SAMPLE 2 – ASSESSMENT CRITERIA AND LEARNING OUTCOMES
ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE IN SPORT : MA1/3/AA/05G
2. Understand the fitness requirements
and skill related components of
sporting activities
2.1 Evaluate the physical fitness
requirements and skill related
requirements of sporting
performance for 2 contrasting sports
SAMPLE 2– GRADING DESCRIPTORS AND COMPONENTS
GD1 – Understanding of the subject
Merit
a. Demonstrate a very good grasp
of the relevant knowledge base
Distinction
a. Demonstrates an excellent grasp
of the relevant knowledge base
GD7 – Quality
Merit
Distinction
The work:
The work:
c. Taken as a whole, demonstrates a
c. Taken as a whole, demonstrates
very good response to the
an excellent response to the
demands of the brief/assignment
demands of the brief/assignment
SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
Task 1
Coulson and Archer (2011) state that;
‘Physical fitness, as with fitness for health, is
not considered to be a single construct as it can be divided into several discrete
components that can be trained or adapted individually.’ Sporting performance
is highly influenced by physical and health related fitness components. Physical
fitness is composed of five key components which allow the athlete to compete
with the demands of the sport without fatigue;
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Body Composition
Muscular Endurance
Flexibility
Cardiovascular fitness
Muscular Strength
Skill related fitness is made up of six key components which are utilised in the
more technical aspects of sporting performance;
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Speed
Reaction Time
Agility
Balance
Coordination
Power
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
All sporting people will incorporate both physical and health related
components of fitness during their performance in some form or another. The
variation of this depends on the specific sportsman and the contrasting training
they undergo. I have chosen to analyse the components of fitness and sporting
methods of a Sprinter and Long distance swimmer.
Body Composition
The successfulness of an athlete is determined by many factors; training regime,
diet, natural ability, body composition and some suggest luck. A higher level of
sporting performance can be heavily influenced by an ‘optimum body
composition.’ For example, the build-up of an athlete’s physical characteristics
can be the difference between being lean enough to maintain muscular strength,
but light enough to excel with speed, a situation as such is vital in the
performance of a sprinter. Garret et al (2000) says ‘Body fat negatively
influences athletic ability performances involving agility, speed, endurance,
running and jumping.’ Body composition is measured by the amount of
cartilage, muscle, bone and fat that makes up the human body. A healthy
amount of fat for a man is between 15-18% and for women is 20-25%. A
sprinter generally has a developed muscular upper body and leg strength due to
the power exerted whilst sprinting giving them a mesomorph body- type builds.
An increase of body fat increases risk of injury to the joints and bones and
decreases performance. In contrast, long distance swimmers are found to have
an Ectomorph build with a leaner, thinner build and longer limbs. The
distribution of fat around the body
affects the swimmers buoyancy and
ability to float.
Lawrence (2004) states ‘ Muscular
and leaner body types are less
2
Figure 1 (online)
SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
buoyant, more stable and can move more quickly through water.’ Body
composition in athletes can be tested by a ‘Bod Pod’ as illustrated in figure one
(right.) The Bod Pod is a body composition tracking system which measures air
displacement by body density. It measures the body mass of an athlete using a
precise scale to calculate the density of fat to lean muscle tissue. It uses the
relationship between pressure and volume to detect pressure responses to the
change in volume. The athlete wears the minimal amount of clothing as possible
and a tight cap on the head to reduce excess volume whilst sitting as still as
possible with light breathing. For example, if the interior air volume of the
empty pod is 500litres, the volume of the chamber is reduced to 450litres with
the athlete inside; the outcome is the volume of the subject is 50 litres. Other
ways of testing body composition include; Skin fold measurement, Waist to
Hip, Hydro densitometry and dual energy x-ray absorptiometry.
Muscular Endurance
Lerwill ( 2009) states’ Endurance fitness is the muscles ability to resist fatigue
whilst performing prolonged exercise.’ The two most significant components of
fitness for a long distance swimmer include muscular endurance and
cardiovascular endurance. Distance swimming is a full body muscular workout
using every measure of the physique to work for as long as possible against the
resistance (water.) A long distance swimmer will maintain a steady pace
throughout her/his race as the goal is to cover as much distance as the body can
without fatigue, not for the key outcome of speed (although this will still be
considered a factor.) As the athlete trains further, the muscles adapt to the
distance and begin to grow stronger, gaining the ability to work for longer
against the resistance. Although not the most important component of fitness
needed in short distance running, a sprinter will still have a good level of
muscular endurance due to the frequency which s/he trains and the repeated
movement of the muscles working against resistances. Some sprinters may try
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
to train muscular endurance once a week as a way of light intensity exercise or
‘cool down.’
An effective way to measure muscular endurance is by partaking in a sit up test.
The outcome is to complete as many full sit ups as possible in sixty seconds. A
partner is needed to time the test and count how many accurately performed sit
ups are finished. The athlete must make sure to follow all regulations set out to
make sure it is an accurate a test as possible. The starting position must be taken
with the back laid flat on the floor and the knees at a ninety degree angle. As the
move is performed, the shoulder blades must be lifted off the floor using core
strength taking extra care not to cheat by using any help from momentum with
arms etc. Making sure the test is conducted as accurately as possible is vital in
how correct the results are. The limitations of the sit up test are that only the
core strength of the athlete is being measured as no other muscles are being
taken into consideration. There is room for error as the validity of the athletes
performance is based solely on the opinion of the partner assessing, what one
person may consider a ‘proper sit up’ another might disagree. This also applies
to the degree in which the participant positions his/her legs and the height
reached when completing the sit up movement.
Flexibility
‘Achieving and maintaining appropriate flexibility are critical for optimal
athletic performance, daily living activities, and prevention of injury.’ (Manore
et al, 2009) Although not considered the most significant component of physical
fitness in both long distance swimming and sprinting, aspects of flexibility are
vital in both sports and should be included at least once a week into each
training programme to help skill, technique and reduce the risk of injury.
Flexibility is the range of movement available at the joints in our body. Having
a vast range of movements available is substantially important in the variation
of movements a long distance swimmer will use during the sport. For example,
each race is entitled with different specifications; Backstroke, Butterfly, Front
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
Crawl. All of these varieties use different arm and leg movements, different
joints and alternating muscles. Without the help of flexibility the body would be
unable to complete the full range of movements and would be more prone to
injury and risk of poor performance. With numerous hours spent swimming and
training the strain of repeated exercise can begin to create pain and issues in the
lower back of the swimmer, an increased level of flexibility can help to reduce
this pain and improve performance.
Reaburn (2014) describes how ‘Good flexibility is thought to be an important
prerequisite to perform technically correct sprint running stride.’ Flexibility can
be affected by an assortment of factors such as; age, excessive fatty tissue,
levels of fitness and tensions in the joints, muscles, tendons and ligaments.
Research has shown how muscle tissue is more prone to injury with age due to
structural changes in the tissue surrounding the joints. In addition to this, any
person deemed with excess body fat is more prone to poor flexibility as lack of
exercise leads to the shortening and tightening of muscle fibres. Although there
is no means of testing the full body’s flexibility, we are able to test the range of
movement from a joint by completing a sit and reach test. (Figure 2, below)
The most common test for flexibility is the sit and reach test, as pictured in
figure 2 above. This test will measure the range of movement available from the
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
hip, lower back and hamstrings. The only equipment which is needed is the sit
and reach box, and some object to push forward i.e. a ruler. The athlete will sit
with both legs extended flat on the floor with bare feet pushed up flat against
the box. If needed, the assessor may gently hold the knees flat against the floor
to help reduce the chance of an inaccurate finding. Beginning with a straight
back posture, the participant will reach forward with palms resting on the top of
the box and stretch as far forward as possible then hold for a second to allow the
assessor to take the reading. The athlete will then repeat this process three times
to find the average. This result in centimetres will give a representation of the
level of flexibility. In some cases the participant may not be able to reach the
box, therefore the distance will be measured from the tips of the fingers, to the
beginning of the sit and reach box to find the results. Issues with the validity of
this test include; only the flexibility of some parts of the body can be measured,
a person’s varying time of warm up will have an impact on the results (a person
who has done little or no warm up will obviously have a much lower result than
a person who has done some form of cardiovascular warm up and stretching). It
does not take into account the variations of participants limbs as it uses a set
distance, for example, a person with long arms and shorter legs will have a
better result than a person with long legs are shorter arms as they are at a
disadvantage. However, this test is relatively fast and easy to perform, with
minimal amount of equipment and fairy accurate results.
Cardiovascular Fitness
‘Cardiorespiratory endurance is related to the development of the cardiovascular
and respiratory systems’ ability to maintain oxygen delivery to working muscles
during prolonged exercise.’ (Kenney et al, 2012) Cardiovascular endurance
supplies oxygen to the muscles and organs during exercise through the Heart,
blood, blood vessels and respiratory system. Differing from Muscular
Endurance, Cardiovascular Endurance is focuses on the entire body and hearts
ability to sustain repeated aerobic exercise over a prolonged period of time, in
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
comparison to muscular endurance which is specific to individual muscle
groups. An effective way to measure cardiovascular endurance is by performing
a cooper run. This entails marking out a 25mx4 running track or 100m loop
(dependant on size and location) and counting how many laps/how much
distance can be covered in twelve minutes. The outcome, after working at
maximum level, running as fast as possible for twelve minutes, you are able to
calculate the distance covered and can use this to identify the levels of
cardiovascular fitness. The cooper run is a simple way to calculate CV
endurance and VO2max levels simply and at no cost. Equipment needed
consists of marking cones and a tape measure to accurately create the running
distance, and stationary to note down the amount of laps ran/distance covered.
This form of testing is useful for a training team or group of runners as it allows
as many participants to run within the twelve minute mark. The disadvantages
however; performance can be highly susceptible by the motivation of others and
the surroundings. Participants are more likely to receive better results in weather
with less rain/wind/cold or in an indoor environment. And the encouragement of
others may give different results to the absence of friendly drive. If using an
area outdoors is unavailable, the test can be performed on a treadmill, the
gradient must be set to 1% and the athlete can then begin the twelve minute run.
Long distance swimming demands an extremely high level of cardiovascular
fitness to ensure increased oxygen-delivery to all the working muscles which
the swimmer is using. Many long distance swimmers have exceptionally large
lung capacities due to training efficient oxygen use and making sure intake
timings of breath are effective for the length of stroke timing and time spent
under water. In competitive events, some swimmers must take on rapid
breathing techniques such as only breathing from one side as the competitor
swimming alongside could be splashing/ making it more difficult to intake
breath. Ensuring enough oxygen is inhaled is critically important in prevent
muscles from early fatigue during races. Many open water mass participation
events begin at 1km and ‘marathon’ style events such as the ‘Swim around
Manhattan’ can be as long as 24 miles. The stamina and training which is
required to be able to compete in an event as such is a monumental task on the
muscles, body and mind. In comparison, although it is not perceived as the most
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
important component of fitness a sprinter would need to incorporate into a
training plan, cardiovascular endurance and aerobic training can play a
significant role in increasing a sprinters resting recovery rate. Kenney et al
(2012) state ‘the rest periods are so short that full recovery cannot occur, thus
stressing the aerobic system.’ Sprinting techniques use short sharp bursts of
powerful energy to sprint as many strides as possible for the fastest time. A
sprinter’s cardiovascular fitness is incorporated when the maximal effort sprint
is finished, the cardiovascular system works as hard as possible to pump blood
around the body as help speed up the recovery rate, Mens Fitness states that an
example first part of a training session consists of ‘8 x 200m, walk back in 2
minutes for rest, target time: 30 seconds or under.’ Examples such as this give a
clear indication of the level of effort which is needed for sprint training and the
athlete must be ready to run again in under two minutes. With increased
training the cardiovascular system will be forced into working harder and
ensuring a faster recovery time.
Muscular Strength
‘Muscular strength is defined as the maximum force that can be exerted by a
muscle or muscle group against a resistance.’ (Aquatic Exercise Association,
2010) Many sprinting athletes use training sessions to focus on Hypertrophy
and building more muscular strength to gain more force and power on the
running track. Muscular strength can be measured by a One- rep-max leg press.
The only equipment which is needed for this text is the leg press machine which
can be found in most gymnasiums. The athlete takes position on the machine
with the back flat against the seat and the legs resting on the plate at a ninety
degree angle. Beginning with a low weight, the participant performs one full
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
repetition (press) with good technique. Then after additional weight is added the
athlete can perform the movement again still holding the technique, this is
continued until the heaviest weight possible can be pressed and can no longer be
increased. This is a simple test to conduct and can be done without an assessor
if needs be, it gives a strong indication of the athletes level of muscular strength,
however focus’ on the sole strength of the lower body and does not incorporate
the upper. Sprinters train to develop remarkable muscular strength to be able to
use as much force and power so that as soon as the gunshot fires, they can put
maximal effort into their sprint start. Acceleration begins within the upper body;
many sprinters have extremely well
developed upper body strength to benefit
maximal good starts. In addition to this, a
well-built abdominal strength will assist
the athlete in good technique and
stability. Figure 3 (right) shows Olympic
medal holder Harry Aikines- Aryeetey.
His sample weekly training programme
consists of six days a week, four hours a
day split between morning and evening
sessions. He includes four sessions on the
track with variations of sprints, hill
running and parachute running.
Alongside three gym sessions a week
with weights and circuits, followed by
one session of Pilates and a rest day on a
Sunday with an optional light swim and
sauna (http://www.harry-aaFigure 3- above
official.com/default.aspx?id=709) The main
training focus is around weights and speed training, both of which depends
heavily upon muscular strength growth and maintenance. Training muscular
strength in any form be it; circuits, interval, continuous, will help reduce excess
body fat and help to build and maintain lean body fat. Many elite sprinters have
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
an astoundingly low amount of body fat due to the sheer volume of lean muscle
composed in their physiques.
As an endurance based athlete, long distance swimmers would not prioritise a
high level of muscular strength over cardiovascular fitness. However many
swimmers incorporate one or two strength building training sessions a week to
help toughen muscles and tone excess body fat. Many long distance swimmers
can be training extensive hours per day covering hundreds of metres and
therefore require a certain level of strength to be able to withhold the exercise
demands on the body. In contrast to land- based training which uses weights a
resistance, in swimming, water acts as the resistance to the athlete. The stronger
the athlete the less effect the resistance has.
Skill Components
Hoeger and Hoeger (2011) state;
‘Skill related components of fitness are related primarily to successful sports
and motor skill performance.’ The skill related components of fitness are
essential for not only the progression of sporting performances; but also in
everyday life. Many of these skill factors are found to visibly decrease with
ageing or illness. It is extremely common for balance to reduce with age, many
elderly people becoming more sustainable to falls and injury. With this in
concern, it emphasises the importance of maintaining good levels of health and
skill related fitness components, especially with age.
Agility
‘Agility and quickness are complex sporting skills that include both physical
and cognitive components.’ (Dawes and Roozen, 2012)
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
Athletic training programmes must include aspects involving drills which target
agility, as almost all sportsmen will incorporate it into their game, many without
realising. By maximising agility performance, an athlete will be able to not only
move, but also think on a much faster time scale. A high level of agility is key
for the long distance swimmer in an indoor environment whilst racing. The
athlete will encounter a literal wall at the end of each lap, and distance
depending, this may happen tens to hundreds of times per race. The body’s
ability to change direction with as much speed and accurate technique as
possible can be essential for winning or losing the race by a fraction. One of the
most frequently used methods of testing agility is the Illinois agility test. This
routine involves minimal equipment; stopwatch, measuring tape and cones. The
course tests the athlete’s ability to accelerate and use their agility skills to
manoeuvre around the cones in the fastest time possible without missing any
cones/ running short.
Balance
For athletes, balance plays a significant role in being able to stay upright and in
control of the body. For the long distance swimmer, balance works alongside
buoyancy in the swimming pool. Having the ability to hold yourself within the
water whilst maintaining good technique and speed is essential for excelling in
the race. Balance is in essence, similar to agility as they both require the athlete
to use concentration, core strength, and good technique. During the first few
seconds of a race, the sprinters ideal is to exert as much power as possible
throughout the lower body whilst propelling with the arms from a starting block
position, to upright. Balance plays the role by allowing the runner to maintain a
good centre of gravity. In balance’s absence, the athlete would struggle to hold
him/herself in the most effective position. Simple exercises such as stretching
and resistance training can help to improve balance.
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
Coordination
‘Coordination is the ability to carry out a series of movements smoothly and
efficiently.’ (Gifford and Dicker, 2010) Coordination involves being able to use
the muscles, joints, mind and senses. Each everyday activity involves the use of
coordination, whether it’s driving a car or climbing up the stairs. In a sporting
environment specific for the long distance swimmer; the use of sight may be
impaired, therefore they may rely more heavily on senses such as feel to direct
them. Being able to move the arms and feet in synchronise is the basic skill
needed for any swimmer. Having coordination allows the athlete to use the
correct technique and not waste any energy. Knowing when to accelerate, and
when to prepare yourself for the end of the lane (equalling a tumble turn) is all
down to the body and mind’s coordination skills for preparing to turn. (Winter,
2009) Similarly, the sprinter uses coordination to drive the arms and legs in the
quickest time possible, to win the race.
Power
Power = Force x Velocity
‘In sprinting events , the aim is to run as fast as possible over a short, specified
distance and reach the finishing line before the opponent.’ (Heinemann, 2004)
Power is essential for allowing the sprinter to produce as much force as possible
to accelerate forward. Required specifically in the arms and legs to act as the
driving strength in the race. The more power the athlete has, the more driving
force is produced during the race to win. Many sprinters have extremely good
levels of muscular strength to compliment levels of power. In contrast, the long
distance swimmer uses the bulk of his/her power to push and propel off the side
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
of the swimming pool. By exerting as much power as possible, they are able to
move much easier and faster through the resistance (water.)
Reaction Time
‘Reaction time is the ability to respond to a stimulus quickly.’ (Basheal et al,
2001) Reaction time is categorised into two areas; Simple and Choice. A simple
reaction time is our immediate response to a stimulus, for example, the gun shot
fired at the beginning of a running race. This depends heavily upon our ability
to respond naturally as it is difficult to work on improving the natural response
to a stimulus. This is skill is crucial for both the sprinter and the long distance
swimmer. Both athletes must be able to respond to the starting noise as rapidly
as possible to give them the fastest start possible, the more accurate the reaction
time, the faster the acceleration into the lead. Choice reaction time is less
important for the two chosen athletes, as this aspect incorporates the response to
a moving stimulus which then has to be reacted with. For example, a team sport
such as football would use this when passing the ball from one team member to
another, and it is the speed of the next movement (passing again) which is
important for reacting.
Speed
‘Speed is the change in distance over time.’ (Williams and Wilkins, 2013)
According to the ACSM, an athlete reaches maximal speed whilst running
between 20 and 40 metres. Speed is the most important skill related component
of fitness for a sprinter as their initial goal is to cross the finish line as fast as
possible. They need maximal acceleration every time the gunshot fires. The
difficulty found by most sprinters is maintaining the highest speed possible
throughout the race, as the build-up of lactic acid will occur after a few seconds
and slow the sprinter down. By efficiently training and working on the best
possible technique, sprinters are able to improve their speed and their personal
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
best times. Speed for the long distance swimmer is vital throughout the entire
race whilst also working at a level which can be maintained. This component
will furthermore become of extreme importance in the last stretch of the race.
The swimmer must use all remaining energy to exert power and speed to
overtake any competitors and win the race.
Analysis
Long distance swimmer
A long distance swimmer uses many skill related components of fitness to help
improve performance. The initial starting point is reaction time. The body’s
physical reaction time is usually something which cannot be trained. An
immediate reaction to a stimulus i.e. the starting whistle, is something which
can be worked upon in training and with technique. By having a good reaction
time it allows the swimmer to catch a strong start to the race, a factor which
may be the difference between winning by a millisecond, or losing. Speed is a
component which is not first to be used within an endurance based race, the
athlete must be able to maintain a pace throughout the race which allows
him/her to make progress without experiencing muscle fatigue too early on. The
speed is an overall component which the athlete must have to qualify for heats
and win races, the consistency of the speed is the winning factor, not the
immediate explosive speed needed towards the end of the race. A long distance
swimmer would need a fairly good level of agility during races which are held
in indoor pools. The ability to change direction quickly without fault is vital in
gaining the lead in a race and not dropping any seconds to a component. The
athlete will use balance during the race to maintain a strong posture and good
technique. If the swimmer is competing in a butterfly style race, they need to be
able to easily maneuverer through the water with faultless technique and
composure. If a swimmer had poor coordination they would be unable to
perform the stroke to an efficient level. Understanding when to stroke and when
to pull back at correct timings comes with experience and training. When taking
in a breath, the swimmer needs to maximise the use of the oxygen stroke
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
alongside the physical arms and legs stroke and understand when to take the
next breath. Power, in relation to muscular strength, is also similar in the sense
it is needed throughout the entire race for speed and force in cutting through the
resisting water. The power exerted by the swimmer will in fact be the result in
how fast and how strong of a swimmer the athlete is. The entire body’s muscles
are used during the race and without power, the athlete would fail to excel.
Sprinter
A sprinter uses the skill related components in different protocols. Reaction
time, speed and power are the most important skill related components of
fitness which every sprinter needs to excel with, within the race. The immediate
reaction to the gunshot entitling the start of the race is seen as more important
than the actual speed of the sprinter. Many athletes may lose by milliseconds
due to a poorer reaction time than the opponent. ‘In the 1988 Olympics, Ben
Johnson ran 9.79 and Carl Lewis ran 9.92 in the 100 meters’ (online.) With
evaluation into the ten-metre-splits of the race, What allowed Johnson to take
the lead was his unfaultable reaction time to the starting gun and his ability to
maintain a higher speed than Lewis. It is often considered that during the first
twenty metres of the race, the acceleration phase where the sprinter gradually
moves into a vertical running position from the blocks, it is in this moment
where the sprinter can gain or lose the lead due to bad technique. Elite reaction
times are within the range of 120 mSec (0.12 seconds) to 160 mSec (0.16
seconds.) At this point is where the next skill component of fitness is
introduced; Speed.
‘Sprinting success is dependent on rapid reaction to the race start, acceleration
out of the block, and linear speed over the course of the race.’ (Brown et al ,
2014) The speed endurance phase ranged from sixty, to the finishing one
hundred metres. During this phase, the athlete is sprinting at maximum capacity
using the anaerobic system to work without oxygen for as long as possible
without fatigue. The difficulty begins in maintaining the maximum speed for
more than a few seconds due to the intense accumulation of lactic acid. It is also
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
during this phase where athlete’s build-up of muscular endurance is
incorporated due to the repetitive training of the 100m sprint.
The power produced by the athlete is the combined product or strength and
speed. The hours training muscular strength are what are incorporated into the
power which is produced by the sprinter. The faster and stronger the athlete, the
more power is produced. The Illinois agility test can help the sprinter improve
their agility levels or using an agility ladder is also an effective mechanism.
Research has suggested the improvement of balance by using equipment such as
stability balls, can help sprinters improve postural stability and centre of gravity
whilst helping to strengthen and condition muscles. Better coordination can help
to make a runner more powerful and efficient within the race. Exercises such as
completing lunge matrix’s will significantly help improve coordination for the
athlete.
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
Reference List
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Cheltenham, Thomas Nelson and Sons LTD
Williams and Wilkins (20130 ACSM’s Resources for the Personal
Trainer, ASCM
Brown, Lee, Ferrigno, and Vance (2014) Training for Speed, Agility and
Quickness, Champaign, IL, USA, Human Kinetics
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SAMPLE 2 – STUDENT WORK
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http://livehealthy.chron.com/mechanical-power-used-sprinter-3837.html
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