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4
ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE
SINCE MAURYAN AGE
The earliest remains of Indian architecture have been found in Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Ropar, Kalibangan,
Lothal and Rangpur under Indus Valley Civilisation.
Town planning was excellent. Burnt brick was widely used, roads were wide and at right angles to one another,
city drains were laid out with great skill and forethought, the corbelled arch and baths were constructed with
knowledge and skill.
The architechture and sculture though flourished in Indus valley and Vedic and Later Vedic era but during this
time sculpture and architecture was utilising organic and perishable materials such as mud, mudbrick, bamboo,
timber, leaves, straw and thatch, these have not survived the ravages of time. Hence the knowledge about this
period is not available.
Mauryan Art
The monuments before the period of Ashoka were mostly made of wood and therefore perished. In the time
of Chandragupta Maurya and his son, brick and stone seem to have been used chiefly for the foundations and
plinths of timber superstructures. Wooden architecture implies the execution of most
of the decorative features in material equally perishable. The general use of stone in
northern India for building , sculpture, and decoration certainly dates from the reign
of Asoka, who was influenced by Persian and Greek example.
The Architecture of Mauryans included:
Pillars:
•
The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars.
•
Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan Empire with inscriptions engraved
on them.
•
The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the
lion, the elephant, etc. All the capital figures are vigorous and carved standing
on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses are decorated with stylised lotuses.
•
Some of the existing pillars with capital figures were found at Basarah-Bakhira,
LauriyaNandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa and Sarnath.
•
The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as the Lion Capital is the finest example
of Mauryan sculptural tradition. It is also our national emblem.
Ashokan Edicts (It propogated Ashoka Dhamma)
Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings.
II.
Measures of social welfare
III.
Respect to Bhramanas
IV.
Courtsey to relatives,elders and consideration for animals.
Notes
I.
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V.
Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras and their duties.
VI.
Need for efficient organization of administration
VII.
Need for tolerance among all religions
VIII.
System of dhamma yatras
IX.
Attack on meaningless ceremonies and rituals
X.
Conquest through dhamma instead of war
XI.
Explanation of Dhamma policy
XII.
Appeal of tolerance among all religious sects
XIII.
Kalinga war
XIV.
Inspiration to spend religious life
Stupas:
The Buddhist Stupas were built at places where Buddha's remains were preserved and at the major sites
where important events in Buddha's life took place.
•
Stupas were built of huge mounds of mud, enclosed in carefully burnt small standard bricks.
•
One was built at his birthplace Lumbini; the second at Gaya where he attained enlightenment under the
Bodhi Tree, the third at Sarnath where he gave his first sermon and the fourth at Kushinagar where he
passed away attaining Mahaparinirvana at the age of eighty.
•
Originally the stupa was made of bricks and surrounded by a wooden railing. The existing stupa at Sanchi
encloses the original stupa and has been enlarged and enclosed within the stone railing or balustrade, when
stone was adopted in the place of wood.
Notes
•
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Famous Stupas
Place
Bharhut Stupa
Satna district of Madhya Pradesh,
Sanchi Stupa
Sanchi town of Madhya Pradesh
Amravati Stupa
Andhra Pradesh
Dhamek Stupa (Sarnath)
Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
Shanti Stupa
Dhaulagiri
Stupa at Nagarjunakonda
Andhra Pradesh
Mahabodhi Stupa
Bodh Gaya
Rock-cut Architecture:
•
Ashoka's reign saw the firm establishment of the rock-cut architecture for the monks to live in.
•
These caves also served the purpose of assembly halls. They were built by cutting the hard & refractory
rocks.
•
It consisted of Chaitya (prayer hall) and Vihara (monastery).
•
The internal walls of the caves were polished so nicely that they looked like mirrors.
•
Sudama and Lomas Rishi caves are the two notable hermitages, each consisting of a circular cell with a
hemispherical domed roof attached to a barrel-vaulted anteroom with side entrances.
•
The series of rock-cut sanctuaries in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills, near Gaya in Bihar, contain a number
of inscriptions which show that they were donated for the habitation of certain Ajivika ascetics, perhaps
followers of the Jain religion.
Sculpture
Monumental images of Yaksha, Yakhinis and animals formed the part of sculpture in Mauryan Period.
•
Large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. Yaksha
refer to the nature-spirits, usually benevolent also known as fertility spirits. A yakshini is the female
counterpart of the male Yaksha.
•
These monumental images are mostly in the standing position. One of the distinguishing elements in all
these images is their polished surface. The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced cheeks and
physiognomic detail.
•
Terracotta figurines show a very different delineation of the body as compared to the sculptures.
•
Another example of sculpture is the rock cut sculpture of Elephant in Dhauli, near Bhubneshwar in
Odisha (represents the fore-part of an elephant carved over the Edicts of Ashoka.)
Notes
•
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Architecture and Sculpture in Post Mauryan Period
From the second century BCE onwards, various rulers established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:
the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks in southern and Western India.
Contribution of Sungas
The period saw a flowering of the visual arts, including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and
architectural monuments such as the chaitya hall at Bhaja, the stupa at Bharhut, and the renowned Great Stupa
at Sanchi. Under Shunga patronage, the core of the Great Stupa, thought to date from the era of the Mauryan
emperor Ashoka (r. ca. 273-232 B.C.), was enlarged to its present diameter of 120 feet, covered with a stone
casing, topped with a balcony and umbrella, and encircled with a stone railing. Four famous gateways, each
about thirty-five feet high, were carved during the first half of the first century A.D. Decorated with images
of auspicious fertility spirits, known as yakshas and yakshis, the gateways also feature narratives depicting
moments from the past lives and final existence of Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism. Motifs
such as wheels, thrones, and footprints are used to symbolize the Buddha, who is not represented in human
form until later.
Contribution of Satvahanas
The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism. They built chaityas and viharas. They also made
grants of villages and lands to Buddhist monks. Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi stupa.
Their architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also notable. Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with
the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices.
Contribution of Kushanas
After Alexander's invasion of India in 326 B.C., the Indo-Greek, Indo Scythian and Kushan kings ruled over
its north-western territories and under their patronage emerged a distinct style of sculpture, popularly known
as the Greco-Roman, Buddhist or Gandhara art and Mathura Art.
Gandhara Art
•
It was a combination of Hellenistic, West Asiatic and native elements. Greek and Roman techniques,
modified according to Indian requirements, were employed in fashioning the Gandhara sculpture which
truly represents Indian culture in a Western garb.
•
Its area extended from Takshila in India to the Swat Valley in Pakistan and northwards to areas in
Afghanistan.
•
The Gandhara sculptors made images of Lord Buddha in the Greco-Roman style. The images of Buddha
resembled Greek God Apollo. It gave more stress to the bodily features and external beauty.
•
In all the Buddha depicted in the Gandhara Art is shown making four types of hand gestures and this is
a remarkable feature in this art. The gestures are as follows:
Abahayamudra : Don't fear
b)
Dhyanamudra : meditation
c)
Dharmachakramudra: a preaching mudra
d)
Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth.
Notes
a)
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Mathura Art
•
Mathura School of art is purely indigenous style. Mathura art developed during post Maurya peiod
(mainly during Shunga period) and reached its peak during the Gupta period (AD 325 to 600).
•
The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main art production site whereas Sarnathand Kosambi also
emerged as important centres of art production. Spotted red sandstone has been used in this school.
•
Themes in the Mathura Art vary from Buddhist to Brahmanical to sometimes secular. More stress was
given to the inner beauty and facial emotions rather than bodily gesture.
•
Under the Mathura Art images of Vishnu and Shiva, Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis, Shaivite and Vaishnavite
deities were found.
•
In these sculptures, Buddha was depicted as Human and the main theme was Buddha and Bodhisattavas.
Both sitting and standing posture of Buddha's statues were carved out in the Mathura school.
•
The art of Mathura also featured sexual imagery.
•
The characteristics of the idol of the Buddha are:
(a) Buddha sitting under a Bodhi tree with right hand in Abhaya posture,
(b) Dharma Chakra and Triratna chiselled in palms and at the bottom of the feet, and
(c) Except for one lock, the entire head is shaven.
The Amravati School of Art
•
The Amravati school of Art evolved during Satavahna period.
•
This school of art developed at Amravati, on the banks of the Krishna River in modern Andhra Pradesh.
•
This school of art had great influence on art in Sri Lanka and South-East Asia as products from here were
carried to those countries.
•
It is Completely indigenous in nature.
•
Lord Buddha is depicted in the form of `Swastika` mark. This has been carved out onthe cushioned seat
over a throne that is situated under the Bodhi tree.
•
They used white sandstone to construct the images.
•
At a later stage the Amaravati School depicted Buddha in the human form.
•
The figures of Amaravati have slim blithe features and are represented in difficult poses and curves.
Gandhara
Mathura
Amravati
1.
Indegenous in nature.
1.
Indegenous in nature
2. Grey-sandstone is used. (we
also find images made of
stucco with lime plaster).
2.
Spotted red sandstone.
2.
White marble
3. Mainly Buddhist images are
found.
3.
Buddhism, Jainism and
hindu images are found.
3.
Mainly Buddhism
Notes
1. High influence of helenistic
and greek art features.
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4. Patron- kushana
4.
Kushana
4.
Shatavahanas
5. Found in north-west India
5.
North India. Mainly
region of Mathura
5.
Deccan region near Krishnagodavari delta.
6. Spiritual Buddha images.
Very stylish with wavy hair.
6.
Delighted Buddha and
not spiritual look.
6.
Mainly depicts stories of
jatakas.
7. Has beard and moustache.
7.
No beard and moustache.
8. Lean body.
8.
Strong muscular feature.
9. Both seated and standing
images are found.
9.
Most of them are seated.
10. Eyes are half closed and
ears are large
10. Eyes are open with small
ears.
Cave Architecture in Ancient India
The cave architecture in India is believed to have begun in the third century BC. These caves were used by
Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and residence. Initially the caves were excavated in the western
India. Some examples of this type of cave structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists. Some of the
famous caves are described below:
Ajanta Caves
The Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra India) are 29 rock-cut cave monuments which date from the 2nd century B.C.
The caves include paintings and sculptures considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art (which
depict the Jataka tales) as well as frescos which are reminiscent of the Sigiriya paintings in Sri Lanka. The caves
were built in two phases starting around 200 B.C, with the second group of caves built around 600 A.D.
Ellora Caves
The Ellora caves are carved into the sides of a basaltic hill. The caves at Ellora contain some of the finest
specimens of cave-temple architecture and exquisitely adorned interiors. Structures in the Ellora caves represent
the three faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and were carved during 350 AD to 700 AD. The nobility,
serenity and grace of Buddha are visible in the Buddhist caves of Ellora. Ellora caves also contain images of
Vishwakarma, the patron saint of Indian craftsmen. The Kailasha temple in Cave 16 is indeed an architectural
wonder, the entire structure having been carved out of a monolith.
Elephanta Caves
Notes
The Elephanta Caves are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri (literally "the
city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour. The island, located on an arm of the Arabian Sea, consists of two groups
of caves: the first is a large group of five Hindu caves, the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The
Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.
The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries, although the
identity of the original builders is still a subject of debate. The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock. All the
caves were also originally painted in the past, but now only traces remain.
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Kanheri Caves
The Kanheri Caves constitute a group of rock-cut monuments that are located to the north of Borivali on the
western outskirts of Mumbai, India. One hundred and nine caves have been carved from the basalt. Most of
the caves are used as the Buddhist viharas, meant for living, studying, and meditating. The larger caves were
chaityas, or halls for congregational worship; are lined with intricately carved Buddhist sculptures, reliefs and
pillars; and contain rock-cut stupas for congregational worship.
Bhaja Caves
Bhaja Caves or Bhaje caves a group of 22 rock-cut caves dating back to the 2nd century BC located in Pune,
near Lonavala, Maharashtra. It belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect in Maharashtra.The caves have a
number of stupas, one of their significant features
Temple Architecture
During Gupta era Free Standing temple Architecture came into existences which were of the following types:
•
Flat roofed square temple with a shallow pillared porch in the front.
•
Flat roofed square temple with a covered ambulatory around the sanctum and preceded by a pillared
porch, sometimes with a second storey above.
•
Square temple with a low and squat shikhara above.
•
Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and a barrel vaulted roof above.
•
Circular temple, with shallow rectangular projections at the four cardinal faces.
The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following:
(i)
a cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha literally 'womb-house'), which, in the early temples, was a small cubicle
with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main
icon which is itself the focus of much ritual attention;
(ii) the entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large
number of worshippers and is known as a mandapa;
(iii) from the fifth century CE onwards, freestanding temples tend to have a mountainlike spire, which can take
the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India;
(iv) the vahan, i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple's main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is
placed axially before the sanctum.
North Indian Temple Style
The Nagara style temple is a square with a number of graduated projections (rathakas) in the middle of
each face which gives it a cruciform ground shape in the exterior.
•
In elevation, it exhibits a tower (Shikhara), gradually including inwards and capped by a spheroid slab with
ribs round the edge (amalaka).The entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it.
Notes
•
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•
The earliest temples had just
one tower, or shikhara, later
temples had several. The
garbhagriha is always located
directly under the tallest
tower.
There are many subdivisions of
nagara temples depending on the
shape of the shikhara.
•
Rekha-Prasada: The simple
shikhara which is square at
the base and whose walls
curve or slope inward to a
point on top is called the
'latina' or the rekha-prasada
type of shikara.
•
Phamsana: Their roofs are
composed of several slabs
that gently rise to a single
point over the centre of the
building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana roofs do not curve
inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline.
•
Valabhi: These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
Characteristics of Central India Nagar Style
•
It is present in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
•
The most visible is that they are made of sandstone.
•
These shrines have four pillars that support a small mandapa which looks like a simple square porch-like
extension before an equally small room that served as the garbhagriha.
•
Example: Sanchi and Udaigiri temple
•
This temple is in the panchayatana style of architecture where the main shrine is built on a rectangular
plinth with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners (making it a total number of five shrines,
hence the name, panchayatana).
•
Rekha-prasada type of shikhar are present.
•
The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms.
•
Temple has a grand doorway with standing sculptures of female figures representing the Ganga on the left
side and the Yamuna on the right side.
Khajuraho School/Chandela School
Both interior & exterior walls are intricately carved with sculpture.
•
Sculptures of Khajuraho School are based on erotic.
Notes
•
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•
Theme based on Kamasutra.
•
Dates to 10th - 11th century.
•
Stand on a high platform.
•
It consisted of three elements:
• Shrine Room (garbagriha).
• Assembly Hall.
• Polico (outside verandah) - Unique to Khajuraho School.
•
Shikharas present even on the subsidiary shrines (absent in Dravidian style).
•
From a distance, gives am impression of a mountain range (unique to Khajuraho style)
Ex: Kandariya Mahadeo temple
Characteristics of West India Nagar Style
•
The temples in the north-western parts of India including Gujarat and Rajasthan comes under this.
•
The stone used to build the temples ranges in colour and type. While sandstone is the commonest, a grey
to black basalt can be seen in some of the tenth to twelveth century temple sculptures.
•
The most exuberant and famed is the manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen in some of the
tenth to twelveth century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the fifteenth century temple at Ranakpur.
•
Solanki Style: Ex: Mudhura Sun Temple, Gujarat (11th century). Massive rectangular stepped tank (suny
a kund) infront of the temple (little temple - like Structure on steps of bank. Walls of main shrine are
devoid of caning & are left plain (as the temple faces last & every or at equinox, the Sun shines directly
on to central shrine.
Characteristics of East India Nagar Style
•
Eastern Indian temples include those found in the North-East, Bengal and Odisha. Each of these three
areas produced distinct types of temples.
•
Terracotta was the main medium of construction.
A. Odisha School:
During 8th to 13th century
•
Exterior walls are beautifully decorated but inner walls are simple with plain colours.
•
No use of pillars. Iron grills are used to support the roof.
•
"Shikara" is called "Deul" which is vertical till top when it suddenly curves inwards.
•
Ex:Lingaraj temple in Bubaneshwar, Sun temple of Kornak.
B.
Bengal School:
•
During 9th to 11th century known as Pala style and mid-eleventh to mid-thirteenth century called as Sena
Style.
•
A tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka is an example of the early Pala style.
Notes
•
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•
Due to the lack of suitable stone in the alluvial Gangetic delta, the temple builders had to use other
materials instead of stone. This gave rise to using terracotta as a medium for temple building
•
Later on many styles were evolved within the terra cotta style. For example the Navaratna style or
Pancharatna style. The Dakshineswar Kali temple in Kolkotta is a good example of the Navaratna style.
South Indian Temple Style
•
Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall. The front wall has an
entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram.
•
The shape of the main temple tower known as vimana in Tamil Nadu is like a stepped pyramid that rises
up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
•
In the South Indian temple, the word 'shikhara'is used only for the crowning element at the top of the
temple which is usually shaped like a small stupikaor an octagonal cupola- this is equivalent to the amlak
and kalasha of North Indian temples.
•
Whereas at the entrance to the North Indian temple's garbhagriha, it would be usual to find images such
as mithunasand the river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, in the south you will generally find sculptures
of fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple.
•
It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex.
•
Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as distinct, separate
small shrines beside the main temple.
•
Temples became the focus of urban architecture. Kanchipuram, Thanjavur or Tanjore, Madurai and
Kumbakonam are the most famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu, where, during the eighth to twelfth
centuries, the role of the temple was not limited to religious matters alone. Temples became rich
administrative centres, controlling vast areas of land.
Types of Dravidian Styles:
These are basically of five different shapes:
square, usually called kuta, and also caturasra;
•
rectangular or shala or ayatasra;
•
elliptical, called gaja-prishtaor elephant-backed, or also called vrittayata, deriving from wagon-Gangaikonda
cholapuram temple vaulted shapes of apsidal chaityas with a horse-shoe shaped entrance facade usually
called a nasi;
•
circular or vritta; and
•
octagonal or ashtasra.
Notes
•
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The Architechture developed under different rulers are discussed below:
•
Pallava (AD 600-900)
The Pallava Architecture developed in two phases:
a)
Phase I: It is a rock cut phase. It is further divided into two groups - Mahendra Group and Mamalla
Group.
Mahendra Group depicts the rock cut architecture (cut from single rock). Example is Cave temple at Tirichupalli.
The cave is of primitive appearance without ornamentation. Whereas, in later Mahendra phase cave structures
were ornamented with Lioned structures.
Mamalla Group also depicted rock cut architecture but the caves were more decorated with elephant carvings,
liographic motifs, etc. They were mainly built on coastlines. Example is Rathas of Mahabalipuram, they were
monolithic sculptures.
b)
Phase II: The second phase of Pallava architecture is the structural phase when free-standing shrines were
constructed with stone and mortar brought in for the purpose. Monuments of this phase are of two groups
- the Rajasimha group (690 to 800 AD) and the Nandivarman group (800 to 900 AD).
The Rajasimha Group encompases the early structural temples of the Pallavas when a lot of experimentation
was carried out. The best examples of this period are the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanathar
Temple at Kanchipuram.
The best example of the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.
During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity.
•
Chola (900-1150)
Chola architecture achieved its peak at Thanjavur, the capital established by the Chola ruler Rajaraja I. The
sanctuaries have rising pyramid towers crowned with dome-like roofs. Sculptures and paintings adorn the walls.
Bronze sculptures of this era are the finest in southern India. These are delicately modeled, especially those
depicting the Lord Shiva in his many aspects.
Special Features of the Chola Architecture:
a)
The dvarapalas, or guardian figures, at the entrance to the mandapa, or hall which started from the Palava
period became a unique feature of the Chola Temples.
b)
The Dravidian Style got fully developed after a transition from the rock cut structures of the Pallava
Period.
c)
Early Chola temples at the Bank of river Kaveri were smaller and brick made, in comparison to the
colossus buildings of the Imperial Cholas.
d)
The temples of the Imperial Cholas are covered with exquisite well composed sculptures and frescoes.
e)
Largest and tallest of all Indian temples i.e. Siva Temple of Thanjore was built in Chola Period.
f)
Ganas, among the sculptures at the temple, are the most memorable figures made in Chola temples
Deccan Temple Style
Notes
The Vesara style is a hybrid style that borrowed from the northern and southern styles. So, it is a mixture of
both Nagara and Dravida styles of temple architecture. Temples built in the Deccan under the later Chalukyas
of Kalyani and Hoysalas are considered examples of this style.
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Characteristics of Vesara Style of Temple
•
The Vesara style reduces the height of the temple towers even though the numbers of tiers are retained.
This is accomplished by reducing the height of individual tiers.
•
The semi circular structures of the Buddhist chaityas are also borrowed in this style, as in the Durga
temple of Aihole.
•
The plan of shrine, subsidiary shrine, panchayatan style bears similarity to Nagara school.
•
It has two or more than two entrances.
The Architechture developed under different rulers are discussed below:
A. Chalukyas of Badami
They built prolific monuments at Vatapi, Aihole, Alampur, etc. Cave temples were influenced by Buddhist,
Jain and Brahamical origin. Stone structural temples such as Lad Khan temple of Aihole and Virupaksha
temple at Pattadakkal.
B. Rashtrakutas
The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta. At Ellora, the most remarkable
temple is the Kailasa temple. It was excavated during the reign of Krishna I. It is carved out of a massive block
of rock. The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures. The sculptural art of the
Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.
C. Hoysala
Temples erected during the Hoysala kings have complicated plans with numerous angled projections. Carved
surfaces are executed with remarkable precision, usually in chlorite. The columns are lathe-turned or are multifaceted. Temples from the Hoysala period can still be seen at Belur, Halebid and Sringeri. After the reign of
the Hoysalas, architectural traditions were interrupted by Muslim raids at the end of the 13th century. Monumental
temple building resumed later under the Vijayanagara empire.
D. Vijayanagara (1350-1565)
By the 16th century almost all of southern India was part of the Vijayanagara empire. The characteristic
feature of this period is the development of the temple complex: concentric series of rectangular enclosure
walls with the gopuras (towered gateways) in the middle of each side. Of the numerous Vijayanagara complexes
in southern India, the most magnificent are those at Kanchipuram, Thiruvannamalai and Vellore.
During this time, Kerala on the western coast developed a distinct style of architecture. Because of the heavy
rainfall, the temples here were roofed with sloping tiers of metal or Terra cotta tiles. The Vadakkunatha temple
at Trichur dates from the 12th century. Later temples are found at Chengannur, Kaviyum and Vaikom.
E. Nayak Style
Notes
The Nayaks of Jinji, Tanjor, Madurai and Mysore constructed temples and halls. The most famous of all is
the Madurai temple, reconstructed between 16th and 19th cent. The main constituents of this temple are
'Golden Lilly Pond' the Temple of Meenakshi and Shiva with huge corridors, thousand Pillared Hall and eleven
huge gopurams. Very similar are the temples of Chidambaram.
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Indo-Islamic Architecture
Indo-Islamic architecture begins with the Ghurid occupation of India at the close of the 12 century A.D.
The most important factors common to both forms of architecture, especially in respect of mosques and
temples, were that to both styles, ornamental decoration was very vital and that the open court in many cases
was surrounded by colonnades. But the contrast was equally striking: the prayer chamber of the mosque was
spacious, whereas the shrine of the temple was comparatively small. The mosque was light and open, whereas
the temple was dark and closed. The difference between the lay-out of a temple and a mosque is explained
by the essential difference between the Hindu and Muslim forms of worship and prayer. A cell to house the
image of the deity, garbha-griha, and often small halls in front for the worshippers was regarded adequate for
a simple Hindu temple. But the Islamic form of worship, with its emphasis on congregational prayer, requires
a spacious courtyard with a large prayer hall, pointed towards Mecca, as its western end that is, to the West
of India. In the rear wall of the prayer-hall, the centre is occupied by a recess or alcove, called mihrab; and
indicates the direction of prayer (quibla). A pulpit (mimber) at its right is meant for the imam who leads the
prayer. A tower or minaret, originally intended for the muazzin to call the faithful to the prayer, later assumed
a mere architectural character. A gallery or compartment of the prayer hall or some other part was screened
off to accommodate the ladies who observed purdah.The main entrance to a mosque is on the east, and the
sides are enclosed by cloisters (liwans). A tank is provided for ablutions usually in the courtyard of a mosque.
Typologies of Structures
Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural building like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama
Masjids, tombs, dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas, sarais or caravansarais, Kos
minars, etc., were constructed over a period of time. These were thus additions in the existing types of
buildings in the sub-continent.
• Mosques:
The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open
courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A mihrab indicates the direction of the
qibla for prayer. Towards the right of the mihrab stands the mimbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides
over the proceedings.
• Tombs:
The tomb usually consists of solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the huzrah in whose centre
is the cenotaph or zarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber
lies the mortuary or the maqbara, in which the corpse is buried in a grave or qabr. The tomb of a Muslim saint
is called a dargah.
• Kos Minar:
The Kos Minars or Mile Pillars are medieval milestones that were made by the 16th-century Afghan Ruler Sher
Shah Suri and later on by Mughal emperors. These Minars were erected by the Mughal Emperors on the main
highways across the empire to mark the distance.
• Sarais or caravansarais:
Notes
A caravanserai was a roadside inn where travelers could rest and recover from the day's journey. Most typically
a caravanserai was a building with a square or rectangular walled exterior, with a single portal wide enough to
permit large or heavily laden beasts such as camels to enter.
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• Structures for common people
One of the architectural features of medieval India was also a coming together of styles, techniques and
decorations in public and private spaces of non-royal sections of the society. These included buildings for
domestic usage, temples, mosques, khanqahs and dargahs, commemorative gateways, pavilions in buildings and
gardens, bazaars, etc
Building Material Used
One thing is very common in these buildings that the walls are extremely thick and largely constructed of
rubble masonary, which was easily available. These walls were then cased over with limestone plaster or dressed
stone. A variety of stones were used such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc. In some cases, the
Polychrome tiles were used to finish the walls.
Decorative forms
The designing was done on plaster through incision or stucco.
•
The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.
•
Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifs included varieties of flowers, both from the
sub-continent and places outside, particularly Iran.
•
Walls were also decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also with flower vases.
•
In the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also used to surface the walls and the domes.
•
Popular colours were blue, turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques of tessellation (mosaic
designs) and pietra dura were made use of for surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the
walls. At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.
•
Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and low relief carving and a profuse use of
jalis.
Notes
•
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Indo Islamic Monuments Build Under Different Rulers
Architecture under Delhi Sultanate
Slave Dynasty
a)
Qutab Minar
b)
Arhai Din Ka Jhopra
c)
Tomb of Sultan Ghari
d)
Balban's Tomb
•
Khilji Dynasty
a)
Alai Darwaza - the southern gateway of Qutb complex enclosure
b)
Idgah at Rapri,
c)
Jamat Khana (Khizri) Mosque in Delhi
•
Tughlaq Dynasty
a)
Tughlaqabad Fort
b)
Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
c)
Jahanpanah, Delhi
d)
Khirki Masjid, Delhi
e)
Khush Mahal at Warangal Fort, Warangal
f)
Firoz Shah Kotla
•
Lodi Dynasty
a)
Tomb of Sikander Lodhi
b)
Moti ki Masjid
c)
Lodi Gardens
d)
Bara Gumbad
e)
Shish Gumbad
f)
the tomb of Shihab-ud-Din
g)
Taj Khan
•
Sayyid Dynasty
a)
City of Khizrabad and Mubarakabad
b)
Tomb of Sultan Mubarakshah
c)
Tomb of Mohammad Shah
Notes
•
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Architecture Under Mughal Dynasty
Babar
a)
Mosque at Kabuli Bagh at Panipat
b)
Jami Masjid at Sambhal
c)
Babri Mosque
•
Humayun
a)
Mosque at Fatehabad
b)
Jamali-Kamali Masjid
•
Akbar
a)
Humayun Tomb
b)
Agra Fort
c)
Panch Mahal
d)
Buland Darwaza
e)
Tomb of Shekh Salim Chisti
f)
Diwan-i-Khas
g)
Jodha Bai's Palace
•
Jahangir
a)
Akbar's Mausoleum at Sikandra
b)
tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah at Agra
•
Shah Jahan
a)
Taj Mahal
b)
Moti Masjid
c)
Jama Masjid
d)
Red Fort
e)
'Takhat-i-Tahus' (Peacock Throne)
f)
Wazir Bagh in Kashmir
g)
Shalimar Gardens near Lahore
h)
the Talkatora Bagh
i)
Shalimar Gardens at Delhi.
Notes
•
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Medieval School of Sculpture
Instead of the classical dignity, sobriety and simplicity, the sculpture in Medieval was more and more tending
towards ornamentation, creating highly ornate art objects, with strange and unusual imaginary creatures, such
as half human, half monsters, etc.
The characteristic of this new form of style of art is the difference with classical art in attitude, if not in skill
and aptitude. Loveliness and idealisation are still the artist's passion as they were for artists in the early classical
period, but love of the ornate, decorative details is now dominant over classic simplicity. There is more
complication, ornamentation and enrichment. There is an erroneous view that the Indian artist was a strict
conformist with the rules laid down in the shilpasastras specifying how the gods of the Indian pantheon are
to be shown in images. One look at the variety and individuality of Indian sculpture will clearly demonstrate
that as styles went on developing the sculptors frequently departed from the texts and rules laid down, and
delighted in those departures and the liberties they took with the bodies of humans and even of gods and
goddesses.
Apart from the celestials there are hunters, sages, disciples, wild animals like the lion, tiger, elephant and bear.
The representation of these animals is very naturalistic and shows delightful delineation of line. The radiation
of peace and calm by the sages is reflected in a meditating cat around which a number of rats are frolicking.
Though traditions of stone sculptures continued, no major sculpture movement survived under the Mughal and
the other Muhammadan rulers Under the Muhammadan rulers great impetus was given to architecture, but
sculptures are rarely found and even those available are products of local chieftains. During the British regime
no proper patronage was provided to sculptors and the whole tradition of Indian art almost came to a standstill.
Modern Architecture
Architecture traditionally, i.e., before the arrival of British on the Indian soil, was from the social point of view,
a creation of spectacular sculptural forms hewn out of stone. Architectural material was stone; tools, chisel and
hammer, and the aim was glorification. In contrast, the every-day needs of a common man were ruthlessly
neglected. Then the British arrived on the scene, it was through them that the first introduction to elementary
modern building construction and planning was introduced into India. Their aim, however, was to house their
organisations, and their people and whatever was necessary to control an empire as big as India. Apart from
self-serving military cantonments and civil lines, they also left the basic problems well alone. It was no intention
of the British to educate Indians in the art and science
of architecture. Consequently Indian minds, during the
British reign, were completely out of touch with the
progressive thinking taking place in the rest of the world.
For public buildings three broad architectural styles were
used. Two of these were direct imports from fashions
prevalent in England.
Notes
The first was called neo-classical or the new classical.
Its characteristics included construction of geometrical
structures fronted with lofty pillars It was derived from
a style that was originally typical of buildings in ancient
Rome, and was subsequently revived, re-adapted and
made popular during the European Renaissance. It was
considered particularly appropriate for the British Empire
in India. The British imagined that a style that embodied
the grandeur of imperial Rome could now be made to
express the glory of imperial India.
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Another architecture form was GraecoRoman architecture. It made innovative use
of covered arcades at ground level to shield
the shopper and pedestrian from the fierce sun
and rain of Bombay.
Another style that was extensively used was
the neo-Gothic, characterised by high-pitched
roofs, pointed arches and detailed decoration.
The Gothic style had its roots in buildings,
especially churches, built in northern Europe
during the medieval period. The neo-Gothic
or new Gothic style was revived in the midnineteenth century in England.
Contribution of Famous Architects
•
Laurie Baker:
He was Influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and his
own experiences in the remote Himalayas, he
promoted the revival of regional building
practices and use of local materials and combined
this with a design philosophy that emphasized a
responsible and prudent use of natural resources
and energy. He was also a pioneer of sustainable
architecture as well as organic architecture,
incorporating in his designs even in the late 1960s,
concepts such as rain-water harvesting,
minimizing usage of energy-inefficient building
materials, designing buildings to minimize
damage to the building site and seamlessly merge
with the surrounding environment. Due to his
social and humanitarian efforts to bring
architecture and design to the common man, his honest use of materials, his belief in simplicity in design and
in life, and his stauch Quaker belief in non-violence, he has been called the "Gandhi of architecture".
Features of his Architecture
(a) He merged building with ere.
(b) He used locally available materials.
(c) He introduced filler slab construction which resulted in the reduction of the consumption of steel &
cement. (cheaper also)
(d) Ventilation & thermal comfort arrangements is present in his architecture.
Notes
(e) He revolutionised mass housing in Kerala; hence called The Architect of the Poor.
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•
Charles Correa
Charles Correa was an Indian architect and urban planner. He was responsible for works as diverse as the
Mahatma Gandhi Memorial in Ahmedabad and the assembly of Madhya Pradesh.
In the 1970s, he was the chief architect of Navi Mumbai, the new city that came up across the harbor from
Mumbai, and was later appointed the first chairman of the National Commission on Urbanisation.
Besides working on Mahatma Gandhi Memorial at the Sabarmati Ashram and the Jawahar Kala Kendra in
Jaipur, Correa also focussed on low-income housing and urban planning. He was honoured with the Padma Shri
in 1972 and Padma Vibhushan in 2006.
•
Le Corbusier
He was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner. Corbusier prepared the master plan for the
planned city of Chandigarh in India, and contributed specific designs for several buildings there.
Modern Indian Sculpture
Sculptures had been the predominant mode of visual art in ancient India. A variety of sculptures are seen in
Indian temples, caves and palaces that survive to this date.
Sculptors who trained in the academic realist style at British art schools worked on secular subjects in a
departure from ancient and medieval Indian norms, where myths and deities formed the major themes.
Sculptures were now created to cater to the demands of the newly emerging upper and middle social classes.
The innovation of Indian sculptors can be seen in the intense and exaggerated realism during this period.
Nandalal Bose, Benodebehari Mukherjee and Ramkinkar Baij played a major role in the evolution of Santiniketan
as an important center for modern art especially in pre-Independent India.
Ramkinkar Baij deftly integrated different enchanting elements of Santhal tribal art and the way of life into
his work, to enhance them by an acute understanding of prevalent Western expressionism.
In the post-independence era, Somenath Hore had come into prominence with his sculptures mostly made in
the small format which could be carried and exhibited alongside paintings. . He is thus often credited for
bringing sculptors closer to painters in the art circles. Somenath Hore was influenced by the communist
movement and his works reflected the ideals of socialist realism. He was one of the main sculptors of his
time who was responsible for taking sculptures to common man.
Along with Somenath Hore, other important sculptors of this era are Satish Gujral, Krishna Reddi, Tapan
Talukdar,
Notes
Post-liberalization era saw the emergence of new ideals and art today no longer serves any dogma or ideology.
Most sculptors now concentrate more on creating artworks which can inspire awe as can be seen in the works
of Anish Kapoor, Subodh Gupta, Ravinder Reddi and Dhruva Mistry.
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