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TERMS & NAMES
Diverse Societies
in Africa
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
African peoples developed diverse
societies as they adapted to varied
environments.
Differences among modern societies
are also based on people’s interactions
with their environments.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sahara
savanna
Sahel
desertification
extended family
clan
animism
griot
Djenné-Djeno
Nok
SETTING THE STAGE “Geography is the mother of history. Nowhere in the world is
this more powerfully illustrated than in Africa. The most [powerful] force in Africa’s
experience is Africa’s environment—the combined elements of geophysical features,
location, and climate. . . . Africa has been a continent of abundant life but speedy
death. Partly because of this . . . Africa has been the first habitat of man but the last to
become truly [livable].” That is how Ali A. Mazrui, African scholar and creator of the
television series The Africans, summed up his homeland. In the continent’s widely
varied environments, Africans developed unique cultures and societies—including the
great civilizations of Egypt, Carthage, and Kush.
A Land of Geographic Contrasts
Vocabulary
tropics: the area of
the globe that lies
between the Tropic of
Capricorn and the
Tropic of Cancer.
Africa is the second largest continent in the world. It stretches 4,600 miles from east
to west and 5,000 miles from north to south. With a total of 11.7 million square miles,
it occupies about one-fifth of the earth’s land surface. The elevation of the continent is
like a plate turned upside down. Narrow coastlines (50 to 100 miles) lie on either side
of a central plateau. Waterfalls and rapids often form as rivers drop down to the coast
from the plateau, making navigation impossible to or from the coast. Africa’s coastline
has few harbors, ports, or inlets. Because of this, the coastline is actually shorter than
that of Europe, a land one-third Africa’s size.
As the map on the next page shows, Africa straddles the equator,
POTLIGHT N
and most of the continent is in the tropics. But it includes a large range
Tsetse Fly
of the earth’s environments—from steamy coastal plains to snowThe
deadliest
creature lurking in
capped mountain peaks. Some parts of Africa suffer from constant
the gloom of the rain forests is
drought, while others receive over 400 inches of rain a year. Vegetation
neither the Congo python nor the
varies from sand dunes and rocky wastes to dense green rain forests.
wild leopard. It is a small fly called
S
From Deserts to Rain Forests Each African environment offers
Vocabulary
uninhabitable:
unsuitable for human
life.
its own challenges to people and wildlife. Deserts make up about 40
percent of the continent. They are largely uninhabitable and also
hamper people’s movement to more welcoming climates. During the
day, temperatures can reach 136°F, and any rain that falls evaporates
quickly. The largest deserts are the Sahara in the north and the
Kalahari (kahl uh HAHR ee) in the south. Stretching from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea, the Sahara covers an area roughly the
size of the United States. Only a small part of the Sahara consists of
sand dunes. The rest is mostly a flat, gray wasteland of scattered
rocks and gravel.
Another very different—but also partly uninhabitable—African environment is the rain forest. This densely wooded region stretches across
about half of the middle of Africa, and covers
about 5 percent of the continent. The rain forest
•
•
•
O
the tsetse (TSHET•see). Tsetse flies
carry a disease that is deadly to
livestock and can cause fatal
sleeping sickness in humans.
The tsetse fly has played a
major role in African history. Its
presence prevented Africans from
using cattle, donkeys, and horses
to farm near the rain forests. This
destructive insect also prevented
invaders—especially Europeans—
from colonizing fly-infested
territories.
(shown at 3 to 7 times life size)
African Civilizations 193
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is hot and humid and receives enormous amounts of rain. Sometimes called “nature’s
greenhouse,” it produces mahogany and teak trees up to 150 feet tall. Their leaves
and branches form a dense canopy that keeps sunlight from reaching the forest floor.
As a result, there are few small plants in the rain forest, despite the fact that movies
often portray it as a vegetation-clogged jungle.
From Fertile Farmlands to Grassy Plains The northern
coast and the southern tip of Africa, on the other hand, have
welcoming climates and fertile soil. Summers are sunny, dry,
and hot, while winters are mild. Rainfall is moderate. Because
these coastal areas with Mediterranean vegetation are so fertile, they are densely populated with farmers and herders.
EUROPE
Vegetation Regions of Africa
30°N
A
ATL
U
S MO
NTAIN
Medit
S
erranean
Widely scattered acacia trees dot the
flat, grassy plains of the savanna.
Giraffes especially like the acacia
leaves, which most other animals
cannot reach.
Sea
LIBYAN
DESERT N
Tropic of Ca
H
A
R
A
Re
A
R.
S
20°N
ARABIAN
PENINSULA
ile
ncer
d
Se
a
A
H
E
Lake
Chad
10°N
L
en
f Ad
Gulf o
A F R I C A
A T L A N T I C
O C E A N
Lake
Turkana
LL
0° Equator
AT RIFT
ng
Mt. Kenya
Lake
Victoria
(Z
o
Lake
Tanganyika
Mt. Kilimanjaro
GRE
Co
Y
VA
R.
air
e)
E
Gulf of Guinea
INDIAN
OCEAN
10°S
The dense trees
and lack of
edible vegetation
in the humid rain
forest make it an20°S
unwelcome
environment for
most people.
Lake
Nyasa
R
AG
AD
S.
BE
KE
N
0
S
500 Miles
40°E
0
30°E
20°E
0°
10°W
20°W
30°W
10°E
A
DR
G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps
1. Location About what percent of Africa is desert? savanna?
2. Region If you were to fold a map of Africa in half along the equator, what do you notice
about the similar vegetation zones above and below the fold?
194 Chapter 8
Tropic of Capricorn
MT
RT
KALAHARI
DESERT
Or ange R.
30°S
p opo R.
RG
DESE
Lim
M
IB
AS
M
CA
NA
Zambezi R
.
Rain forest
Savanna
Desert
Mediterranean
1,000 Kilometers
60°E
R
.
R.
ga l
Ni g er
S
50°E
S e ne
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The largest number of people in Africa, however, live on the savannas, or grassy
plains. Covered with tall grasses and dotted with acacia trees, the savannas cover
over 40 percent of the continent. Dry seasons alternate with rainy seasons—often,
two of each a year. The topsoil throughout Africa is thin, and heavy rains strip away
minerals. In most years, however, the savannas support abundant agriculture. Major
crops are grains such as sorghum and millet, rice, wheat, and maize (corn).
Africa’s savanna is not just an endless plain, however. It includes mountainous highlands, swampy tropical stretches, and the land at the southern edge of the Sahara
Desert, the Sahel (suh HAYL). Sahel means “coastline” in Arabic, and the ancient
north African people may have named it this because the Sahara seemed to them a
vast ocean of sand. Each year, however, the desert takes over more and more of the
Sahel. This steady process of drying of the soil is called desertification.
•
Early Humans Adapt to Their Environments
The first humans appeared in the Great Rift Valley, a deep gash in the earth’s crust
that runs through the floor of the Red Sea and across eastern Africa. People moved
outward from this area in the world’s first migration, adapting to the vastly different
environments they encountered. They developed technologies that helped them survive in—and then alter—their surroundings. For example, first using pointed sticks as
spears, they progressed to shaping spear points out of stone, and later, iron.
Nomadic Lifestyle Africa’s earliest peoples were nomadic hunter-gatherers who
roamed from place to place seeking sources of food. Today, some of the San of the
Kalahari Desert and the BaMbuti (bah uhm BOO tee) of the rain forests of Congo are
still hunter-gatherers. The San, for example, travel in small bands of a few related
families. The men hunt with spears and bows and arrows, and the women and children gather roots and berries. As shown in the Daily Life feature on page 196, they
know and use the resources of their environment well.
Africans who lived in areas that supported a variety of animals
eventually learned to domesticate and raise them for food. Called
CONNECT to TODAY
herders, or pastoralists, these people kept cattle, goats, or sheep. Like
the hunter-gatherers, they were nomads, driving their animals to find
Nomads in Nairobi
In the drought of 1997, Masai
water and good pastures for grazing during the dry season. Millions of
herders traveled hundreds of miles
modern Africans are pastoral herders as well. The Masai (mah SEYE)
in search of grass for their starving
of Tanzania and southern Kenya, for example, still measure their
cattle. They drove their animals
wealth by the size of their herds.
through plains and along modern
•
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Making
Inferences Why
might herders have
remained nomadic?
A. Answer They had
to keep moving to find
food and water for
their animals during
the dry season.
•
•
•
Transition to a Settled Lifestyle Most early Africans continued
highways onto land near the
Kenyan capital, Nairobi. The cattle
ate whatever grass they could find,
including several acres surrounding
the transmitters of the Kenya
Broadcasting Corporation.
In a tense confrontation,
company officials finally allowed
the Masai to use the land for
grazing—possibly because it
saved them the cost of hiring
people to cut the grass.
to hunt, although they eventually learned to grow their own food,
rather than gathering what grew wild. Experts believe that agriculture probably began by 10,000 b.c. in Africa. Between 8000 and
4000 b.c., the Sahara received increased rainfall and turned into a
savanna. But about 4000 b.c., the Sahara began to dry up again.
To survive, many early farmers moved east into the Nile Valley and
south into West Africa. Many settled on the savannas, which had
the best agricultural land. Some peoples also learned to farm in
the rain forest, where they planted root crops, such as yams, that
needed little sun.
Agriculture drastically changed the way Africans lived on the savannas. Growing
their own food enabled them to settle in one location, where they built permanent
shelters. Settlements expanded because reliable food supplies meant longer, healthier
lives and an increased birthrate. The increased food supply also freed some members
of the community to practice activities other than farming. These activities included
working metal, making pottery, or crafting jewelry.
African Civilizations 195
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Daily Life: Africa, A.D. 100
Nomad Nutritional News
A Movable Feast
San women make a picnic of it when
they take their children out to gather
food for their families. The women
carry sharp wooden digging sticks as
well as net bags holding ostrich
eggshells filled with water. Around
her body, each woman fastens a
two-compartment bag called a
kaross, which carries more than 20
pounds of food—fruits, nuts,
melons, roots, tubers, termites,
caterpillars, and locusts. These foods
satisfy about three-quarters of the
San’s daily caloric needs.
Making a Bee-Line
Once the rains begin to fall, San men and women know that they will soon
get their fill of honey. During the short rainy season, the San note where the
bees fly at sunset, when they return to their hives. A San who finds a good
hive immediately smokes out the bees and removes the sticky, sweet treat.
He doesn’t bypass unripe hives, though. He marks them with a small heap of
stones and returns later to retrieve the honey. Tampering with marked hives
is a serious crime, one that the San may punish by death. So bee-ware.
Thirsty? Look for a
three-pronged leaf
and dig down
about a foot. You’ll
find a juicy bi bulb
like this one that
you can mash and
mix with chewed
leaves for a
refreshing drink.
Ate Too Much?
See a Shaman
Shamans, or healers, often beat
drums and chant to create the
right atmosphere for healing.
To cure indigestion and other
illnesses, they use sacred objects
and medicine in a ceremony attended by the patient’s family. Don’t
visit a shaman unless you’re willing to believe in his or her powers,
though. Your trust is the shaman’s most important medicine.
The Gourmet Corner:
A One-Egg Omelet
One ostrich egg is the equivalent of
two dozen hens’ eggs, a handy fact
to know if you’re an omelet fan. A
San cook shares her recipe: Take one
ostrich egg. To save the shell for
carrying water, tap a hole in the
crown. With a twig, remove the
membrane. To scramble the egg, twirl
the stick in the hole. Pour the
scrambled egg into a tortoise-shell
pan and then into a hole lined with
hot coals. Build the fire up around
the hole to cook the top of your
omelet. Dust the ash off the
completed omelet, clean the bottom,
and serve it to 15 or 20 friends.
An empty ostrich eggshell and the omelet in progress.
196 Chapter 8
Connect
to History
Drawing Conclusions How do
the San use their extensive
knowledge of their environment?
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK PAGE R17
Connect
to Today
Researching Gather information
about a modern nomadic culture,
such as the Masai of southern
Kenya and Tanzania, by using the
library or Internet. In what ways is
this culture similar to that of the
San? How does it differ?
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These increasingly large and complex settlements of people required more organization and regulation than smaller communities. Various types of governing bodies
developed to fill this need. Some governments consisted of a village chief and/or a
council of the leaders of individual family groups. As strong groups moved to extend
their land and conquered weaker settlements, they centralized their power and their
governments. Some of these societies eventually developed into great kingdoms.
Africans Share Common Characteristics No matter what environment they lived
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Summarizing
What common characteristics did all
African societies
share?
B. Answer Family as
organizing unit, religion, a language, and
oral tradition.
in and what style of life they adopted, the societies south of the Sahara—like all
human cultures—shared common elements. One of these elements was the importance of the basic social unit, the family. Besides parents and children, this primary
group often included grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins in an extended family.
Ties often expanded to the clan, a group that shared common ancestors.
African peoples not only organized themselves into family groups. They also developed belief systems that helped them understand and organize information about
their world. Nearly all of these local religions involved a belief in one creator, or god.
They generally also included elements of animism, a religion in which spirits played
an important role in regulating daily life. Animists believe that these spirits are present in animals, plants, and other natural forces, and also take the form of the souls of
their dead ancestors.
Although all African societies had a language, most were not written down. History,
literature, and culture were shared orally by specialized storytellers. In West Africa,
for example, these storytellers, or griots (gree OHZ), kept this history alive, passing it
from parent to child:
•
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
I am a griot . . . master in the art of eloquence. . . . we are vessels of speech, we are the
repositories [storehouses] which harbor secrets many centuries old. . . . without us the
names of kings would vanish. . . . we are the memory of mankind; by the spoken word
we bring to life the deeds . . . of kings for younger generations. . . . for the world is old,
but the future springs from the past.
DJELI MAMADOU KOUYATE, from Sundiata, an Epic of Old Mali
Early Societies in West Africa
To add to information provided by Africa’s oral historians, archaeologists have continued to look for evidence of the history of Africa south of the Sahara. Recent discoveries in West Africa have proved how old and extensive that history is. Archaeologists
believe that early peoples moved into this area from the north as desertification forced
them to find better farmland. Discoveries in the areas of modern Mali and Nigeria
reveal that West Africans developed advanced societies and cities long before outsiders came to the continent.
The water that
surrounded DjennéDjeno provided
food and also
offered a
transportation
route, which made
the city a bustling
trade center.
Djenné-Djeno Archaeologists uncovered the
remains of one of these cities, Djenné-Djeno
(jeh NAY jeh NOH), or ancient
S A H A RA
Djenné, in 1977 on a tributary
Ni
Sen DjennéDjeno
of the Niger River. In excavating a huge tell, or mound covAFRICA
ering the remains of a series of
civilizations, they discovered
ATLANTIC OCEAN
hundreds of thousands of artifacts. These objects included pottery, copper hair
ornaments, clay toys, glass beads, stone bracelets,
and iron knives. The oldest objects dated from 250
b.c., making Djenné-Djeno the oldest known city
•
•
ger
R.
.
Vo l t a
lR
ega
R.
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in Africa south of the Sahara. The city was abandoned some time after a.d. 1400.
About that time, another city, Djenné, arose about two miles away.
At its height, Djenné-Djeno had some 50,000 residents. They lived in round reed
huts plastered with mud. Later, they built enclosed houses made of mud bricks. They
fished in the Niger River, raised rice on its fertile floodplains, and herded cattle. By
the third century b.c., they had discovered how to smelt iron. They exchanged their
rice, fish, and pottery for copper, gold, and salt with other peoples who lived along the
river. Djenné-Djeno was linked to other towns not only by the Niger, but also by overland camel routes. For that reason, it became a bustling trading center.
The Nok Culture Although Djenné-Djeno was its oldest town, West Africa’s earliest
This terra cotta
elephant head
reveals both the
artistry of its Nok
creator and the fact
that elephants
played a role in that
people’s daily lives.
known culture was that of the Nok (nahk) people. They lived in what is now Nigeria
between 500 b.c. and a.d. 200. Their name
came from the village where the first artifacts
from their culture were discovered. Like the
Kush
Niger R.
residents of Djenné-Djeno, the Nok were farmAF RICA
Aksum
ers. They were also the first West African people
Benue
R.
Nok
known to smelt iron. They used it to make tools
for farming and weapons for hunting. These iron
implements lasted longer than ones made of wood or stone, and
vastly improved the lives of the Nok.
The Nok developed iron-making technology about 500 b.c.,
nearly 300 years before it arose in Djenné-Djeno. In fact, they
may have brought the technology to Djenné-Djeno. The similarity of artifacts found in these two distant places suggests that the
Nok may have settled in Djenné-Djeno at one time.
Nok artifacts have been found in an area stretching for 300
miles between the Niger and Benue rivers. Many are sculptures
made of terra cotta, a reddish-brown clay. They often depict
human or animal heads in great artistic detail, showing the
Nok’s skill. The features of some of the heads reveal more
about history than just the skill of their creators, however.
One of the heads, for example, shows a distinctive hairdo
arranged in six buns, a style that is still worn by some people
in Nigeria. This similarity suggests that the Nok may have been the direct ancestors
of some modern Africans.
While the early inhabitants of West Africa were developing cities, cultures, and
technologies that would write their name on the pages of history, East Africa was
undergoing its own cultural evolution.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Comparing In
what ways were the
cultures of DjennéDjeno and the Nok
alike?
C. Answer Both
peoples were farmers
and ironmakers, and
they created similar
artifacts. The Nok
may have settled in
Djenné-Djeno at one
time.
Section 1 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• Sahara
• savanna
• Sahel
• desertification
• extended family
• clan
• animism
• griot
• Djenné-Djeno
• Nok
2. TAKING NOTES
Use a flow chart like the one
below to trace the main events
that followed the development
of agriculture on the African
savannas.
Development
of agriculture
Write a news headline for one of
these developments.
198 Chapter 8
3. ANALYZING CAUSES
How does adapting to different
environments lead to the
development of diverse cultures?
THINK ABOUT
• natural resources
• Nok accomplishments
• migrations of different groups
of people
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Interaction with
Environment Take an
imaginary journey to one of the
four African vegetation zones.
Then write a short diary entry or
letter describing what you see
and experience. Explain your
difficulties adapting to this
environment and tell what
you learn.