7
16.0
Male
19.5
17.9
19.0
Total
18.4
17.4
18.1
Value of transfers
Female
13.6
12.6
13.2
Male
15.8
15.1
15.5
Total
15.2
14.3
14.9
se deposited in a bank account was 18.4%, slightly above the 17.4% for those where the
remittance receiver is male.
The percentage of remittance transfers that are deposited in a bank account exhibits substantial differences from one Mexican state to another (Figure 32). Said indicator reached the highest levels in several states in the north of the country, such
as Coahuila (33.7%), Nuevo León (31.7%), Baja California (30.1%) and Tamaulipas
(29.3%), as well as in Mexico City Federal District (26.9%) and Chihuahua (24%). In
contrast, very low levels were recorded in Michoacán (8.2%), Colima (12.2%), Guanajuato (12.3%), Nayarit (13.4%), Zacatecas (13.5%) and Oaxaca (13.7%). It is important to mention that among the states of the country there is a certain positive relation
between the percentage of remittance transfers that are deposited in a bank account
and the level of economic development, measured by gdp per capita (Figure 33).
4.7 Remittance Flows to Mexico by Gender of Senders and Receivers
Figure 34 shows for 2013 the structure of total earnings obtained by the Mexican
immigrant population in the United States according to the worker’s gender, as well as
the value of remittances in the Banorte database that are sent to Mexico according to
the gender of the sender. The referred total earnings is calculated based on data from
the Current Population Survey and amounted to 187,470 million us dollars that year, of
36
January, 2015
Figure 32
percentage of remittances deposited in a bank account
in different mexican statesa
Higher percentage
deposited in an account
33.7
31.7
30.1
23.3
Lower percentage
deposited in an account
26.9
24.0
21.8
13.9
13.7
13.5
13.4
12.3
12.2
a
Michoacán
Colima
Guanajuato
Nayarit
Zacatecas
Oaxaca
Morelos
Veracruz
Chihuahua
Distrito Federal
Tamaulipas
Baja California
Nuevo León
Coahuila
8.2
Does not include states in the database that received less than 20,000 remittances in 2013.
which 51,228 million was earned by women, i.e., 27.3% of the total. Meanwhile, taking
into account the 2,851,859 remittance transfers contained in the Banorte database,
27.3% of the funds remitted were sent by women (excluding the 0.4% of remittance
transfers where the gender of the sender could not be identified). The surprising
coincidence of these two figures could suggest that as a whole the percentage of income
earned by Mexican immigrant workers in the United States and that sent to Mexico
in the form of remittances is the same for women and men.
The database generated by Banorte allows an estimate to be made for 2013 of the
composition of Mexico’s income from remittances originating from the United States according to the gender of the Mexican immigrant sender, as well as the corresponding exercise for the number of transfers. For this reason the small number of
remittances sent from Canada (2,997 transfers for a total value of 25.1 million pesos)
were excluded from the database. Moreover, it was assumed that in 2013, 98% of the
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
37
Figure 33
percentage of remittances deposited in an account in mexican states
and gdp per capita
Remittances deposited
in an account
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
Annual GDP per capita
thousand of pesos
in 2013
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
5%
Figure 34
structure by gender of the total earnings of the mexican immigrant
population in the united states and the value of remittance transfers
in the banorte database, 2013
(Percentages)
Total earnings
Value of remittances transfers
72.7
72.7
27.3
Men
38
27.3
Women
Men
January, 2015
Women
Table 8
Number and Value of Electronic Remittances Sent from
the United States by the Mexican Immigrant Population
by Gender of the Sender and Receiver
Remittance sender
Female
Remittance receiver
Male
Total
Number of electronic remittances
Female
14,701,936
7,138,315
21,840,251
Male
37,404,350
13,017,824
50,422,174
Total
52,106,286
20,156,139
72,262,425
Value of transfers: millions of dollars
Female
3,615
2,085
5,700
Male
10,582
4,630
15,212
14,197
6,715
20,912
Total
Structure of the value of transfers by sender
Female
63.4%
36.6%
100.0%
Male
69.6%
30.4%
100.0%
Total
67.9%
32.1%
100.0%
electronic remittance transfers received by Mexico were sent from the United States.
This implies that 72,262,425 electronic remittances originated in that country, which
represented revenues for Mexico amounting to 20,912 million us dollars.
The results of the referred calculation are presented in Table 8, which shows that
out of the electronic remittances originating from the United States during 2013, it is
estimated that 21,840,251 were sent by Mexican immigrant women and 50,422,174 by
men. Said Table also shows that out of the 20,912 million us dollars Mexico received
from the United States in the form of electronic remittances, 5,700 million us dollars
were sent by women, i.e., 27.3% of the referred amount and 26% of all remittances received by the country. Meanwhile, 15,212 million us dollars were sent from the United States by Mexican immigrant men, representing 72.7% of the electronic transfers
received from said country and 69.5% of all the remittances received by Mexico. It
is also worth mentioning that out of the 20,912 million us dollars received in 2013,
14,197 million dollars were sent to women, which represented 67.9% of the total value
of electronic remittances and 64.8% of the country’s total revenues from remittances.
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
39
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
This study is the result of a joint effort between the Center for Latin American Monetary Studies, Banorte and the Multilateral Investment Fund, an agency of the InterAmerican Development Bank. Its main objectives were, on the one hand, to present
the main aspects of the profile of Mexican women that have migrated to the United
States and, on the other, estimate their contribution to Mexico’s revenues from workers’ remittances. The study focused on the migration of Mexican women to the United States, taking into account that in 2013 said country was the destination for 97.8%
of accumulated Mexican migration, as well as the origin for a similar percentage of
Mexico’s revenues from remittances. The United States was the destination for 98.1%
of male and 87.5% of female migrants.
The main findings of the study are:
• In 2013 the total number of Mexican immigrants in the United States was
11,584,977 individuals, consisting of 6,133,744 men and 5,451,233 women.
Mexicans accounted for 28% of all immigrants and constituted the largest immigrant group in that country, in both the case of men (30.4%) and women
(25.8%). Among this Mexican population, the employed workforce amounted to
7,078,223 individuals, of which 2,444,397 were women, i.e., 34.5% of that total.
• During the period 2007-2013, the flow of Mexican migrants to the United States
declined sharply and was actually negative in net terms. Said fall was the net result of an increase in the number of women and a decrease in the number of men.
Figures available for 2014 suggest that this scenario has remained unchanged.
• The percentage of women among the immigrant population in the United States has increased in recent years. In the case of Mexican immigrants the proportion of women rose from 44.1% in 2007 to 47.1% in 2013.
• In 2013, the us states with the largest percentage of Mexican immigrant women were Arizona (50.5%), New Mexico (49.3%), California (48.9%) and Texas
(48.5%), while those with the lowest proportion of women were Virginia (33.4%),
Louisiana (34.7%), Kentucky (37.7%) and Pennsylvania (38.7%).
• The level of education of Mexican immigrant workers places them at a large
disadvantage in the us labor market as compared to other immigrant groups
and the native population, which also implies a disadvantage in their potential
40
January, 2015
earnings. In fact, taking into account for the period 2011-2013 immigrants in
the United States aged 25 or over from 121 countries of origin, Mexicans presented the highest percentage of individuals that had not completed upper secondary education and the lowest percentage of graduates with a bachelor’s or
postgraduate degree. This scenario is true for both men and women.
• One positive aspect is that there is a significant number of Mexicans, particularly Mexican women immigrants, studying in the United States. In 2013, the
total number of Mexican immigrants that studied amounted to 1,182,761 individuals, representing 10.2% of the immigrant group. Such figure was composed of 581,254 men and 601,507 women, implying that a larger percentage of
women study than men, 11.0% versus 9.5%. In addition, the number of Mexican immigrants studying a bachelor’s or postgraduate degree amounted to
393,000 individuals, figure made up of 218,000 women and 175,000 men, representing 3.2% of Mexican male and 4.6% of Mexican female immigrants
aged between 15 and 64.
• From 2007 to 2011 employment among Mexican immigrant workers in the United States contracted severely by 8.8%, with declines of 11.8% in the case of men
and 1.4% in that of women. The composition of employment also deteriorated
given that there was a substantial decline in full-time jobs, which was partly
offset by an increase in part-time employment, although wages in the latter
are around half those earned in full-time jobs. This weakening of employment
and its composition negatively affected Mexico’s revenues from remittances.
• From 2011 to 2013 an improvement in employment among Mexican immigrants
in the United States was absorbed entirely by women. In that period there was
an improvement in the composition of employment given that full-time jobs
increased among both men and women. In 2014, employment of Mexican immigrant workers grew significantly in the case of both men and women. The
increase in job opportunities was accompanied by a change in the composition
of employment, as such improvement was stronger in the case of full-time jobs.
This performance translated into a substantial decrease in the unemployment
rate among said workers and led to an increase in their total earnings, which
in turn fostered an increase in Mexico’s revenues from workers’ remittances.
• Based on Banorte’s database of remittance transfers, it was identified that out
of the 2,851,859 remittances considered, 30.1% were sent by women (858,894
transfers), representing 27.2% of the total value in pesos and us dollars of such
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
41
transfers. Meanwhile, 69.5% of such transfers were sent by men, constituting
72.4% of the total amount remitted. It was not possible to identify the gender of
the sender in just 0.4% of the number of transfers and the value of remittances.
• Women are the main group benefiting from remittances, receiving 71.7% of
the number of transfers and 67.4% of the funds sent. Meanwhile, men received
27.7% of the number of remittances and 31.9% of the total funds sent. It was not
possible to identify the gender of receivers in just 0.6% of remittances and such
transfers represented 0.7% of the total amount sent in pesos and us dollars.
• In the case of remittances sent by both men and women, the main group of
beneficiaries are women. In the case of remittances sent by women, 66.9% of
such transfers and 62.9% of the funds were received by women. Meanwhile, in
the case of remittances sent by men, women were beneficiaries of 73.8% of the
number of transfers and 69.1% of the funds remitted.
• Remittances sent by women are generally for a smaller amount than those sent
by men, regardless of the gender of the receiver. In the database studied, the
average remittance sent (and received) amounted to 5,980 pesos (468 us dollars), but was 5,391 pesos (422 us dollars) for those sent by women and 6,230
pesos (488 us dollars) for those sent by men, meaning that the latter are around
20% to 25% higher than those sent by women.
• One finding of the study is that remittances are mainly sent on the four days
from Friday to Monday. In fact, 41% of remittances are sent between Friday
and Sunday, while Monday recorded the most intense activity with 18.3% of
transfers. When separating by gender, it is noteworthy that women’s sending
rate is very intense on Mondays, but it is significant on all five business days of
the week and very small at the weekend. In contrast, Saturdays and Sundays account for 27.4% of remittances sent by men.
• 24.6% of remittances are collected on the same day they are sent, implying an
urgent need for these resources and that they are already expected. Moreover,
34.8% are collected the following day and another 16.5% on the day after that.
Thus, 75.9% of remittances are collected within two days.
• Remittance receivers have a low level of financial inclusion considering that only
18.1% of the number and 14.9% of the value of transfers are deposited in a bank
account.
42
January, 2015
• The percentage of remittances that are deposited in a bank account differed
considerably from one Mexican state to another. Said indicator reached the
highest levels in states in the north of the country, such as Coahuila (33.7%),
Nuevo León (31.7%) and Baja California (30.1%). In contrast, it was very low in
Michoacán (8.2%), Colima (12.2%), Guanajuato (12.3%) and Oaxaca (13.7%).
It is important to point out that a certain positive relationship was observed
among the different Mexican states as regards the percentage of remittances
that are deposited in a bank account and their level of economic development,
measured by their gdp per capita.
• The total earnings of Mexican workers in the United States during 2013 were
calculated to be 187,470 million us dollars, of which 51,228 million was earned by women, i.e., 27.3% of the total. Furthermore, taking into account the
2,851,859 remittances in the database generated by Banorte for 2013, it was
found that 27.3% of the funds remitted were sent by women. The surprising
coincidence of these two figures could suggest that the percentage of income
earned by Mexican immigrant workers in the United States and sent to Mexico
in the form of remittances is the same for women and men.
• The findings on women’s share of remittance transfers coupled with the assumption that 98% of the value of electronic remittances received by Mexico
in 2013 originated from the United States allowed for calculating that out of
the 20,912 million us dollars Mexico received from the United States via electronic remittances, 5,700 million were sent by women, representing 27.3% of
the referred amount and 26% of all remittances received by the country. Finally, it is important to mention that out of the total income of 20,912 million
us dollars, women in Mexico were the recipients of 14,197 million us dollars,
which represents 67.9% of the value of electronic remittances and 64.8% of the
country’s total revenues from such transfers.
Female migration and remittance flows to Mexico
43
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CENTER FOR LATIN AMERICAN MONETARY STUDIES