The Journal of the
TEXTILE
INSTITUTE
Official Journal for C om m unications (T ransactions)
released for P ublication by the B ritish Cotton Industry
R esearch A ssociation (including its Rayon and Silk
Sections), the Wool Industries R esearch A ssociation
the Linen Industry R esearch A ssociation and the
T echnological Laboratory of the Indian Central
Cotton C om m ittee
CONTENTS
P R O C E E D IN G S S E C T IO N
Lancashire Section—T extile Books : T he U rgent N eeds— Withers
A nnual M eeting
Presidential Address
Review
G eneral Ite m s : In stitu te D iplom as, in stitu te M em bership,
Em ploym ent R egister, Vacancies
P51-P58
P59
P60-61
P61
P63-P64
T R A N S A C T IO N S S E C T IO N
9—T he L epidom eter—An In stru m en t for M easuring the
Scaliness o f A nim al Fibres— Speakman, Chamberlain and
Menkart
...
...
...
T 91-T 106
10—T he T ensile Behaviour of Raw C otton and O ther T extile
Fibres— Meredith
T107-T130
A B S T R A C T S S E C T IO N
THE
...................................................... A201-A236
T E X T IL E
IN S T IT U T E
ST. M ARY'S PARSONAGE, MANCHESTER
TELEPHONE BLACKFRIAKS 20IÓ
M A Y 1945
P51
THE JOURNAL OF THE
TEXTILE INSTITUTE
Vol. X X X V I
MAY 1945
No. 5
Lancashire Section
TEXTILE BOOKS : THE URG ENT NEEDS
B y J . C. W
it h e r s .
P aper delivered to th e L a n ca sh ire S e c tio n o f th e T e x tile I n s titu te ,
T h u rsd a y , F e b ru a ry 8 th , 1945.
Introduction
A v isito r to a n y larg e te c h n ic a l lib ra ry in th e h e a r t o f th e te x tile
in dustries, on d iscovering th e co llectio n o f te x tile b o oks in sto ck , w ould be
astonished to realise how sm all a sp ace th e y o c cu p y . T h e T e x tile I n s titu te ,
for exam ple, h as m o st of th e liv e b o oks in E n g lish , b u t can a c c o m m o d a te th e m
all in o ne sm all ro o m . T h e S h irley I n s titu te h a s for 24 y ea rs p u rsu e d th e
policy of acq u irin g e v e ry book on th e c o tto n , ra y o n a n d silk in d u strie s t h a t
could be secured, w h e th e r old o r new , a n d in w h a te v e r lan g u a g e , a n d y e t th e
shelf space now o ccupied b y b o oks— a p a r t from b o u n d v o lu m es of p erio d icals—
is only som e 160 feet. B y c o n tr a s t w ith th e m a g n itu d e o f th e in d u strie s, th e
n u m b e r of tech n o lo g ists en gaged in th e m , a n d th e v e ry w ide ra n g e of to p ics
t h a t m ig h t h av e been w ritte n u p in b o o k fo rm , te x tile lite r a tu re is m eagre
indeed.
T h e p re s e n t position is a g g ra v a te d b y th e g e n eral c h ao tic c o n d itio n of th e
book m a rk e t. V ery m a n y b o oks t h a t a re b y no m e an s o b so lete a re o u t of
p r in t an d u n o b ta in a b le , a n d it a p p e a rs t h a t in som e b ra n c h e s of th e ir stu d ies
te x tile stu d e n ts a re sim p ly u n a b le to g e t new books. I n th e ra n g e of a d v a n c e d
a n d special tre a tise s also, th e co m m o n ex p erien ce o f a w o u ld -b e b u y e r is ju s t
fru stra tio n a n d e x asp eratio n .
I t h as fre q u e n tly been th e w rite r’s d u ty to ad v ise peo p le o n th e selection of
te x tile books; som etim es a n a ll-ro u n d collection fo r a sm all w orks lib ra ry or
research d e p a rtm e n t; som etim es a few e le m e n ta ry b o oks for y o u n g m en o f th e
a p p re n tic e ty p e ; so m etim es a d v a n c e d b o oks on som e sp ecial th e m e . A gain,
it is a p a r t o f th e w rite r’s d u ty to m e e t re q u e sts for b o oks fro m a larg e re search
staff, from te c h n ic a l m en in th e in d u s try , a n d , in d eed , fro m th e p u b lic a t large,
in q u irin g th ro u g h th e N a tio n a l C e n tra l L ib ra ry . I t is o fte n re m a rk a b ly difficult
to sa tisfy w h a t w ould seem to b e v e ry re a so n a b le re q u e sts. F o r ex a m p le, an
e n q u ire r asks for “ tw o o r th re e books o n th e m a n u fa c tu re o f s trin g ” ! H a s
th e re ev e r been one w ritte n ?
A n d if th e m a n u fa c tu re o f s trin g m a y be
re g ard ed as a logical e x ten sio n of th re a d m a n u fa c tu re , w here is th e re a book
011 sew ing th re a d ? T h e n a tu r a l inference w ould seem to b e t h a t on m a n y su ch
topics peo p le w ith th e re q u isite know ledge h a v e b e e n e ith e r to o b u sy or
unw illing to p lace t h a t know ledge o n reco rd .
As m ig h t be e x p ected , m o st o f th e w ell-know n classics h a v e b een w ritte n
b y th e te a c h e rs, m en like B a rk e r, B ra d b u ry , F o x , K ilg o u r, M idgeley, N isb et,
P rie stm a n , T h o rn le y , a n d W o o d h o u se, b u t th e o u tp u t fro m th is so u rce h as
fallen v e ry low. Since 1930 w e h a v e seen in th is c o u n try o n ly tw o o r th re e
new books b y te x tile te a c h e rs. I t is re g re tta b le t h a t in th e ir m an ifo ld a c tiv itie s
P52
Proceedings
responsible te a c h e rs a re le ft w ith so little tim e a n d receiv e so little en co u rag e­
ment to w rite books. I t is also re m a rk a b le t h a t tw o of th e m o st n o te w o rth y
recent c o n trib u tio n s to B ritis h b o oks on c o tto n tec h n o lo g y h a v e com e from th e
busy research sta ff of a p riv a te firm .
G eneral W orks
S ch o o l books. I t is h ig h ly d e sirab le t h a t b o oks o n te x tile s t h a t are to be
u sed b y c h ild ren sh o u ld b e free fro m a n y te n d e n c y to d isp a rag e th e in d u strie s
o r to p e rp e tu a te false c o m p ariso n s b e tw e en th e d iffe re n t fibres. Som e books
te n d to give th e im p ressio n t h a t a m ill is n o t a fit p lace fo r ju v e n ile em p lo y ­
m e n t. Som e m o d e m b o oks still ta lk o f ray o n s as th o u g h no im p ro v em en ts
h a d been m ad e in th e ir p ro p e rtie s since 1920. So fa r a s th e y go, ad m ira b le
m odels of school books a re th e “ P eep s a t G re a t In d u s trie s ,” p u b lish e d b y th e
O xford U n iv e rs ity P ress. I t w ould b e a b o o n to th e tra d e if th e s e p a ra te p a rts
o n c o tto n a n d w ool w ere b ro u g h t u p to d a te a n d su p p le m e n ted b y books on
ra y o n a n d o th e r fibres a n d th e k n ittin g , d y e in g a n d finishing b ra n c h es, w ritte n
w ith th e sam e a c c u ra c y a n d c la rity a n d illu s tra te d w ith th e sam e w e alth of
u n d e rs ta n d a b le d iag ra m s.
A co m m o n d e fe c t o f school books is t h a t th e a tte m p t to ex p ress th in g s in
lan g u ag e s u ita b le fo r c h ild ren h a s h a d re a lly g ro te sq u e re su lts.* I t m u s t su rely
b e b e tte r fo r th e c h ild re n to see a n d h a n d le th in g s u n d e r th e d ire c tio n of an
in te llig e n t te a c h e r. A n in te re stin g “ W o rk b o o k ” in w h ich th e " F u n d a m e n ta ls
o f T e x tiles ” c an be stu d ie d b y d o m estic science p u p ils h a s b een p ro d u ced b y
E d a A. Ja c o b se n a n d H ele n E . M cC ullough of th e U n iv e rsity o f Illinois. I t
c a n b e o b ta in e d from M essrs. C h a p m a n & H a ll L td .
B o o k s fo r th e la y m ą n . B ooks t h a t m a y o fte n b e fo u n d to re p re se n t “ T e x tile s”
in p u b lic lib raries o r b e called for b y th e la y m a n , a re u su a lly o b so lete a n d
d a n g ero u sly lik ely to g ive th e im p ressio n t h a t n o pro g ress h a s b e e n m a d e th is
c e n tu ry . F o r e x am p le , th e w rite r h a s fo u n d U re ’s “ D ic tio n a ry o f A rts an d
M a n u factu res ” ( 1879) a n d n o th in g n ew er, still d o in g d u ty in th e p u b lic lib ra ry
of a seaside reso rt. A good m o d el of a h a n d y sin g le-v o lu m e b o o k to co v er all
th e m a jo r fibres a n d m a n u fa c tu re s is W o o lm an a n d M cG ow an’s “ T e x tile s,”
a new e d itio n o f w hich w as an n o u n ce d la s t y e a r. F o r re a d e rs w ith som e k n o w ­
ledge o f th e in d u strie s, a n d c e rta in ly fo r p u b lic lib ra rie s in te x tile tow n s, th e
b e s t choice w ould b e th e th re e h an d b o o k s (C o tto n , R a y o n a n d W ool) p u b lish ed
in re c e n t y e a rs b y M au ersb erg er a n d h is asso ciates. I t w ould b e a g re a t
a d v a n ta g e if th e p u b lish ers w ould c o lla b o ra te w ith B ritis h a u th o ritie s to b rin g
th e se h an d b o o k s o u t in B ritish e d itio n s, in w h ich , fo r e x am p le, “ p ick in g ” is
called “ sc u tc h in g ,” “ filling ” is called “ w e ft ” a n d th e m u le is n o t dism issed
as a m u seu m p ie c e !
S tu d e n ts ’ te x t-b o o k s . T e x tile s tu d e n ts w ill o b v io u sly re q u ire a ran g e of te x t
books to d e a l a d e q u a te ly w ith th e m a jo r fibres a n d processes b u t th e re is a
d e m a n d , c re a te d , fo r ex am p le, b y th e I n s tit u te ’s e x a m in a tio n in G eneral
T e x tile T echnology, fo r m o re e le m e n ta ry “ all-in ” books. “ C o tto n M an u ­
fa c tu rin g ” b y th e D o m in io n T e x tile Co., of C a n a d a ( 1941) co v ers raw co tto n ,
sp in n in g , w inding, sizing, w eav in g , a n d c lo th an aly sis, te s tin g a n d desig n in g
in a h a n d y te x tb o o k o f 436 pages.
C om prehensive treatises. O f larg e w orks th a t a re still “ a liv e ” m e n tio n should
b e m ad e o f th e “ R eferen ce L ib ra ry ” o f in s tru c tio n m an u a ls p u b lish ed b y th e
In te rn a tio n a l C orresp o n d en ce Schools a n d th e series “ T echnologie d e r T ex tilfasern ” e d ite d b y R . O. H erzog. A u th o rs ’ n a m e s a re n o t g iven o n th e I.C .S .
m an u a ls b u t th e y a re k n o w n to b e le a d in g tec h n o lo g ists in th e in d u s try a n d
th e in s tru c tio n g iven is e m in e n tly p ra c tic a l a n d b a c k e d b y p a rtic u la rly good
d ia g ra m s. T h e m an u a ls re q u ire d b y c o tto n s tu d e n ts c a n b e o b ta in e d in a set
*H ere, for exam ple, is the sto ry of rayon from a booklet on clothes published by
the A m erican E ducation Press Inc. Rayon S ilk. " Some of your clothes m ay be made
of rayon silk. Cotton and wood are p u t together. T hey are m ade into a thick soup.
T his soup is p u t into a m achine. The m achine has m an y little holes. The soup goes
through the holes. I t tu rn s into little silky threads. These threads are woven into
rayon. Rayon looks like silk” .
Lancashire Section
p53
of five b o u n d volum es, b u t i t w ould be a g re a t a d v a n ta g e if th e m a n u a ls could
b e b ro u g h t u p to d a te a n d re n d e re d re a d ily accessible t o a ll s tu d e n ts . T h e
G erm an h an d b o o k , Eke so m a n y m a jo r u n d e rta k in g s o f th e k in d , is n o t y e t
co m plete. A b o u t 27 v o lu m es h a v e b e en issued a n d o n som e su b je c ts th e y a re
th e b e st sources o f in fo rm a tio n .
The P rod u ction and P r o p e r tie s o f F ib res
General. T h e classic b o o k fo r a d e sc rip tio n o f th e p ro d u c tio n a n d p ro p e rtie s o f
te x tile fibres is M a tth e w ’s " T e x tile F ib re s, th e ir P h y sic a l, M icroscopical a n d
C hem ical P ro p e rtie s .” T h e m o s t re c e n t e d itio n is d a te d 1924 b u t i t a p p e a rs
t h a t a y e a r o r tw o ago D r. M atth e w s h a d p la n n e d a new e d itio n . U n fo rtu n a te ly
he h as p assed aw a y . T h is is o n e o f th e b o o k s t h a t sh o u ld n o t b e allow ed to
die a n d i t is g re a tly to b e h o p ed t h a t th e p u b lish e rs w ill b rin g o u t a rev ised
e d itio n a s soon as possible.
A n o th e r g en eral b o o k t h a t h as .o ften p ro v e d u sefu l is S ch illin g ’s “ D ie F a se rstofie des P flan zen reich es ” w h ich is re a lly a d ic tio n a ry o f fibre n am es, g iv in g
th e b o ta n ic a l nam es of th e p a re n t p la n ts , th e so u rces, a n d b rie f d a t a a b o u t
fibre c h a ra c te rs. T h is w ould fo rm a u sefu l n u cle u s o f a co m p re h e n siv e d ic tio n ­
a ry to include all fibres.
C otton. T h ere a re se v e ra l good b o oks o n th e p ro d u c tio n o f c o tto n . S ir G eorge
W a t t ’s “ W ild a n d C u ltiv a te d C o tto n P la n ts o f th e W o rld ” ( 1907) is still
th e classic, b o ta n ic a lly sp eak in g , b u t needs to b e o v e rh a u le d a n d b ro u g h t u p
to d a te , especially in th e lig h t o f m o d e rn k n ow ledge o f th e g e n etics o f th e
species G o ssyp iu m . T h is k now ledge h a s b e e n su m m a rise d b y S. C. H a rla n d in
his “ G enetics o f C o tto n ” ( 1939) th e la n g u a g e o f w h ich is e n tire ly fo reig n to
t h a t of th e sp in n e r th o u g h i t is fo r h im , u ltim a te ly , t h a t th e b re e d in g o f c o tto n
is designed. T h e re a re th r e e fa irly re c e n t A m erican books o n c o tto n p ro d u c ­
tio n , n a m e ly " C o t t o n ” b y H . B . B ro w n , (2n d . E d n . 1938), d e a lin g w ith
h is to ry , species, v a rie tie s, m o rp h o lo g y , b reed in g , c u ltu re , d iseases, m a rk e tin g
a n d uses, ‘‘ C o tto n a n d its P r o d u c t io n ” b y W . H . J o h n s o n ( 1925), a n d
“ P ro d u c tio n o f C o tto n ” b y G. H . Collings, ( 1926), b u t th e s to ry o f E g y p tia n
c o tto n as w ritte n b y W . L . B alls in his “ C o tto n P la n t in E g y p t ” ( 1919) n eed s
b rin g in g u p to d a te a n d a w elcom e w ould be g iv en to b o oks o n In d ia n , R u ssia n ,
S. A m erican a n d A frican c o tto n s. A u sefu l ty p e o f b o o k w o u ld b e a d ic tio n a ry
of c o tto n s, giving th e b o ta n ic a l, a n d a g ric u ltu ra l p a rtic u la rs , re c e n t s ta tis tic s
of yield, a n d fibre c h a ra c te rs fo r a ll k n o w n m a rk s o f c o tto n .
R a y o n . R o u n d a b o u t 1925-1930 th e re w as a s p u r t in b o o k s o n th e p ro d u c ­
tio n of ra y o n b u t i t is n e a rly 14 y e a rs since a n E n g lish te x t-b o o k a p p e a re d a n d
m u ch h as h a p p e n e d in th e m e a n tim e . T h e m o s t re c e n t s u b s ta n tia l b o o k
a p p e a rs to b e G o tze’s “ K u n stse id e u n d Zellw olle ” ( 1940) w h ic h c a n now be
o b ta in e d from A m erica in a p h o to -lith o g ra p h ic p rin tin g a t a c o s t of a b o u t
-£6 / 15/ - ! I t is to be h o p e d t h a t as soon as th e w a r is o v e r a te x t-b o o k of
•sim ilar scope w ill b e p ro d u c ed b y B ritis h w rite rs. T h e re is also ro o m for a
p o p u lar b o o k for th e la y m a n .
S ilk. N o w orkers in th e silk in d u s try a re satisfied w ith e x istin g E n g lish books
o n th e p ro d u c tio n a n d q u a litie s o f th e v a rio u s silk s. T h e b e s t boo k s, fro m th e
scientific p o in t of view , a re in H e rz o g ’s series, n a m e ly " D ie S e id en sp in n er, ih re
Zoologie, B iologie u n d Z u c h t,” ( 1938) b y B o c k a n d P ig o rin i, a n d “ T ech n o lo g ie
u n d W irts c h a ft d e r S e id e ,” ( 1920) b y L e y a n d R aem isch . T h e la te s t b o o k in
E n g lish is " C ocoon Silk ” b y C an sd ale (1937) b u t i t h a s n o t b e e n w ell receiv ed
b y critics. T h e a u th o r in v ite d c ritic ism in h is p reface a n d i t is to b e h o p e d
t h a t h e w ill p ro d u ce a rev ised e d itio n .
W ool. H ere a g a in , th e m o s t s u b s ta n tia l m o d ern b o o k s a re th o s e in H e rz o g ’s
series, n am e ly " W e lt-w irtsc h a ft d e r W olle ” ( 1922) b y B e h n se n a n d G en zm er,
a n d " W o llk u n d e ” ( 1929) b y F ro lic h , S p o tte l a n d T a n z e r. T h e W o o l In d u s ­
trie s R esearch A ssociation , h o w ev er, h as p ro d u c e d a few m o n o g ra p h s o n th e
ty p e s of a n im a l fibres a n d o n p a rtic u la r m a rk s of w ool a n d i t m a y b e e x p ec te d
t h a t w hen th e in v e stig a tio n s h a v e co v ered th e g ro u n d a re a lly good b o o k on
w ool w ill soon b e fo rth co m in g .
*54
Proceedings
B a s t a n d floss fibres. E n g lish b o o k s in th is field a re n o t so old as in manyo th e r sections. B ra d b u ry ’s “ F la x C u ltu re a n d P re p a ra tio n ” ( 1921), O ak ley ’s
“ L o n g V eg etab le F ib re s ” ( 1928) a n d C ald w ell’s “ P re p a ra tio n a n d Spinning
o f F la x F ib re ” ( 1931) a re still a liv e , b u t d o n o t d e a l v e ry th o ro u g h ly w ith
th e a c tu a l p ro d u c tio n of th e fibres. In H e rz o g ’s series th e r e a re se p a ra te books
on flax, h e m p a n d o th e r h a rd fibres, a n d ju te . A w elcom e a d d itio n d u rin g
w a r-tim e is Z a n d ’s b o o k o n K a p o k ( 1941).
C on version of F ib r es in to Y arns
T h e re is a g en eral feeling t h a t b o o k s on th e p re p a r a to ry a n d sp in n in g
processes h a v e te n d e d in th e p a s t to d w ell to o m u ch o n m a c h in e d e ta ils a n d
n o t en o u g h o n th e fa te a n d b e h a v io u r o f th e fibre o r p ro d u c t p assin g th ro u g h
th e m a c h in e ry . P ro fe sso r M o rto n c e rta in ly m a rk e d a new d e p a rtu re in 1937
w ith h is ‘ ‘ In tro d u c tio n to th e S tu d y of S p in n in g ’ ’ a n d i t is t o b e h o p ed t h a t
b o o k s in th is new s p irit w ill b e ta k e n rig h t th ro u g h to th e a d v an c e d stage.
W h a t m ig h t be called a w o rk in g co m p ro m ise b etw e e n th e old d escrip tiv e
m e th o d a n d th e new scien tific a p p ro a c h is re p re se n te d b y tw o sets of m a n u a ls
p ro d u c e d re c e n tly in th e U n ite d S ta te s. O ne is sp o n so red b y th e T ex tile
F o u n d a tio n a n d co n sists of m a n u a ls on ( 1) c o tto n o p en in g , clean in g a n d
■scutching ( 1937), (2) c o tto n c a rd in g ( 1926), (3) d ra w in g fram es ( 1937), (4)
c o tto n co m b in g m a n u a l ( 1938), (5) ro v in g fra m e s ( 1937), a n d (6) c o tto n sp in n in g
( 1938). T h ese a re w ritte n b y m em b ers o f th e sta ff o f th e T e x tile School,
C lem so n College, S. C aro lin a, a n d a re issu ed in ty p e w rite r sc rip t. I t a p p e a rs
t o b e th e in te n tio n to p u t th e m to th e te s t o f te a c h in g experience a n d th e n
p r in t th e m a fte r rev isio n . T h e o th e r se t is fo r th e use of s tu d e n ts a t L ow ell
T e c h n ic a l I n s titu te a n d is also in ty p e w rite r sty le . I t in clu d es good m a n u a ls
o n c o tto n o p en in g a n d sc u tc h in g , o n - c o tto n card in g , a n d o n c o tto n d ra w in g
a n d roving.
F o r th e a d v a n c e d tec h n o lo g ist, h o w ev er, th e r e is a n e e d fo r b o oks t h a t w ill
•deal w ith th e forces e x e rte d a n d e n d u re d . M an y a tte m p ts h a v e b een m ad e,
fo r e x a m p le , t o w o rk o u t th e k in e m a tic s o f tw is t a n d th e tim e is n o t fa r
•d ista n t w hen su c h p ro b le m s w ill find th e ir p lace in a d v a n c e d b o oks o n spin n in g .
T h e re is a h in t o f su ch a tr e a tm e n t h e re a n d th e re in th e “ H a n d b u c h d e r
S p in n erei ” b y B e rg m a n n , rev ised b y L iid ick e ( 1927), w h ich is th e m o s t co m ­
p reh en siv e b o o k on sp in n in g , since i t co v ers all th e m a jo r fibres. I t reach es
n e a rly 1,000 pages. S tra n g e to sa y , h o w ev er, a scientific w o rk e r in te re s te d in
s p in n in g fro m th is k in e m a tic s ta n d p o in t w ould g e t th e b e s t le a d a t p re se n t
fro m “ T e x tile E le c trific a tio n ,” a b o o k on e lec tric al d riv in g b y S tiel, o f th e
S iem ens co n cern . T h is c am e o u t in G erm an in 1930 a n d in E n g lish in 1933.
F o r a fu n d a m e n ta l, th e o re tic a l a p p ro a c h to th e p ro b le m o f th e effect of
sp in n in g co n d itio n s on c o tto n y a rn s th e re is a th e sis of 175 p ag es b y B rasch ler,
p u b lish ed in 1935. I t w o u ld b e w o rth w hile fo r som e a u th o r ity to tra n sla te
a n d p u b lish th is as a m o n o g rap h .
P rep a ra tio n o f Y arn for W eavin g
T h e la te M r. N is b e t’s o u ts ta n d in g c o n trib u tio n to te x tile tech n o lo g y was
h is boo k s " T h e P re lim in a ry O p e ra tio n s o f W e a v in g ” b u t m a n y d ev elo p m en ts
h a v e occu rred in w in d in g in th e 20 y ea rs sin ce th e y w ere p u b lish ed . S im ilarly,
W o o d h o u se’s vo lu m e o n th e “ P re p a r a tio n a n d W e a v in g o f A rtificial Silk ”
goes b a c k to 1929. M oreover, b o th w rite rs tr e a t th e s u b je c t d e sc rip tiv ely an d
n o t a n a ly tic a lly . A new a p p ro a c h is o v e rd u e .
S izing h a s b een n eg lec te d b y a u th o rs fo r a v e ry lo n g tim e . T h e n ew e st book
is a second e d itio n o f K re ts c h m e r’s “ D ie S ch lic h te re i in ih re m ganzen
U m fa n g ” d a te d 1927, a n d th e o n ly s u b s ta n tia l b o o k s in E n g lish a re still a
tr a n s la tio n from K re ts c h m e r d a te d 1911 a n d P e rc y B e a n ’s “ C h em istry a n d
P ra c tic e of S iz in g ” d a te d 1921. I t is h ig h tim e t h a t th e s u b je c t receiv ed
a d e q u a te a tte n tio n . N ew sizing m a te ria ls a n d a n tise p tic s h a v e ta k e n th e ir
p lace s in th e in d u s try , w ith new m a ch in es a n d new d evices fo r c o n tro llin g th e
m o istu re c o n te n t of th e w a rp , a n d m u c h m o re is now k n o w n a b o u t th e a m o u n t
o f size re q u ire d fo r good w eav in g .
Lancashire Section
p55
W eaving
T here a re m a n y m o re b o o k s o n w eav in g th a n o n th e o th e r m e c h a n ic a l
processes, b u t m o s t o f th e m d e a l m ore w ith th e d e sc rip tio n o f lo o m m e c h a n ism
th a n w ith th e o p e ra tio n itself.
T h e classic is o f course F o x ’s “ M echanism o f W e a v in g ” b u t 22 y e a rs h a v e
elapsed since th e la s t e d itio n a p p e a re d a n d i t is h ig h tim e t h a t a n u p -to -d a te
book o n sim ilar lines w as p ro d u c e d . I t is o n w ea v in g t h a t c o n tin e n ta l a u th o r s
o u ts trip o u r ow n. T h e re a re se v e ra l larg e w o rk s b y F re n c h , I ta lia n a n d
G erm an a u th o rs .
O ne o f th e la te s t, th e “ H a n d b u c h d e r W eb erei ” b y
P rofessor V lcek o f B n in n ( 1933), is a m aste rp ie c e o f m a c h in e d ra w in g . H a n to n 's
‘‘ M echanics of T e x tile M a c h in e r y ” ( 1924) a n d W ilm o t’s ‘‘ T h e o ry a n d E le c ­
tric a l D riv e o f th e L o o m ” ( 1931) re p re se n t th e n e w e r scien tific a p p ro a c h to
th e su b ject A n o th e r new a p p ro a c h is re p re se n te d b y M o berg’s “ C o tto n L oom fixer’s M an u al ” ( 1942) w ith its p recise in s tru c tio n fo r ta ck le rs.
K nitting
T h e la te s t B ritis h books a p p e a r to be th e s e t w ritte n fo r th e L e ic e s te r
College of T echnology in th e k n ittin g d e p a rtm e n t. T h e y a re h a n d y a n d c le a r
vo lum es b u t g e ttin g o ld ; th e la s t cam e o u t in 1930. N ew er d e v e lo p m e n ts in
k n ittin g are co vered v e ry w ell b y M. C. M iller, in th e U n ite d S ta te s , w ith h is
" P r in c ip le s o f K n i t t i n g ” ( 1931) a n d “ K n ittin g F u ll-fash io n e d H o s ie r y ”
0937)Lace and E m b roid ery
M ost of th e books on lace a n d e m b ro id e ry a re w ritte n fro m th e “ a r t a n d
c ra ft ” an g le a n d v e ry few of th e m g ive a n y in d ic a tio n t h a t th e r e is a m a c h in e
lace in d u s try . “ T h e L a c e B o o k ” b y Jessie F . C ap lin ( 1932) h a s a good
c h a p te r o r tw o.
D esig n in g
A p a rt fro m th e a rtis tic p ro d u c tio n s a b o u t te x tile s, th e r e a re se v e ral
s tu d e n ts ’ books.
W a ts o n ’s " A d v an c ed T e x tile D esig n ” ( 1925) a n d his
“ T e x tile D esign a n d C olour ” ( 1936) still h o ld th e field, b u t th e b o o k “ Y a rn
D iam eters a n d C loth S tru c tu re ” b y W o o d h o u se a n d B ra n d ( 1932), th o u g h
fairly re c e n t, w ill need rev isio n in th e lig h t of th e new science o f c lo th g eo m e try ,
A h e a rty w elcom e h a s been g iv en to tw o A m eric a n b o o k s t h a t give specifica­
tio n s of clo th s, in d ic a te th e ra n g e of c lo th p a rtic u la rs (reed, p ic k a n d co u n ts)
em b raced u n d e r a g iven te rm , a n d m e n tio n th e u ses o f th e c lo th s. O ne is
G. B . H a v e n ’s “ In d u s tria l F a b ric s ” ( 1942) a n d th e o th e r is H o y e ’s “ S ta p le
C o tto n F a b ric s ” ( 1942). I t m a y n o t b e w id ely k n o w n t h a t th is v e ry u sefu l
book h a s been su p p le m e n te d b y a “ S w a tc h B o o k ” c o n ta in in g a c tu a l c o tto n
fabrics, n u m b e rin g 261 ty p e s.
C hem ical and F in ish in g P r o c e sss e s
T h e lite r a tu re on th e ch e m ica l te c h n o lo g y of te x tile s is fa irly e x te n s iv e b u t
falling sa d ly o u t of d a te in m a n y b ra n c h e s . T h e tim e is rip e fo r a good b o o k
o n B leaching, co m b in ed w ith w h ite fin ish in g , th e la te s t b ein g K in d ’s “ B leich en
d e r P flan zen fasem ” ( 1932), w h ich o n ly co v ers p a r t o f th e p ro g ra m m e . O n
d y ein g th e re is C. M. W h itta k e r ’s new e d itio n ( 1942) of h is " D y e in g w ith C oal
T a r D y estu ffs,” a n d a n o th e r u sefu l b o o k is “ P ro g res realises d a n s l ’A p p licatio n d es M atieres C o lo ra n te s,” in tw o v o lu m es ( 1937-38) b y L . D iserens.
H o rsfall a n d L a w rie 's " D y ein g of T e x tile F ib re s ” ( 1927) h a s b e e n o u t o f
p r in t for y ears a n d a new e d itio n w o u ld b e w elcom ed b ecau se th e a p p ro a c h to
th e su b je c t w as v ia th e fibre r a th e r th a n th e p u re c h e m istry o f th e d y e s, a s is
th e case w ith so m a n y of th e classics o n d y ein g . O n p rin tin g th e re is th e new
a n d expensive e d itio n ( 1936) o f K n e c h t a n d F o th e rg ill’s “ P rin c ip le s a n d
P ra c tic e of T e x tile P r in tin g ,” b u t th is sc a rc e ly m e n tio n s a n y new d e v e lo p ­
m en ts t h a t affect process c o n tro l.
F o r ex am p le, o n th e s u b je c t o f th e
im p u ritie s in raw c o tto n , th e o n ly c ita tio n is to S c h u n c k ’s w o rk in 1871. T h e
re p ro ach t h a t M ercer’s c o u n try m e n h a d n o th in g to w rite o n M ercerisatio n sin ce
1903 h a s h a p p ily b een rem o v ed b y J . T . M a rsh ’s b o o k " M ercerising ” ( 1941).
P56
Proceedings
T h e s u b je c t of finishing is, h o w ev er, in n eed of sim ila r rev isio n . I t is m o st
d ifficu lt t o tu r n u p in a b o o k a n y d e ta ils a b o u t th e fin ish in g o f a specific clo th ,
fo r e x am p le, u m b re lla c lo th . T h e b e s t m o d e m b o o k is " L es A p p re ts T e x tile s,”
tw o v o lu m es ( 1938) b y A . L a m b re tte , a n d A m erican p ra c tic e is d e a lt w ith in
a r a th e r d iscu rsiv e b o o k “ P ro cessin g a n d F in ish in g C o tto n s ,” tw o volum es
( 1935) b y J . F . M on ag h an . S cien tifically sp eak in g , te x tile finishing is co n ­
c e rn e d w ith th e tr e a tm e n t o f c e rta in colloids, o ften w ith o th e r colloids. T his
scientific a p p ro a c h is reflected in th e b o o k “ K o lloid-chem ische G ru n d lag e n d e r
T e x tilv e re d lu n g ” b y V alk o o f th e I. G . F a rb e n in d u s trie , a few copies of w hich
re a c h e d E n g la n d ju s t b efo re th e o u tb re a k o f w a r. B ooks o n th e v ario u s
b ra n c h e s of P ro o fin g a re also h o p elessly in a d e q u a te , especially in view of w a r­
tim e d e v e lo p m e n ts. Som e a u th o r ity sh o u ld re m e d y th is d e fe c t in th e lite ra tu re
as soon as co n d itio n s p e rm it.
T e stin g
A s re c e n tly as 1922 a b o o k o n s tre n g th te s tin g a p p e a re d t h a t gave no in d ic a ­
tio n a t all t h a t h u m id ity m a t te r e d ! T h is s ta te of th in g s h a s o f course passed
a w a y a n d th e re a re so m e sm a ll b o oks t h a t d o re fle c t th e in flu en ce of research .
J a m e s L o m a x ’s “ T e x tile T e stin g ” a p p e a re d in 1937 a n d J . H . S k in k le’s b o o k
in A m erican a n d B ritis h e d itio n s in 1940. T h e re is a te n d e n c y to tr e a t te x tile
m icro sco p y s e p a ra te ly fro m g en e ra l te x tile te s tin g a n d in th is field th e re a re
b o o k s in E n g lish b y L a w rie ( 1927), J . M. P re s to n ( 1933) a n d S chw arz ( 1934).
E v e n tu a lly o n e su c h b o o k w ill in c lu d e referen ces to th e n e w e r sta in in g m eth o d s
fo r id e n tify in g fibres.
O ne tu r n s in v a in to b o oks o n T e stin g for ad v ic e a b o u t th e p la n n in g a n d
e q u ip m e n t of te s tin g la b o ra to rie s su ita b le for, sa y , a p riv a te firm , a n official
T e stin g H o u se, a te a c h in g in s titu tio n , a n d a c o n su lta n t.
O n th e p a rtic u la r s u b je c t of w ool q u a lity , th e r e is th e la te S. G . B a rk e r’s
“ W ool Q u a l i t y ” ( 1931) w h ich a p p e a rs t o b e u n o b ta in a b le now . I t is to b e
h o p e d t h a t h is old a sso ciate s w ill re v iv e th e b o o k in th e lig h t of th e ir
know ledge.
D ictio n a ries an d E n cyclop aed ias
T h e re a re se v eral sm all d ic tio n a rie s o f te c h n ic a l te rm s a n d n am e s o f m a te ria ls
b u t n o n e of th e m is re a lly a d e q u a te . H a r m u th ’s “ D ic tio n a ry o f T ex tile s ”
( 1920) claim s to co v er m o re th a n 8,500 te rm s a n d d efin itio n s b u t n eed s to b e
b ro u g h t u p t o d a te . W h a t o n e w o u ld like to see is a n all-in clu siv e w o rk
p la n n e d o n th e lin es of T h o rp e ’s “ D ic tio n a ry o f A p p lied C h e m is try ,” a n d ju s t
a s o u r frien d s th e S o ciety o f D y ers a n d C olourists h a v e g a in e d g re a t c re d it for
th e ir sp len d id p ro d u c tio n th e “ C olour In d e x ,” o n e v e n tu re s to h o p e t h a t th e
T e x tile I n s titu te m ig h t ta k e in h a n d th e p la n n in g a n d p ro d u c tio n of a g re a t
encylopaedia of te x tile s.
T h o se w ho re a d foreig n te x tile lite ra tu re also re q u ire m o re a ssistan ce in
tr a n s la tio n s . B y fa r a n d a w a y th e b e s t p o ly g lo t d ic tio n a rie s a re vo lu m es 14,
15, 16 in th e S ch lo m an n -O ld en b o u rg series o f Illu s tra te d T ech n ic al D ic tio n ­
aries. T h ese h a v e th u m b -n a il sketches, w h ere n ecessary , to illu s tra te th e
te rm s in q u e stio n a n d give th e e q u iv a le n t ex p ressio n s in E n g lish , G erm an ,
R u ssia n , F re n c h , Ita lia n , S p an ish a n d C a ta lo n ia n S p an ish .
T h e G erm an e d ito rs h a d th e assistan ce o f m en lik e th e la te M r. W . S co ttT a g g a rt to ch eck th e re n d e rin g s in to E n g lish , b u t, u n fo r tu n a te ly , th e w orld
w a rs h a v e h a m p e re d th e c o m p le tio n of th e p ro g ra m m e . T h e e x istin g volum es
c o v er o n ly fibres a n d th e ir p ro d u c tio n , sp in n in g , a n d w eav in g , a n d one m a y
v e n tu r e a w istfu l h o p e t h a t som e d a y k n ittin g a n d th e c h em ical tech n o lo g y
o f te x tile s w ill also b e co v ered .
D IS C U S S IO N
M r. Sm ith : Does Dr. W ithers favour th e revision of existing books or does he favour
s ta rtin g from th e beginning and re-w riting ? M any of th e revised books are disappoint­
ing. T hey are a curious blend of old m is-statem ents plus up-to-the-m inute lightning
flashes, and it is unsafe to rely on th e book as a whole. Are you satisfied th a t B ritish
Lancashire Section
p57
-technical literatu re has been fairly represented or is it as poor as I im agine b y com parison
w ith Germ an and American litera tu re ?
Dr. Withers : I hope I have done justice to B ritish works. I am m ore an d m ore
convinced th a t it is b etter to w rite a new book th a n to revise an old one. G enerally
speaking it is far b e tte r and fairer to th e author.
M r. Barnes : I th in k th a t th ere are fa r m ore B ritish th a n A m erican books an d far
more B ritish th a n Germ an, b u t we have noth in g like H ertzog’s series. I t was a complete
scheme w hereby tex tile technology was w ritten up according to a p la n . I th in k we should
th in k out fully a scheme of school books w ritten specifically for th e purpose and th e y
should be th e rig h t size, price, d ep th and specialisation of subject. In th e p ast, th e
teachers’ o u tp u t was high and now it is low. I th in k I know one reason why, and th a t is
th e great o u tp u t of confidential litera tu re from th e Shirley In s titu te w hich th e teachers
cannot divulge and w ith w hich th e y can n o t compete. T his problem should be faced.
M r. Curtis : I entirely agree w ith Mr. B arnes. I noticed all th e w ay thro u g h th a t th e
Shirley Institu te.w as hardly ever m entioned. I happen to have somewhere a b o u t 2,000
books a t home and 1,400 are E nglish, b u t none of them is very up to d ate. A t th e
m om ent there is a dictionary being com piled an d th is w ill be ready in tw o or th ree
m onths.
Dr. Withers : L et m e rem ove a m isapprehension. The fa ct th a t I have only m en­
tioned a few English books should n o t be ta k e n in an y w ay as reflecting on th e q u a lity
or num ber of old books. W h at I have done is to m en tio n th e la te st books and to call
atten tio n here and there to others, an d to sta te th a t th ere has n o t been a book since such
and such a date. I have n o t a tte m p te d to criticise th e fewness of books. I q u ite agree
th a t our books outweigh th e A m erican and G erm an, b u t in so m an y cases ours are n o t
th e newest.
Prof. Morton : I t seems to m e th a t th e n a tu ra l person to produce a te x t book is th e
teacher. Now th e num ber of w hole-tim e teachers of tex tiles in th is country is very
sm allin com parison w ith th e num bers of students and th e siz£ of th e in d u stry , an d sm aller
th a n I th in k is th e case in G erm any and A m erica. T h a t is one reason w hy th e q u a n tity
of te x tile literatu re is so sm all. A nother reason is th e inducem ent to w rite a book.
As an author of one I can only say th a t it is n o t a p aying proposition. The financial
retu rn is hopeless. T here are very few occasions in tex tiles w here a book has paid its
author ; b u t th a t is generally due to th e p artic u la r subject chosen. If you have one good
book on a subject th a t is all you need. O ther subjects need to be w ritte n about b u t th ere
is no inducem ent. One d eterren t to teachers is th e knowledge th a t m em bers of th e
Research Associations, and som etim es th e ir own students, are in possession of inform a­
tio n w hich in m any cases has n o t been published. No one would like to w rite a book
know ing th a t those to whom it is addressed, know m ore. I blam e in d u stry for th e
a ttitu d e th a t th e Shirley In s titu te has to tak e on th e question of publication. I t has
m ade it difficult for teachers to do th e job th e y wish to do.
M r. M arsh : I would like to say th a t th e question of books can be considered under
several headings— collector, reader, user, w riter and publisher. L et us om it th e p u b ­
lishers. In m y view D r. W ithers has given us a collector’s picture of th e tex tile books.
I happen to have read as m an y books on T ex tile Science as m ost people in th is room, b u t
I don’t th in k th a t th e n a tu ra l person to w rite th em is th e teacher, b u t ra th e r th e m an
w ith the urge. I th in k th a t no one need have th e slig h test fear of w ritin g a book on any
aspect of T extile Science because of th e knowledge w hich th e R esearch Associations
have. I have a copy of Valko and should h esitate to recom m end it to anyone in th e
industry, an d th is is a book w ritte n b y chem ists for chem ists. I should like to p u t to
th e m eeting th a t if there are n o t th e books on te x tile science and technology th a t we
th in k there should be, it is because th ere is no real dem and. A p riv a te w riter has to
th in k quite a long tim e very carefully before he w ill com pete w ith subsidised books.
I should like to see a Penguin on T extiles. D r. W ithers has m entioned theses. W h at is
the arrangem ent for getting a M.Sc. or Ph.D . thesis ou t of a B ritish U niversity in to p riv ate
hands ?
Prof. Morton : I t is alm ost in every case, so fa r as I know, obligatory on th e p a rt of
a Ph.D . candidate to publish th e w ork in some form or other. Som etim es i t is required
to be published beforehand. There is no form al arrangem ent for com pulsory publication.
M r. Marsh : Suppose th e stu d en t has lodged in th e D ep artm en t a M.Sc. thesis on a
certain subject th a t I w an t to read. How do I get it ?
Dr. Withers : I suggest th a t you get to know th e Professor.
M r. Sylvester : As th e conversation has gone, I th o u g h t th a t perhaps Dr. W ithers
could be persuaded to lis t th e books and th is could be am plified and p u t in to th e libraries.
I b u ilt a loom in m y p riv ate tim e b u t I am n o t a te x tile m an. One S atu rd ay afternoon,
being in Stockport Reference Library, I found th a t th e only te x tile book was th e ‘‘ H isto ry
of the Macclesfield Silk In d u stry .”
There are very few books on technology as ag a in st decorative books, an d it m ight be
possible to work some of these points on to th e libraries.
Dr. TJttmann : You ask w hy in other countries, th ere are m any m ore te x t books !
You cannot become a lecturer in a foreign U niversity w ithout having published a book.
p 58
Proceedings
M r. Creasey : Some m onths ago I received from A m erica notification of a d i c t i o n a r y
of te x tile developm ents. The idea was to p ay down $60 an d th e y were going to send a
card index system com piled thro u g h o u t th e y ear by a body of ex p erts. I t was a question
of filing under th e ir system . I im agine th a t D r. W ithers has seen th e th in g . Being
ra th e r sceptical about it I did n ’t invest $60. H as D r. W ithers in vestigated th is so rt of
th in g ?
Dr. Withers : I haven’t m ade up m y m ind about th e A m ericans. The advice I have
given to m ost people attach ed to th e Shirley In s titu te is th a t th e y w ill get fa r more for
a guinea or tw o a y ear in B ritish te x tile ab stracts th a n from these A m erican services
for $60.
M r. Curtis : I should like to suggest th a t we adjourn th is m eeting and have an o th er
tw o or three hours a t it. T he G overnm ent w ant books and are w illing to supply p aper
for th e in terests of th e boys o u t th ere who have m issed five years. Books are necessary
to them . The T extile In s titu te should ta k e first steps to get it and I am sure they would
be accepted by th e G overnm ent.
M r. Sm ith : The need for books is obvious and I th in k it is far too big a subject forone
in dividual to tackle. These p oints w ill be brought forw ard in th e rig h t q uarter.
Dr. Cunliffe : I have great pleasure in proposing a vote of th a n k s to Dr. W ithers.
I t is obvious from th e discussion th a t D r. W ithers has brought before us a subject of
u tm o st and im m ediate im portance. I t is clear from w h at he has said th a t there is
a g reat lack of te x t books in certain directions for c e rta in types of reader. I should
ju s t like to refer to one book— S. G. B ark er’s “ W ool Q u ality .” I th in k th a t th is is
illu strativ e of w hat som e of th e speakers have in m ind. I t covers th e subject from an
au th o ritativ e p o in t of view. I t was w ritte n by his staff an d he edited it. Shirley In s ti­
tu te is an excellent body to do th is, b u t th ere is room for p riv a te firms also. There is a
need, I th in k , for sum m aries from Shirley In stitu te and oth er organisations of w ork th a t
has already been published. A large num ber of people have difficulty in reading books
an d they should be sim plified.
N o te s a n d A n n o u n c e m e n ts
p59
N otes and Announcements
A nnual M eeting
T h e th irty -fifth A n n u a l G e n e ra l M eeting of th e I n s titu te w as h e ld in
M an ch ester o n W e d n e sd a y , 2n d M ay , w h en M r. T . H . M cL aren , th e P re s id e n t,
w as in th e ch a ir. A fte r th e S e c re ta ry h a d re a d th e n o tic e c o n v e n in g th e m e e t­
ing, a n d th e m in u te s o f th e p rev io u s m e e tin g h a d b e e n a c c e p te d as a tr u e
reco rd , M r. H . G . G reg, th e C h a irm a n o f th e C ouncil, in tro d u c e d th e C o u n cil’s
R e p o rt fo r 1944. I n p ro p o sin g th e a d o p tio n of th e re p o rt, M r. G reg stressed
th e m a n y a c tiv itie s w h ich h a d b ee n m a in ta in e d d u rin g th e w a r p erio d , a n d
in d ic a te d t h a t th e C ouncil w as p la n n in g fu tu re d e v e lo p m e n t so t h a t th e I n s ti­
tu te w ould m ak e fu r th e r p ro g ress, a n d n o t s ta n d s till a t th e close of h o stilitie s.
M r. R . S. M eredith, w ho seco n d ed th e re so lu tio n , sa id t h a t h e h o p ed t h a t fu ll
c o n sid eratio n w ould b e g iv en to th e fu n c tio n s o f fab rics, a s w ell a s to th e ir
p ro d u c tio n . T h e re p o r t w as a d o p te d b y th e m eetin g . T h e R ev e n u e A c c o u n t
a n d B alan ce S h eet fo r th e sa m e p e rio d w ere p ro p o sed fo r a c c e p ta n c e b y M r. W .
H o w a rth , seconded b y M r. A . D ra p e r, a n d a d o p te d a fte r th e a u d ito r h a d re a d
h is re p o rt.
A t th is p o in t M r. G reg to o k th e c h a ir. O n th e p ro p o sa l of M r. W . P ritc h a rd ,
seconded b y M r. H . A sh to n , i t w as u n a n im o u sly reso lved t h a t M r. T . H .
M cL aren, of D u n d ee, b e re-elected as P re s id e n t fo r th e e n su in g y e a r. B efore
prop o sin g t h e reso lu tio n M r. P ritc h a rd sa id t h a t M r. M cL aren h a d b e e n a v e ry
a c tiv e P re s id e n t in h is first y e a r o f office, a n d t h a t th e I n s titu te w as g ra te fu l
fo r th e en erg etic m a n n e r in w h ich M r. M cL aren h a d c a rried o u t h is d u tie s.
M r. M cL aren th e n re su m e d th e c h a ir, a n d in his re p ly h e th a n k e d th e
m em b ers fo r th e ir confidence in h im , a n d said t h a t h e fe lt h o n o u re d in b ein g
called u p o n to serv e as P re s id e n t fo r a n e x te n d e d te rm .
A c o p y of M r.
M c L a re n ’s re p ly is g iv en a t th e e n d o f th is re p o rt.
M r. W . K ersh aw (M anchester), M r. W . W . L . L ish m a n (T o d m o rd en ) a n d
M r. W . H . W eb b (R an d a lsto w n , N . Ire la n d ) w ere re-elected as V ice-P resid en ts
fo r a period o f th re e y e a rs, o n th e p ro p o sa l of M r. W . H a rd a c re , seco n d ed b y
M r. W . A . E d w ard s.
T h e se c re ta ry th e n re a d o u t th e re s u lt o f th e b a llo t a n d th e C h a irm a n
an n o u n ced t h a t th e follow ing m em b ers h a d b e e n e le c ted to th e C o u n cil:
F o r th re e y e a r s : —
H.
H.
W.
A.
N.
A sh to n , R o ch d ale .
B ro m iley , B o lto n .
B . C ro m p to n , L ittle B isp h a m .
D ra p e r, S alford.
C. G ee, D ew sb u ry .
J.
F.
S.
T.
J.
R . S. G oodall, S to c k p o rt.
C. H a rw o o d , L o n d o n .
K ersh a w , B ra d fo rd .
H . R o b in so n , B in g ley .
W illiam s, N elson.
F o r one y e a r : — E . M. W a lk e r, L eic este r.
M essrs. L lo y d , P ig g o tt & C o., in c o rp o ra te d a c c o u n ta n ts w ere e le c te d as
a u d ito rs of th e I n s titu te fo r o n e y e a r. T h e b u sin ess m e etin g th e n closed.
A t th e lu n ch eo n w h ich follow ed sev e n g u ests w ere e n te r ta i n e d : S ir R a y ­
m o n d S tr e a t, D r. C. J . T . C ronshaw , D r. J . E . M yers, D r. F . C. T o y , M r. F .
C . H arw o o d , D r. H . P h illip s a n d M r. C. P a in e . A fte r th e to a s t to “ T h e K in g ,”
M r. W . H o w a rth p ropo sed th e to a s t of ‘‘O u r P re s id e n t,” to w h ich M r. M cL aren
s u ita b ly resp o n d ed . A to a s t to “ O u r G uests ” w as p ro p o sed b y M r. H . G.
G reg, a n d S ir R a y m o n d S tre a t re p lied o n b e h a lf o f th e g u ests.
T h e M ath er L e c tu re w as d e liv e re d b y D r. C. J . T . C ro n sh aw , follow ing th e
lu n ch eo n . T h e s u b je c t w as " D esign fo r I n d u s tr y ,” a n d a fu ll re p o r t w ill be
;given in th e n e x t issue of th e Jo u rn a l.
p 6o
Proceedings
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
G e n tle m e n .— I m u s t th a n k y o u fo r th e h o n o u r y o u h a v e d o n e m e in r e ­
electing m e y o u r P re s id e n t fa r a n o th e r te rm , a n d assu re y o u o f m y c o n tin u e d
a n x ie ty to d o a ll I c a n to f u r th e r a g re a te r in te re s t in th e I n s tit u te ’s a c tiv itie s
b y all th o se c o n n ected a n d asso c iate d w ith th e g re a t te x tile in d u strie s o f th is
c o u n try .
I h a v e h ad th e o p p o rtu n ity o f a p p re c ia tin g th e im m en se a m o u n t of w o rk
d o n e q u ie tly a n d u n o b tru siv e ly b y y o u r C h a irm a n a n d M em bers of Council,
a n d to th e m w e all ow e a d e e p d e b t o f g ra titu d e . I a m su re th e o rd in a ry
m e m b e r h a s no id ea o f th e tim e , p a tie n c e a n d tro u b le w h ich th e se g en tlem en
e x e rt to k eep th e d a y to d a y affairs o f th e I n s titu te m o v in g sm o o th ly .
I h a v e b e e n p riv ileg ed to b e p re s e n t a t m eetin g s d u rin g th e la s t y e a r of a
few o f th e d is tric t sectio n s o f th e In s titu te , a n d h a v e b e e n m u c h im p ressed b y
th e s e e n th u s ia stic g a th e rin g s a n d w as g lad to n o te a g o o d ly sp rin k lin g of th e
y o u n g er m en . I t m u s t alw ay s b e re m e m b ere d t h a t i t is to y o u th we m u s t
lo o k to k eep th e s e g re a t in d u s trie s a flo a t a n d a h e a d in w o rld c o m p etitio n , a n d
i t is w ell fo r th e y o u n g e r m en to b e g iv en th e ir h e a d so lo n g as th e re a re o ld e r
m en of w ide ex p erien ce to g u id e a n d en co u rag e th e m in th e ir fresh ideas.
I t is m ore th a n e v e r n ecessary fo r h ea d s of businesses to h av e fo r c o n su lta ­
tio n m e n w ith so u n d te c h n ic a l tra in in g , a n d before lo n g n o bu sin ess of a n y
s ta n d in g w ill, I feel su re, re ta in its fo rem o st place w ith o u t su ch assistan ce.
T h e T e x tile I n s titu te is in th e u n iq u e p o sitio n of assistin g to m a in ta in a
flow o f p ro p e rly tra in e d te c h n ic a l a ss ista n ts to th e in d u s try . B y its c o n ta c ts
w ith th e T ec h n ic a l Colleges th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try , stu d ie s a re so fra m e d t h a t
o n re ach in g a re q u ire d s ta n d a rd s tu d e n ts m a y q u a lify as a n A ssociate o r as a
Fellow of th e T e x tile In s titu te . T h is a tta in m e n t is th e h a llm a rk o f a p a rtic u la r
lev el o f know ledge w h ich d ire c to rs a n d e x ecu tiv es of m a n u fa c tu rin g firm s m a y
a c c e p t w ith confidence w h en co n sid erin g c a n d id a te s for v acan cies o n th e ir staffs.
T h is d istressin g w a r is su re ly d ra w in g to a close a n d we m a y look fo rw ard
w ith confidence to a fu tu re in w h ich c o n d u c t of bu sin ess w ill a g a in b e free a n d
u n h a m p e re d b y C o n tro ls. E v e ry o n e m u s t eagerly a n tic ip a te th e tim e w h e n
disch arg es o f m en a n d w om en fro m th e Services w ill a d m it b u sin esses ag ain
b ein g staffed w ith th e ir skilled w ork p eo p le w ho h a v e com e th ro u g h th e se try in g
y e a rs. A las, m a n y w ill n e v e r re tu rn , a n d th o se w h o h a v e m a d e th e su p re m e
sacrifice we re m e m b e r w ith th a n k f u l h e a rts — su ch d eed s m ak e i t possible fo r
u s to c a rry o n, a n d w ith i t th e d u ty o f im p ro v in g th e lo t of o u r peo p le b y
b e tte r w o rk in g co n d itio n s a n d fu ller am e n ities.
M an y a re th e b la n k s in th e e x e c u tiv e , m a n a g e r a n d fo rem en ra n k s d u e to
ra v ag es of w ar, a n d th e se — if th e h ig h e s t efficiency is to b e ach ie v ed a n d m a in ­
ta in e d — m u s t b e filled w ith in te llig e n t a n d h ig h ly tr a in e d perso n n el. A ll m u st
b e en co u rag ed to s tu d y th e th e o ry o f th e ir p a rtic u la r jo b s a n d so m ak e th e m ­
selves h ig h ly efficient tec h n ic ia n s.
I m a k e n o apology fo r a g a in re fe rrin g to th e T e x tile I n s titu te as a n e u tra l
m e etin g g ro u n d a n d fo r b eg g in g all th o s e en g ag ed in th e se g re a t in d u strie s to
jo in to g e th e r in discussions a n d p la n n in g , w h ere asso ciatio n s c a n be form ed,
p e tt y jealousies d riv e n fo rth a n d frien d sh ip s fo rm ed — all to th e u ltim a te b en efit
o f th e c o u n try a n d th e p eo p le en g ag ed in th e m .
I t is g ra tify in g to know t h a t th e s te a d y in crea se in m em b ersh ip c o n tin u e s,
a n d I sin cerely h o p e all m em b ers w ill b rin g h o m e to th e ir frien d s w h o a re n o n ­
m em b ers th e a d v a n ta g e s of m em b e rsh ip o f th e I n s titu te so t h a t th e snow ball
effect o f in crease in u n in te rru p te d .
Review
p
6i
Much rem ain s y e t to be acco m p lish ed a n d m a n y a re th e ite m s w ith w hich
your Council will d e a l in th e fu tu re . T hese p ro b lem s a re in tric a te a n d o f a
controversial n a tu re , a n d th e y w ill re q u ire all th e h e lp a n d e n c o u ra g e m e n t y o u
can give th e m to w ade th r o u g h th e g re a t m asses o f d e ta il w h ich m u s t b e c o n ­
sidered before a final n e a t p ic tu re is p re se n te d to us. A ssisting in th is w o rk is
th e A ctin g S e c re ta ry a n d h is staff, to w hom , in co nclusion, I sh o u ld like to p a y
tr ib u te for th e ir zeal a n d u n ceasin g effo rt in a ll m a tte rs te x tile a n d th e ir u n ­
failing c o u rte sy a n d h elp to m e.
G entlem en, I th a n k y o u fo r y o u r confidence in re-electin g m e P re s id e n t for
a n o th e r te rm .
Review
T he M easurem ent of C olour. W . D . W rig h t, p p . 223. A d am H ig le r L td .,
1944, 30/- .
T h e d e v e lo p m e n t of c o lo rim e try in th is c o u n tr y h a s b een h a n d ic a p p e d b y
th e lack o f a n y E n g lish te x tb o o k s e ttin g o u t c le a rly th e th e o ry a n d m e th o d s
of e x a c t colour m e a su re m e n t a n d sp ecific atio n . T h is is th e m o re su rp risin g
w hen i t is realised t h a t th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of co lo u r m e a s u re m e n t o n a so u n d
scientific b asis is m a in ly d u e t o E n g lish a n d A m erican w o rk ers. T h is b o o k is
a successful a tt e m p t to m e e t th is n eed .
As s ta te d in th e p reface, th e m a in p u rp o se o f th e b o o k is to d e scrib e th e
principles, m eth o d s a n d a p p lic a tio n s o f th e tric h ro m a tic sy s te m of co lo u r
m easu rem en t, b u t o th e r m e th o d s a re b y n o m ean s n eg le c ted a lth o u g h th e ir
re la tio n to th is sy ste m is e m p h asised . B efo re d esc rib in g th is sy s te m th e u n d e r­
ly in g p h y sical a n d physio lo g ical p rin c ip les a re d iscu ssed , th e first tw o c h a p te rs
being g iven to th ese su b jec ts.
T h e th ird c h a p te r is p e rh a p s th e m o st im p o rta n t in th e b o o k a n d gives a
v e ry c le a r ex p o sitio n of th e th e o ry a n d use of th e tric h ro m a tic sy ste m o f colour
specification a n d m e a su re m e n t. S ta r tin g fro m th e fu n d a m e n ta l e x p e rim e n ta l
fa c t t h a t a n y co lo u r c a n b e m a tc h e d b y m ix in g th re e ra d ia tio n s o f d ifferen t
colour in su ita b le p ro p o rtio n s th e id e a o f th e co lo u r e q u a tio n is d ev elo p e d . T h e
n a tu re of th e q u a n titie s inv o lv ed is m a d e q u ite clear, a n d th e co n v ersio n o f th e
colour eq u a tio n from o n e s e t o f referen ce s tim u li to a n o th e r is d esc rib ed in
d etail. In p a rtic u la r th e referen ce stim u li w hich fo rm th e fram ew o rk o f th e
sy ste m a d o p te d b y th e I n te rn a tio n a l C om m ission o n Illu m in a tio n (know n as
th e C .I.E . sy stem in th is c o u n tr y a n d th e I.C .I. s y s te m in A m erica ) is fully
described, as is also th e m e th o d o f o b ta in in g th e co lo u r e q u a tio n fro m sp e c tra l
reflection curves.
Succeeding c h a p te rs d e al w ith p ra c tic a l c o lo rim ete rs a n d s p e c tro p h o to ­
m eters— in clu d in g p h o to e le c tric in s tru m e n ts — a n d th e use of co lo u r c h a rts . T h e
a u th o r considers t h a t colour c h a rts a re in m a n y cases th e b e s t fo rm o f w o rk in g
sta n d a rd s, b u t t h a t in o rd er to en su re p e rm a n e n c e th e y sh o u ld , in g en eral, be
based on th e C .I.E . sy ste m .
T h e final c h a p te r deals w ith th e v a rio u s a p p lic a tio n s of c o lo rim e try , in c lu d ­
in g th e a p p lic a tio n to dy estu ffs a n d ra w m a te ria ls of th e te x tile in d u s try . T h e
im p o rta n c e of co lo rim etry in p ro v id in g a n u n a m b ig u o u s scale o f fa d in g is d e a lt
w ith u n d e r th e ap p lic a tio n to p a in ts a n d p ig m e n ts fro m w h ich i t w o u ld seem
t h a t its v a lu e h a s b een realised m ore b y th e u sers o f th e se m a te ria ls th a n b y
d y e rs of te x tile m aterials.
A v e ry useful a p p e n d ix gives d e ta ils of th e s ta n d a rd lig h t sources used in
co lo rim e try (one of w h ich form s th e b asis o f th e B ritis h S ta n d a r d fo r co lo u r
m a tc h in g lam p s) a n d a full s e t of ta b le s fo r d e d u cin g th e co lo u r e q u a tio n fro m
sp e c tro p h o to m e tric d a ta .
T h e b o o k ca n be th o ro u g h ly reco m m en d ed to th o se desiro u s of k n o w in g w h a t
colour m e a s u re m e n t can d o a n d w h a t are its lim ita tio n s. I t is to b e re g re tte d
t h a t th is sm all book, ex cellen t th o u g h it is, sh o u ld , u n d e r p re s e n t c o n d itio n s
cost 30 / - .
F . L. W a r b u r to n .
PÓ2
Proceedings
General Items
In stitu te D ip lom as
E lectio n s to F ellow ship a n d A ssociateship h a v e b e e n co m p leted as follows
since th e a p p e a ra n c e of th e p revious list (A pril issue of th e Jo u rn a l).
FELLOW SHIP
P e rc y E d w a rd S ta n h o p e , F .R .I.C ., B ra n c h M anager, R o b in so n & Co. L td .,
R a m sb o tto m (B ran ch of B .D .A . L td .).
P e rc iv a l P eace T o w n en d , B .S c., P h .D ., A .T .I., L e c tu re r in D ept, of T ex tile
In d u s trie s, T h e U n iv e rs ity , L eeds.
A S SO C IA T E SH IP
T h o m as F re d e ric k G ibbo n s, B .S c ., A ssista n t T e c h n ic a l E x a m in in g Officer,
A d m ira lty . (F o rm erly w ith T o o ta l B ro a d h u rs t L ee Co. L td .).
R ic h a rd Scholfield, L a b o ra to ry A ssistan t, B ritish C o tto n I n d u s tr y R esearch
A ssociation, S hirley I n s titu te , M an ch ester.
F re d e ric k H a rry W h y te , B .S c. (T ech.), T ech n ical R e sea rc h A ssista n t, D u n lo p
C o tto n Mills L td ., R o ch d ale.
In stitu te M em bership
T h e follow ing a p p lic a n ts w ere elected to m em b ersh ip a t th e M ay m e e tin g
o f C o u n c il: —
O rdinary.
Jo se p h S ta n le y B a rk e , 2, R idgefield, M an ch ester, 2 (T rad e a n d T ech n ica l
J o u rn a lis t a n d T ra d e A sso ciatio n S ecretary ).
T h o m a s A lfred B o o th , c / o C o m p tro ller of S tores, B o x 514AA, G .P .O ., S y d n ey ,
N .S .W ., A u stra lia (T ex tile In sp e c to r).
H e rb e rt E v e ly n B re a rle y , “ B ria n R o y d ,” H u lle n E d g e R o a d , E lla n d , Y orks.
(B la n k e t M a n u fa c tu re r, W e s t V ale W o rk s, G re e tla n d , N e a r H alifax ).
Ja m e s B riscoe, 835, S t. H elen s R o a d , O v er H u lto n , B o lto n (C o tto n Mill
M anager, C an n o n B ros. L td ., S ta n le y M ills, Ja c k so n S tre e t, B o lto n ).
F r a n k B ro ck , 42, T em p lars W a y , S h u ttle w o rth H a ll E s ta te , B ra d fo rd , Y orks.
(D e p a rtm e n t M anager, W o rk s C h em ist, Isa a c H o ld e n & Sons L td ., A lston
W orks, B rad fo rd ).
F elik s B rodow ski, 346, L y th a m R o a d , B lack p o o l, L a n c s. ( F / L t . P o lish A ir
F orce).
W illiam M cM orrine B ro w n , 50, B a tso n S tre e t, G lasgow , S .2 (In sp ec to r of
T e x tile s, In s p e c to ra te o f S tores, M in istry o f S u p p ly , R o o m 28, 141, B a th
S tre e t, G lasgow , C .2).
W ilfrid C o tto n , 129, W a lte r S tre e t, B la c k b u rn , L an cs. (Silk V e lv et M a n u fa c tu r­
ing Co. L td ., S tan clifie Mill, S tancliffe S tre e t, B la c k b u rn — a t p re s e n t in
H .M . F orces).
A rth u r W ilfrid E le y , 59, M ellor R o a d , W e ste rn P a rk , L eic este r (D irecto r,
F o iste r, C lay & W a rd L td ., G re a t C e n tra l S tre e t, L eicester).
M ark u s G ew ing, D .P h ., B e lfa st Silk & R ay o n L td ., W a te rfo rd S tre e t, B e lfa st
(P ro d u c tio n M anager).
W ilfrid V ic to r H e rb e rt, 25, B ra u n sto n e A v en u e, L e ic e ste r (D ire c to r a n d FabricF a c to r y M anager, W ild t & Co. L td ., R iv ersid e W o rk s, W e ste rn R o a d ,
L eicester).
A rth u r S ta n le y H ill, M o o rg arth , H eb d e n R o a d , H a w o rth , K eig h ley (W o rsted
S p in n in g P ro d u c tio n M anager, Irv in g F ir th & Co. L td ., B eech Mills,
K e ig h le y ).
P h ilip L ees, P a rk H o u se, S haw , N e a r O ld h a m (A ssistan t M an ag er, A . & A.
C ro m p to n & Co. L td ., P a r k a n d W o o d en d M ills, Shaw ).
J a c k H o lm es L im b , 100, B o th w e ll S tre e t, G lasgow (T ex tile E n g in e e r, U n iv ersal
W in d in g C o., 228, C lyde S tre e t, G lasgow ).
General Item s
Alec M u rray , B .S c ., 97, F o u n ta in P la c e , A le x a n d ria , D u m b a rto n sh ire (Chief
C hem ist, B ritis h Silk D y ein g Co. L td ., B allo ch , D u m b a rto n sh ire ).
R o b e rt A rth u r P eel, “ A ire d a le ,” 13, K e n ilw o rth A v en u e, H e le n sb u rg h , S c o t­
la n d (F o re m a n D y er, T h e B ritis h Silk D y e in g Co. L td ., B allo ch , D u m b a r­
to n sh ire).
H u g h L. R o b in so n , 168, S ta tio n R o a d , H e n d o n , L o n d o n , N .W .4 (D e p u ty
D irecto r, M in istry of S u p p ly , D ire c to ra te of S u rp lu s E q u ip m e n t a n d S tores,
50, H a n s M ansions, H a n s R o a d , L o n d o n , S .W .3).
B olesław W olkow ski, T ra in in g C en tre of T e c h n ic a l G ro u p P o lish F o rces, P /74
E d in b u rg h (Officer in P o lish A rm y ).
H a rv e y W ild , 623, R o ch d ale R o a d , R o y to n , N e a r O ld h a m (C o tto n S p in n in g
M an ag er a n d D ire c to r, P a rk & S a n d y L a n e Mills Co. L td ., Schofield S tre e t,
R o y to n , N ear O ld h am ).
J u n io r.
G eorge A rth u r A lb isto n , 21, N o rm a n b y R o a d , W a lk d e n , n e a r M an ch ester
T e c h n ic a l T ra in e e , L an c a sh ire C o tto n C o rp o ra tio n , E m p ress M ill, In c e,
W igan).
G ordon Cowling, 63A, H e ro n S tre e t, W e rn e th , O ld h am (A p p re n tic e T e x tile
F itte r , S. D odd & Sons, L y o n W o rk s, O ld h am ).
H e rb e rt D u rk in , 64, C a lv e rt R o a d , G re a t L ev e r, B o lto n (S trip p e r a n d G rin d er,
Jo h n H arw o o d & S on, W o o d sid e M ills, B o lto n ).
W illiam E d w a rd Jo h n so n , 4, F in k le S tre e t, S o w erb y B rid g e, Y o rk s. (S tu d e n t).
K e n n e th K now les, 38, E llesm ere R o ad , P e m b e rto n , W ig a n (T ech n ical T ra in e e ,
L an cash ire C o tto n C o rp o ra tio n , M ay Mill, P e m b e rto n , W ig an ).
W ilfrid N elson, 28, B en so n S tre e t, B o lto n , L a n c s. (C om ber O v erlo o k ers’
A ssistan t, M usgraves S p in n in g C o., C ho rley O ld R o a d , B o lto n ).
A ndrew A llen N icholson, 18, S ilvio S tre e t, B e lfa st, N . Ire la n d (A pp. L in e n
W eav in g F a c to r y M anager, W in . E w a r t & S on L td ., C ru m lin R o a d
F a c to ry , B elfast).
J o a n L jlia n O ’D on n ell, 8, A cresfield R o a d , S alford, 6, L an cs. (F ree L a n c e
T e x tile D esigner).
H a rry P e n d le b u ry , 246, O x fo rd G rove, B o lto n (A ssista n t C o m b er O v erlooker,
S ir Jo h n H o ld en & Sons, A stley B rid g e, B o lto n ).
K e ith T h o rn to n , 6, G ra fto n P lace, O v en d en , H a lifa x (S tu d e n t, H a lifa x
M unicipal T ech n ic al College).
E m ploym ent R egister
T h e follow ing a n n o u n c e m e n ts a re ta k e n fro m e n trie s in o u r R e g iste r of
m em bers w hose services are o n offer. E m p lo y e rs m a y o b ta in full p a rtic u la rs
o n a p p lic a tio n : —
N o. 241— A .T .I ., 38 y ears of age, desires p o sitio n as M an ag er o r A ssista n t
M anager in th e P ro d u c tio n of T e rry to w els a n d to w elling. C ity a n d
G uilds F u ll T ech n o lo g ical C ertificate in C o tto n W ea v in g .
E x p e rt
know ledge of all b ra n c h e s of th e tow el tr a d e , p lain , fan c y ,
ja c q u a rd s, e tc .
N o. 242— A .T .I., 34 y e a rs of age, desires a d m in is tra tiv e p o st in o rg an isin g
c a p a c ity , n o t n ecessarily inside m ills, n o r ev en o n th e m a n u fa c tu rin g
side. F u ll T ech n o lo g ical C ertificates in C o tto n S p in n in g , C o tto n
W eav in g , Silk a n d R a y o n W ea v in g , Silk a n d R a y o n D y ein g . S ev eral
y e a rs ’ ex p erien ce in c o tto n m ills in In d ia , in W e a v in g a n d also in
sp in n in g , in clu d in g m a n a g e ria l c a p a c ity , specially o n w o rk of r e ­
o rg a n isatio n . A lso w id ely re a d in E co no m ics, B usiness A d m in istra ­
tio n , P sy ch o lo g y a n d social q u e stio n s g en erally .
N o .243— M em ber, age 44 y ea rs, d esires p o sitio n as T e x tile W e a v in g M anager,
a t h om e o r a b ro a d . C ity a n d G uild s F u ll T ech n o lo g ical C ertificate
E x p erie n c e in C o tto n , L in e n , J u te a n d R a y o n , also in fa c to ry
p la n n in g a n d en gineering. S p ecialist in Sizing for all y a rn s.
PÓ4
Proceedings
Vacancies
T E C H N IC A L O F F IC E R — A firm o f c h em ical m a n u fa c tu re rs h a v e a v a c a n c y
fo r a g ra d u a te , fu lly c o n v e rs a n t w ith b le a c h in g p ro b le m s as ap p lied to co tto n ,
w ool, silk a n d ra y o n ; a kno w led g e of sim ilar p ro b le m s re la te d to ju te a n d lin en
w ould be a n a d v a n ta g e . H e m u s t also b e c o n v e rs a n t w ith d e te rg e n ts a n d w e ttin g
a g en ts. D u tie s w ill in v o lv e a d v isin g c u sto m ers a n d c a rry in g o u t te s ts a t th e ir
p la n ts . T h e T ech n ical O fficer w ill a c t as m a n a g e r o f th e R e se a rc h L a b o ra to ry
a n d en su re a close liaiso n b e tw e e n th e L a b o ra to ry a n d th e H e a d Office. S ala ry
fo r a s u ita b ly qualified m a n w ill b e a p p ro x im a te ly £ 1 ,000— ^ 1,250. A p p lic a ­
tio n s g iv in g full d e ta ils o f q u a lific a tio n s a n d ex p erien ce should b e ad d ressed
to B o x N o. 75.
D E S IG N E R w a n te d fo r F a n c y F la n n e l M a n u fa c tu re rs, fully experienced in
clo th co n stru c tio n for S h irtin g s, P y ja m a s, L a d ie s ’ D ress G oods, e tc . Good
re m u n e ra tio n a n d splen d id p ro sp e c ts for su ita b le p erso n . R e p ly giving full
d e ta ils of experience to R . R ad clifle & Sons (Mossley) L td ., S quire Mills,
M ossley, N r. M an ch ester.
M A Y 1945
THE JOURNAL OF THE
TEXTILE INSTITUTE
■9—THE LEPIDOM ETER—AN IN ST R U M E N T FOR M EASURING
THE SCALINESS OF ANIMAL FIBRES
B y J. B. S p e a k m a n , N. H. C h a m b e r l a in and J. M e n k a r t
(Copyright b y th e T extile In stitu te )
When a wool fibre is rubbed lengthways between finger and thumb, it
migrates in the direction of the root end, because the surface is composed of
a series of overlapping scales which function like a ratchet. Fibre migration
of this type is responsible for the felting of loose wool and the shrinkage of
wool fabrics under suitable mechanical conditions in presence of aqueous
media. Variations in the scaliness of .different wools, i.e. variations in the
number of scales per unit length and their degree of projection from the body
of the fibre, will clearly have an important bearing on their response to felt­
ing and milling processes. Some method of measuring the scaliness of wool
fibres is therefore essential if a clear understanding of these processes is to be
realised, especially as the rate at which felting and shrinkage take place is
affected by the length, fineness and crimpiness of the fibres, as well as by
their scaliness1.
The only available method of measuring the scaliness of animal fibres is
one which was devised some years ago in this laboratory3. It consists in
mounting fifty fibres in parallel, with the scales all pointing in one direction,
to form a miniature violin bow. Several determinations are then made of
the angle of tilt necessary, to cause the bow to slide, first in the direction of
the root ends and then in the direction of the tips, on the surface of a cloth
having a trail pile finish. If 01 is the average angle of slip in the direction of
the root ends, and (K the average angle of slip in the direction of the tips, the
quantity
S = tan S2 — tan 8 r
tan 0a
is taken as a measure of scaliness. Although the method has given useful
results, it suffers from a number of defects. The construction of the “ violin
bows ” is extremely tedious, there is no opportunity of studying the pro­
perties of individual fibres, and the results are not very closely related to
felting and milling, where dynamic and not static friction is operative. Not
only so, but the value of the quantity S as a means of comparing the felt­
ing properties of different wools is obscure, because
varies from one kind
of wool to another.
*
With such considerations in mind, it was decided to build an instrument,
termed a lepidometer, for the purpose of measuring the actual creeping
power of individual fibres under a rubbing action. The object of this paper
is to describe the instrument and some of the results which have been
obtained with its aid in recent studies of milling shrinkage and the unshrink­
able finish.
TQ2
g — The
Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
EX PE R IM EN T A L
P a rt 1 : C on stru ction o f th e L ep id o m eter
The lepidometer was designed to give a standardised imitation of the
lengthways rubbing action of finger and thumb in the familiar demonstration
of the creeping power of animal fibres. The fibre, with its root end down­
wards, is placed between two surfaces, which are caused to reciprocate
under standard pressure. Fibre travel proceeds until the tension developed
in a measuring device, to which the tip end of the fibre is attached, is
sufficient to arrest motion, and the maximum tension developed is taken as a
measure of scaliness.
The apparatus consists essentially of three parts, v iz :
(1) the rubbing surfaces and their accompanying driving arrange­
ments.
(2) the tension measuring device— a torsion wire and torsion head—
and
(3) the tension recording mechanism, which is arranged to plot tension­
time curves automatically on a revolving drum.
Fig. 1.
The main working parts of the apparatus and their relationship to one
another are shown in Fig. 1, which is not drawn to scale, while Figs. 2, 3
and 4 are photographs of the actual apparatus. The latter is driven by a
Garrard, type R G / i, electric gramophone motor, which is provided with
two driving shafts. The first, running at 78 r.p.m., is used to drive the
rubbing surfaces, and the second, which is at right-angles to the first, runs
at 6-5 r.p.m. and is used to drive the recording drum. Some variation in
the speeds of these shafts can, however, be obtained by means of the centri­
fugal governor which is fitted to such motors. With the exception of the
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3-
Fig. 6.
9— The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
driving and cross-shafts, which are of mild steel, all the working parts of the
apparatus are made of brass.
(X) T he R u b bing Surfaces
The carriers for the rubbing surfaces are square brass plates 1 (20mm. x
x 20mm. x 3mm.), which are lightly pivoted about horizontal axes 2 in
the plane of the plates and near their upper horizontal edges. The pivots for
each plate pass through the arms of a horizontal----- [^-shaped stirrup 3,
which is fastened to a sliding block 4 by means of a single screw passing
vertically through a longitudinal slot cut in the leg of the stirrup. A clear
illustration of this method of suspending the carriers is given in Fig. 3, one
of the sliding blocks being shown tilted clear of its slide so as to allow the
stirrup and clamping screw to be seen. This arrangement permits the posi­
tion of the plates 1 to be adjusted for parallelism as well as for horizontal
distance apart, by swivelling the stirrups about the clamping screws.
The sliding blocks 4 are H-section and slide easily without rock on two
vertical tracks. They are caused to oscillate relative to each other by
means of a link motion 5 and opposed eccentrics 6 (Fig. 2), driven from the
main shaft of the motor through the right-angle drive 7 , consisting of a brass
disc driven by a rubber ring 8 on the cross-shaft 9, which is direct-coupled
to the motor shaft through a flexible coupling. The throw of the eccentrics
is i-inoh, but the actual amplitude of oscillation of the rubbing sur­
faces can be varied over a wide range by changing the point of attachment
of the eccentric rod to the lever 10, which is provided with a number of
holes for this purpose.
The rate of oscillation (number of strokes per
minute) can be varied by using the right-angle drive as an infinitely-variable
gear, final adjustments being made with the motor governor.
Pressure is applied to the rubbing surfaces by means of the lever arms
11 and the sliding bobweights 12. The arms are attached at right-angles to
the backs of the carriers 1, at their centres, and pass through clear holes
drilled in the sliding blocks. B y multiplying the weight of the bobs 12 by
their distance from the point of attachment of the levers, the additional
pressure due to the bobs— termed bobweight leverage— can be calculated.
The stops 13 (Fig. 3), which are pivoted on the sliding blocks, are used to
control the vertical motion of arms 11 and thus the side-swing of the carriers.
The actual surfaces by which the fibre is rubbed are built up b y cement­
ing a pad of felt or rubber (10mm. x 10mm. x 2mm.) to the centre of each
carrier by means of shellac. A strip of the chosen friction material, i-cm .
wide, is stretched over each pad in a vertical direction, and is held top and
bottom by light clamping bars screwed to the edges of the carrier as shown
in Fig. 3, care being taken that the strip is under uniform and standard
tension. The purpose of the pads is to increase the resilience of the surfaces
and facilitate embedding of the fibres ; in addition, they make a slight
departure from exact parallelism less important than would be the case if
rigid surfaces were used.
(2) T he T en sio n -M ea su rin g D evice
For the purpose of measuring scaliness, the fibre is mounted by folding
a i-cm. square of gummed paper in half, moistening the gummed surfaces,
introducing the tip end at right-angles to the fold, and then pressing the
gummed surfaces together. A small hole is then pierced in the paper mount,
so that the latter can be slipped on to the light glass hook 14 (Fig. 1)
attached to the phosphor-bronze ribbon or braided silk cord 15, which passes
over part of the circumference of the torsion head 16. This is a light ebonite
wheel mounted on a brass axle to which the torsion wire is attached. For
the latter high-tensile steel wire, 0-005 inches in diameter, is used, the 15
cm. length being attached to the brass blocks 17 (Fig. 2), with the torsion
head in the middle. The tension in the wire is adjusted by means of two
thumbscrews, one of which (18) is visible in Figs. 2 and 4. The axle of the
T94
9—-The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
torsion head carries a light aluminium pointer 19 and adjusting weights
20 and 2 1. B y means of the latter, the centre of gravity of the whole system
oan be made to coincide with the axis of the wire and torsion is then the
only restoring force; alternatively, the sensitivity of the instrument can be
reduced by lowering the weight 21, when the restoring force is a combina­
tion of torsion and deadweight loading.
During scaliness determinations, movement of the suspended system is
damped by a small vane moving in a vessel 22 which contains castor oil.
The vane is a small square of mica cemented to the end of an aluminium
rod which runs backwards from the axle of the torsion head, parallel to the
torsion wire and immediately below it, to near the back anchorage of the
wire, where it bends downwards into the castor oil.
(3) T he T en sio n -R e c o r d in g M ech a n ism
As the forces acting on the suspended system are small, no recording
mechanism which involves the slightest friction is permissible. Either photo­
graphic recording or some type of intermittent recorder must be used, and in
order to avoid the complications of optical methods, a simple thread
recorder was chosen. Its main features are shown in Fig 4.
The recording drum 23 is driven from the slow shaft of the motor
through two pairs of worm gears 24, the speed being so reduced that the
drum makes one revolution in approximately 20 minutes (circumferential
speed 7 -3mm. per minute). The end of the pointer 19 (Fig. 1) is flattened
horizontally and the edge of the flattened portion filed to an obtuse knifeedge. Between the pointer and the drum, and some 2 to 3mm. from the
latter, is stretched vertically the inked thread of fine sewing silk 25. Its
exact position relative to the drum is adjustable and the best position is
ascertained by trial. The thread, which is endless, passes over guide pulleys
at the ends of arms 26, and round a tension pulley and an inking roller in
the box 27. This roller, which has a felt covering saturated with recording
ink, is driven by the belt 28 from a pulley on the slow motor shaft, so that
the thread travels continuously while the apparatus is working.
During measurements of scaliness, the pointer is chopped sharply down
at timed intervals on to the inked thread and the drum by the chopper bar
2 9. This bar, which would otherwise be pressed against the drum by the
tension spring 30, is held off by the push-rod 31 actuated by the circular
■cam 32. The cam is shown in phantom in Fig. 4 so as not to hide the gear■drive behind it. On its periphery are cut six semi-circular notches, and each
time a notch passes the end of the push-rod the chopper-bar drives the
pointer on to the drum with a force governed by the tension in the spring
30. Each contact is of short duration and the rate of travel of the inked
thread is sufficiently slow not to interfere with the precision of the record.
With six notches in the cam there are 40 contacts per minute and a satis­
factory record of the rate of development of tension by the rubbed fibre is
thus obtained.
For the purpose of fixing the recording paper, the drum 23 can be drawn
off its spindle, without disturbing either thread, pointer or chopper-bar, by
removing the thumb-nut 33. As it is seldom necessary to rub a fibre for
more than 30 seconds, up to 40 tests can be recorded on one sheet of paper,
and under suitable conditions— coarse, straight, dry fibres— 50 fibres may be
tested in one hour without undue strain.
The instrument is calibrated by suspending weights from the hook 14 and
noting the elevation of the pointer as it records on the revolving drum 23,
When torsion is supplemented by deadweight loading, the tension scale is
linear up to an angular movement of the pointer of about 6o°, as may be
seen from the typical calibration curve of Fig. 5.
Scaliness measurements can be made in liquids as well as in air, because
the two strips of friction material curve apart above the felt or rubber back­
9— The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
T95
ing, as shown in Fig. i, to form a recess in which about 0-5 c.c. of liquid can
be accommodated. If solutions are used, errors due to changes in concen­
tration by evaporation of water are avoided by removing some of the old
solution at intervals by means of filter paper and adding a few more drops.
Fibres examined under these conditions are, of course, allowed to come to
equilibrium with the solution before being transferred to the apparatus for
measurements of scaliness.
S election of R ubbin g S u rfaces
The requirements which must be fulfilled by any material which is to
serve as the rubbing surface are that it should be reproducible and available
in standard form ; that it should be thin, flexible and able to slide on itself
without undue friction ; and that it should possess suitable abrasion charac­
teristics.
Of a large number of materials examined, very few fulfilled most of these
requirements and none was found entirely satisfactory for all types of fibre
under the various possible conditions of use. Oiled silk and closely woven
nylon fabrics were suitable for use with coarse fibres, but the mounting of
the surfaces so as to ensure reproducible results was difficult. Rubberised
cotton (macintosh fabric) surfaces did not slide over each other satisfactorily.
None of the fabrics could be used with merino fibres because they slid into
grooves in the material and thereafter did not move. The difficulty per­
sisted even when the fabric was cut on the bias.
Cellophane and cellulose ester films grooved badly in contact with the
fibres, and the same fault made it impossible to use chamois and other
kinds of leather. Unplasticised polystyrene film was too brittle, but a film
of polyvinyl chloride, which was too sticky dry, gave satisfactory results
in presence of soap solution. Most of the available specimens of natural
and synthetic rubbers were too tacky, and only the following three materials
were found suitable for general use : —
(а) Sheet rubber containing an acid-soluble filler.
This material,
which was the only one available at the beginning of the
investigation, was used in most of the following work, and is
referred to as “ carbonate-filled ” rubber.
(б) Polythene film, which suffers rapid wear with dry fibres, but is
satisfactory in presence of liquids.
9— The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
(c) Sheet rubber filled with barium sulphate. Like polythene, but
for a different reason— excessive friction when dry— ?the rubber
was usable only with liquids.
The performance of these materials is illustrated by the tension-time curves
of Fig. 6, where the first sharp rise on the curves, usually represented by
a few widely-spaced dots, has been reinforced for purposes of photography.
Curve A was given by a human hair fibre on carbonate-filled rubber
surfaces in presence of soap solution*, and curve B by a similar fibre on
polythene surfaces, again in presence of soap solution. Curves of type B
are also obtained with sulphate-filled rubber. In curve A the sharp rise
is succeeded by a rapid and then a slower fall, presumably owing to the
action of the carbonate-filled rubber in wearing down the scales. Since
the level of curve B is independent of the time of rubbing, after the sharp
initial rise, it seems probable that neither the fibre nor the polythene
surfaces suffered any significant amount of wear during the test. The
alternative, that all the wear took place before maximum tension was
attained, was eliminated by microscopic examination of rubbed fibres.
For this purpose, the hypochlorite-methylene blue staining technique
of Whewell and Woods3 was used with the root ends of Lincoln wool fibres,
which had been purified by extraction with alcohol and ether. The
behaviour of wool on rubber and polythene is similar to that of human
hair, and wool was preferred because of the absence of pigment. Each
fibre was rubbed for 40 seconds in air, or in soap solution after 3 hours’
immersion, under the conditions specified in Table 1.
As the mean
maximum tension varied from one set to another, the sensitivity of the
lepidometer was adjusted to give the same mean length of fibre travel in
each case. The central part (about 1 •5 cms.) of the rubbed portion of each
fibre was removed, soap-treated fibres being extracted with alcohol before
staining.
The rubbed lengths of fibre were allowed to stand for 15 minutes at
room temperature in 50 ccs. of sodium hypochlorite solution (pH 10 -6)
containing o-6g. of available chlorine per litre. After being washed in
five changes of distilled water for one minute each time, the fibres were
immersed in 50 ccs. of methylene blue solution (o-4g. per litre) for 5
minutes, washed 5 minutes in running water and finally dried between
filter papers. They were then cut up into 2-mm. lengths, which were
mounted on a microscope slide in liquid paraffin, examined, and
grouped into five classes according to the extent of staining. The results
are given in Table 1, the mean score given in the last column being
calculated in the usual manner.
T ab le 1
T reatm ent
U ntreated
Im m ersed in soap solution
for 3 hours
Carbonate-filled rubber, d ry
b .l* = 108 g.cms.
C arbonate-filled rubber, d ry
b .l* = 163 g.cms.
C arbonate-filled rubber, soap
b .l* = 108 g.cms.
Polythene, soap
b .l* = 108 g.cms.
N um ber
of
fibres
0
1
2
3
4
Mean
Score
104
30-8
55-8
11-4
2-0
0-0
0-85
110
27-3
54-6
18-1
0-0
o-o
0-91
77
2-6
55-8
32-5
9-1
o-o
1-48
69
2-9
59-4
33-4
4-3
o-o
1-39
86
8-1
50-0
40-8
1-1
o-o
1-35
73
16-4
71-3
12-3
* b .l = bobw eight leverage.
0-0
00
0-96
Percentage of fibres in class
* A o-2 per cent, solution of anhydrous sodium oleate was used throughout
th e investigation.
9 — The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
T97
It is obvious that fibres rubbed by polythene surfaces suffer very much less
damage than fibres rubbed by carbonate-filled rubber surfaces, and since
the staining test is extremely sensitive, there can be no doubt that the rise
of the tension to a high value, which is independent of the time of rubbing,
is characteristic of negligible wear on the fibres. Conversely, the sharp
maximum on curve A is clearly due to the rapidity with which the scales
are abraded by carbonate-filled rubber, and it is doubtful whether the
maximum tension developed is a true •measure of scaliness. As, however,
the fibre travels through the nip of the surfaces during the initial rapid
increase in tension, abrasion should not be serious until the true maximum
tension is attained and movement ceases. If this view is correct, the
maximum tension developed on carbonate-filled rubber surfaces may well
be a true measure of scaliness.
The consistent use of a material giving curves of type B would obviously
be ideal for the measurement of scaliness, but no one material can give such
curves with all fibres because they vary considerably in their resistance to
abrasion. Among materials which are similar to animal fibres in abrasive­
ness, the choice must therefore be between those which are more and those
which are less abrasive ; if more abrasive, the fibres are worn ; if less
abrasive, the material is grooved.
This does sometimes happen with
polythene and the tension then rises to a value which remains constant for
a short time before rising indefinitely. In practice, therefore, the rubbing
surfaces must act abrasively on the fibres, but materials with only a slight
abrasive action are selected in order to ensure that the maximum tension
developed is a true measure of scaliness. It must, however, be noted that
abrasive surfaces have the special advantage of allowing the abrasionresistance of fibres to be studied at the same time as their scaliness is
measured.
R ep rod u cib ility of R esu lts
For determinations of scaliness, the rate of rubbing is- normally main­
tained at 78 strokes per minute. Strict control of the rate is, however,
unnecessary, as may be seen from the data of Table 2, which were obtained
with New Zealand Romney fibres on carbonate-filled rubber surfaces in air.
T ab le 2
R ate of rubbing
(strokes/m inute)
N um ber of
fibres
78
40
50
50
Mean m axim um
tension
(g-)
0-76 + 0-03*
0-81 ± 0-03*
* S tandard error.
Coefficient of
variatio n (%)
24-0
28-9
On the other hand, the pressure applied to the rubbing surfaces must
be strictly controlled if reproducible results are to be obtained. The
Tesults of Table 3 were obtained with the root ends of Lincoln wool fibres
on polythene surfaces in presence of soap solution.
T ab le 3
Bobweight leverage
(g.cms.)
N um ber of
fibres
0
108
150
228
327
40
40
40
40
40
Mean m axim um
tension (g.)
1-32
3-07
4-45
5-68
6-98
* S tandard error.
± 0-04*
-1- 0-07
± 0-10
± 0-21
± 0-22
Coefficient of
variatio n (%)
18-4
14-8
14-2
23-1
20-2
9— The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
It is obvious that the maximum tension developed is profoundly affected
by variations in bobweight leverage. At the two highest pressures used,
there is some grooving of the polythene surfaces, and excessive pressure
was therefore avoided in all subsequent work.
Data illustrating the consistency of the results obtained with different
pairs of surfaces of the same material are given in Table 4. The root ends
of Lincoln wool fibres were used and the rubbing surfaces were backed with
felt pads. As the horizontal distance apart of the surfaces was not the same
for different pairs of experiments, comparison of the results outside the
pairs is not permissible.
T ab le 4
T est
Conditions of m easurem ent
N um ber
of fibres
Mean m axim um
tension (g.)
Coefficient of
variatio n (%)
1
C arbonate-filled rubber, dry
b .l = 166 g.cms.
90
50
1-31 ± 0-05*
1-34 ± 0-06
34-5
33-5
2
Carbonate-filled rubber, w ater
b .l = 166 g.cms.
40
50
3-21 ± 0-15
3-23 ± 0-16
29-6
35-5
3
Carbonate-filled rubber, soap
b .l = 108 g.cms.
50
49
1-97 ± 0-08
1-99 ± 0-08
30-2
27-5
4
Carbonate-filled rubber, soap
b .l = 189 g.cms.
50
50
2-78 ± 0-13
2-75 ± 0-15
32-5
39-5
5
P olythene, soap, no bobw eights
1-07 ± 0-04
1-12 ± 0-06
24-3
321
41
40
* S tandard error.
In obtaining the results of Test 3, the calibration of the instrument was
altered from 37-8 mm./g. in the first experiment to 22-1 mm./g. in the
second.
Over the range examined, therefore, the maximum tension1
developed is independent of the length of travel of the fibres. The results
of Test 4 are specially interesting because the felt backing of the surfaces
in the first experiment had been used previously with about 500 fibres,
whereas new felt pads, as well as new surfaces, were employed in the
second experiment.
An attempt was made to study the durability of the surfaces by calcula­
ting the (quadratic) regression of maximum tension on fibre number, but
the results were unsatisfactory because of the small number of observations
and their variability.
Comparison of the means of successive tens,
combined with visual examination of the used surfaces, did, however, show
that carbonate-filled rubber could be used satisfactorily with up to at least
150 fibres in air. In soap solution the material began to deteriorate after
70 to 80 fibres had been examined, and polythene surfaces were unreliable
after testing 50 to 60 fibres. Fortunately, no more than 40 to 50 fibres
need be tested to give a reliable mean, as is shown in Table 4, and the poor
resistance of the surfaces to wear is therefore of no serious consequence.
It will be noticed that the reproducibility of the coefficient of variation
is smaller than that of the mean maximum tension, probably owing to
slight variations in the parallelism of the surfaces. Nevertheless, valuable
information has been obtained by using this factor as a measure of the
uniformity of chemical treatments.
P art 2 : T yp ical U se s o f the L ep id om eter
(1) M illing* S h rin k age
Other things being equal, the rate of shrinkage of wool fabrics in a
milling machine is more rapid in presence of acid or alkali (up to at least
pH 10) than in water, and the beneficial effect of these reagents has been
referred to their action in modifying the elastic properties of the fibres1.
9 — The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
T99
By breaking down the salt linkages between the main peptide chains of
wool, acids and alkalis facilitate deformation of the fibres, thus promoting
the fibre-travel responsible for shrinkage. The fibres migrate in much the
same way as an earthworm crawls4, i.e. by alternate extension and con­
traction, and acids are superior to alkalis as milling agents because they
are without effect on the disulphide bonds between the main peptide chains
of wool. Ease of deformation is obtained without interference with the
power of recovery from deformation. Alkalis, on the other hand, attack
the disulphide bonds, and if the pH value of the solution is too high,
milling is impeded because the increased ease of deformation of the fibres
is outweighed by the greater difficulty of recovery from deformation5.
Confirmation of these views, and proof of the importance of the elastic
properties of wool fibres in relation to milling shrinkage, have been obtained
in the discovery of two methods6'7 of making wool fabrics unshrinkable by
increasing the resistance of the fibres to deformation without modifying
their scaliness. There is, however, a possibility that acids and alkalis may
facilitate milling shrinkage by modifying the scaliness, as well as the elastic
properties, of the fibres. Whewell and his collaborators,11 using the “ violin
bow ” method, have measured the scaliness of wool fibres in solutions of
acid and alkali, as well as in water, with the following results—
Medium
H ydrochloric acid (pH \)
W ater
2 % B orax solution (pH 9-24)
Scaliness
29-4
23-5
21-5
In agreement with the effect of acids in promoting milling shrinkage, the
scaliness of wool fibres is greater at pH 1 than in water, possibly because
the swelling which accompanies salt linkage breakdown affects the
prominence of the scales. Alternatively, the effectiveness of the scales in
promoting fibre-travel may depend on their elastic properties, if the free
edges have the degree of flexibility which has been envisaged by Rudall8.
The reduced scaliness of the fibres in borax solution is unexpected but can
hardly be discussed without data for the rate of shrinkage of fabric in water
and in borax solution. In the light of these observations, however, it
seemed desirable to measure the scaliness of wood fibres in media of varying
pH
Fig. 7
T io o
9— The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
pH as soon as the lepidometer was constructed13. The rate of shrinkage
of all-wool flannel in the same media was also determined in a model milling
machine9, so that the significance of variations in scaliness in relation to
milling shrinkage might be assessed.
[a)
Scaliness. Human hair was examined on polythene surfaces backed
with pads of sulphate-filled rubber. After extraction with alcohol and ether,
a bundle of fibres was soaked overnight in 50 ccs. of the-appropriate buffer
solution at room temperature. Single fibres were removed at intervals,
mounted, and introduced between the polythene surfaces, which were kept
wet with the buffer solution throughout the determinations.
The results are given in Table 5, illustrated by Fig. 7.
T ab le 5
Buffer
pa
Num ber
of fibres
1-22
2-21
3-39
5-14
K H 2P 0 4 + N aO H . .
H 3BO3 + N aO H
CH3COONa + HC1
Coefficient of
V ariation (%)
37
40
0-55
0-02*
0-45 ± 0-02
0-39 4- 0-02
0-39 ± 0-02
22-9
35-0
33-4
30-0
5-85
6-98
7-87
40
40
40
0-40 4- 0-02
0-41 ± 0-02
0-41 ± 0-02
24-6
26-3
26-0
8-10
9-07
9-98
40
38
40
0-40 ± 0-02
0-38 4- 0-02
0-42 ± 0-02
35-3
32-9
33-1
N a2C 0 3 + HC1
10-52
11-36
40
40
0-47 ± 0-02
0-47 ± 0-02
21-6
32-4
N a2H P 0 4 + N aO H
11-29
12-06
41
40
0-57 - 0-02
0-46 ± 0-02
23-3
23-0
..
39
Mean m axim um
tension (g.)
SO
* S tandard error.
Similar, though less reliable, results were obtained with the root ends of
Lincoln wool fibres in the same series of buffer solutions, using polythene
surfaces with backings of felt. In these experiments, the felt as well as
the polythene surfaces was wetted with buffer solution, and the precision
of the results may have been affected by the swelling of the felt, particularly
in strongly alkaline solutions.
From Fig. 7 it is obvious that the scaliness of the fibres increases with fall
of pH below 4, and there can be no doubt that the increased rate of shrink­
age of wool fabrics in acid media is due to increased scaliness, as well as to
modified elastic properties of the fibres, though the two factors may be
related as has already been suggested. Above pH 9, too, the scaliness of the
fibres first increases and then, above pH 11, decreases. The reality of the
fall in scaliness at high pH values is emphasised by the data obtained with
fibres in phosphate buffers. In the light of these results, it seemed possible
that the increased rate of shrinkage of wool fabrics in media of moderate
alkalinity might also be due to increased scaliness as well as to modified
elastic properties. Similarly, although the pH values for maximum scali­
ness and maximum rate of shrinkage in alkaline media1 are not identical,
it is possible that the ineffectiveness of strongly alkaline media as milling
agents is connected with reduced scaliness as well as with impaired elastic
properties. Attention must, however, be called to the fact that specific ion
effects are noticeable with the carbonate and phosphate buffers at pH 11.
Even more marked specific ion effects were noted in acid media, using
phthalate buffers, but the data are omitted from Table 5 which, apart from
9— The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
x io i
the phosphate buffers at pH 11-12, is confined to buffers which appear to be
comparable with one another. The existence of specific ion effects made it
necessary, however, to study the rate of shrinkage of fabric in the buffer
solutions used in measurements of scaliness, before any satisfactory conclu­
sions regarding the connection between scaliness and milling shrinkage could
be reached.
(b)
Shrinkage. Determinations of the rate of shrinkage at different pH
values were carried out in a model milling machine9 with strips of fabric
having the following characteristics: •—
W arp: 28s Yorkshire skeins, with 14-5 turns/inch twist ; 34 ends/inch.
W eft: 28s Yorkshire skeins, with io -o turns/inch tw ist; 31 picks/inch.
W eave: Plain. Weight: 5-2 ozs./square yard.
Alcohol-soluble matter, determined by Soxhlet extraction, 1-5 per cent, on
the dry weight.
Two areas, each 30 cms. by 20 cms., were marked out in coloured cotton on
each strip of cloth, which measured 200 cms. by 38 cms. After being con­
ditioned at 65 per cent, relative humidity and 22-2°C., the strip was
weighed, soaked overnight in 3 litres of the appropriate buffer solution,
centrifuged, and re-weighed after the areas of the marked rectangles had
been re-determined. The cloth was then introduced into the milling machine
and the ends sewn together. When the machine was started, sufficient of
the solution in which the cloth had been soaked was added to bring the total
weight up to twice the air-dry* weight. Milling was allowed to proceed for
30 minutes, 5 c.c. lots of water being added after 10 and 20 minutes’ milling
and temperature readings being taken in the usual manner. The thermostat
was maintained at I9°C. and the mean temperature of the cloths was
20° + i° C . At the end of the milling period the cloth was weighed and the
areas of the marked rectangles re-measured. The resulting data are given
in Table 6, which includes the pH values of the solutions in equilibrium with
the cloths, determined by means of the glass electrode.
T ab le 6
W eight of cloth (g.)
Buffer
pH
Aird ry
A fter
centrifuging and
adding solution
Percen
in
A fter
m illing L ength W id th
A rea
CH3COONa + HCl
1-40
2-08
3-22
3-78
4-13
4-98
132
131
128
129
131
129
264
262
256
258
262
258
262
261
253
259
262
255
31-8
29-0
26-6
24-9
23-4
23-0
17-3
16-5
11-8
10-2
10-9
10-4
43-7
40-7
35-3
32-6
31-8
31-0
K H 2P 0 4 + NaOH
613
6-90
8-05
132
132
133
264
264
266
262
264
267
21-8
191
14-7
10-4
10-3
6-2
29-9
27-4
20-0
H 3B 0 3 + NaOH
8-03
9-02
9-80
132
130
128
264
260
256
263
252
258
17-5
15-5
13-6
6-2
5-1
5-4
22-6
19-8
18-3
9-96
10-52
10-82
128
131
129
256
262
258
255
264
261
14-9
13'5
11-3
7-0
6-4
4-9
20-9
19-0
15-6
N a2COs + HCl
Area shrinkage is shown as a function of pH in Fig. 8. Below pH 4 the
degree of shrinkage increases steadily with fall of pH, in keeping with the
increasing scaliness shown in Fig. 7, and it seems clear that acids have the
*
T hroughout th is paper, th e term “ air-dry ” im plies conditioning a t 65 p er cent,
relative hum idity and 22'2° C.
t
10 2
g—
The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkari
twofold function in milling of increasing the scaliness of the fibres and re­
ducing their resistance to deformation. Whereas scaliness is sensibly inde­
pendent of pH between pH 4 and 9, however, the degree of shrinkage
decreases steadily with rise of pH above pH 6, after remaining approximately
constant between pH 4 and 6. That the extent of shrinkage should fall at
pH values above 6, despite the constancy of scaliness up to pH 9 and the
rise between pH 9 and 11, is a further proof of the importance of the elastic
properties of wool fibres in relation to milling shrinkage.
F ig. 8
Attention must now be drawn to the fact that the curve of Fig. 8 at pH
values above 6, is unlike the earlier curve which showed milling shrinkage
to be independent of pH between pH 4 and 8, then to increase up to pH 10,
and finally to fall. The earlier results were, however, obtained with un­
buffered solutions, and their validity has been confirmed in further experi­
ments with such solutions in the model milling machine. As the data are
unrelated to the present investigation, they need not now be discussed.
(2) T h e U n sh rin k ab le F in ish
(a) Wet Chlorination. When wool fibres are treated with an aqueous
solution of chlorine, the disulphide bonds between the main peptide chains
are broken and the attacked structure swells and gelatinises, especially in
alkaline solutions. The gelatinous layer on and under the scales is believed
to be responsible for the unshrinkability of chlorinated wool10, and it seemed
probable that the lepidometer might usefully be employed to study the
relationship between the scaliness of fibres chlorinated to varying degrees and
the degree of unshrinkability of corresponding fabrics. Observations of this
type have already been made by Whewell and his collaborators11, using the
“ violin bow ” method of determining scaliness, and the purpose of the
following work was simply to demonstrate that the lepidometer could be used
with equal success and greater convenience to study the reaction between
wool and reagents which are calculated to promote unshrinkability by super­
ficial attack on the fibres. In addition, it was hoped that the lepidometer
9— The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menhart
TI03
would have the special advantage of allowing the uniformity of chlorination
to be assessed, because the fibres are examined individually instead of in
groups of fifty.
The root ends of Lincoln wool fibres were used for scaliness measure­
ments. After the fibres had been purified by extraction with alcohol and
ether, a bundle was attached by means of sewing cotton to a 5g. (air-dry)
square of all-wool flannel, which had likewise been purified by extraction and
possessed the following characteristics:
W arp : 28s Yorkshire skeins, 34 ends per inch.
W eft: 28s Yorkshire skeins, 34 ends per inch.
W eave: Plain. Weight: 5-4 ozs./square yard.
A rectangle, 10 cms. x 15 cms., was jnarked out on the square of flannel to
facilitate subsequent measurement of its degree of unshrinkability after
chlorination. For this purpose, each sample was immersed at room tempera­
ture in 50 ccs. of M/20 potassium hydrogen phthalate solution (£H 4) con­
taining o - i per cent. Teepol as wetting agent. Sodium hypochlorite solution
(50 ccs.) of the appropriate concentration was then added, with constant
stirring, over a period of 10 minutes, and the treatment was allowed to pro­
ceed for a further 5 minutes after the addition had been completed. At the
end of this time the amount of unabsorbed chlorine was estimated by remov­
ing aliquots of the solution for titration with sodium thiosulphate. The treated
pattern, with its attached fibres, was immersed for 5 minutes in 500 ccs. of
1 per cent, sodium bisulphite solution, and then for 5 minutes in 500 ccs. of
0-5 per cent, sodium bicarbonate solution, before being washed in running
water overnight. The fabric was finally centrifuged and allowed to dry in
room air.
After the Lincoln fibres had been detached, all the treated samples,
together with a control, were milled together by hand in warm 5 per cent,
soap solution. The shrinkages of the treated samples are shown as per­
centages of the shrinkage of the untreated sample in Table 7, which includes
values for the scaliness of the treated and untreated Lincoln fibres. Scaliness
measurements were made on carbonate-filled rubber surfaces with backings
of felt, using a bobweight leverage of 108 g. cms. The fibres were examined
dry and in soap solution. In the latter case, both the felt pads and the
rubber surfaces were wetted with soap solution, in which the fibres were
allowed to stand for two hours before use.
T ab le 7
Scaliness
Chlorine
absorbed
(g./100g.
wool
0-98
1-96
2-94
3-84
5-88
In soap solution
Shrink­
age in N um ber
of
area
fibres
100-0
44-6
19-1
- 2-0
- 3-0
- 3-0
49
50
43
49
53
50
Mean max.
tension
(g-)
1-99
1-18
0-43
0-27
0-30
0-21
±
±
±
±
±
±
0-08*
0-08
0-05
0-02
0-02
0-01
In a ir
Coeff. of N um ber
variatio n
of
fibres
(% )
27-5
48-8
67-0
57-7
54-9
48-8
50
46
44
50
—
42
Mean m ax.
tension
(g-)
1-19
0-42
0-26
0-17
±
±
±
±
Coeff. of
variatio n
( %)
0-04
0-02
0-02
0-02
25-8
32-8
42-4
36-5
o - ll ± 0-01
41-6
—
—
* S tandard error.
As the amount of chlorine absorbed by the wool increases, the shrinkage of
the treated patterns decreases, and so does the scaliness of the fibres in air
and in soap solution.
Decreased scaliness is undoubtedly the cause of
unshrinkability in the case of chlorinated wool, but it is interęsting that
complete unshrinkability should be realised before scaliness is entirely elimin­
tio 4
g — The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
ated. It must, however, be noted that the shrinkages of the treated patterns
were determined after a limited period of milling. When milling is prolonged,
chlorinated fabric undergoes rapid contraction after preliminary expansion,
as would be expected from the scaliness measurements. Data illustrating
this phenomenon were obtained with a chlorinated length of the flannel used
in the preceding experiments. A 47 -5g (air-dry) sample measuring 38 cms.
x 75 cms., with a 2-5g. (air-dry) control, was wetted out at room tempera­
ture in 1500 ccs. of M/20 potassium hydrogen phthalate solution (/>H 4)
containing o - i per cent. Teepol. Sodium hydrochlorite solution (500 ccs.)
containing 3-og. available chlorine per litre (3 per cent, on the weight of the
wool) was added over a j>eriod of 10 minutes with constant stirring. Treat­
ment was continued for a further 5 minutes and the cloth was then immersed
in 1 litre of 1 per cent, sodium bisulphite solution for 5 minutes, followed by
5 minutes in 1 litre of 0-5 per cent, sodium bicarbonate solution and over­
night washing in running water. The control pattern, on "being handmilled
with soap in the usual way, expanded 5 ■
8 per cent, whereas an untreated
pattern milled at the same time gave an area shrinkage of 44-2 per cent.
When the main length of chlorinated fabric was milled with soap in the
model milling nachine, however, pronounced shrinkage was ultimately
obtained. Untreated, chlorinated and two other lengths of flannel were
sewn together and milled at 20°C., using 135 ccs. of a 5 per cent, soap solu­
tion with a total weight of igog. wool. During milling, water was added
from time to time to compensate for loss by evaporation. The areas of
marked rectangles on the patterns were measured at intervals, and shrink­
age data for the untreated and chlorinated patterns are given in Table 8.
T ab le 8
Percentage s irin k ag e of
T im e of
Milling
(hours)
0-25
0-58
1-00
1-75
2-25
3-00
4-00
5-00
6-00
7-50
U ntreated f ibric
L ength
10-9
18-8
26-2
34-2
40-0
40-2
42-2
42-7
44-4
44-4
W id th
5-3
16-9
22-8
29-3
30-2
32-2
33-3
33-3
33-8
34-8
Ch orin ated fab ric
Area
L ength
W idth
14-7
32-5
43-0
53-5
58-1
59-5
61-4
61-8
63-2
63-8
2-4
4-7
8-2
15-0
19-7
24-2
27-9
330
35-8
37-2
- 4-5
- 3-0
- 1-9
0-9
1-7
4-6
1-7
5-6
8-4
9-6
Area
- 21
1-8
6-5
15-8
211
27-7
29-1
36-8
41-2
43-2
. Reverting to the data of Table 7, it is obvious that the lepidometer data
do provide a measure of the uniformity of treatment of the fibres. The
coefficient of variation rises rapidly as the amount of absorbed chlorine
increases up to 2 per cent. Beyond this point the coefficient falls, especially
in soap solution, suggesting that the primary^ irregularity of treatment with
small amounts of chlorine is smoothed out when more chlorine is used. As
was expected, therefore, the lepidometer can be used to assess the uniformity
of treatments calculated to make wool unshrinkable, as well as for the pur­
pose of elucidating the precise cause of unshrinkability in any particular
case.
(■
b) Cross-linkage Formation. As has already been indicated, fabrics
are incapable of undergoing milling shrinkage unless some or all of the
component fibres possess a surface scale structure, are easily deformed, and
possess the power of recovery from deformation. Conversely, it has been
argued that an unshrinkable finish might be conferred on wool fibres by
9 — The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
T I0 5
modifying their elastic properties instead of by the customary method of
attacking the surface scale structure1. In agreement with this deduction, a
high degree of unshrinkability has been imparted to wool fabrics by polymer­
ising ethylene sulphide and other monomers within the fibres so as to
increase their resistance to deformation6. A simpler method of modifying the
elastic properties of wool fibres in the manner required for unshrinkability is,
however, to increase the number of stable cross-linkages between the peptide
chains. Among agents known to be capable of cross-linking animal fibres,
by far the most effective are mercuric acetate and benzoquinone. Both com­
pounds were found to be capable of making wool fabrics unshrinkable7, but
i' i order to show that unshrinkability is due to changes in the elastic proper­
ties of the fibres, it became necessary to demonstrate that their scaliness was
unaltered. The lepidometer was employed for this purpose with fibres pre­
pared in the following manner.
(i)
Mercuric acetate. The root ends of Lincoln wool fibres were first
purified by extraction with alcohol and ether, and a bundle of fibres was
then attached by means of sewing cotton to a 2 •5g. (air-dry) sample of the
all-wool flannel described on p.
After the flannel had been immersed in
100 ccs. of a o -iM solution of mercuric acetate in 0• iM acetic acid for 1 hour
at 25°C., it was rinsed in three changes of 500 ccs. of distilled water over a
period of 1 hour. The Lincoln fibres were then removed for measurements
of scaliness, while the treated pattern was milled with an untreated pattern
by hand for 15 minutes in 5 per cent, soap solution. The shrinkages of both
patterns are given in Table 9, which includes the results of scaliness deter­
minations. Fifty fibres were examined in each case, using carbonate-filled
rubber surfaces, provided with backings of felt, and a bobweight leverage of
220g.cms. For measurements in soap solution, both the felt pads and the
rubber surfaces were wetted with soap in the usual way.
T ab le 9
Sea! iness
M aterial
U ntreated
T reated
Shrinkage
in area
(%)
37-1
3-4
In soap solution
Mean m axim um
tension
(g-)
4-30 ± 0T5*
4-69 ± 0T4
In
ir
Coefficient
of v ariatio n
(%)
Mean m axim um
tension
(g-)
Coefficient
of v a ria tio n
(%)
24-5
21-2
1-32 ± 0-07
1-39 ± 0-07
37-2
35-5
* S tan d ard error.
The scaliness of wool fibres is clearly unaffected by treatment with mercuric
acetate, and the unshrinkability which it imparts to woven fabric must be
referred to the modified elastic properties of the fibres.
(ii)
Benzoquinone. A 2-5g. (air-dry) pattern of flannel, with a bundle
of purified Lincoln fibres attached, was treated for 48 hours at 500 C. with
100 ccs. of a 1 per cent, solution of benzoquinone in a 5 per cent, (v/v)
solution of alcohol in a />H 5 phthalate buffer solution. After treatment, the
pattern and its attached fibres were washed in running water for 24 hours.
The fibres were then detached for scaliness measurements, while the pattern
was milled with an untreated pattern by hand for 15 minutes in 5 per cent,
soap solution. The shrinkages of both patterns are given in Table 10, which
includes the results of scaliness determinations on the Lincoln fibres. The
latter were examined under the same conditions as before, except that the
bobweight leverage was 108 g.cms.
t io 6
9— The Lepidometer— Speakman, Chamberlain and Menkart
T ab le 10
M aterial
U ntreated
T reated
Sc;iliness
Shrinkage
in area
(%)
44-2
169
In soap so lution
M ean m axim um
Coefficient
ten sio n
of v a ria tio n
(g-)
(%>
1-99 ± 0-08*
2-17 ± 0-08
27-5
25-8
In ir
Mean m axim um
Coefficient
ten sio n
of v ariatio n
(g.)
(%)
1-19 ± 0 04
1-05 ± 0-04
25-8
26-6
* S tan d ard error.
Like mercuric acetate, benzoquinone does not affect the scaliness of wool
fibres, and the unshrinkability which it confers on woven fabric must be
referred to the modified elastic properties of the fibres.
The preceding illustrations, drawn from the work of this laboratory on
milling shrinkage and the unshrinkable finish, will, it is hoped, serve to
demonstrate the general utility of the lepidometer.
SUM M ARY
An instrument, termed a lepidometer, has been constructed for the pur­
pose of measuring the Scaliness of animal fibres by determining the maximum
tension developed when single fibres are suspended, root end downwards,
from a tension-measuring device, and rubbed between rubber or polythene
surfaces. Measurements can be carried out in air or in aqueous solutions, and
the general utility of the instrument has been demonstrated by examples
drawn from work on milling shrinkage and the unshrinkable finish.
The authors are indebted to the International Wool Publicity and Re­
search Secretariat for grants in aid of the investigation, and to Dr. C. S.
Whewell for permission to use some of his unpublished results.
REFERENCES
1 Speakm an, S to tt and Chang, J. T ext.Inst., 1933, 24, T273.
2 Speakm an and S to tt, J . Text. In st., 19 31, 22, T339.
3 W hewell and Woods, J . Soc. Dyers and Colourists, 1944, 60, 148.
4Arnold, Leipziger M onats. fur T extilind., 1929, 44, 463, 507, 540.
6 Speakm an, J . Text. Inst., 1941, 32, T83.
6 Speakm an, B arr and Im perial Chemical Industries Lim ited, B.P. 559, 787 ; B arr
and Speakm an, J . Soc. Dyers and Colourists, 1944, 60, 238.
7 B arr and Speakm an, ibid., 1944, 60, 335.
8 R udall, P riv ate Comm unication.
“•Speakman, M enkart and Liu, / . Text. In st., 1944, 3 5 , T41.
10 Speakm an and Goodings, J Text. In st., 1926, 17, T607.
11 Whewell, R igelhaupt and Selim, N ature, 1944, 154, 7 7 2 ; Selim, M.Sc. Thesis, Leeds
U niversity, 1942.
12 Cham berlain and Speakm an, Nature, 1942, 150, 546.
Received 6/ 1 1 / 44.
Textile Chemistry Laboratory,
Leeds University.
T I0 7
10—THE TEN SILE BEHAVIOUR OF RAW COTTON AND
OTHER TEXTILE FIBR ES
By
R
e g in a l d
M e r e d it h ,
(British C otton In d u stry Research Association)
(Copyright by the Textile Institute).
CONTENTS.
PAGE
(1) I n t r o d u c t i o n
(2) F i b r e
..............................................................................................................
... TI09
C h aracters M easu red
(а) Fineness
(б) Strength
(c) E xtensibility ...
( d ) Yield stress and strain
(e) W ork of rupture
(/) V ariation w ithin a sample
3 )M a t e r ia l s T e s t e d
an d
(4) E x p e r i m e n t a l M e t h o d s
. . . TI0 9
... TI0 9
... TIIO
... TI IO
... TI IO
... T i l l
S a m p l in g M e t h o d s
...
...
(a) W eighing the fibres ...
(b) Recording the load-extension curves
(5 ) M e a s u r e m e n t s
(6) D i s c u s s i o n
of
on
th e
S t r e s s -S t r a in
C urves
R esults
(a) Cottons
(b) B ast and other vegetable fibres
(e) R ayons
( d ) Silk, nylon and Vinyon
(e) Wool, hair and casein fibres
(/) Comparison of different fibres
T ables I
to
A p p e n d ix
I.
A p p e n d ix
II.
. . . T 107
... T i l l
... T I I 2
... T I I 2
... T I I 3
... T I I 4
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
TII5
Til 5
T ll6
T ll6
TII9
T I 20
T I2 I
TI 24- I2 8
IX
D ensities of Textile Fibres ...
D ata for Stress-Strain Curves of Various Fibres ..
... T I 28
... T I 29
(1) IN T R O D U C T IO N
Fibres are used for their several purposes according to empirical knowledge
of their utility, gained in long experience ; it is only recently that sufficient
has been learnt about the properties of the different fibres to enable one fibre
to be substituted for another with a reasonable hope of success. Even
to-day the data on the properties of fibres are scattered through the litera­
ture, and the conditions under which these properties have been determined
vary greatly. If the conditions are not controlled there can be no valid
comparison of properties, for the mechanical properties of fibres depend on
the degree of purification, mechanical history, relative humidity and tempera­
ture of the surrounding air, on the test length, and on the rate of loading.
Thus, for example, the strength of a silk filament depends on whether it is
in the raw or in the degummed state ; an increase in the relative humidity
of the air causes the strength of cotton to rise but that of wool to f a ll; the
strength of a fibre decreases as the test length increases because in a longer
length of fibre there is a greater chance of a weak place occurring ; and it
is well known that the quicker a material is ruptured, the greater is its
apparent strength. Since the effects of the above conditions are sometimes
very large and 'varied it is essential to compare different fibres under the
same conditions. This has been done in this paper, the conditions adopted
being a length of 1 centimetre, a relative humidity of 65 per cent., a tempera­
ture of 20° C. and a rate of loading of 10 grams per denier per minute.
Before the new data to be presented are considered, a very brief review
of the literature on the strength of fibres will be given. It is fortunate that
the strength of the cotton fibre is little affected by the relative humidity
between 60 and 100 per cent. Most observers appear to have selected
tio
8
io — The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
i centimetre as the test length so there only remain the rate of loading and
type of instrument to cause any large variations. Almost all the tests
made at the Shirley Institute between 1920 and 1930 were made on a modified
O ’Neill1 instrument with water or ammonium nitrate solution to condition
the air surrounding the fibre. Balls’s magazine hair tester2 has been used
in addition to the O’Neill instrument by Indian workers, whilst the German
technologists prefer the Schopper3 or the Krais-Keyl3 instrument.
In order to compare results for different cottons the specific strength
has been evaluated by dividing the mean breaking load by the mean fibre
weight per unit length, and plotted against the fineness or inverse fibre
weight per unit length. The data obtained by most observers4, *•6> 7- *■*■10
agree among themselves, but those given by Schwab appear to be low on
the average, as also do those of Barritt11 for Sea Island and Sakel cottons
tested wet on Balls’s magazine tester. There is a positive correlation
between specific strength and fineness in general, with Maarad and PunjabAmerican 289F cottons consistently weak for their fineness whereas Peruvian
cottons are relatively strong. Strength data for the bast fibres12' 13■
14■
15' 16
are scarce but from the few results available flax, hemp, ramie and sisal
appear to have approximately the same strength whilst jute is appreciably
weaker.
There are numerous results for rayon17,18>19■
20■21 in the literature and
a summary with references to original sources is given by Weltzien.22 From
the collected results the finer viscose rayons are seen to have a strength of
about 2-5 grams per denier for 1 J-denier and 2-0 grams per denier for 3-denier
rayons. The acetate rayons have an average strength of 1-4 grams per
denier and the cuprammonium rayons about 2-0 grams per denier.
Of the synthetic fibres, nylon is outstanding with its remarkable elastic pro­
perties. It can be made in any denier within wide limits and has a specific
strength of from 4 to 7 grams per denier and an extension at break of from
20 to 30 per cent, depending on the amount the filament has been stretched
in production. . Typical present day values are 5 grams per denier and
20 per cent, extension.23 Vinyon24,25 is another synthetic fibre which can
be made to give a range of strengths from 1 to 4 grams per denier; the
higher the strength, the lower is the extensibility. Glass26' 27 gives by far
the strongest textile fibre but it is, of course, very brittle. A strength
of 12 grams per denier with an extension at break of 4 per cent, is about
average for present day production. Complete data on the effect of fineness,
test length and rate of loading on the strength and extension of glass fibres
are given by Anderegg.27
Few results could be found for silk6' 28,29' 30 but it appears that the
finer silks have higher specific strength and lower extension at break. The
striking feature about the specific strength of wool fibres6,17,28,31,32,33,34
is that there is no significant variation with fineness; the same is true of
casein fibres.6,17,14>28,35,36
A large part of the present work is concerned with cotton, rayon and
silk although for purposes of comparison it has been extended to samples
of bast fibres, wools and synthetic products. Some 58 samples in all have
been tested, consisting of 15 cotton, 8 bast fibre, 17 rayon, 4 silk, 3 wool
and 11 miscellaneous.
It is hoped that the results may be useful to the technologist who seeks
to build fabrics for special purposes, although it is realised that the number
of samples tested is limited and the properties measured are few. The
advantage of making tests on the fibres themselves is that information is
obtained about the properties of the material without the complication of
yarn or fabric structure. The disadvantage is the great variability of
single fibres, which necessitates a large number of tests to obtain a significant
result. Stress-strain curves have been obtained for all the samples and
should be useful in many ways.
and Other Textile Fibres— Meredith
TI09
(2) F IB R E C H A RA CTERS M E A SU R E D
Although the relation of stress to strain is the main characteristic studied
in this paper it is necessary to describe the fibre by such geometrical charac­
teristics as length and fineness for they affect not only the test results but
also the application of the data to specific problems. For example, a fine
wool can be spun into a much finer yarn than a coarse wool so that the
former would have a soft handle although there would be little difference
in specific strength.
(a) F in en ess
The fineness is one of the factors which determines the finest count of
yarn that can be spun ; it affects the stiffness and lustre of the yarn. The
inverse of the fibre weight per unit length has been used as a measure of
fineness, for it is much easier to weigh a given length of fibre than to measure
its diameter at many points and find the average. The denier, i.e., the
weight in grams of 9,000 metres of the fibre was chosen as the general unit
for expressing fineness.
In the case of cotton the fineness is affected by the maturity of the hairs
in the sample and the “ intrinsic fineness ” (<p) has been calculated to compare <p
all cottons at an arbitrary degree of maturity37. The “ effective length ”
in thirty-seconds of an inch has been measured on cotton only, to describe
the sample more completely in terms that are familiar to the industrialist.
(b) F ibre S tren gth
The strength of a textile material is usually taken as the first criterion
of quality. It is especially important in mechanical fabrics such as con­
veyor belts, canvasses, tyre fabrics, etc. In order to compare the strengths
of fabrics of different dimensions it is simpler to compare the ratios of strength
to weight rather than the ratios of strength to area of cross-section. The
force required to rupture a fibre is termed the breaking load (F) and it is F
usually expressed in grams. For a particular kind of fibre it depends on many
factors such as area of cross-section, test length, and relative humidity.
The ratio of breaking load to fibre weight per unit length (or denier) is
considered the most significant measure of strength for the comparison of
different fibres. Since this quantity has the dimensions of a length it is often
called the “ breaking length ” and it may be expressed in units of kilometres
or hanks. The term “ breaking length,” however, is rather difficult for the
general reader to grasp, and the term “ specific strength ” (5 ), which will S
be used henceforward, is preferred. The specific strength is expressed in
grams per denier throughout, but the units may be changed to kilometres
if necessary b y multiplying the number of grams per denier by 9. The
engineer’s usual measure of ultimate tensile stress in kg.mm.'2 is obtained
by multiplying the specific strength in grams per denier by nine times the
density in grams per c.c. This neglects the cross-sectional contraction
which can be taken into account, approximately, by multiplying the breaking
stress b y (1+ E ), where E is the fractional extension at break.
A table of densities collected from the literature is given in Appendix I
to enable this to be done. It would be as well to point out that the breaking
stresses so obtained refer to the average cross-section of the fibre and not to
the cross-section at the weakest portion where and when the fibre breaks.
Since the variation of strength with rate of loading is approximately
the same for all fibres38' 39■
40■
41■
42 it is immaterial what rate of loading is
used so long as it is the same for all fibres. We have used a rate of loading
as near as possible to 10 grams per denier per minute. A t the time when
these tests were made it was only possible to vary the rate of loading in steps
so that the rate of loading was not exactly 10 grams per denier per minute
for each sample. However, a correction has been made to all the load
measurements so that they correspond to a constant rate of loading of
exactly xo grams per denier per minute.
T I 10
io — The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
This has been done by using the fact38 that an increase in rate of loading
of ten times will produce an increase in strength of io per cent., or expressed
mathematically,
F/F 10 = i + o - i logi„ (R/R10)
where F =load at any given rate of loading R, and F 10 = load at a standard
rate of loading, R10. The value of R is the quotient of the known rate of
loading in grams per minute and the average denier of the sample tested.
(c) E x ten sib ility
E
The extensibility is a very characteristic quality of a fibre, indicating
the nature of the forces that resist deformation of the fibre structure. The
relatively inextensible fibres have well-oriented structural units which
cannot be displaced very far from their initial positions before the strain
falls on the main chemical bonds. The highly extensible fibres have longchain molecules which are either oriented at random or capable of unfolding
without disturbing the main structure.
Under the heading of extensibility we have to distinguish between the
extension at break or breaking extension (E) and the stress-strain modulus.
The extension at break is the amount by which a fibre will stretch before
rupture and it is expressed as a percentage of the initial test length. The
values of the extension at break have not been corrected for the small diff­
erences in rate of loading because experience indicates that they are unaffected
at least over the small range which is here involved.
Most of the stress-strain curves show an initial part where the stress is
proportional to the strain and for this part of the curve it has been possible
to measure the “ initial Young’s modulus ” which is the ratio of stress to
strain and can be regarded as the stress required to double the length of the
specimen. The initial Young’s modulus has been expressed in units of
grams per denier to conform with the strength results. It can be used, for
example, to compare the stresses set up when various fibres are stretched
by the same small amount.
(d) Y ield S tr e s s and S tra in
The stress-strain curves have many varied shapes for different fibres.
Certain fibres show a sudden increase in extension for a small increase in
stress after the initial portion where stress is proportional to strain. The
place where this occurs is sometimes called the yield point although the
effect usually takes place over a region of extension. The yield point is
taken as that point where the tangent to the curve is parallel to the line
joining the start and finish. The advantage of this method is its applicability
to almost any shape of curve and it has the definite physical meaning that
beyond the yield point so defined the fibre extends at a greater rate than
on the average.
There are, of course, certain cases where there may be two tangents which
satisfy the above conditions or where the values for yield strain are higher
than would appear from a visual examination of the stress-strain curve and
the significance of the yield point has to be considered individually for each
o f these cases. The direct criterion of yield is to unload the fibre just after
the yield point and see how much it recovers, but that goes beyond the scope
of this paper.
The significance of the yield point is that if a fibre is stretched beyond
this point it will not show complete immediate recovery, although it may
creep back slowly to its original length. This phenomenon is important in
winding rayon, for example, where over-stretching may cause subsequent
lustre defects in the finished fabric. The yield stress is expressed in grams
per denier and the yield strain as a percentage.
<e) W ork of R upture
It is interesting to compare the amount of work required to rupture
different fibres. This is represented by the area enclosed by the stress-strain
■and Other Textile Fibres— Meredith
T ill
curve and the strain axis and would be half the product of the breaking load
and breaking extension if Hooke’s law were obeyed. The stress-strain
curves for textiles depart considerably from a linear relation but the idea of
work of rupture as one half the product of load and extension at break can be
retained by introducing a “ work factor ” which is the ratio of the actual
work of rupture to the product of load and extension at break. Thus, for a
material obeying Hooke’s law, the “ work factor ” is 0-5 ; if the actual
work of rupture is less than half the product of load and extension at break,
the “ work factor ” is less than 0-5 and, similarly, if the actual work of
rupture is greater than half the product of load and extension at break, the
“ work factor ” is greater than 0-5. The work of rupture is thus given by
(work factor) x(load at break) x (extension at break), and has been expressed
in grp. cm. per denier for a 1 cm. length of fibre. Obviously, the work of
rupture is proportional to the length of fibre tested.
The work of rupture measures the ability of a fibre to absorb energy,
i.e., to withstand a sudden shock. It happens that strong fibres are usually
inextensible and vice-versa, so that a relatively weak fibre may have a higher
work of rupture than a very strong fibre.
(f) V ariation w ith in a S a m p le
When considering such a variable material as a textile fibre, it is im­
portant to know how much variation there is in any measured quantity.
For example, one fibre which is very regular but slightly weaker than a
more irregular fibre may give a stronger yarn.
The variability of a quantity can be expressed by the coefficient of
variation which is calculated by statistical methods. It is the standard
deviation43 expressed as a percentage of the mean. From these coefficients
we can easily see which are the more regular fibres. The coefficient of varia­
tion can also be used to estimate the effect of test length on the strength of a
sample of fibres because the increase in strength for a given decrease in the
test length is roughly proportional to the coefficient of variation.44
The standard error is another quantity which is easily obtained from the
standard deviation on dividing by the square root of the number of observa­
tions of a given quantity. It enables the reliability of a mean to be estimated
or the significance of the difference between two means to be established.
Thus, the probability is 20 to 1 in favour of the true mean being within plus
or minus three times the standard error. Similarly, if the difference between
two means is greater than twice the square root of the sum of the squares
of the standard errors of the two means, then the probability is 20 to 1 in
favour of the difference being real. For example, the strength of one Punjab
American cotton is 2-92 ±-i8 grams per denier, whilst that of another is
3*37 ± 'i8 grams per denier, but since the difference is less than twice
-\/o-i82+ o -i8 2, the difference is not statistically significant.
The correlation coefficient is another statistical quantity which is useful
for comparing the degree of relationship between two variable quantities.
A numerical value of + 1 indicates a perfect positive relation between the
two quantities, a value of zero indicates no relationship at all and a value of
- 1 indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases in perfect
relationship.
(3) M A TER IALS T E S T E D A N D SA M PL IN G M E T H O D S
The object of this paper is to compare certain physical properties of a
large range of textile fibres. This means that the samples chosen should be
as representative as possible. In Table I all the samples except the cottons
are described by a name, with a few notes on their origin or preparation.
There are eight samples of bast fibre which include flax, jute, hemp, and
ramie. In selecting samples from ihe multitude of varieties of jute and
hemp, it was considered desirable to include their botanical names. Apart
from the common hemp (Cannabis sativa), there are two others which are
TI 12
i o — The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
quite abundant, namely, Sunn or Bombay hemp (Crotalaria juncea) and
Manila hemp (Musa textilis), but these were found to be too coarse for our
instrument and had to be omitted. The last two samples included under
the sub-heading “ bast fibres ” were seed-hairs used for lifebelts and thermal
insulation ; they are too smooth and weak to be spun into yarn.
Seventeen samples of rayon were tested and included viscose, basified
viscose, acetate, cuprammonium and nitro rayon. Four of the samples may
be classed in the category of stretched rayons. The series of four Celanese
samples have suffered different degrees of stretch during manufacture, but
were not necessarily all made from the same mixing. The staple fibres
were chosen in the raw state to avoid alteration in the shape of some of the
stress-strain curves which takes place when the staple fibre is converted into
yarn.
Three samples of silk were chosen to represent the three main silkproducing countries and a sample of wild Tussah silk was included. One fine,
one medium and one coarse wool were chosen to see whether there was any
marked variation due to fineness. Information on length, fineness and
maturity is provided in Table II for 15 samples of raw cotton which were
chosen to cover the usual range of fineness for commercial varieties.
Good sampling is essential in fibre tests so that the few fibres tested
shall be representative. The. fibres were usually either in the raw state or in
yarn and the method of sampling depended on whether the fibre was of short
staple, long staple or continuous.
For raw cotton and short-staple fibres the sample, weighing about 50
grams, was first divided into four quarters. Next, tufts were taken at random
from each quarter and each of these halved four times, discarding right andleft-hand halves alternately, so producing 16 wisps from each quarter. Each
of the four sets of 16 wisps was combined into four tufts which were “ doubled
and drawn ” between fingers and thumb before dividing each tuft into
four parts and recombining corresponding quarters of each tuft to form
four new tufts. Each of these was then “ doubled and drawn ” individually
before taking a quarter of each and mixing well to form a sample. This
sample was combed with a steel comb to remove short fibres and the very
long fibres were removed with a pair of tweezers, leaving the sample to be
used.
When the sample consisted of long-staple fibres such as wool or waste
silk, the procedure was to select six fairly substantial tufts at random from
various parts. These tufts were then individually reduced, well mixed,
combed and cut, then ten fibres taken from a wisp abstracted from each tuft.
Continuous filament yam was dealt with by cutting six 2-cm. lengths at
appreciable intervals along the yarn, and selecting ten fibres without bias
from each tuft to form the sample. The ultimate fibres of linen yarn were
easily separated but occasionally there were fibre bundles which were de­
tected by examination under the microscope and separated with forceps.
The hemp and jute yam s consisted of fibre bundles which could not usually
be reduced to ultimates by mechanical means ; any extraneous fibre was
removed before weighing.
The number of fibres tested was 50 per sample of cotton and the bast
fibres and 25 per sample of rayon, silk, wool and synthetic fibres, which are
more regular. This number excluded grip breaks and was not very large
because the main interest lay in the load-extension curve which is sufficiently
defined by this number of curves.
(4) E X P E R IM E N T A L M E T H O D S
(a) W e ig h in g th e F ib r e s
The fineness or denier of a fibre was determined on a microbalance which
consisted essentially of a fine phosphor-bronze strip fixed in a horizontal
position at one end and loaded with the fibre at the other (see Fig. 1). The
and Other Textile Fibres—Meredith
T II3
deflection of the strip, which is proportional to the weight of the fibre, was
observed with a micrometer eyepiece.
A length of 2 cms. was removed from the centre of the final sample with a
cutting tool consisting of two razor blades clamped to a brass spacing block.
It is important that the fibres should be straight, parallel and under enough
tension to remove the natural crimp. Six pinches were carefully abstracted
with tweezers and the first ten fibres taken from the right-hand side of each
pinch were weighed. If the fibres were not selected systematically, the
resulting group would be biased towards the heavy side owing to the tendency
to pick up the more rigid and more easily observed fibres. The zero reading
was noted before and after each weighing and the individuality of the fibres
preserved by placing them in order under glass slides on a black velvet pad.
Two microbalances were used, one (.4 ) very sensitive, for weighing single
fibres whose mean fibre weight did not exceed 500 x io~8grams per centimetre,
and a second (B) 5 times less sensitive, for weighing heavier single fibres or
small groups of finer fibres. They were calibrated against a microbalance (C)
of the same type, but lower sensitivity, which was itself calibrated with a
Section through Microbalance.
standard weight. The method of calibrating the finer microbalance (A)
consisted of weighing a 2-cm. length of 33-denier 10-filament nylon yam on
the directly calibrated micro balance (C), then separating the filaments and
weighing these individually on the .finer balance. To calibrate the less
sensitive balance (B ), five i-cm. lengths of 30-denier nylon yam were weighed
together on the directly calibrated microbalance (C) and then separately
on microbalance (B ). The sensitivities of the microbalances (A ) and (B)
were i 6 x i o -8 grams per division (mm.) and 86 x io " 8 grams per division
(mm.) respectively.
(b) R ecordin g the L oad -E x ten sio n C urves
The apparatus used for determining the load-extension curve of a fibre
was an autographic load-extension recorder described by Cliff45, with several
minor improvements. The load was applied to the specimen by the rotation
of a spiral spring and the load-extension curve was recorded photographically
in rectilinear co-ordinates. The load calibration was effected by suspending
weights from the top grip and noting the number of revolutions of the spiral
spring required to bring the arm holding the grip back to its horizontal
equilibrium position. The maximum load which could be recorded depended
on the torsional modulus of the spiral spring. The spring normally used had
a range of 15 grams and it gave a constant rate of loading of 0-30 gram per
T II4
io — The Tensile Behaviour o / Raw Cotton
second. For coarse wool, ramie, etc., stronger springs had to be used and
consequently the actual rate of loading in grams per second was higher, but
the rate of loading in grams per denier per minute was of the same order of
magnitude for all the fibres tested.
The optical system was adjusted to give a linear magnification of the
extension of the specimen. It was normally about 12 x but by using the
inner grip on the loading arm, this was increased five-fold to about 60 x .
To measure this magnification and hence calculate the extension calibration
factor, a Pye travelling telescope was set up before the instrument and the
movement of the top grip observed through the telescope while the corre­
sponding position of the spot of light on the recording bromide paper was
noted. The maximum extension which could be recorded was 80 per cent,
on a i-cm. test length.
To mount a fibre to a length of 1 cm., it was laid along the centre of a
special card mount and secured at each edge by a small drop of wax, melted
b y a hot glass rod or needle. Care was taken to avoid heat tendering of the
fibre and it was mounted straight with just sufficient tension to remove any
kinks. Everett’s No. 1 wax (M.P. 57° C.) was generally used for mounting
all except the very strong fibres; it does not harden so quickly as shellac
(M.P. 1200C.), but it produces fewer grip breaks on regular fibres such as
nylon. For the strong bast fibres, it was necessary to use shellac to prevent
yielding of the mountant. Necol cellulose cement was used for such fibres
as vinyon, which softens at 6o° C . ; one end was mounted and left for one
hour to set before mounting the other end.
A load-extension curve was made by clamping the mounted fibre between
the grips, cutting away the sides of the mount, and then, starting with the
fibre just taut, the load was increased at a constant rate until the fibre
ruptured. The testing was carried out in a room in which the relative
humidity was controlled at 65 ±2 per cent., and the temperature at 20 ±2° C.
(5) M E A SU R E M E N T S ON T H E S T R E S S -S T R A IN CURVES
The load-extension curves were measured by means of a glass graticule
divided into millimetre squares. The load and extension at break and at the
yield point (if any) were measured for each curve and the mean values found
for each sample. The yield point was taken at that point where the tangent
to the curve was parallel to the line joining the start and finish.
Typical stress-strain curves for each sample have been determined by
choosing five curves with strength, extension and yield point nearest the
mean values, taking the load for each curve at 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 per cent,
of the corresponding breaking extension, and finding the mean for the five
curves. The mean breaking load and mean breaking extension of these five
curves were adjusted to the corresponding mean values for the sample
and the intermediate values worked out by proportion. The absolute
measures of the yield values were incorporated in the curves. This method
was used because it preserves the characteristic shape of the curve better
than taking the mean load for all the curves at fixed percentages of the
breaking extension.
Almost all the stress-strain curves commence with a linear portion for
which an “ initial Young’s modulus,” i.e., ratio of stress to strain, can be
evaluated. In order to obtain a true mean value for this quantity for each
sample, it is necessary to calculate the ratio of stress to strain for each fibre
and then find the mean.
The work of rupture was measured for each sample by means of an
Amsler planimeter and the “ work factor ” calculated as the ratio of the
measured work of rupture to the product of load at break and extension at
break.
and Other Textile Fibres— Meredith
T I1 5
(6) D IS C U S S IO N OF R E S U L T S
The mean values of fineness, strength and extension at break, together
with the initial Young’s modulus, yield stress and yield strain (if any),
work of rupture and work factor are recorded in Tables III to VII. The
standard errors for fineness, breaking load, specific strength and extension
at break are also included in these tables.
(a) C otton
The cottons range from superfine Sea Island to coarse Indian, and they
have been placed in Table III in the order Sea Island, Egyptian, American,
African and Indian. There is a tendency for coarser fibres to have a higher
breaking load but not in proportion to their area of cross-section. The
specific strength shows a large increase with increasing fineness so that the
long, fine cottons are considerably stronger for the same weight than short,
coarse cottons. The extension at break varies from 5 per cent, to 10 per cent.,
with a mean of 7-3 per cent., and shows no correlation with fineness. These
observations are in agreement with the results obtained by Clegg1’ 6,
Schmidhaiiser8, Brown, Mann and Peirce7, and Morton8, but the strengths
given by Schwab17 for tests at 65 per cent. R.H. appear to be low.
The correlation coefficients (r) for intrinsic fineness (95), effective length (L )
and specific strength (S) are
(<P ,L),r-0-89; (<p, S), r =o-8o ; and (L, S), r = 0-83
so that there is a fairly good relationship between S and <p and between
S and L, with little to choose between them. The Ishan and Tanguis cottons
are coarse for their effective lengths and show high breaking loads with a
specific strength corresponding to their effective length. A relatively high
strength for Peruvian cottons was found by other workers5, • ' 38. The
Tanganyika cotton was very immature and gave a low specific strength.
Giza 7 cotton stands out as a cotton which is strong both in relation to its
length and fineness, whereas Maarad is weak in both comparisons.
The mean values of the correlation coefficients for individual fibre weight
(H), breaking load (F), specific strength (S), and extension at break (E) are
(H ,F ),r = 0-38; (F, E), r = 0-58 ; (E, H), r = 0-12; (H, S ),r = -0-20.
Thus, in general, there is some correlation between breaking load and fibre
weight within a variety, fair correlation between load and extension at
break and no correlation between fibre weight and breaking extension nor
between fibre weight and specific strength. From the observed lack o f
relationship between specific strength and fibre weight within a variety, we
deduce that the specific strength of a small sample whose mean fibre weight
differs from that of the bulk sample will not differ much from that which
would have been obtained from the latter. The correlation between fibre
weight and breaking load within a variety has been recorded by previous
workers (who used mean fibre weight and mean breaking load of small
samples), as 0-35 (Brown, Mann and Peirce7), and 0-59 for 90 and 45. Indian
cottons (Turner and Venkataraman9), which can be compared with our mean
value of 0-38.
When the mean strength, etc., were calculated, the fibres which ruptured
at the place where they were gripped were neglected and the first 50 results
free from grip breaks were used. Some data for these grip breaks were
collected and they showed that the number of grip breaks per sample of 50
good breaks averaged 12 per cent. There are three possible causes of grip
breaks, namely, damage at the grip (heat tendering, skew mounting, etc.),
naturally-occurring weak places, and weakening of a very regular fibre by
the restraining action of the grip. Now, some 5-6 per cent., or roughly half
of the grip breaks had breaking loads greater than the mean, so the con­
clusion was drawn that the low values of strength which may be due to
damaged fibres (at the grip) are balanced roughly by the high values resulting
from regular fibres weakened by the grip.
t iió
i o—
The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
The average specific strength of the grip breaks was 6-7 per cent, less than
normal, so that if grip breaks were included in the normal mean, the strength
would be lowered on the average by only 6-7 xo-12 = 0-8 per cent, which is
insignificant. Therefore, it is unnecessary to neglect grip breaks when a large
number of cotton fibres are tested by the technique described above, and this
means that a bundle of fibres can be weighed en masse before testing, with a
great saving of time.
The average fibre-weight of the grip breaks was very close to that of the
normal means (only 1-3 per cent, less), so that thin and thick fibres were
equally affected. The extension at break was not appreciably different,
being only 1-7 per cent, greater than normal.
STRAIN %
Fig. 2. S tress/Strain Curves for'C otton.
In order to avoid confusion, only five stress-strain curves have been
drawn in Figure 2, but the end points for the remaining samples are shown.
A ll the cottons give similar curves consisting of a linear portion after the
“ crimp ” has been removed by a stress of 0-03 gram per denier, then a
transition region at about 0-3 to o-g gram per denier before the curve assumes
a definite concavity to the stress axis. The inflexion in the stress-strain
curve can be detected in the curves for Sakel cotton given by Brown, Mann
and Peirce7, and it is present to some extent in all the stress-strain curves
of native cellulose fibres. Those individual curves which proceed far enough
before rupture approach a modulus of elasticity which appears to be inde­
pendent of the type of cotton. Owing to the more pronounced curvature
of the stress-strain curves for the more extensible cottons, they have a
lower “ work factor ” than average. The initial Young’s modulus increases
considerably with fineness, being almost twice as large for Sea Island as for
Indian cotton.
and Othev Textile Fibres— Meredith
T I1 7
More detailed information on the relation of the elastic properties of
raw cotton to its length, fineness, maturity and structure will be given in
another paper concerned only with cotton.
(b ) B a st and oth er V egetable F ib res
The testing of bast fibres presents several difficulties, arising from their
structure. In the first place, for example, hemp fibres consist of bundles of
ultimate cells tenaciously held together, the size of the bundles depending on
the stage to which retting has been taken. If one is concerned with the
relationship of fibre strength to yarn strength, then the fibre bundles must
obviously be tested. On the other hand, for reinforcement of plastics the
strength of the ultimate cells is more appropriate. These ultimates would be
too small to be tested under the standard conditions laid down above, yet the
fibre bundles are often too coarse to be tested with the present apparatus
(e.g., Manila hemp). The procedure adopted here was to examine the flax
and ramie fibres to ensure that only ultimates were tested, and to remove
only stray fibrils from the jute and hemp fibre bundles. The test results are
recorded in Table IV.
The sample of line flax had a higher specific strength than the tow flax,
a result also obtained by Slattery,13 whose actual strengths, however, were
lower than our values. An average strength of 3-5 grams per denier for
the two samples of jute is close to the 3-6 to 3-8 grams per denier quoted
by Barker13 and about the same as that of Egyptian cotton. Hemp fibres
appear to be almost as strong as flax fibres, our value of 5-2 grams per
denier for Russian hemp agreeing with the 5.0 grams per denier for hemp
quoted by Barker13.
The two samples of ramie had been treated by the Sabner process55 to
remove almost all the intercullular substances and to isolate single cells.
According to this process, the ramie fibre may have more than 98 per cent,
of its gum removed by subjecting iit in batches of less than 50 lb. in one
vessel six times to the following treatment. Boil for less than 30 minutes
in less than 0-5 per cent, caustic alkali, run off the liquor and squeeze, rinse
with water and if desired, treat with weak acid, run off the liquor and rinse
with water. A very high strength of 6-7 grams per denier was obtained,
comparable with 6-5 and 6-8 grams per denier recorded in the litera­
ture14’15 for similarly treated fibre. The specific strength and extensibility
increase as the fibre is purified by treatment in 2 per cent, caustic soda
solution.
Kapok and akund were weak compared with other vegetable fibres; they
are normally used as a packing material for life-jackets, heat and sound
insulation.
Owing to the low extensibility of the bast fibres, their work of rupture is
comparatively low in spite of their high strength. All the bast fibres except
ramie gave a stress-strain curve which was almost linear and, consequently,
the “ work factor ” was 0-5. The samples of ramie gave a slightly S-shaped
stress-strain curve.
(c ) R ayons
When considering the elastic properties of rayons it must be realised
that they are determined to a large extent by the manufacturing process
and only careful control will ensure that any two samples produced by one
manufacturer are the same. Nevertheless, it is possible to obtain a general
idea of the behaviour of the different kinds of rayon by considering a large
number of samples from many sources. In order to specify the rayons more
precisely, their 2 per cent. fluidities in cuprammonium solution have been given
in Table V, together with their mean fineness, strength, extension at break, etc.
The fineness of the rayon samples varied considerably, depending on the
method of manufacture. Generally, the stretched rayons had fine filaments
and they were strong and relatively inextensible. The ordinary rayons of
low denier showed a smaller extension at break than those of high denier.
t i i
8
i o — The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
The specific strengths of the rayons varied from i-o to 6 7 grams per
denier, with the majority between 1 and 3 grams per denier. With the
exception of Seraceta (high extension) and the stretched fibres, the extension
at break lay generally between 15 per cent, and 25 per cent. The stretched
rayons gave greatly increased strength with correspondingly reduced ex­
tension at break. D ata from the literature for the strength and extension
at 65 per cent. R.H. of some 70 samples of viscose rayon, 10 samples of
acetate rayon and 10 samples of cuprammonium rayon were plotted and the
average values calculated. The average strength and extension at break
of viscose rayon were 2-5 grams per denier and 17 per cent, for i|-denier
rayon and 2-0 grams per denier and 20 per cent, for 3-denier rayon. Our
values for ordinary viscose rayons are about the same. The cuprammonium
Fig. 3.
Stress/Strain Curves for Rayons.
rayons appear to have strength and extension at break very similar to the
viscose rayon. Our mean values of 1-3 grams per denier and 29 per cent,
for ordinary acetate rayon are in agreement with the values 1-4 grams per
denier and 30 per cent, recorded in the literature for ten samples.
The initial Young’s modulus varied from 26 grams per denier for Seraceta
to 183 grams per denier for Celanese FS9, with most of the values for ordinary
viscose rayon from 50 to 80 grams per denier. Much of the extension of
ordinary rayons is not recoverable and the values of stress and strain at the
yield point are of more practical value than the strength and extension at
break. The yield stress for ordinary rayons varied between o-6 and 0-9
gram per denier, whilst that of stretched rayons was considerably higher.
and Other Textile Fibres— Meredith
TIIQ
The viscose, cuprammonium and nitro rayons gave a yield strain of approxi­
mately 2 per cent., whilst for acetate rayon it was between 3 and 4 per cent.
The “ work factor ” for rayons showed a definite tendency to increase with
extension at break.
The stress-strain curves of these rayons are shown in Figure 3, where it is
at once apparent that high strength is associated with low extensibility and
vice-versa. The gap between normal and stretched rayons could be bridged
by a product such as high-tenacity Tenasco rayon. There are one or two
points of interest. For example, Acetate Fibro and Seraceta follow the same
curve for most of the way ; both Fibro and Acetate Fibro appear to rupture
at a lower extension than the corresponding continuous filament materials,
viscose and Seraceta ; and the Strong Fibro is only a little stronger than
the ordinary Fibro but it has an appreciably higher yield point. There are
several papers in the literature46 which give stress-strain curves for rayon,
but the test conditions are often so diverse as to make comparison im­
practicable.
Fig. 4.
Stress/Strain C urves for Silks and S y n th e tic F ibres.
(d) S ilk , N y lo n and V inyon
In Table VI the results for four samples of silk, two samples of nylon
and two samples of Vinyon are recorded. The fine Chinese silk showed higher
specific strength, yield stress and initial Young’s modulus than the Japanese
and Italian silks, and they in turn showed higher values than the coarser
Tussah silk. The sample of Italian silk, which gave a lower fluidity than the
other samples, had a relatively high breaking extension of 31 per cent, and its
stress-strain curve (Fig. 4) was intermediate in type between that of the finest
silk, with a gradual increase in rate of extension after the Hooke’s law region
(stress proportional to strain) and that of the coarse Tussah silk, with a sudden
increase in rate of extension after the Hooke’s law part.
Denham and Lonsdale29 made a comprehensive series of tests on de­
gummed Italian and Canton silk ; they used a test length of 5 cm., with a
constant rate of extension of 1-9 per cent, per second, which should give
T I 20
xo— The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
almost the same results as our tests and this was found to be so except for the
initial Young’s modulus for which we obtained slightly higher values. The
strength and extension at break of degummed Japanese silk recorded in a
laboratory report30 of the British Silk Research Association agree closely
with our values.
The samples of nylon were stronger than natural silk but they had about
the same extension at break. Although there are apparently two yield
points for nylon, there is no doubt that the second one is to be taken as the
point where the structure has been iiTepaxably deformed. It will be noticed
that the initial Young’s modulus is much lower for nylon than for silk.
Both nylon and silk are eminently suitable for parachutes because of their
high work of rupture which allows them to absorb the energy of a sudden
impact.
(e) W ool, H air and C a sein F ib res
The results for wool, mohair, camel hair and casein fibre will now be
considered. The three samples of combed wool show no significant change of
specific strength with fineness, although the coarse wool has nearly seven times
the breaking load of the fine wool (see Table VII). This conclusion is con­
firmed by results scattered through the literature for 31 samples of wool
ranging in fineness from 2 to 41 denier. These same samples indicate that the
extension at break increases slightly with decreasing fineness so that our value
for 36’s wool is exceptional. Camel hair has a very similar extension at
break to wool but it is appreciably stronger. The three samples of casein
fibre, namely Casein (English), Lanital (Italian) and Aralac (American) show
very similar strengths, which are, however, only just more than half the
average value for wool. Their mean extensions at break vary from 25 per
cent, to 60 per cent., but most of this is not recoverable and this fact should
be realised when comparing these fibres with natural wool.
The coefficient of variation of the specific strength of wool is usually less
than that of the breaking load, indicating a good correlation between fibre
weight per unit length and breaking load. This is especially marked for
camel hair, where the coefficient is 63 per cent, for breaking load against
23 per cent, for specific strength. The casein fibres do not appear to be
much more regular in properties than the natural wools. The great vari­
ability in extension of the casein fibres is indicated by the high values for the
coefficients of variation, which range from 53 to 98 per cent.
When the stress-strain curves for wool, hair and casein fibres (Fig. 5)
are examined it will be immediately seen that those for the fine and medium
wools commence with a short curved portion, concave to the stress axis ;
this is due to the inherent crimp in these samples which was not removed
by the very small initial tension used to bring the fibres just taut. Otherwise,
these curves agree in their general characteristics, such as shape and higher
yield stress for coarser fibres, with those obtained by Speakman47, who
investigated the effect of humidity, temperature and rate of loading on the
stress-strain curve of Cotswold wool. Mohair and camel hair have a greater
yield stress than the coarsest wool and about the same initial Young’s
modulus. The modulus and yield stress for the casein fibres correspond
to those for the fine 64’s wool. Some stress-strain curves for casein fibre,
both wet and at 65 per cent. R.H., are given by Heim48 ; our value of yield
stress agrees with his but we found very little increase in stress was required
to rupture the fibre whereas Heim’s curves show 100 per cent, increase. The
values of yield strain measured for the casein fibres are affected by the
extraordinary shape of the stress-strain curve which makes the point of
contact of the measuring tangent vary with the extension at break. Judged
from the stress-strain curves, the yield strain is approximately the same for
all three casein fibres. The high work of rupture for camel hair is no doubt
fully utilised when this material is used as cord in driving belts.
and Other Textile Fibres■
— Meredith
T I 2I
STRAIN %
Fig. 5.
S tre ss/S tra in C urves lo r W ool, H a ir a n d C asein F ibres.
(f) C om p arison of D ifferen t F ib res
In order to obtain a general comparison of the main textile fibres, a
collection of average values of fineness, strength, etc., has been made in
Table VIII.
Considering the strength of the different fibres, we note that ramie,
stretched viscose rayon and flax hold first place, followed in order by nylon,
hemp, silk, jute, cotton, viscose and acetate rayons, wool and casein fibre.
Of course, it is possible to obtain nylon stronger than the best flax, or Sea
Island cotton stronger than some silks. The extension at break is low for
the bast fibres, with stretched viscose rayon and cotton next, followed by
ordinary viscose rayon, silk, nylon and acetate rayon and ending with the
highly extensible wool and casein fibres. Generally speaking, the strongest
fibres are least extensible but this does not apply to silk or nylon which,
consequently, show a high work of rupture well above that of any other fibres.
From the column headed “ initial Young’s modulus ” it is seen that the
bast fibres and stretched viscose are least extensible, with moduli ranging
from 245 to 165 grams per denier ; that is, to stretch these materials by
1 per cent, would require a stress of from 2-45 to 1-65 grams per denier. Silk
T I 22
i o — The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
follows at 92 grams per denier, then viscose rayon and cotton, with average
values of 65 and 55 grams per denier, respectively. A group of most easily
extended fibres is formed by acetate rayon, nylon, wool and casein, with
moduli from 31 to 23 grams per denier.
Viscose rayon, acetate rayon, wool and casein show similar yield stresses
ranging from o-6 to o-8 gram per denier. Nylon gives a very high yield
stress according to the criterion used, and “ elasticity ” tests which will be
described in a later paper show that this high figure is not misleading.
In Figure 6 a selection of stress-strain curves has been plotted, ranging
from the strong, relatively inextensible flax to the weak and plastic casein
fibre. Silk and nylon are conspicuous by their combination of high strength
and extensibility. If the stress-strain curve is concave to the stress axis, the
STRAIN %
Fig. 6. Comparison of Fibres b y Stress/Strain Curves.
T est conditions: 65% R .H .; 20°C.; ra te of loading 10 gm ./den./m in.
“ work factor ” is usually less than 0-5 and this is so for cotton and ramie.
The bast fibres (flax, jute, hemp), and the seed hairs (kapok and akund)
have very nearly straight stress-strain curves with a “ work factor ” of 0-5.
For nylon, viscose rayon, silk, wool, and acetate rayon, the “ work factor ”
rises from o-6 to 0 7 in the order given, whilst the peculiar shape of the casein
curves give a value as high as o-86. The stress-strain curves for wool and
acetate rayon are practically coincident.
A general comparison of the variation within a sample for different fibres
can be made from Table IX , where the average coefficients of variation of
fineness, strength and extension have been collected for the main fibres.
The natural fibres are more variable than the artificial fibres, with the
exception of casein. Cotton and the bast fibres show the highest average
variation in fineness, followed closely by casein and wool. The rayon fibres
are much more regular and nylon is the most regular. So far as breaking load
and specific strength are concerned, the fibres appear to fall into four groups,
with cotton and the bast fibres showing most variability, followed by wool
and casein, then rayon, silk and vinyon, and finally nylon. The order for
breaking extension is roughly the same with the exception of casein and
and Other Textile Fibres— Meredith
T123
vinyon. The casein fibres certainly show an enormous variation in extension
at break but the low value for vinyon is the mean of two widely different
values. It should be pointed out that the coefficients of variation for indi­
vidual samples may vary considerably as shown by their standard errors.
It will be noted that the variation in specific strength is a little less than
that in breaking load in every case, whilst the variation in fineness is con­
siderably less than that in breaking load in every case except for nylon.
The high variation in the breaking extension of nylon is due to the plastic
flow after the yield point is exceeded ; similarly for casein.
This concludes a brief survey of some of the tensile properties of the main
textile fibres. Much more work remains to be done to determine the effect of
humidity and temperature on these properties. Most of the samples described
above have been subjected to a repeated loading test to measure their ability
to recover from strain and these results are reported in the following paper.
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Mann and Peirce. Shirley Inst. M em ., 1926, 5, 7, or J . Text. Inst., 1926, 17, T82.
Balls. Studies of Quality in Cotton, p. 336. (M acmillan, 1928.)
Sommer. Silk and Rayon, 1939, 13, 18.
Clegg Shirley Inst. M em ., 1923, 2, 357 or J . Text. Inst., 1924, 15, XI.
Clegg. Shirley Inst. M em ., 1926, 5, 223 or J . Text. In st., 1926, 17, T591.
Schmidhaiisser. Textilberichte, 1936, 17, 905.
Brown, M ann and Peirce. Shirley Inst. M em ., 1930, 9, 1 or J . Text. In st., 1930,
21 , Tl86.
8 Morton. J . Text. Inst., 1930, 21, T205.
9 T urner and V enkataram an. J . Text. Inst., 1 934,25,11.
10 N avkal and Ahmad. J . Text. Inst., 1938, 29, T75.
11 B arritt. J . Text. Inst., 1929, 20, T70.
12 Slattery. J . Text. Inst., 1938, 29, x i.
18 Barker. J . Text. Inst., 1939, 30, P296.
14 E ditor. Rayon Text. M onthly, 1937, *8, 32.
16 Sakurada and K awada. J . Soc. Chem. Ind. Japan, 1939, 42, 225.
18 D antzer and Roehrich. F ils et Tissus, 1937, 2 5 < J 47 17 Schwab. Klepzig’s Textil Z ., 1939, 42, 387.
18 W eltzien, Bierm ann and Husung. Monats. f. Seide u. Kunstseide, 1937, 42, 302.
18 Technical E ditor. Rayon Text. Monthly, 1928, 19, 105.
20 Eller. Chimie et Industrie, 1928, 39, 235.
21 Plail. Textilberichte, 1938, 19, 953.
22 W eltzien. Monats. f . Seide u. Kunstseide, 1939, 44, 58.
23 " Synfil.” Silk and Rayon, 1943, 17, 68.
24 Bonnet. Amer. Dyes. Rept., 1940, 26, 116.
25 Anon. Textile World, 1939, 89, July, 54.
28 Koch and Satlow. K lepzig’s Textil. Z ., 1940, 43, 211.
27 Anderegg. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1939, 31, 290.
28 Bohringer Klepzig’s Textil. Z ., 1938, 41, 218.
28 D enham and Lonsdale. Trans. Faraday Soc., 1933, 29, 305.
30 B ritish Silk R esearch Association. Lab. R pt., No. 67, 1930.
31 Bowman. Structure o f Wool Fibre (London, 1908).
32 B arker and B arker. J . Text. Inst., 1924, 15, x6o.
33 Krais. J . Text. Inst., 1928, 19, T32.
34 (Taenzer). American Wool Handbook, p. 117 (New Y ork, 1938).
36 Schlenker. Papierfabrikant, 1937, 35 . 80.
38 Anon. K lepzig’s Textil. Z ., 1938, 41, 663.
37 Peirce and Lord. Shirley Inst. M em ., 1939, 17, 25 or J . Text. Inst., 1939, 30, X173.
38 Mann and Peirce, Shirley Inst. M em ., 1926, 5, 16 or J . Text. Inst., 1926, 17, 191.
39 Speakman. J . Text. Inst., 1927, 18, X435.
40 Peirce. J . Text. Inst., 19 27, 18, 1483.
41 Castricum and Benson. Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, 1941, 41, 1214.
42 Barr. Aeronautical Research Committee Report, 1920, No. 757.
43 T ippett. The Methods o f Statistics, p. 30 (London, 1937).
44 Peirce. Shirley Inst. M em ., 1926, 5, 134 o r / . Text. Inst., 1926, 17, T362.
46 Cliff. Shirley Inst. M em ., 1933, 12, 93 or J . Text. Inst., 1933, 24, X351.
48 Steinberger. Text. Research, 1934, 4, 207, 271, 543.
47 Speakman. J . Text. Inst., 1927, 18, T431.
48 Heim. J . Text. Inst., 1939, 30, P216.
49 Davidson. Shirley Inst. M em ., 1939, 17, 45 ; or J . Text. Inst., 1939, 30, 1193.
60 Skinkle. Textile Testing, p. 250 (New Y ork and London, 1940).
81 Zand. Kapok (New York, 1941).
52 Mennerich. Rayon Text. Monthly, 1939, 20, 142 (New Y ork and London, 1940).
63 Goodings and Turl. J . Text. Inst., 1940, 31, X69.
64 Bonnet. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1940, 32, 1564.
68 Sabner. E .P . 533,922 and E .P . 533,949.
1
2
3
■*
8
6
7
i o — The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
TI 24
T a b le II
D ata fro m C om b in ed S ta p lin g T e sts o n C otton
Sam ple
R eference
No.
St. V in cen t, V135 ...
M 10
M o n tse rra t ...
X /E 2434
Sakel, p u re s tra in ...
X / 284
Sakel
23B
M aarad
SS 55
G iza 7
SS 54
U p p e rs
SS 45
T ex a s
SS 49
U pland
Jin .
T an g u is
C 43
Is h a n
SS 88
P u n ja b -A m e ric a n , 4F
SS 70
P u n ja b -A m erica n , 4 F T y p e 90
O om ras
SS 145
B engals
C 1108
E ffective
len g th ,
A in
66
52
48
46
51
43
38
33
31
42
39
31
29
27
25
F ib re
w eight,
1 0 '8 g m ./cm .
Im m a tu r ity ,
N-D
101
149
132
142
144
152
185
203
237
214
272
191
219
278
340
42-18
58-18
55- 9
62- 4
65- 7
60-10
69- 6
4 6 -20
63-12
61- 5
60- 9
39-14
68- 7
63-11
77- 6
In trin s ic
fineness,
<P
55-5
41-3
48-0
47-7
47-0
42-6
37-5
27-8
27-5
31-3
23-9
29-5
311
23-5
21-1
and
T a b le III
M ean F in en ess, S tren g th , E x ten sio n , etc ., of C otton F ibres
M 10
X /E 2434
X /284
23 B
SS 55
SS 54
SS 45
SS 49
8 in.
SS 70
T ype 90
C 43
SS 88
SS 145
C 1108
0 -9 0 ±
1-33
118
1-25
1-29
1-37
1-66
1-80
2 11
1-70
1-94
1-90
2 ’38
2-45
2'92
03
05
04
04
04
05
07
07
07
07
07
08
07
10
-10
4-95 ±
5-57
5-35
5-15
4-19
5-66
6-00
4-92
5-78
4-86
6-50
5-73
8-71
5-61
5-85
22
39
36
33
28
•48
•36
•35
•33
•32
•36
•41
•54
•46
•45
5-114- •22
4-20 ■24
4-81 •29
4-48 •37
3-32 •23
4-06 •31
3-65 •22
2-80 •20
2-87 •18
2-92 ■18
3-37 •18
3-18 •18
3-67 •15
2-40 •17
2 0 9 ■14
6 -8 0 ±
7-10
7-82
7-65
8-60
6-86
7-10
7-19
7-14
6-90
8-46
819
9-61
608
5-60
•29
•36
•46
•38
•41
■53
■42
■42
•35
•40
•43
•57
•42
•38
•44
82
76
65
67
59
69
57
50
49
50
51
51
42
47
44
■
0169
0-146
0-177
0-161
0-128
0-133
0-121
0-096
0-098
0-094
0-129
0-119
0-154
0-071
0-057
0-49
0-49
0-47
0-47
0-45
0-48
0-40
0-48
0-48
0-47
0-45
0-46
0-44
0-49
0-49
Textile. F ib res— Meredith
St. V in cen t, V135
M o n tse rrat
Sakel
..........................................................
Sakel
..........................................................
M aarad ... ■
Giza 7
U p p ers ...
T exas
U p lan d ...
P u n jab -A m erican , 4 F ...
P u n jab -A m erican , 4 F ...
T an g u is ...
Ish a n ...
O om ras
............
B engals ...
W ork
fa c to r
Other
C onditions : 65% R .H . ; 20°C. ; 1-cm. te s t le n g th ; r a te of loading 10 gram s/d en ./m in . ; 50 te s ts p e r sam ple.
In itia l
W o rk of
Y oung’s
Specific
R eference
B reak in g
Fineness,
B reaking
m odulus,
ru p tu re ,
stre n g th ,
d en ier
exten sio n ,
No.
load,
Sam ple
0
/
gm s./den.
gm .cm ./den.
gm s./den.
gram s
/o
T ab le IV
M ean F in e n e ss, S tren g th , E x ten sio n , e tc ., for B a st and oth er V egetab le F ib res
C o n d itio n s: 05% R .H . ; 20°C. ; 1-cm. te s t le n g th ; r a te of loading, 10 g m s./d e n ./m in . ; 50 te s ts p e r sam ple.
In itia l
B reaking
Y o u n g ’s
B reaking
Specific
F ineness,
stre n g th ,
e xtension,
m odulus,
d enier
load,
Sam ple
°/
gm s./den.
gm s./den.
gram s
/o
1-68 + -09
2-62 •11
12-6 ■34
1 7 0 •43
3 1 3 •22
8-84 •34
6-23 •06
4-59 •15
0-55 •02
1-12 •05
10-6± 0-9
13-5 0-9
47-6 2-9
54-6 3-6
16-3 1-6
48-9 2-9
42-4 1-3
30-5 1-6
0-91 0-05
2-50 0-18
6-59 4--45
5-64 ■27
3-76 •23
3-31 •24
5-21 •34
5-30 •28
6-77 ■22
6-74 •34
1-75 •10
2-40 •17
3 -2 7 ± 15
2-76
13
1-88 08
12
1-73
2-58
15
1-85
06
3-64
12
3-84
12
1-22 07
1-56
09
202
204
201
190
203
286
169
161
143
154
W ork
fa c to r
0-108
0-078
0-035
0-030
0-066
0-049
0-115
0-119
0-50
0-50
0-50
0-50
0-49
0-50
0-47
0-47
0-50
0-50
0-011
0-019
T125
F la x I .....................................................................................
F la x I I .....................................................................................
J u te I .....................................................................................
J u te I I .....................................................................................
R u ssian h e m p ...
Sisal h em p
R am ie No. 11
R am ie N o. 12 ...
K a p o k ...
A kund
W o rk of
ru p tu re ,
gm . cm ./d en .
H
hi
a
w
Table V
M ean F in en ess, S tren g th , E x ten sio n at B rea k , e tc ., of R ayons
C onditions: 65 % R.H . ; 20 ° C. ; 1-cm. test length ; ra te of loading, 10 gms./den. /min. ; 25 tests per sample.
Approx.
denier
Ił
5
3
3ł
1
li
1
1
Ił
5i
H
4ł
Viscose ...
Viscose ...
P aracor
T enasco...
Durafil ...
Fibro
Strong F ibro
A cetate Fibro
Seraceta
Celanese
Celanese F 4
Celanese FS6
Celanese F S 9
Bemberg
Obourg n itro
R ayolanda I
R ayolanda I I
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Fluidity,
poise-1
Fineness,
denier
Breaking
load,
gram s
8-5
9-7
4-4
4-9
2-4
9-5
9-7
11-4
9-3
1-54 ± -0 7
4-72 •23
2-41
02
2 1 0 •05
0-255 •01
1-48 03
1-20 03
2-81 •06
3-45 02
0-96 •02
1-59 •02
M l •03
1-05 •03
1-35 •04
5-49 •20
4-39 ■11
4-45 •09
3-15 + -13
40
5-69
19
6-34
30
1-39 09
3-33
05
2-88 13
2-93
08
4-46 •12
1-37 •05
6 1 1 •21
5-30 •22
6-96 •51
2-45 •06
8-70 •35
11-3
•41
9-38
30
10-6
10-1
111
71
30
170
—
—
8-21
Specific
strength,
gms./den.
Breaking
extension,
%
2-05 +
1-76
2-41
307
5-52
2-29
2-41
105
1-28
1-43
3-86
4-79
6-65
1-84
1-58
2-60
213
•38
•03
27 -2 +
27-0
23-6
16-9
5-8
15-7
•10
12-8
•03
•04
■05
•15
•24
■48
■05
•03
•08
06
27-7
35-6
23-7
5-5
5-1
6-4
'01
•04
■08
•12
22-6
17-4
13-9
17-8
0-4
10
1-4
0-7
0-3
0-4
0-7
0-9
1-5
1-5
0-3
0-2
0-4
1-7
0-6
0-6
0-9
In itial
Y oung’s
modulus,
gms./den.
54
48
67
68
176
74
83
26
27
41
145
152
183
68
47
62
56
Yield point
Stress,
gm./den.
Strain,
°/
/o
0-65
0-64
0-73
0-74
1-42
0-77
0-85
0-58
0-63
0-84
1-60
2-02
2-20
1-91
1-65
0-91
1-88
1-52
4-02
3-77
3-23
1-46
1-10
0-86
1-28
0-77
1-87
0-68
0-66
0-96
0-81
1-88
213
2-29
W ork of
rupture,
gm.cm ./den.
W ork
factor
0-346
0-290
0-352
0-256
0-169
0-213
0196
0-62
0-62
0-62
0-50
0-53
0-59
0-63
0-71
0-67
0-72
0-57
0-49
0-51
0-210
0-304
0-244
0122
0119
0-216
0-283
0-175
0-212
0-230
0-68
0-64
0-59
0'61
i o —The Tensile Behaviour of Raw
212
i
H
H
Sample
Cotton
Approx.
denier
1
Ił
li
24
3ł
3
U
Ił
Sample
Chinese silk
Italian silk
Japanese silk ...
Tussah silk
N ylon I
Nylon II
Vinyon I
Vinyon II
Fineness,
denier
0-87 +
1-37
1-45
2-57
3-26
3-10
1-65
1-26
-04
•04
•04
•07
•06
•05
•05
04
Breaking
load,
grams
4 -5 3 ± -2 4
6-87
22
16
6-26
10-5
44
160
19
17-8
3
3-67
3-07
Specific
strength,
gms. /den.
Breaking
extension,
0/
/o
5-20 +
5-02
4-36
416
4-90
5-76
2-17
2-51
23-1 +
310
23-4
36-6
25-9
26-8
35-9
230
-20
07
•10
•17
06
•08
•05
•09
T5
1-3
0-7
1-8
0-6
1-3
0-4
10
Initial
Y oung’s
modulus,
gms./den.
117
76
8355
23
38
28
38
Yield point
Stress,
gm./den.
2-21
1-35
1-76
109
4-29
4-85
0-76
0-79
Strain,
°/
/o
3-38
2-55
3-28
2-82
18-7
13-8
4-30
2-83
W ork of
rupture,
gm .cm ./den.
0-800
0-975
0-677
0-841
0-684
1-032
0-434
0-346
W ork
factor
■ 0-61
0-63
0-66
0-55
0-54
0'67
0-57
0-60
and Other Textile Fibres—Meredith
t a b l e VI
M ean F in e n e ss, S tren g th , E x ten sio n a t B reak , e tc ., of S ilk and S y n th etic F ibres
C onditions: 65 % R .H . ; 20 ° C. ; 1-cm. te st length ; rate of loading, 10 gm s./den./min. ; 25 tests per sample.
T ab le VII
M ean F in en ess, S tren g th , E x ten sio n , e tc ., for W ool and C asein
Conditions : 6 5 % R.H . ; 20 ° C. ; 1-cm. te st length ; rate of loading, 10 gm s./den./min. ; 25 tests per sample.
Sample
Wool, 64 ’s
Wool, 56 ’s
Wool, 36 ’s
M ohair ...
Camel hair
Casein
L anital ...
A ralac
Fineness,
denier
3 -9 4 ± 0-14
12-0
0-6
26-8
10-9
9-55
3-30
3-67
5-34
0-7
0-8
1-3
0-10
0-16
0-34
Breaking
load,
grams
5-14 +
18-8
35-1
14-2
16-1
2-35
2-60
413
0-24
1-4
30
0-8
1-9
0-16
0-15
0-28
Specific
strength,
gms./den.
Breaking
extension,
°/
/o
1-28 +
1-59
1-29
1-44
1-79
0-72
0-72
0-79
42-5 +
42-9
29-8
30-0
39-4
25-6
36-5
59-3
-06
•09
•08
•10
•08
•05
•04
■03
2-2
1-5
3-2
2-5
1-9
4-3
7-1
6-3
In itial
Y oung’s
modulus,
gms./den.
26-1
24-1
33-9
39-4
33-3
24-1
25-7
19-5
Yield point
Stress,
gm./den.
Strain,
°/
/o
W ork of
rupture,
gm.cm./den.
0-64
0-70
0-83
5-0
5-1
3-6
3-4
4-0
3-8
4-6
6-3
0-350
0-424
0-301
0-301
0-520
0-161
0-235
0-391
0-88
1-06
0-55
0-61
0-62
Work
factor
0-64
0-62
0-78
0-70
0-74
0-86
0-89
0-84
M
hi
i o — The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
T I 28
T ab le V III
A vera g e V a lu es for D ifferen t F ib res
C onditions : 6 5 % R .H . ; 20 ° C. ; 1-cm. te s t length ; rate of loading, 10 gm ./den./m in.
B reaking In itia l
W ork of
Fine­ Specific
ex ­
Y oung’s Yield Yield
rupture,
W ork
ness, strength, tension, modulus, stress, strain, gm. cm./den. facto r
0/
den. gm ./den.
°/
gm./den. gm ./den.
/o
/o
Fibre.
C o t t o n .............. 1-7
F lax
.............. 2-2
H em p .............. 3-0
............. 15
Ju te
R a m i e .............
5-4
Viscose ray o n ... 2-3
S tretched rayon 0-8
A cetate ray o n ... 2-4
Silk
.............. 1-2
N ylon .............
3-2
Wool .............. 14
Casein .............
4-1
3-5
61
5-2
3-5
6-7
7-3
30
55
203
203
195
165
65
170
31
85
30
28
23
2-6
1-8
3-7
21
21
5-6
1-3
4-9
5-3
1-4
0-7
5-8
29
26
26
38
25-60
_
_
—
—
—.
.__
_
.—
—
—
0-73
1-27
1-9
0-68
1-8
3-7
3-2
16-0
4-5
4-9
4-6
0-7
0-6
011
0-86
0-47
0-50
0-49
0-50
0-47
0-62
0-51
0-70
0-63
0-61
0-36
0-26
0-68
0-86
009
0-07
0-03
0-12
0-26
0-17
0-25
0-82
M
T ab le IX
A verage V alu es o f th e V a ria tio n w ith in a S a m p le for D ifferen t F ib res
CoiE F F IC IE N T
Sample
C otton
B ast fibres
R ayon
Silk
.........................................
N ylon
V inyon
W ool
.............................
Casein
(°/»)
OF V a r i a t i o n
Fineness
B reaking
load
Specific
strength
Breaking
extension
24
24
46
45
12
20
43
40
17
17
9
16
19
20
8
7
15
28
26
40
31
23
15
18
14
32
78
19
34
32
21
23
A P P E N D IX I
D e n sitie s o f T e x tile F ib res
Fibre
Cotton
F lax ...
H em p ...
J u te .............................
Ram ie
K apok
Viscose rayon
Cupram m onium ray o n
D ensity,
gm./c.c. Reference
1-52
1-50
1-48
1-48
1-52
1-47
1-52
1-52
49
50
50
50
50
51
50
50
Fibre
Nitrocellulose rayon ...
A cetate rayon
Silk (degummed)
N ylon ...
Vinyon
W ool ...
M ohair
Camel hair
Casein
D ensity,
gm./c.c. Reference |
1-54
1-33
1-35
1-14
1-35
1-32
1-32
1-32
1-30
52
50
53
50
54
50
50
52
50
and Other Textile Fibres— Meredith
TI29
i o — The Tensile Behaviour of Raw Cotton
M A Y 1945
A201
THE JOURNAL OF THE
TEXTILE INSTITUTE
1—FIBRES AND TH EIR PRO DUCTIO N
(B )— A
n im a l
Eri S ilk : Production in A ssa m . H . K . N a n d i. In d ia n F a rm in g , 1944, 5,
365-366. E ri silk is o b ta in e d fro m cocoons o f th e c a te rp illa rs of A tta c u s ricini
w h ich feed o n th e leaves of th e c a sto r p la n t k n o w n as era in A ssam .
T he
re a rin g o f eri is a v e ry p o p u la r c o tta g e in d u s try am o n g th e p eople of th e
A ssam V alley, a n d i t is m o st w id e ly p ra c tise d in th e M ikir H ills. N o tes a re
g iv en oil th e m eth o d s o f rea rin g . E ri silk is v e ry h a rd a n d m o re d u ra b le th a n
o th e r ty p e s of silk o r c o tto n y a rn . I t c a n n o t b e reeled a s e ach la y e r of th e
cocoon gives o n ly a b o u t 8-10 y a rd s o f y a rn . T h is is th e re s u lt of th e p ecu lia r
fo rm a tio n o f th e cocoon, o n e en d o f w h ich is le ft o p e n fo r th e em erg en ce of
th e m o th . T he cocoons a re boiled b efo re sp in n in g , a n d so d a, w ood ashes or
so a p m a y be used as cla rify in g a g en ts. T h e ra tio of cocoon to fibre is 4 : 3
a n d th e y a rn is n o t a p p re c ia b ly affec ted b y th e ty p e o f th e food p la n t, i.e.
e ith e r th e w h ite o r re d ty p e o f c a sto r, b u t th e la t te r is m o re su ita b le .
The
cocoons a re w h ite o r b ro w n , th e co lo u r b e in g in d e p e n d e n t of th e c o lo u r of th e
c a te rp illa rs o r th e ty p e o f food p la n t. E ri c lo th is p o p u la r fo r c lo th in g in
A ssam , an d eri silk is used fo r m a k in g m o sq u ito c u rta in s in som e places. L arg e
q u a n titie s of e ri cocoons a n d silk a re e x p o rte d to C a lc u tta , B h u ta n a n d th e
P u n ja b .
C.
S ilk : Production in E n glan d . L a d y H a r t D y k e . S ilk a n d R a y o n , 1945, 19,
43, 67. I t is claim ed t h a t sto c k b re d fro m eggs s e n t fro m C y p ru s is su ita b le
fo r sericu ltu re in E n g la n d , a n d t h a t th e a sso c ia te d o c cu p a tio n of re a rin g m u l­
b e rr y bushes is a n a ttra c tiv e o p p o rtu n ity fo r girls o f th e L a n d A rm y . L a d y
H a r t D y k e 's e sta b lish m e n t a t L u llin g sto n e , K e n t, h a s re c e n tly p ro v id e d eggs
a n d m u lb e rry seed fo r a new c e n tre a t th e C istercian M o n astery , R o screa, E ire.
C.
G rades of W ool from W y o m in g C orriedales, C olum bias and P anam as. R .
H . B u rn s. N a tl. W o o l G row er, 1944, 34, N o. 11, 14. D eta ils a re g iv en of th e
g rades of w ool p ro d u ced b y C o rried ale ewes a n d ra m s, C olum bia ewes a n d
P a n a m a ra m s in W y o m in g . R eferen ce is m a d e to th e a u th o r ’s ta b le show ing
th e s ta n d a rd , p re d o m in a tin g a n d o ccasio n al g rad es of w ool o cc u rrin g in th e
b reeds o f sh eep w hich are of p a rtic u la r in te re s t to W y o m in g w ool grow ers
(these A b s ., 1 943, A 1 0 9 ).
W.
T h e N ational W ool G row ers’ A sso cia tio n . J . M. Jo n es. S h ee p (S' G oat R aiser,
1944, 25, N o. 3, 23 -2 5 .
T h e h is to ry , o b je c tiv es a n d a c tiv itie s of th e N a tio n a l
W ool G row ers’ A ssociatio n (U .S .A .) a re d escrib ed .
W.
International Sheep B reeds. S h eep ć>> G oat R a iser, 1944, 25, N o. 3, 12-22. A n
illu s tra te d a c c o u n t of sheep b re ed s a n d b re ed in g in S o v ie t R u ssia , A lg eria a n d
T u n isia.
W.
Sheep Shearing. J. H . H itch co c k .* N e w Z ea la n d J . A g ric ., 1944, 69, 445-452.
M ethods of o v erh au lin g sh earin g g e a r a re discussed, w ith sp e c ial referen ce to
th e g rin d in g o f co m b s a n d c u tte rs . T h e d iffe re n t h o ld s a n d te c h n iq u e u sed a re
illu s tra te d a n d described , a n d th e fu n d a m e n ta l ru les of sh e a rin g e n u m e ra te d .
W.
(C)— V e g e t a b l e
C otton L and: D ep th and M ethod of S o il Preparation an d C u ltiv a tio n . C. A.
M ooers. T ennessee S ta . B u i. 1 9 1 , 1944, 11 p p . (th ro u g h E x p . S ta . R ees, 1944,
91, 677). C o tto n u n d e r level c u ltu re p ro d u ced as larg e crops w here la n d w as
ploughed 3-in. d eep as w ith 6-in. p lo u g h in g o n b o th p o o r a n d rich L in to n ia
A202
i — Fibres and their Production
lo a m in w est T ennessee.
W h e re la n d w as b e d d e d b u t n o t flat-b ro k e n , th e
y ield s w ere fa v o u ra b le to 6-in. b'edding. P lo u g h in g p re p a ra to ry to b e d d ip g w as
p ro fita b le on ric h la n d , b u t d is tin c tly u n p ro fita b le o n p o o r la n d . E a rly p lo u g h ­
in g w as n o ta b ly su p e rio r u n d e r lev el p la n tin g a n d e a rly plo u g h in g a n d e a rly
b e d d in g g av e a p p re c ia b ly b e tte r yields a t b o th 3- a n d 6-in. p re p a ra tio n d e p th s .
G ood c u ltiv a tio n o n p o o r la n d re su lte d in yields a v e ra g in g n e a rly 30 p e r c e n t,
la rg e r th a n w ere o b ta in e d u n d e r n o c u ltiv a tio n , w h ilst o n rich la n d yields
a v erag ed th e sam e fro m b o th p ra c tic e s.
C.
B room F ib re: P rodu ction .
F . T o b ler.
Faserforschung, 1943, 16, 81-93
(th ro u g h C h em . Z en tr., 1943, ii, 1337 a n d C hem . A b str ., 1945, 39, 1957). T h e
a u th o r co llates in fo rm a tio n o n th e m o d e of g ro w th o f th e b ro o m , th e n a tu r e
o f th e b ra n ch es, re ttin g , fibre c o n te n t, e tc ., fro m h is o w n a n d o th e r in v e stig a ­
tio n s a n d show s t h a t i t is possible to b re ed b ra n c h e s re la tiv e ly rich in fibre
a n d to process th e m a te ria l so as to m ak e econom ic u tilisa tio n possible.
M ethods fo r im p ro v in g th e y ield a n d fibre c o n te n t a n d fibre reco v ery o n a
p ra c tic a l econom ical b asis a re re p o rte d .
C.
P unjab-A m erican N orm al and T irak C otton P la n ts: C om parison of G row th
T rends. R . H . D a s tu r a n d A . A h ad . Indian ] . A g ric. S ci. 1944, 14, 152-160.
A re p o rt is g iv en of a s tu d y of th e g ro w th c h a ra c te ristic s of th e 4F P u n ja b A m erican c o tto n p la n t o n n o rm a l soil a n d o n soil w h ere tirak o ccu rred .
A
d epression w as o b serv e d in th e re la tiv e g ro w th ra te of p la n ts o n sa n d y lo am s
w ith salin e su b so il in th e m o n th s o f S e p tem b e r a n d O cto b er. O n lig h t sa n d y
soil th e re la tiv e g ro w th r a te w as h ig h e r th a n t h a t o f th e p la n ts o n n o rm a l
s a n d y loam s d u rin g th e e a rly stag es o f g ro w th . S im ilar differences w ere fo u n d
in th e n e t a ssim ilatio n r a te o f p la n ts o n th e se soils. T h e p e rc e n ta g e d is trib u ­
tio n of d ry m a tte r in bolls w as h ig h e r o n n o rm a l s a n d y loam s th a n o n soils
w here tirak o ccu rred . T h e p e rc en ta g e of d ry m a tte r in th e bolls w as le a s t on
lig h t sa n d y loam s w ith so d iu m c la y in th e subsoil. G ro w th o f th e bolls o f
firaft-affected p la n ts ceased a fte r th e 2 8 th d a y sta g e . N o in crease in th e d ry
m a tte r of th e w hole b o ll o c c u rre d a fte r t h a t stag e. L in t, h ow ever, c o n tin u e d
to increase in w eig h t ev en in tirak -affected p la n ts u p to th e 49t h d a y stag e.
I n th e case o f n o rm al b o lls g ro w th c o n tin u e d u p to th e 4 9 th d a y stag e in all
p a rts . T h e d r y m a tte r p e r b o ll o n tirak- affected p la n ts w as n e a rly o n e h a lf of
th e d ry m a tte r p er bo ll on n o rm a l p la n ts. T h e v o lu m e, le n g th a n d d ia m e te r
o f bolls from ^ raft-affe c te d p la n ts w ere less th a n th o se o f bolls o f n o rm a l p la n ts.
Tirak- affected bolls c o n ta in e d less m o istu re a n d few er seeds a n d a m u ch h ig h er
p e rc e n ta g e o f im m a tu re seeds th a n n o rm a l bolls.
C.
C otton: G in n in g ; P rev en tin g P ress D am age. U .S . D e p t. A gr. L ea flet 241,
1944, 8 p p . (th ro u g h E x p . Sta. R e c ., 1945, 92, 122). D u rin g th e p ressin g of
c o tto n a t gins, o v er-w eig h t a n d irre g u la rly p a ck ed b ales c a u se u n d u e stress on
th e tr a m p e r a n d press, a n d cau se c o stly a n d u n tim e ly b re a k d o w n s. I t is su g ­
gested t h a t c o tto n grow ers sh o u ld sen d to th e gin o n ly q u a n titie s o f seed
c o tto n t h a t w ill p ro d u c e b ales w eig h in g fro m 450 to 550 lb . T h e g in n e r can
div id e lo ts o f seed c o tto n o n w agons o r tru c k s in su c h a w a y a s to g in unifo rm w e ig h t b ales w h e n th e re a re tw o o r m o re b a les fro m th e sam e fa rm , a n d h e
c an encourage th e gro w er to p ro v id e som e k in d o f p a rtitio n fo r k eep in g c o tto n
fo r e a c h b ale s e p a ra te o n th e w ag o n o r tr u c k . D u rin g gin n in g , th e li n t m u s t
be ev en ly d is trib u te d in th e p ress b o x in o rd e r to p re v e n t ro llin g o r h e a v y ­
sid ed b ales. T h e k ic k er sp eed a n d a c tio n sh o u ld b e a d ju s te d to sy n ch ro n ize
w ith th e a c tio n of th e tr a m p e r arid give u n ifo rm d is trib u tio n o f th e c o tto n
w ith in th e press b o x . Since th e m o istu re c o n te n t of c o tto n v a rie s th ro u g h o u t
th e gin n in g season, th e k ic k e r sh o u ld b e w a tc h e d closely a n d ch a n g e d from
tim e to tim e to m e e t v a ry in g co n d itio n s.
A new design o f p ress-b o x dog
m ech a n ism d eveloped p rim a rily to a v o id th e fo rm a tio n of d o g ridges in gin
b ales t h a t cause th e b ales to c u t d u rin g com pression h as b e e n fo u n d to b e
effective in p ro v id in g u n ifo rm d is trib u tio n of th e c o tto n th ro u g h th e b a le box.
T h e m ech a n ism consists o f tw o p rism a tic p la te s, one for e a c h side o f th e b o x ,
h in g ed a n d p iv o te d fo r ro ta tio n w ith in a n o p e n in g alo n g th e u p p e r p a r t o f th e
sides of th e press b o x , a n d m ean s fo r ro ta tin g th e p la te s in to h o riz o n ta l p osition
to re ta in th e c o tto n in th e b a le b o x d u rin g th e tra m p in g o p e ra tio n a n d to
re tu rn , th e p la te s to v e rtic a l p o sitio n d u rin g th e pressing p e rio d .
C.
C otton C rop: P rice R esp on se in P rod u ction . R . M. W a ls h . / . Farm E co n .,
1944, 26, 359-372 (th ro u g h E x p . Sta. R e c ., 1945, 92, 128). D u rin g th e period'
i — Fibres and their Production (Patents )
A203
stu d ie d , 1910-43, th e acreage response to th e p rice o f c o tto n a d ju s te d fo r
ch an g es in prices p aid b y fa rm e rs fo r a ll c o m m o d ities w as o n tw o d is tin c t
planes, th e regression e q u a tio n b ein g X t = 25-568 + 0 -6 8 3 X„ f ° r 1910-24 a n d
X [' = 3 3 '2 3 8 + o-8 8 8 X / fo r 1925-33. T h e e la stic ity o f resp o n se w as a p p ro x i­
m a te ly th e sam e in b o th p eriods. T h e e la s tic ity o f su p p ly fo r acreag e v a rie d
from o - i to 0 -3 a t d iffe re n t levels o f p rice. T h e first-difference a n a ly sis fo r
1911-33 show ed t h a t a i-c e n t c h a n g e in p rice w as follow ed b y a c h a n g e of
a p p ro x im a te ly 880,000 acres. D u rin g p e rio d s o f acre a g e c o n tro l b y th e A g ri­
c u ltu ra l A d ju s tm e n t A d m in istra tio n , n o rm a l acreag e-p rice re la tio n sh ip s failed
to hold. C hanges in so u th ern a g ric u ltu re , su c h as f u r th e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f oilb e arin g crops, feed crops a n d liv e sto c k , a n d p o ssib ly to b a cc o , m a y a lte r
p revious re la tio n sh ip s.
C.
W orld C otton S u p p ly : S ta tistics, T e x tile W e e k ly , 1945, 35, 386, 486, 488.
Official s ta tis tic s o f th e w o rld su p p ly , co n su m p tio n , a n d c a rry -o v e r of “ a ll
c o tto n ,” A m erican c o tto n , a n d n o n -A m erican c o tto n a re ta b u la te d fo r th e
p eriod 1920-19144 (or 1943).
.
C.
G lass F ib res: P roduction and U tilisa tio n . S ilk J . R a y o n W o rld , 1944, 21,
N o. 247, 32, 33, 41; N o. 248, 52-53. A b ro a d review is g iv en of th e m o d ern
p ro d u c tio n o f glass filam en ts, c o n tin u o u s a n d sta p le fibre, th e ir p h y sica l
p ro p ertie s, a n d a p p licatio n s.
C.
(D)— A r t i f i c i a l
T antalum R ayon S p in n erets: P erforatin g. C. C. D ow nie. S ilk a n d R a y o n ,
1945, 19, 88-91. A n illu s tra te d a c c o u n t is g iv en of m e th o d s for p e rfo ra tin g
ta n ta lu m cu p s fo r use as sp in n e re ts. T h e u su a l m e th o d is to p u n c h a series
of bulges in th e m e ta l, g rin d d o w n th e p ro je c tio n s a n d finish th e holes w ith
a p u n ch in g needle. T h e c u p is m o u n te d o n a n a n v il u n d e r th e p u n c h in g
m achine a n d a low -pow er b in o c u la r m icroscope is s e t u p fo r fre q u e n t in sp ec­
tio n of th e w ork. T h e m e ch a n ic al p ro p e rtie s of ta n ta lu m sh e e t a re reco rd ed . C.
R ayon F ila m en ts: Stretch S p in n in g . S ilk a n d R a y o n , 1945, 19, 317-320, 325.
M odern m e th o d s fo r th e p ro d u c tio n o f stro n g ra y o n fila m e n ts b y s tre tc h in g
a t som e stag e d u rin g sp in n in g a re rev iew ed a n d discussed o n th e basis of
m icellar o rie n ta tio n .
C.
“ A rd il ” Fibre and F ab rics: P roduction. Im p e ria l C h e m ic a l I n d u s trie s L td .
Silfr and R a y o n , 1945, 19, 30-31, 99; T e x tile M a n u fa ctu rer, 1945, 71, 27, 31.
A n an n o u n c e m e n t is m a d e of th e conclusion of th e first stag e o f e x p e rim e n ta l
w o rk on th e p ro d u c tio n o f " A rd il ” fibre fro m g ro u n d -n u t p ro te in , a n d its
spinning, w eav in g a n d k n ittin g . Illu stra tio n s a re p ro v id ed o f th e p ro d u c t a t
v ario u s stages a n d a list is g iven of sp in n e rs a n d w eav ers in th e w ool d is tric ts ,
k n itte rs, d y ers a n d finishers w ho c o lla b o ra te d in th e d e v e lo p m en ts. M ix tu re s
of " A rd il ” a n d viscose ra y o n h a v e also b een s p u n a n d th e y a rn s m ad e in to
k n itte d a n d w oven fab rics.
C.
P
atents
R ayon C akes: T reatm ent w ith L iq u id s. C o u rtau lcls L td . a n d D. C. F . D ev o s.
B .P .567,528 of 2 7 /5 /1 9 4 3 :1 9 /2 /1 9 4 5 .
A m e th o d of tr e a tin g one o r m ore
cakes of a rtific ia l th r e a d w ith liq u id s, com prises in s e rtin g in th e cak es a so ft,
flexible p e rfo ra te d s h e a th of ru b b e r o r lik e elastic m a te ria l t h a t offers s u b ­
s ta n tia l resistan ce to th e passag e of liq u id , a n d s u p p ly in g th e tr e a tin g liq u id
a t th e surfaces of th e s h e a th re m o te fro m th e cak es a t su ch a p re ssu re t h a t liq u id is forced th ro u g h th e s h e a th a n d th e n c e to a n d th ro u g h th e cak es. T h e
cakes m a y b e assem bled o n a* tu b u la r p e rfo ra te d h o ld e r o v e r w h ich is p lace d a
p e rfo ra te d soft p erm eab le s h e a th o f ru b b e r o r like e lastic m a te ria l, th e size
a n d n u m b e r of th e p e rfo ra tio n s in th e s h e a th b ein g c o n sid e ra b ly less th a n th e
size a n d n u m b e r of p e rfo ra tio n s in th e h o ld er.
C.
A lg in a te T hreads: P roduction.
C o u rta u ld s L td . a n d R . B. H a ll.
B .P .
567,641 of 1 /9 /1 9 4 2 :2 1 6 /2 /1 9 4 5 . A process fo r th e m a n u fa c tu re o f th re a d s b y
p ro jectin g a n aq u eo u s so lu tio n o f a lk a li a lg in a te in to a su ita b le c o a g u la tin g
b a th an d th e n tre a tin g th e th r e a d in th e fo rm of helices o n a th re a d -a d v a n c in g
device, is ch ara c te rise d b y th e use o f a c o a g u la tin g b a th a n d o th e r tr e a tin g
liq u id s w hich a re free fro m o il a n d o n e o r m o re of w h ic h c o n ta in s a sm all
p ro p o rtio n o f a ca tio n ic o r non-ionogenic w e ttin g -o u t a g e n t, e.g. la u ry l
p y rid in iu m su lp h a te , c e ty l p y rid in iu m ch lo rid e a n d th e non-ionogenic w a te r-
2— Conversion of Fibres into Finished Yarns
A 204
soluble c o m p o u n d s o b ta in a b le b y th e a c tio n of e th y le n e o xide on a n a lip h a tic
a lc o h o l o r c a rb o x y lic acid c o n ta in in g m o re th a n 8 C a to m s.
C.
E n zy m e P reparation: P rod u ction . C o m m o n w e a lth C o u n cil fo r S cie n tific a n d
In d u s tria l R esearch . t A u stra lia n P . 118,850 o f 7 /9 /1 9 4 4 .
W h e a t b ra n ,
in o c u la te d w ith a n a q u e o u s su sp en sio n o f spores o f a m o u ld o f th e species
A sp erg illu s flavus-oryzae, is in c u b a te d fo r 2-5 d a y s a t 20°-30° C .; th e .b rari is
th e n e x tra c te d w ith w a te r a n d th e c u ltu re filtered to o b ta in th e e x tr a c t. T his
c a n b e used for re c o v e rin g w ool fro m sk in (see follow ing abstract), fo r degum m in g silk a n d fo r desizin g te x tile s. T h e resid u e fro m th e e x tra c tio n process
c o n ta in s ergosterol, w h ich , w h e n exposed to su n lig h t o r to u ltra -v io le t ra d ia tio n ,
y ields m a te ria l ric h in v ita m in -D .
W.
W o o l: R ecoverin g from S k in P ieces. C o m m o n w e alth C o u n cil fo r S cien tific
a n d In d u s tria l R esearc h . A u stra lia n P . 118,851 o f 7 /9 /1 9 4 4 . S k in pieces o r
d a m a g e d sk in s a re tr e a te d w ith a n a q u e o u s p ro te a se e x tr a c t to dissolve o r
p a r t ly dissolve th e sk in su b sta n c e a n d re c o v er th e w ool. T h e p ro te a se m a y be
o f th e m o u ld ty p e (see p re ce d in g a b stra ct) o r p a p a in . If a m o u ld e x tr a c t is
u sed , th e skin pieces, p re fe ra b ly im m ersed in w a te r, a re h e a te d to t>5°-75° C.
fo r J-2 h r. to sh rin k th e sk in co llagen; a fte r cooling, th e y a re d ig ested a t
35°-45° C. fo r one o r m o re d a y s, a n e x tr a c t of p H 7 g iv in g o p tim u m a c tiv ity ;
th e w ool is w ash ed in w a te r a n d sco u red in th e u su a l w a y . A p a p a in e x tr a c t
is p re p a re d b y a d d in g 0 -2-0 4 p a rts b y w e ig h t o f p a p a in p o w d e r to 100 p a rts
b y w e ig h t of w a te r. P re - tre a tm e n t to sh rin k th e co llag en is u n n e c e ssa ry if
d ig e stio n w ith p a p a in is c a rrie d o u t a t 65° C. or m o re.
W.
2— CONVERSION OF FIB R E S INTO FIN ISH ED YARNS
(A )— P
repa ra to ry
P
ro cesses
R ayon S ta p le: P rocessin g on C otton M achinery.
S o u th e rn T e x tile A sso ­
cia tio n . T e x tile W orld, 1944, 94, N o. 11, 135-137.
E x tra c ts a re g iv en of
p a p e rs re a d a t conferen ces. (1) R . M. Jo n e s review s d e v e lo p m e n ts in SacoL ow ell m ach in es fo r c a rd in g a n d d ra ftin g ra y o n sta p le , in c lu d in g th e “ 3 o v er
4 ” ro v in g fram e w ith th re e lines of to p ro llers a n d fo u r b o tto m rollers, th e
m id d le to p ro lle r re s tin g in th e V - sp ace b e tw e e n th e 2nd- a n d 3 rd -b o tto m
ro llers. T h is a rra n g e m e n t p ro v id e s m o re p o sitiv e c o n tro l a n d th e fra m e is
su ita b le fo r d ra f ts of 6 to 45 w ith i-in c h c o tto n to 2 j-in c h ra y o n sta p le . *(2)
R . J . M cC onnel refers to th e W h itin C o .’s B i-coil d ra w -fra m e as offering g re a t
econom ies in floor space a n d co st. (3) E . H . D re h e r d iscusses th e o p tim u m
re la tio n b etw een d e n ie r a n d s ta p le le n g th . I n i-o o a n d 1-25 d e n ., g re a te st
y a r n s tre n g th is reach ed a t l Ą - i f in s.; in 1 -50 d en . a t 2 j in s., a n d in 3-5-5
d e n . a t 2 |-3 <;ins. (4) F . S. C u lp ep p e r re p o rts o n s u ita b le p ro ced u res in d ra w in g
a n d sp in n in g .
C.
B len d in g H opp ers: A p p lica tio n . T e x tile R eco rd er, 1945, 62, J a n u a r y , 40-41.
A b rie f e x p la n a tio n is g iv en o f th e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e A m erican sy ste m of
feed in g c o tto n from th e b ales to a s e t o f fo u r b le n d in g h o p p e rs in p arallel.
E a c h h o p p e r m a y o p e ra te o n a d iffe re n t m a rk o r ty p e o f c o tto n , a n d is s e t in
ac co rd an ce w ith th e b ale d e n s ity in q u e stio n .
C.
C otton : C arding. E . B. G ro v e r. T e x tile R esearch, 1944, 14, 403. T e n ta tiv e
, conclusions a n d o b se rv a tio n s re a c h e d in re se arch o n c o tto n c a rd in g a t th e
U .S . T e x tile R e searc h I n s titu te in clu d e th e fo llo w in g : (1) C onsiderable
in creases in c a rd p ro d u c tio n p e r u n it a re feasible w ith o u t d e trim e n ta l effects
o n th e q u a lity of th e p ro d u c t; (2) y a rn stre n g th s a re n o t im p a ire d sig n ifican tly
a s a re s u lt of increased c a rd sp eed s; (3) y a rn c h a ra c te r o r a p p e a ra n c e is affected
o n ly to a m o d e ra te deg ree b y in creases in c a rd speeds; (4) n ep p in ess is affected
m o re b y th e c o n d itio n o f th e ra w m a te ria l th a n b y ch an g es w ith in th e c a rd ;
(5) c o tto n of h ig h fibre s tre n g th w ill re s u lt in good p rocessing a n d stro n g y a rn ;
(6) fibre s tre n g th s a re n o t im p a ire d b y in creased c a rd sp eed s; (7) a v erag e fibre
le n g th s b y w e ig h t re m a in u n c h a n g e d o v e r w id e ran g e s o f c a rd speeds; (8) w aste
re m o v a l c a n be c o n tro lle d a t le a s t to a lim ite d e x te n t to allow h ig h p ro d u c tio n
w ith o u t serious d e te rio ra tio n in th e q u a lity o f th e p ro d u c t; (9) p e a k p o w er
d e m a n d ch arg es a re n o t in c rea se d b y th e use o f h ig h o v er-all c a rd speeds; (10)
f u r th e r in v e stig a tio n is n eed ed a n d w ill b e m a d e o n th e effect of fro n t knife
p la te settin g s.
C.
2— Conversion of Fibres into Finished Yarns
A 205
N oble C om b ing: D ab b in g M echanism . W o o l R e c ., 1945, 67. 149-150. T h e
im p o rta n c e is stre sse d of th e c o rrec t fu n c tio n in g o f th e d a b b in g b ru s h in p ro ­
d u cin g a to p free fro m neps, slubs, e tc . a n d noil. T h e d o u b le b a la n c e d d a b b in g
m o tio n re c ip ro cates a t a hig h sp e e d w ith o u t excessive v ib ra tio n . T h e w e a r of
th e b ristles o n th e heel of a d a b b in g b ru s h is e x c e p tio n a lly ra p id , b u t th e life
o t th e b ru s h c a n be le n g th e n ed b y a d ju s tin g th e stro k e to s u it d iffe re n t w ools.
W.
Post-W ar W oollen C arding M achines. G. M arshall.
W o o l R e c ., 1945, 67,
276-278. T h e re la tiv e m erits a re discussed of w ood a n d iro n for th e c o n stru c tio n
of w oollen c a rd in g m ach in es. F o r a h ig h ra te of p ro d u c tio n a n d a h ig h lev el o f
efficiency, th e iron m ac h in e is p re fe rre d , e x c e p t po ssib ly fo r v e ry low a n d g reasy
m a te ria ls. F o r n o rm a l E n g lish p ra c tic e a n iro n s e t u sin g a 2 -p a rt a rra n g e m e n t
w ith 1 S co tch feed is su ita b le . T h e te n d e n c y is to use m o re sw ifts w ith few er
w o rk ers p e r p a rt. P e ra lta b u r r a n d th re a d c ru sh ers give g re a te r freed o m fro m
sliv er tro u b le w hen in c o rp o ra te d in a p a r t o f th e m a ch in e a n d n o t follow ed
im m e d ia te ly b y a n in te rm e d ia te feed. A m ore efficient ty p e o f G a rn e tt b re a s t
is d e sirab le th a n is u su a l o n th e C o n tin e n ta l m ac h in e. A s e t su ita b le fo r
p ra c tic a lly all ty p e s of m a te ria l could b e m ad e u p o f scrib b ler com posed o f
G a rn e tt b re a s t (a b o u t 40 in . d ia m e te r, fitte d w ith 3 o r 4 p a irs o f w o rk ers a n d
strip p e rs, a fa n c y (card w ire) a n d a doffer), follow ed b y 2 sw ifts each w ith
36 in . doffers, 4 o r 5 p a irs of w o rk ers a n d strip p e rs ac c o rd in g to th e ty p e of
m a te ria l, a n d a P e ra lta placed b etw e e n th e first p a r t dofEer a n d th e second
p a r t sw ift; th e in te rm e d ia te feed w ould be a S co tch feed, a n d th is c o u ld be
follow ed b y a c a rd e r w ith 1 o r 2 sw ifts of th e sa m e d im en sio ns as th e sc rib b le r
sw ifts. O ne m a ch in e 72 in . w ide .m ay h a v e th e p ro d u c tiv e c a p a c ity of 2 oldty p e m ach in es 60 in. w ide.
W.
(B)— S p i n n i n g a n d D o u b l i n g
C otton M ill W aste: R ed u ction .
F . L . A sb u ry .
T e x tile W o rld , 1944, 94,
N o. 11, 123-125. M easures ta k e n a t th e A v o n d a le M ills, A la b a m a , to in d u c e
o p e ra tiv e s to p r e v e n t’u n d u e w aste a re b rie fly rev iew ed . O ne p la n is to k e e p
p o sted on a n o tice b o a rd th e c u rr e n t m a rk e t v a lu e o f h a rd a n d so ft ty p e s o f
c o tto n w aste. P o ste rs a re also used to stress th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw ee n a c c id e n ts
a n d loose o b je c ts allow ed to lie o n th e floor, o r th e m o n e ta ry v a lu e of su ch
a rticles as b o b b in s.
C.
S p in n in g M ill O p eratives: W ork A ssig n m e n t. F . H . G u n th e r a n d M . G ro ss.
T e x tile W orld, 1944, 94, N o. 12, 92-93. T h e w rite rs d escrib e w ith e x a m p le s
th e p rinciples b y w h ich th e s p in n e r’s ta s k m a y b e ca lc u la te d fro m a k n o w ­
ledge of th e n u m b e r o f " e n d s d o w n ” p e r 1,000 sp in d les p e r h o u r a n d th e
ru n n in g tim e of a creeled b o b b in of ro v in g , o n th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t 15 p e r
c e n t, o f idle tim e is allow ed. A ta b le show s ty p ic a l ti m e s 'a n d freq u e n c ie s
fo r p erfo rm in g v ario u s o p e ra tio n s in th e sp in n in g o f 32s co m b ed w a rp y a m . C.
C arding and S p in n in g R oom s: Staffing. T e x tile R eco rd er, 1945, 62, J a n u a r y ,
42-43. T h e w rite r review s th e p o ssib ilities of red u c in g staffing difficulties b y
(1) th e in tro d u c tio n of h ig h -d ra ft sp in n in g (coupled w ith m ore efficient c a rd ­
ing a n d th e use of larg e sliv er cans), (2) re a rra n g in g th e w o rk o f doffing in th e
rin g room , a n d (3) g ro u p in g th e o p e ra tiv e s in th e m ule d e p a rtm e n t in to (a)
experienced m ach in e m in d ers, (b) ju n io rs a n d o th e r m ales in tra in in g , a n d (c)
a u x ilia ry m ale a n d fem ale la b o u r.
C.
Cotton M ill: R e-organ isation . T e x tile R eco rd er, 1945 * 62, F e b ru a r y , 38-39,
62. A sp in n in g m ill m a n a g e r offers su g g estio n s fo r in creasin g th e p ro d u c tio n
p e r m an -h o u r b y know n im p ro v e m e n ts in th e blow room , ca rd in g , d ra w fra m e
an d speed-fram e processes, sp in n in g , w in d in g a n d b e am in g . H e claim s, h o w ­
ever, t h a t G o v e rn m e n t su p p o rt is th e m a in re q u ire m e n t, in clu d in g fa v o u ra b le
la b o u r su p p ly a n d e x p o rt policies a n d a d iffe re n t m easu re of ta x a tio n . '
C.
C otton S p in n in g M ill: R e-organ isation .
J. A ire y .
T e x tile W e e k ly , I945>
35, 354-8, 398-405, 438-441. A re p o r t o f a n ad d ress on new d e v e lo p m e n ts in
opening, card in g , d raw in g , d ra ftin g , sp in n in g a n d m ach in e d riv in g t h a t a re
a v ailab le fo r th e m o d e rn iz atio n of L a n c a sh ire sp in n in g m ills. A d iscussion is
ap p en d ed .
C.
S ilk : P rocessin g. F . H . C la y to n . S ilk a n d R a y o n , 1945, 19, 183, 186, 190.
A concise, p o p u la r a c c o u n t is g iv en o f th e h is to ry a n d c u ltu re of silk, reeling,
th ro w in g , sp in n in g of w aste silk , a n d th e p ro p e rtie s o f silk fab rics.
C.
A20Ó
3— Conversion of Yarns into Fabrics
S ilk W a ste: S p in n in g on W oollen M ach in ery; E lectrification D ifficu lties.
H . M arsden. T e x tile M anufacturer, 1945, 71, 29. C o m m e n tin g on th e p a p e r
b y H . N . Sykes, th e w rite r feels t h a t o th e r fa c to rs sh o u ld b e co n sid ered before
a c c e p tin g th e suggestio n t h a t fib res c a n b e re a d ily electrified b y ionized air.
M eth o d s fo r co u n te rin g “ s ta tic ” tro u b le s a re m e n tio n e d .
C.
W oollen M ule S p in n in g :
R ed u cin g M achine S to p p a g es.
' O v e rlo o k e r.’
T e x t. R e c ., 1945, 62, N o. 742, 44. E sse n tia l sto p p ag e s, e.g . creeling, doffing
a n d ch a n g in g from one lo t to a n o th e r, c a n b e red u ced b y c a re fu l o rg a n isa tio n .
P ra c tic a l h in ts a re also g iv en fo r red u cin g irre g u la r sto p p a g e s d u e to b ro k e n
e n d s (caused fre q u e n tly b y in efficien t c a rd in g a n d condensing, a n d occasio n ally
b y in c o rre c t s e ttin g of th e m u le, esp ecially o f th e scroll), b ro k e n sp in dle b a n d s,
m ec h a n ic a l b re a k d o w n (caused p rin c ip a lly b y in a d e q u a te oilin g a n d clea n in g
o f th e h ead sto ck ), a n d la c k of c a re of d riv in g b e lts a n d ropes.
W.
P
atents
C arding E n g in e T aker-in C ontrol M em ber. B ritis h C o tto n I n d u s tr y R e se a rc h
A ssociation a n d J . L ocke. B .P .567,499 of 2 3 /4 /1 9 4 3 :1 6 /2 /1 9 4 5 . A device
fo r o b ta in in g a n im p ro v e d cle a n in g a c tio n in th e ta k e r-in reg io n o f a c ard in g
eng ine com prises a c o n tro l m e m b e r c o n stru c te d to p ro v id e a n enclosed space
below th e s trik in g face o f th e d is h p la te , a n d h a v in g a n u p p e r su rface w hich
faces th e on-com ing stre a m of m a te ria l fro m th e s trik in g face, w h ich surface
•is disp o sed a t a n a c u te angle to th e ta k e r-in so as to fo rm a c o n v erg in g wedge
to w a rd s th e ta k e r-in , a n d a s trik in g edge fo rm in g a seco n d strik in g surface
b elow su ch sp ace dispo sed a t a n o b tu se an g le t o th e strik in g face of th e d ish
p la te . T h is m e m b e r co n tro ls th e p o sitio n ro u n d th e a rc of th e su rface of th e
ta k e r-in a t w h ich m a te ria l n o t a c tu a lly c a u g h t in th e te e th of th e ta k e r-in is
p ro je c te d in to th e a ir sp ace below th e ta k e r-in . T h e c o n tro l m em b e r m a y be
s h a p e d d iffe re n tly o r place d in d iffe re n t p o sitio n s so a s to g ive a c o n tro l posi­
tio n to s u it d ifferen t re q u ire m e n ts. C o -o p eratin g w ith th e c o n tro l m em b er is
a co llectin g m e m b e r w h ich ta k e s th e p lace of th e k n o w n fo rm of ta k e r-in
u n d e rc a sin g o r g rid . T h is co llectin g m em b e r jo in s th e c y lin d e r u n d ercasin g
a t its u p p e r e n d , is p ro v id e d w ith a su ita b ly sh a p e d n o se piece a t th e lead -in
en d , a n d is a d ju s ta b le a t b o th e n d s a s re g ard s its d is ta n c e fro m th e ta k e r-in
su rface.
C.
C arding E n g in e S trip p in g or F ly Com b. P la t t B ro th e rs & Co. L td . a n d H .
T u rn e r. B .P .567,511 of 2 1 /9 /1 9 4 3 :1 6 /2 /1 9 4 5 . A strip p in g o r fly co m b for
w oollen, w o rsted w aste o r c o tto n c a rd in g engines is c h a ra c te rise d in t h a t th e
te e th of th e co m b , o u tw a rd ly from th e c e n tre , a re in clin ed in w a rd ly . A ccord­
in g to one e m b o d im e n t of th e in v e n tio n th e co m b h a s th e k n o w n s tra ig h t or
V - te e th o v e r a p re d e te rm in e d le n g th o n ly in th e c e n tre o f th e le n g th of th e
c o ip b b lad e, th e te e th to th e rig h t a n d le ft h a n d o f su ch p re d e te rm in e d le n g th
w h ils t of V - sh a p e b ein g in clin ed in w a rd ly fro m th e rig h t a n d le ft h a n d for th e
re m a in in g o r o u te r p o rtio n s of th e b la d e , so t h a t th e v a ry in g ly d isposed te e th
a c t on th e w eb as i t leav es th e doffer. A cco rd in g to a n o th e r em b o d im en t th e
te e th a re inclined a t pro g ressiv ely in creasin g angles.
C.
3—CONVERSION OF YARNS INTO FABRICS
(A)— P r e p a r a t o r y P r o c e s s e s
C otton W arps: W in d in g and B ea m in g . E d g a r B rie rle y . T e x tile W eekly,
•945> 35' 4 9 I_4’ 53^-542, 588-594, 634-8, 682-4. A re p o rt of a le c tu re su rv e y ­
in g m o d ern m e th o d s in w in d in g a n d b e a m in g for th e p re p a ra tio n of c o tto n
w arp s. D iscussions are a p p e n d e d .
C.
M agazine-end Cone C reel: C ount C h a n g in g in W arp in g. U n iv e rs a l W in d in g
C o. T e x tile R ecorder, 1945, 62, F e b ru a ry , 58, 70. A n illu s tra te d d e scrip tio n
is given o f th e o p e ra tio n s in v o lv ed in ch an g in g c o u n ts in w a rp in g on a h ig h ­
sp eed m ag azin e cone creel w ith o u t m u ch d e la y a n d w ith o u t th e n eed to th re a d
th e e x p an sio n com b o r d ro p w ires ag ain . T h e new cones a re m o u n te d o n e x tra
h o ld ers on th e creel a n d th e old cones a re sw u n g o u t. E a c h old en d is th e n
b ro k e n , jo in ed to a new en d , m e rely b y tw istin g , a n d th e new cone is sw ung
in to place. T h e tw iste d en d s a re d ra w n th ro u g h th e com b a n d d ro p w ires an d
th e old y a rn is c u t off. T h e w a rp e r is th eft s ta rte d a g a in a n d th e old cones are
rem o v ed . A 4-lb. cone of y a m h o ld s en o u g h y a rn fo r th re e full b eam s.
C.
3— Conversion of Y a m s into Fabrics
A207
(C)— W e a v i n g
,
Loom M echanism : Post-w ar D ev elo p m en t.
A . P a lm e r.
T e x tile W orld,
1944, 94, N o. 12, 84-85.
A b rie f rev iew is g iv en of som e co n sid e ra tio n s for
d ev elo p m en ts in loom c o n stru c tio n b y th e C ro m p to n a n d K n o w les L o o m Co.
(1) T he use o f m agnesium . M agnesium c a stin g s c o st 10-20 tim e s as m u c h as
grey c a st iro n , b u t h a v e h ig h e r sh o ck re s ista n c e , a n d a re good fo r m ac h in in g .
T h ere are, h ow ever, m a n y d isa d v a n ta g e s , in c lu d in g a te n d e n c y to sm u d g e
te x tile s.
(2) T he use of plastics. A p a rt fro m th e h ig h c o st of th e dies a n d
m oulds re q u ire d for fa b ric a tin g lo o m p a rts in p lastics, ex p erien ce w ith h a n d ­
w heels, d o b b y sheaves, p ick ers a n d d u s t co v ers h a s b ee n u n sa tisfa c to ry . (3)
T he p ick in g m otion. I t is said t h a t a b o u t 1,400 p ic k in g m o tio n s h a v e b e e n
p a te n te d in th e ' U n ite d S ta te s since 1850.
A n elec tro m ag n e tic m o tio n h a s
been d ev elo p ed w ith w h ich th e loom o p e ra te s v e ry q u ie tly a t h a lf th e n o rm a l
speed, b u t th e m o to r is excessively b ig a n d th e in creased c o st fo r th e loom
a n d fo r pow er are p ro h ib itiv e . H y d ra u lic a n d p n e u m a tic m ean s h a v e also
been considered, b u t d o n o t offer m u c h p ro s p e c t o f success.
H ig h -sp eed
p h o to g ra p h y is used in stu d ie s a t th e loom .
(4) M otors and drives. T h e
fly-w heel effect of th e m o v in g p a rts of th e lo o m , th e ir w eig h ts, c e n tre s of
m ass, ra d ii of g y ra tio n a b o u t som e fixed c e n tre , a n d v e lo c ity d u rin g th e loom
cycle h a v e been m easu re d a n d b e tte r lo o m d riv e s a n d m o to rs a re fo resh ad o w ed .
(5) E lectron ics. E le c tro n ic re la y s h a v e b e e n tr ie d in sto p m o tio n s a n d w e ft
feelers, b u t th e y suffer fro m in d u c ta n c e d efe c ts w h ich o fte n m a k e th e m slow er
in a c tio n th a n m ech a n ic a l devices.
*
C.
Cross-border Jacquard: A p p lica tio n for L arge P attern s.
S ilk and R ayo n ,
*9 4 5 > r 9 ’ 92-94. A n illu s tra te d d e sc rip tio n is g iv en o f a ty p ic a l 400’s d o u b le
lift, d o u b le cy lin d er, 120-sett J a c q u a r d a n d its tim in g a n d s e ttin g fo r u se as a
cross-border m ach in e for larg e p a tte rn s .
C.
H attersley A u tom atic B ob b in -ch an gin g Loom . T e x tile R ecorder, 1944, 61,
J u ly , 56-57; A u g u st, 50-52; S e p te m b e r, 46-48, 56; O cto b e r, 58-59, 81; D ecem b er,
44-46; 1945, 62, F e b ru a ry , 40-41, 57. A d e ta ile d d e sc rip tio n is g iv en of th e
v ario u s p a rts of H a tte r s le y ’s s ta n d a rd m o d el of b o b b in -c h a n g in g loom .
C.
S ilk T appet L oom s: S e ttin g and W o rk in g . S ilk J . R a y o n W orld, 1945, 21,
N o. 248, 47-48, 56. P ra c tic a l h in ts are g iven o n th e se ttin g a n d w o rk in g of
th e w a rp b eam , b a c k re st, h eald s, reed , ta k e -u p , ta p p e ts a n d u n d e r m o tio n of
loom s fo r w eav in g ty p ic a l p la in silk fab rics.
C.
“ T itan ” W arp T y in g M achine. M u sc h a m p , T a y lo r L td . T e x tile W eekly,
1945, 35, 496-8, 550-2; T e x tile M ercury and A rgus, 1945, 112, 396-398. A n
illu s tra te d d e scrip tio n is g iv en of a w a rp ty in g m ac h in e m a d e b y M essrs. T ita n
in D e n m a rk . T h e follow ing c a p a c ity is cla im e d fo r o n e o p e ra to r w ith one
m a c h in e : (a) ty in g 11 w a rp s of a b o u t 2,000 en d s each o f 20s c o tto n y a m in 8
h o u rs, in clu d in g th e tim e re q u ire d fo r c la m p in g th e th re a d s a n d p u llin g th e
tie d ends th ro u g h th e h e a ld s a n d re e d ; (b ) ty in g 60,000 e n d s p e r d a y o f ra y o n
w arp s on w ide beam s; (c) re p la c in g a w a rp o f 5,000 en d s in a J a c q u a r d loom
in one h o u r. ( I t a p p e a rs to b e a d e v e lo p m e n t of th e in v e n tio n of S. S. C.
F leisch er, B .P .413,855 of 2 /6 /1 9 3 3 .
C.
W arp Stop M otion s: D ev elo p m en t. (1) B e rn a rd W h itty .
(2) S. W . M arsla n d . T e x tile W eekly , 1945, 35, 544-8, 596-8, 640-4. A n illu s tra te d re p o r t of
le c tu re s a n d a discussion o n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f (1) m e ch a n ic al a n d (2) elec­
tric a l w a rp sto p m o tio n s b y M essrs. M a th e r a n d P l a t t L td .
C.
N y lo n F ab rics: W ea v in g . J. W . H u tc h in s o n . S ilk and R a yo n , 1945, 19,
206-207. P ra c tic a l h in ts a re g iv en on th e w eav in g o f n y lo n fab rics, w ith
sp ecial reference to su ita b le te m p le s a n d c lo th ta k e -u p m ech a n ism .
C.
R ayon F abrics: W ea v in g on L ancashire L oom s.
J. H . S tro n g .
T e x tile
M ercury and Argus, 1945, 112, 191, 193, 197, 288-290, 310-315, 375-7, 379H in ts a re g iven on m easu res to a v o id c reasin g of th e fa b ric in w eav in g ra y o n
on L a n c a sh ire loom s, a n d on w arp te n sio n in g .
C.
(D):— K n i t t i n g
C ircular K n it P attern s: C alcu lation . H . D . B uck. T e x tile W orld, 1944, 94,
N o. 11, 119-121.
T h e a u th o r d escrib es, w ith e x a m p le s, how to w o rk o u t
designs on circ u la r k n ittin g m a c h in es w ith c u t pressers o r p a tte r n w heels of
th e B rin to n ty p e . T h e b a sic c o n sid e ra tio n is th e p rim e fa c to rs of th e n u m ­
b e r of needles in th e c y lin d e r. T h u s, w ith 730 needles, th e o n ly p ra c tic a b le
A2o 8
3— Conversion of Yarns into Fabrics (Patents)
field is 2 x 5= 0:0 needles, w h ereas a c y lin d e r w ith 728 n eedles offers thep o ssib ility of field w id th s o f 2, 7, 13, a n d th e ir m u ltip les 8, 14, 26, 28, 32, 52
a n d 56 needles.
C.
(G)— F a b r i c s
«
T e x tile F abrics: D e sig n in g . S ilk and R a yon, 1945, 19, 322, 324. W ith th e
h e lp of som e ty p ic a l e x am p les (illu strate d ) th e w rite r ex p lain s th e scope for
th e d esig n er in v a rio u s b ra n c h e s o f th e te x tile in d u strie s, w ith special referen ce
to th e know ledge of c lo th c o n stru c tio n a n d w eav in g t h a t th e desig n er sh o u ld
possess.
C.
P a ten ts.
K n ittin g D ev ice.
W . M ie sc h -G e rb e r a n d K . S c h o e n e n b e rg e r (E rle n b a c li,
S w itzerlan d ). B .P .567,394 o f 1 3 /4 / 1943: 1 3 /2 /1 9 4 5 . A dev ice for th e m a n u ­
fa c tu re of k n itte d fab rics is c h a ra c te rise d in t h a t p a rts o f th e fram ew o rk
lo c a te d on o p p o site sides o f th e o p en in g t h a t serves as a se a tin g for a needle
a n d c a rry in g th e m em b ers fo r s u p p o rtin g th e stitc h e s a re each p ro v id ed w ith
tw o row s o f m em bers of d iffe re n t size, one of th e row s b ein g c a p a b le of b ein g
b ro u g h t in to th e o p e ra tiv e p o sitio n in ste a d of th e o th e r row b y sim p ly re v ers­
in g th e p a r t of th e fram e w o rk b y w h ich th e y a re c a rried .
C.
T ape C ondenser Surface W in d in g D ru m : M ou n tin g, T raversin g and D riv in g .
P l a t t B ro th e rs & Co. L td ., G. J . P ro sse r a n d C. L . W a tts . B .P .567,539 of
8 / 9 / !9 4 3 ; * 9 ^ /2 /I945- M eans for m o u n tin g , tra v e rsin g a n d d riv in g surface
w in d in g d ru m s a n d th e ir b o b b in s of te x tile con d en sers, com prise b e arin g m eans
fo r e ach su rface d ru m slid a b ly m o u n te d on th e b o b b in fram e, m ean s for im p a rt­
in g sliding m o v e m e n t to th e b earin g s fo r ax ia l m o v e m e n t o f th e d ru m s, m ean s
fo r m o v in g th e b o b b in s a x ia lly sim u lta n e o u sly w ith th e ir d ru m s a n d d riv in g
m ean s fo r ro ta tin g th e su rface d ru m s in all p o sitio n s of a x ia l m o v e m e n t.
B earin g s a re p ro v id ed fo r each su rface d ru m , slid ab ly m o u n te d o n b ra c k e ts
c arried b y th e b o b b in fra m e , a n d th e b o b b in c a rrie r b ra c k e ts a re m o u n te d on
a s h a ft ca rrie d b y th e slid ab le b earin g s for a x ia l m o v e m e n t th e re w ith . T h e
d ru m s a re co n n ected in p a irs fo r sim u ltan e o u s a x ia l m o v e m e n t. T h e slid ab le
b earin g s a re c o n n ected in p a irs fo r sim u ltan e o u s a x ia l m o v e m e n t b y a b a r to
w hich th e m ean s for a x ia lly m o v in g th e d ru m s is c o n n e c ted .
C.
T erry Fabric K n ittin g M achine. E . W . C la rk e (H a m ilto n , C a n a d a ). B .P .
567,620 of 3 /6 /1 9 4 3 :2 3 / 2 /1 9 4 5 (Conv. 7 /8 /1 9 4 2 ). A k n itte d h o siery a rtic le
com prises a rib b e d p o rtio n a n d a n in te g ra l te r r y fa b ric p o rtio n . T h e heel, sole
a n d to e p o rtio n s m a y b e co m p o sed of te r ry fa b ric a n d leg a n d in ste p p o rtio n s
o f rib fab ric. T h is ty p e of h o siery is p ro d u ce d o n a k n ittin g m ach in e t h a t is
p ro v id ed w ith a needle c y lin d e r, sin k e rs b etw e e n co n secu tiv e needles, m e a n s
fo r feeding b o d y th re a d a n d te r r y th re a d to th e needles, a d ia l lo c a ted above
th e needle cy lin d e r inside th e n eed le circle a n d ro ta ta b le th e re w ith , a series of
b its carried b y th e d ia l a n d m o v a b le in d e p e n d e n tly b e tw e en a n in n e r re tra c te d
p o sitio n a n d a n o u te r p o sitio n in w h ich co n secu tiv e b its p ro je c t o u t b etw een
co n secu tiv e needles a n d b e tw e e n th e b o d y th r e a d a n d th e te r r y th r e a d fed b y
th e feeding m eans, a n d m ean s fo r m a n ip u la tin g co n secu tiv e n eedles to receiv e
th e th re a d s a n d d raw loops of th e b o d y th re a d o v e r th e sin k ers, a n d lo n g er
loops o f th e te r ry th re a d o v e r th e b its.
C.
C ircular K n ittin g M achine P ick er. B e n tle y E n g in e e r in g Co. L td . a n d F . E .
D ean s. B .P .567,652 o f 3 / 5 / 1 9 4 3 :2 6 / 2 /1 9 4 5 . In a c ircu la r k n ittin g m a c h in e
in w h ich som e needles h a v e lo n g b u tts a n d som e sh o rt b u tts , th e p ic k e r for
m o v in g needles from one p o sitio n to a n o th e r in th e tric k or groove is form ed
w ith a la te ra l e x ten sio n o n one o r e ach side of t h a t p a r t of th e p ic k e r w h ich is
in te n d e d to o p e ra te o n th e s h o r t b u tts , th e d im en sio n of each su c h la te ra l
ex ten sio n b ein g su ch a s to c o v er th e w id e st g a p in th e long b u tt s w hich w ill
o ccu r ow ing to th e la y -o u t of th e n eedles in th e n eedle b ed .
C.
T apered P ack age W in d in g A p p aratu s. C o u rta u ld s L td . a n d C. H . H a m p so n .
B .P .567,673 of 2 0 /8 / 1 9 4 3 :2 6 /2 /1 9 4 5 . A p p a ra tu s fo r w in d in g th r e a d pack ag es
ta p e re d a t each en d co m p rises a ro ta tin g ro ller, a re c ip ro c a tin g th r e a d g uide,
a co lla r c ap ab le of sw inging a b o u t th e ro lle r ax is, a ro d a tta c h e d to th e c o lla r
p a ssin g ’ th ro u g h a slo t in a le v e r w h ich is p iv o te d to a tra v e rs e ra il a n d is
th e re b y o sc illated a b o u t a fu lc ru m so t h a t th e co llar re c ip ro ca te s th e a rm
a lo n g th e ax is, th e ro lle r b e in g c a rrie d in a c ra d le w h ich m o v es aw ay fro m th e
th re a d g uide as th e p a c k ag e b u ild s u p o n th e ro lle r a n d th e re b y m oves th e ro d
4— Chemical and Finishing Processes
A209
in th e slo t in th e lev er to w a rd s th e fu lc ru m th e re o f a n d so sh o rte n s th e
tra v e rse of th e th r e a d guide. T h e fu lc ru m of th e le v e r m a y be a d ju s ta b le in
a d irectio n p a ra lle l to its le n g th ; th is re n d e rs possible a v a ria tio n in th e a n g le
of ta p e r of th e en d s of th e p ac k ag e. T h e sh a p e o f th e p a ck a g e m a y also be
v aried b y a p p ly in g a re c ip ro c a tin g m o tio n to th e fu lc ru m in a d ire c tio n
p arallel w ith t h a t of th e tra v e rse rail.
C.
4— CHEMICAL
AND
FIN ISH IN G
PR O C ESSES
(D )— M i l l i n g
P reven tion of Curled S elv ed g es in M illin g . D . R . H . W illiam s. W ool R e c .,
1945, 67, 411-415. C urlin g of selvedges in m illin g w as p re v e n te d b y a c c u ra te
b eam in g o f th e w a rp (using e.g. solid m e ta l flanges a n d ste e l b eam s), a n d b y
w eav in g th e list slig h tly sla c k e r th a n th e g ro u n d . F o r S h irtin g A ngola D ra b
T .5 6 /4 , p la in w eave, it w as im possible to p u t a d iffe re n t w eav e o n th e list; a
slack er lis t w as p ro d u ced b y h a v in g a tta c h e d to th e te m p le a dev ice, in v e n te d
b y H o ld sw o rth of B righouse, w hich h o ld s o u t th e w e ft a u to m a tic a lly u n til th e
b e a t-u p h a s ta k e n place, th u s p re v e n tin g th e w e ft fro m b ein g d ra w n tig h t b y
th e p u ll of th e sh u ttle . A c o rd ed edge m a y le a d to p e rm a n e n t stre tc h in g o f
th e blow ing w rap p er. F o r B a ra th e a B lue G rey T .105 w ith a h o p sa c k list, an d
for W h ip co rd , P .A .-G . a n d H . w ith 11-sh a ft w eav e, m o d ificatio n s w ere m a d e
in th e h eald in g a rra n g e m e n ts. F o r U .S .A . E la stiq u e , C a v a lry T w ill, special
p recau tio n s w ere ta k e n in b eam ing-off th e w a rp , w eav in g , sco u rin g , a n d te n te ring an d blow ing to red u c e u n e v en n ess to a m in im u m .
W.
(E) — D r y i n g a n d C o n d i t i o n i n g
C loth D ry in g M achines. S ilk J . Rayon W orld, 1945, 21, N o. 248, 34-37. A
b ro a d review , w ith illu stra tio n s, of re c e n t ty p e s of clip a n d p in ste n te rs , m u lti­
la y e r ste n te rs, d ry in g m ach in es fo r w oollens a n d w o rsted s, a n d tu b u la r d rie rs
for hosiery.
C.
T e x tile M aterials: R adiant H eat D ry in g . R . H . W ilh elm . T e x tile Research,
1944, 14, 400-1401. A n a b s tr a c t is g iv en of a pro g ress re p o rt o n stu d ies o f th e
ra d ia n t d ry in g of w oven w ool fe lt a n d a b so rb e n t c o tto n . T h e course o f d ry in g
w as fo u n d to be closely sim ila r in ra d ia n t a n d a ir-c o n v e c tio n d ry in g . In e ach
case, tw o m a jo r p eriods a re c le a rly d istin g u ish ab le o n a r a te /r e g a in d ia g ra m .
In th e first p erio d , free w a te r c ap ab le of b ein g ce n trifu g e d fro m th e m a te ria l,
is d ried a t a re la tiv e ly ra p id ra te , a n d in th e la tte r , w a te r h e ld in th e fibres is
rem oved b y a slow er, diffusion m ech a n ism . T h e ra te of ra d ia n t d ry in g is g re a te r
th a n t h a t of co n v ectio n a ir d ry in g in each p erio d . A th e o re tic a l e q u a tio n h a s
been developed fo r a h e a t b a la n c e a n d fo r th e ra te o f r a d ia n t- h e a t d ry in g o f
te x tile s in th e free-w ater p erio d . A stre a m of a ir a t ro o m te m p e ra tu re p assed
o v e r m a te ria l b ein g d ried b y ra d ia n t h e a t does n o t m a te ria lly d ecrease th e r a te
o f d ry in g , b u t does low er th e te m p e ra tu re of th e w ork to a sig n ifican t e x te n t.
S am ple te m p e ra tu re m ea su re m e n ts d u rin g ra d ia n t d ry in g a n d p e n e tra tio n
stu d ies w ith a n o p tic a l b e n c h a n d th e rm o p ile give stro n g ev id en ce t h a t ra d ia n t
e n erg y m a y p e n e tra te a c o n sid erab le d is ta n c e in to th ic k te x tile m a te ria ls.
T h e d ire c t re s u lt is a rise in te m p e ra tu re of th e c e n tre of th e m a te ria l a b o v e
th e surface te m p e ra tu re . A h e a t b a lan c e e q u a tio n fo r th is effect h a s been
developed. I t re la te s th e te m p e ra tu re a t a n y g iv en d is ta n c e fro m th e su rface
w ith th e su rface te m p e ra tu re , th e ra d ia n t flux d e n sity , th e ra d ia tio n a b so rp ­
tio n coefficient for th e m a te ria l, a n d its th e r m a l c o n d u c tiv ity .
C.
(G)— B l e a c h i n g
F u rs: B leach in g. A. G inzel.
of accep ted processes.
(I)— D
T e x tilb e r ., 1943, 24, 183-185.
A g e n e ra l review
W.
y e in g
5-H ydroxycoum arin A zo D y e s:
F orm ation.
S. - R a n g a s w a m i a n d K .
R a n g a n a d h a R ao . P roc. Indian A ca d . S c i., 1944, 19A, 14-16 (th ro u g h C hem .
A b str .,
1945, 39,
193s)5 -H y d ro x y -7 -m e th y lc o u rą a rin ,
5 -h y d ro x y -4 : 7d im e th y lc o u m a rin ,
and
7 -h y d ro x y -5 -m eth y lco u m a rin w ere c o u p led w ith
diazo tised />-nitraniline a t 0° C. C a lc u la te d q u a n titie s of th e d ia z o n iu m s a lt
solutions w ere a d d e d to g ive o n e m o lecule a n d slig h tly m o re th a n tw o m ole­
cules. T h e m ix tu re s w ere le ft in a re frig e ra to r for tw o d a y s a n d th e d y e w as
th e n filtered, cry stallised fro m ac e tic a c id a n d a n a ly se d for n itro g en . I n all
th ree cases o n ly th e m onoazo d y es w erę fo rm ed w h en one m o lecule of th e
A 2IO
4— Chemical and Finishing Processes
d ia z o n iu m s a lt w as em p lo y ed , a n d a m ix tu re of th e m ono- a n d disazo dyes
w h en slig h tly m ore th a n tw o m olecules o f th e s a lt w ere u sed . W ith 5-h y d ro x y 7 -m eth y lco u m arin a n d 5 -h y d ro x y -4 : 7 -d im eth y lco u m arin , a lth o u g h b o th th e 6a n d 8-positions a re free, disazo d y e s w ere n o t fo rm ed alo n e even w h en excess
d ia zo n iu m s a lt w as a v a ila b le . T h is confirm s th e a u th o r s ’ o p in io n t h a t disazod y e fo rm a tio n is n o t co n tro lle d o n ly b y th e d isp o sitio n of d o u b le b o n d s in th e
o rig in al co m p o u n d , b u t is s u b je c t to v ario u s o th e r fa c to rs, su ch as so lu b ility
re la te d to th e m onoazo d y e a n d its re a c tiv ity .
C.
U n ion C lo th s: D y e in g .
F . S m ith .
/ . Soc. D yers &■ Col., 1945, 61, 8-12.
T h e so rtin g o f rag s fo r th e p ro d u c tio n o f u n io n goods is b riefly d iscussed a n d
m e th o d s of d y ein g d a r k sh ad es o n u n strip p e d g ro u n d s a re d escrib ed . S u itab le
d y e s a re liste d . A n a c c o u n t is g iv en of e x p e rim e n ts illu s tra tin g th e d ifferen t
re su lts o b ta in e d u n d e r d iffe re n t co n d itio n s in th e d y ein g o f w o o l-co tto n u n io n s
w ith C hlorazol F a s t R e d K a n d C h ry so p h en in e G, a n d th e c o n d itio n s n ecessary
fo r th e p ro d u c tio n of th e sam e sh a d e o n th e c o tto n a n d th e w ool a re in d ica ted .
T h e d y e in g of cellulose a c e ta te ray o n -w o o l u n io n s, th e d y e in g of loose woolc o tto n w a ste b le n d s w ith su lp h u r d y es, a n d th e a p p lic a tio n of d iazo tisab le
d ir e c t d y es to u n io n goods a re d iscu ssed .
C.
D y e s A p p lied b y Sap on ification : C h em istry. J. W a k e lin . S ilk a n d R a y o n ,
1945, 19, 202, 205.
A concise a c c o u n t is g iven of th e c h e m istry of th e
Io n a m in e , R ap id o g en , a n d o th e r d y e s t h a t a re a p p lie d in th e form o f read ily
sap o n ifiab le d e riv a tiv e s.
C.
U n io n P iece G ood s: D y e in g . A . E llis. T e x tile M ercu ry &> A rg u s, 1945, 112,
197-201, 263-264.
H in ts are g iven on th e level d y e in g o f w ool a n d c o tto n
u n io n s.
C.
D y e s : B righ tn ess. T . V ick erstaff. P roc. P h y s. S oc., 1945, 57, 15-31. I t is
p o in te d o u t t h a t th e te r m “ b rig h tn e ss ” as used b y th e d y e r covers a co m ­
b in a tio n of p u rity a n d lig h tn ess, w h ere lig h tn ess refers to th e a m o u n t of lig h t
reflected from th e su rface a n d is e q u iv a le n t to th e p h y sic ist’s b rig h tn e ss.
R easo n s for th e existe n c e of lim its to th e p u rity a n d lig h tn e ss a tta in a b le are
o u tlin e d a n d a n a c c o u n t is g iv en of w o rk d o n e in a n a tt e m p t to dev elo p a
m e th o d of d e te rm in in g th e a p p ro a c h o f a re a l d y e to th e id eal lim its, i.e. th e
efficiency of a d y e. F ro m th e re su lts o b ta in e d i t is co n sid ered t h a t th e ch ro m a
d eficien cy of a d y e a t th e o p tim u m v a lu e lev el of th e a p p ro p ria te h u e p ro v id es
a s a tisfa c to ry m e a su re m e n t o f th e efficiency o f th e d y e a n d th e p ossibilities of
visual im p ro v e m e n t in b rig h tn e ss w h ich re m ain . D eta ils of th e p ro ced u re a n d
resu lts fo r v a rio u s d y e s a re g iv en . T hese resu lts seem to show t h a t colours
w hich h a v e o n ly one a b so rp tio n b a n d edge in th e v isible sp e c tru m are m ore
efficient th a n th o se w ith tw o , a s m ig h t b e e x p e c te d . R ed s a n d yellow s a p p e a r
to be h ig h ly efficient, blu e-g reen s a n d b lu ish red s less so, a n d p u rp le s an d
greens v e ry inefficient.
C.
T ex tile F ib res: Structure an d D y e in g .
E . K o rn re ic h .
T e x tile M a n u fa c­
turer, 1945, 71, 33-34. A n o u tlin e is given of view s o n th e re la tio n s betw een
fibre a n d d y e s tru c tu re as th e b asis o f a science o f d y ein g . T h e em p h asis is
placed on th e pow er of d y es to fo rm ag g reg ates a n d th e te n d e n c y of th ese
ag g reg ates to .cry stallise a n d th u s re a c h a n in a c tiv e s ta te . F o r ex am p le, th e
ex p erien ce in d y e in g w ith d ire c t d y e s to d a rk sh ad es t h a t th o u g h a n a p p a re n t
e n d is reach ed in o ne b a th th e d y e d fibre w ill c o n tin u e to ta k e u p d y e in ą
fresh b a th is ex p la in e d b y sa y in g t h a t in th e sta le b a th th e d y e h a s form ed
c ry s ta llin e aggregates.
F u r th e r , som e d y es re a d ily fo rm th e se cry sta llin e
ag g reg ates a n d th e presen ce o f a po w erfu l so lv en t is n ece ssa ry to b rin g o u t
th e tin c to ria l pow er.
C.
(K ) — F i n i s h i n g .
P la stic s: M anufacture and U ses. S ilk a n d R a y o n , 1944, 18, 1330, 1334-1336.
A c o n tin u a tio n o f a p o p u la r a c c o u n t of th e te x tile a p p lic a tio n s of p lastics,
as claim ed in p a te n t specificatio n s. P a r t 7 d eals w ith th e u re a -fo rm a ld e h y d e
resin s a n d th e ir use in th e c rease-resistin g finish, th e im ita tio n " oiled-silk ”
finish, d e lu strin g , a n d in crea sin g th e fle x ib ility o f a c e ta te ra y o n a n d n y lo n .
C.
W o o l: S h rin k age and F e ltin g C ontrol w ith L anaset. J . E . L y n n . A m er.
D y e s. R e p ., 1944, 33, P554-559U re a -fo rm a ld e h y d e, p h e n o l-fo rm ald eh y d e
a n d th e rm o p la stic resin s d o n o t a d e q u a te ly c o n tro l w ool sh rin k a g e ; S p e a k m a n ’s
process u sin g m onom eric resin -fo rm in g th e rm o p la sts (B .P .599,787, th e se A b s.,
4— Chemical and Finishing Processes (Patents)
A2 I I
1944, A246) claim s ex c e lle n t sh rin k a g e c o n tro l, b u t is tim e-c o n su m in g a n d
co stly . T h e m elam in e resin L a n a se t (tra d e m a rk of th e A m e ric an C y an a m id
C o.) elim in ates p ra c tic a lly a ll fe ltin g sh rin k a g e a n d a lle v ia te s sp o n g in g sh rin k ­
age. T h e process is covered b y U .S .P .2,329,622 (these A b s ., 19144, A i i o ) . T h e
m ill e q u ip m e n t req u ired is d escrib ed a n d sh o w n d ia g ra m m a tic a lly . C u rin g
te m p e ra tu re s o f 29o°-3io° F . d o n o t a ffect th e ten sile s tre n g th of th e w ool;
yellow ing a n d h a rsh en in g o ccu r, b u t th e se can b e c o u n te ra c te d b y a m ild p e r­
o xide b le a c h a n d b y th e use o f so ften ers. T h e re is good c o rre la tio n b e tw e e n
la b o ra to ry a n d m ill sh rin k ag e c o n tro l re su lts; u n sa tisfa c to ry m ill re su lts a re in
m a n y cases d u e to excessive oil c o n te n t; o th e r fa c to rs w h ich m a y cause d iffer­
ences in d y e in g ra te s a n d in sh rin k a g e c o n tro l a re te n ta tiv e ly in d ic a te d . T h e
resin la s ts th e life of th e fab ric, a n d a good sh rin k a g e c o n tro l is m a in ta in e d for
a t le a s t 10 lau n d e rin g s. T h e a p p lic a tio n of m elam in e resin s to ra w w ool, to p s
a n d slu b b in g h as n o t y e t b een co m m ercially successful. D ataw are g iv en o n th ś
re la tiv e sh rin k ag e of u n tr e a te d a n d m elam in e resin tr e a te d y a rn s w ash ed b y a
m odificatioft of th e te c h n iq u e of L e C o m p te a n d C reely (these A b s ., 1940, A556;
1941, A510; 1943, A192). As w ell as c o n tro llin g sh rin k a g e a n d feltin g , L a n a s e t
stab ilizes y a rn s in fabrics, a n d p re v e n ts th e b leed in g of m a n y d y es.
W.
(L ) — P r o o f i n g
W ater-repellent W ax E m u lsion F in ish e s: A p p lica tio n .
R . A . P in g re e ,
T e x tile W o rld , 1944, 94, N o. 12, 86-88. T h e a u th o r d escrib es c u rre n t p ra c tic e
in th e a p p lic a tio n of n o n -d u ra b le finishes em p lo y in g em ulsions of w a x in so lu ­
tio n s of th e a c e ta te s o r fo rm ate s o f A l, Z r o r th e ra re e a rth s.
C.
P
atents
>
P ig m en ts: F ix in g on T e x tile M aterials.
H . C. O lp in , S. A . G ib so n a n d
W . C. M cK night. B .P .567,493 of 2 2 /2 /1 9 4 3 : 1 6 /2 /1 9 4 5 . A process fo r fixing
p ig m en ts on te x tile fab rics, film s, foils a n d lik e m a te ria ls com prises a p p ly in g
a p a ste c o n ta in in g th e p ig m e n t a n d a w ater-so lu b le c o n d e n sa tio n p ro d u c t of
fo rm ald e h y d e w ith a n a m in o -triaz in e , a fte r th e a p p lic a tio n to th e m a te ria l
of a n acid of sufficiently low v o la tility to re m a in in th e m a te ria l a n d c a p ab le
o f c a ta ly sin g th e co nv ersio n of th e c o n d e n sa tio n p ro d u c t in to a n inso lu b le
c o n d en satio n p ro d u c t u n d e r th e influ en ce of h e a t, a n d th e n h e a tin g to b rin g
a b o u t th e co nversion. T h e acid m a y be a 10 p e r c e n t, a q u eo u s so lu tio n of
ta r ta r ic acid . T h e tr e a tm e n t m a y b e ap p lie d to re g e n e ra te d cellulose, cellulose
e ste r an d eth e r, a n d fib re-fo rm in g p o ly m e r m a te ria ls. B y th e a p p lic a tio n of
tita n iu m o x id e o r b a riu m su lp h a te in th is w a y to cellulose e ste r o r e th e r
m a te ria ls, a p le a s a n t d e lu stre d effect is p ro d u c ed w h ich is re s is ta n t to soapsco u rin g o p e ra tio n s. C oloured effects c a n be p ro d u c e d b y th e use o f coloured
p ig m e n ts o r b y th e in co rp o ra tio n of s u ita b le d y es in th e c o m p o sitio n co n ta in in g
th e condensing a g e n t a n d p ig m e n t.
C.
P ile Fabric P roducing M achine. B ro w n , O g d en & Co. L td . a n d T . A . B row n.
B .P .567,527 of 1 5 /5 /1 9 4 3 ; 1 9 /2 /1 9 4 5 . A m ach in e for p ro d u c in g a pile fa b ric
com prises m eans for p ro je c tin g loose te x tile fibres o n to th e edges of p la te s
sp aced a p a r t so t h a t th e fibres e x te n d a ro u n d th e edges o f th e p la te s d u e to
th e force w ith w hich th e y are p ro je c te d th e re o n , across fro m p la te to p la te
a n d u p in to th e spaces b e tw een th e p la te s, m e an s fo r tra v e rsin g th e fibres
a lo n g th e p la te s a n d m ean s for secu rin g th e fibres to a b a c k in g . T h e fibres
m a y be secured to th e b a c k in g b y th re a d s la id in th e g ap s fo rm ed in th e
fibrous m ass b y th e sp aced p la te s. T h e fibres m a y b e se cu red to th e b ac k in g
b y sew ing th e tw o to g e th e r a t th e gap s fo rm ed in th e fibrous m ass.
The
fibres in sliver fo rm a re p ro je c te d b y a ro ller covered w ith c a rd c lo th in g on to
th ic k e n e d edges of th e spaced p la te s, a n d th e fibrous m ass is tra v e rs e d alo n g
th e p la te s by. spikes o r te e th (u p o n an* endless co n v ey o r) w h ich p ro je c t in to
th e m ass b etw een th e division p la te s. T h e fib ro u s m ass w ith th re a d s la id in
th e gaps th e re in is a d v a n c e d in s e p a ra te or d isc re te q u a n titie s in te rm itte n tly
a fte r it leaves th e divisio n p la te s so as to le av e a g a p b e tw e e n th e a d v a n c e d
p a r t a n d th e m ain b o d y of m a te ria l le a v in g th e p la te s, a n d a sew ing m ach in e
crosses th e m achine in th e g ap a n d b in d s th e th re a d s to th e b a c k in g m a te ria l.
C.
W o o l: C hlorinating.
H e n k e l & C ie., G .m .b .H .
D .R .P .715,484 (th ro u g h
T e x tilb e r ., 1943, 24, 150. W ool goods a re tr e a te d in a so lu tio n of ch lo rin e in
o rg an ic, ch lo rin e -re sista n t so lv e n ts. S o lv e n ts a re p re fe ra b ly used w h ich , a fte r
th e w ool h a s b een tr e a te d , d o n o t re q u ire to o h ig h te m p e ra tu re s fo r th e ir
A2I2
5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Dejects
re m o v a l, e.g. ca rb o n te tra c h lo rid e . A s a g e n e ra l ru le, v e ry d ilu te so lu tio n s
a re used. T oo h ig h c o n c e n tra tio n s c a n d a m a g e th e fibre. T h e le n g th of tr e a t ­
m e n t a n d th e te m p e ra tu re c a n flu c tu a te w ith in fa irly w ide lim its, ro o m te m ­
p e ra tu re b e in g p re fe rre d . A fte r c h lo rin a tio n th e w ool is d rie d a n d tr e a te d w ith
a w eak so lu tio n of a n a n tic h lo r. A p a rtic u la rly u n ifo rm a c tio n of th e ch lo rin e
is o b ta in e d , e v e n w ith v e ry th ic k fab rics. T h e goods are u n sh rin k a b le , a n d
th e ir e la s tic ity , s tre n g th a n d d y e in g c a p a c ity co n sid erab ly in creased .
W.
T e x tile M aterials: R ed u cin g F e ltin g T en d en cy .
A . W . B ald w in , T . B a rr,
J . B . S p ea k m a n a n d Im p e ria l C h em ical In d u s trie s L td .
B .P .567,501 of
1 6 /2 / 1945. M aterials com posed w holly o r p a rtly o f w ool a re tr e a te d a t ro o m
te m p e ra tu re , a n d a t a n y sta g e o f m a n u fa c tu re , w ith a so lu tio n of a n h y d ro carb o x y g ly cin e in a n o rg a n ic so lv e n t. A fte r rem o v al o f th e so lv e n t b y d ry in g ,
th e ^m aterial m a y b e b a k e d a t 90-140“ C.
T h e tr e a tm e n t is fa s t to d ry clean in g , a n d th e , feltin g p ro p e rtie s of th e m a te ria l a re su b s ta n tia lly red u c e d .
W.
5—ANA LY SIS, T E S T IN G , GRADING AND DEFECTS
(A)— F i b r e s
C ellu lo se: D e n sity . K . L a u e r a n d U . W e ste rm a n n . K o llo id Z ., 1944, 107,
89-93 (th ro u g h C h em . A b s tr ., 1945, 39, 1836).
T h e d e n s ity of cellulose is
in flu en ced b y th e m o lecu lar forces w h ich o p e ra te b e tw ee n its h y d ro x y l groups
a n d c e rta in groups of th e d isp la c e m e n t m ed ia in w h ich th e m easu re m e n ts are
m ad e. T h is influence is sm all w h en w a te r is used , becau se o n ly sm all changes
o c cu r w hen th e in tra m o le c u la r a ttra c tio n b e tw een th e h y d ro x y l g roups of th e
d r y cellulose sh ifts to th e m o lecu lar a ttra c tio n b etw een th e la tte r a n d th e
h y d ro x y l groups of th e w a te r. I t is claim ed t h a t th e d e n sity o f cellulose in
w a te r (w hich th e a u th o rs find to be i-6 ) e q u a ls its th e o re tic a l (i.e. c ry sta l)
d e n sity a n d is th u s u n affected b y th e p resen ce in th e fibre of n o n -cry sta llin e
cellulose. C o n seq u en tly , th e m e a su rem en ts in w a te r show n o difference for
n a tiv e a n d cellulose h y d ra te fibres. I n c o n tra s t, th e influen ce of th e m o lecu lar
forces b e tw e e n cellulose a n d th e d isp la c e m e n t m e d iu m is ap p re cia b le if th e
la t te r is a n o rg an ic liq u id (e.g. h ig h e r alcohols, ch lo ro fo rm , a ce to n e , benzene
o r to lu en e). In th ese cases th e fa c t t h a t th e d e n s ity o f cellulose in a n y d is­
p la c e m e n t m ed iu m is n o t id e n tic a l w ith t h a t o f cellulose alo n e, b u t w ith t h a t
o f th e sy ste m cellu lo se-d isp lacem en t m ed iu m becom es m ore p ro n o u n c e d . T he
d e n s ity v a lu e s in th e o rg an ic liq u id s a re a ll low er th a n th o se fo r w a te r. T his
difference is said to b e a re s u lt, n o t of a v o lu m e c o n tra c tio n in th e cellulosew a te r sy s te m (h ith e rto h e ld resp o n sib le for th e h ig h e r v alu es in w ate r), b u t of
ly o p h ilic so rp tio n of th e o rg a n ic liq u id b y cellulose. T h e sam e h y p o th e sis is
used to ex p lain th e fa c t t h a t th e d e n sitie s m easu red in o rg a n ic liq u id s are
low er th a n th o se o b ta in e d in h eliu m . T h e id ea t h a t th is difference is th e re s u lt
o f in a b ility of th e re la tiv e ly larg e m olecules o f th e o rg an ic liq u id s to fill th e
in te rstic e s of th e fibre c o m p le te ly is th e re fo re d isc a rd ed .
C.
C ellu lose F ib res: O rganic V apour S orp tion . Iv. L a u e r. K o llo id Z ., 1944,
107, 86-88 (th ro u g h C h em . A b s tr ., 1945, 39, 1834). A d so rp tio n iso th erm s of
p u rified c o tto n fo r all o rg an ic liq u id s in v e stig a te d d e v ia te fro m th e S -shaped
is o th e rm c h a ra c te ristic s fo r w a te r. N ev erth eless, th e a d so rp tio n iso th erm s for
th e low er (polar) alcohols (m e th y l a n d e th y l alcohol) refleęt, as d o th o se for
w a te r, th e o v e rla p p in g o f a d so rp tio n a n d sw elling p h e n o m e n a , th o u g h in a
d ifferen t o rd e r. I n c o n tra s t, p ro p a n o l, iso p ro p an o l, b u ta n o l, b en zen e, to lu en e,
p araffin h y d ro c a rb o n s, c a rb o n te tra c h lo rid e a n d c h lo ro fo rm p ro d u ce p u re
a d so rp tio n iso th erm s w ith o u t in v o lv in g sw elling p h e n o m en a . A cetic acid p ro ­
duces sw elling o n ly , w h ereas a c eto n e show s in d iffe re n t b e h a v io u r a t low an d
a d so rp tio n a t h ig h e r v a p o u r p ressu res. S im ilar resu lts a re o b ta in e d w ith v is­
cose ra y o n s.
S w ellin g -b y-w eig h t a:nd św ellin g -b y -v o lu m e d a ta aire co m p ared
a n d confirm th e re su lts sh o w n b y th e iso th erm s. H e a t o f a d so rp tio n is p o si­
tiv e in all cases, b u t th e d ifference w h ich n a tiv e cellulose a n d cellulose h y d ra te
fibres show in w a te r d isa p p e a rs in m o st o rg a n ic liq u id s.
C.
C ellu lose F ib res: S tren g th and Structure.
K . L a u e r.
K o llo id Z ., 1944,
107, 93-103 (th ro u g h C h em . A b s tr ., 1945, 3 9 , 1839). T h is p a p e r, w h ich is m o stly
sp ecu lativ e, d eals p a rtic u la rly w ith th e d ry a n d w e t s tre n g th of n a tiv e cellulose
a n d cellulose h y d ra te fibres a s m e a su re d in w a te r a n d o rg an ic liq u id s.
An
e x p la n a tio n fo r th e d iffe re n t b e h a v io u rs of th e v a rio u s ty p e s of fibres to w a rd
d ifferen t im m ersion liq u id s is a tte m p te d on th e b asis of tw o a ssu m p tio n s. (1) T h e
5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and D efects
A213
n a tiv e cellulose fibre is conceived a s b ein g b u ilt u p of sp iral rib b o n s co m p o sed
o f lam ellae, re p re se n tin g th e c ry sta llin e p o rtio n of th e fibre, w ith th e a m o rp h o u s
p o rtio n s b etw een th e sp iral rib b o n s; th e lam ellae are co n sid ered a s co m p o sed of
fibrils w hich r u n p a ra lle l to th e fibre axis. I n c o n tra s t, cellulose h y d ra te fibres
a re p ic tu re d as lac k in g th e sp ira l rib b o n a rra n g e m e n t, th e cry sta llin e a n d a m o r­
p h o u s p o rtio n s b e in g arra n g e d a t ra n d o m . (2) H e rm a n s ’ /3-g lu co p y ran o se m o d el
is considered, in w hich th e h y d ro x y l g ro u p s a re lo c a te d o n one side of a p la n e
a n d Eire b eliev ed to be p ro je c te d p a ra lle l to th e fibre a x is th ro u g h th e a n h y d ro glucose rin g , w hereas th e h y d ro g e n a to m s a re lo c a te d o n th e o th e r side of th e
p lan e. T h e b e h a v io u r of v a rio u s fibres on freezin g a t - 150° is co n sid ered . C o tto n
fibres show no loss in tensile stre n g th , w h ereas sta p le fibre loses fro m 10 to 40
decreases.
C.
C otton : H and T estin g . E . H . H e lliw e ll. T e x tile W o rld , 1944, 94, N o. 12,
82-83, 129. A b ro ad d e sc rip tio n is given of h a n d m e th o d s fo r ju d g in g th e
“ c h a ra c te r,” “ b o d y ” (clinging pow er), stre n g th , sta p le , a n d n e p p in e ss of a
sam p le of ra w co tto n .
C.
C otton L in t: L ength, F in e n e ss an d S tren g th .
N . I. H a n c o c k .
J. A m er.
S o c. A g ro n ., 1944, 36, 530-536 (th ro u g h E x p . S ta . R e c ., 1944, 91, 666). M easu re­
m e n ts of th e le n g th , fineness a n d s tre n g th of c o tto n lin t h a v e b e e n m a d e o n th e
fib ro g rap h a n d are a lo m e te r a n d P re ssle y fib re s tre n g th te s te r. T h ese lin t p ro ­
p e rtie s are defin itely genetic c h a ra c te rs o l th e c o tto n p la n t, a n d v a rie tie s show
sig n ifican t differences in th e ir ex p ressio n . E n v iro n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s of th e a re a
w here a v a rie ty is grow n h a v e a n im p o rta n t influ en ce u p o n th e ex p ressio n of th e
th re e lin t p ro p ertie s. T h e th re e lin t p ro p e rtie s a re g e n etica lly in d e p e n d e n t, b u t,
u n d e r v a ria b le en v iro n m e n ts, fineness follow s le n g th in a p o sitiv e m a n n e r a n d
s tre n g th follow s le n g th in a n e g a tiv e m a n n e r.
C.
M icro S p in n in g T e sts: U se s and A ccu racy.
H . A. H a n c o c k .
J . T e x tile
I n s t., 1945, 36, T io -1 8 .
C.
A lg in a te R a y o n s: P rop erties.
N . H . C h a m b e rla in , A . J o h n s o n a n d J. B.
S p eak m an . / . Soc. D yers <S- C ol., 1945, 61, 13-20. A ll a lg in a te ra y o n s a re h ig h ly
h ygroscopic a n d th e re is co n sid erab le h y ste re sis b e tw e en th e a d so rp tio n a n d
d e so rp tio n iso th erm s of C a, Ą 1, C r a n d B e a lg in a te s a t 25° C. T h e w a te r a b so rp ­
tio n c a p a c ity a t 65 p e r c e n t. R .H . a n d 22-2° C. of th e C a a n d B a alg in a tes
increases w ith in creasin g m e ta l c o n te n t, a fte r a slig h t in itia l d ro p , a n d so does
th e ab so lu te s tre n g th of th e y a m s . T h e d e n ier also increases w ith in creasin g
m e ta l c o n te n t, a n d w hen th e b re a k in g lo a d is expressed as g. p e r d en ier, th e
m a x im u m te n a c ity is given b y C a a n d B a c o n te n ts of o - i o a n d o - o 6 g .- a to m
p e r 100 g. alginic acid , re sp ectiv ely . T h e h ig h m e ta l c o n te n ts re s u lt in h ig h
d en sities (e.g. .1-780 fo r a C a-C r a lg in ate) b u t h a v e th e a d v a n ta g e of m a k in g
th e m a te ria ls n o n -in flam m ab le so t h a t th e y sh o u ld b e sp ecially su ita b le fo r th e
m a n u fa c tu re of c u rta in s a n d fu rn ish in g fab rics. U n lik e C a a lg in a te ra y o n , w h ich
is soluble in a so lu tio n of so ap (0 -2 p e r c e n t.) a n d so d a a sh (0 -2 p e r c e n t.),
th e C r a n d B e ra y o n s a re o n ly slig h tly w eak en ed b y tr e a tm e n t w ith th e so lu tio n
fo r 30 m in . a t 250 C. o r 40° C. T h e e x te n sib ility of th e C r a n d B e a lg in a te
ray o n s is m u ch to o low to p e rm it th e ir successful use in w eav in g a n d k n ittin g .
C alcium a lg in a te ra y o n possesses s a tisfa c to ry elastic p ro p e rtie s fo r su ch p u r­
poses a n d c an be sto red fo r lo n g p erio d s a t o rd in a ry h u m id itie s w ith o u t d e te rio ra ­
tio n . C alcium alg in a te ra y o n fab rics c a n be m a d e a lk a li-re sista n t b y tr e a tm e n t
w ith c h ro m iu m o r b ery lliu m a c e ta te in finishing.
, *
C.
G lass F ib res: F in en ess M easurem ent. P . A . K o ch a'nd G. S a tlo w . G lastech.
B e r., 1943, 21, 36-42 (th ro u g h C h em . Z e n ir ., 1943, ii, 358-359 a n d C hem . A b s tr .,
1945, 39, 165s). T h e u su a l p ro ced u res of th e G erm a n te x tile s ta n d a rd s (D IN ,
DVM 3801) c a n n o t be .applied to m e a su rin g glass fibres. A series of 2000 fineness
m ea su re m e n ts each w ere m a d e on glass fila m e n ts p ro d u c e d b y th e G erresh eim er
je t-d ra w in g (I) an d jet-blo w in g processes (II), a n d th e S ch u ller ro d -d ra w in g
process (III). D u p licate m e asu re m e n ts w ere av o id e d b y m easu rin g o n ly 25 fibres
of each p re p a ra tio n . A to ta l of 20 p re p a ra tio n s w ere u sed w ith 102 single fibres
e ach fo r I a n d 80 single fibres each fo r I I a n d I I I . T h e p ro b a b le e rro r f of th e
m ean v a lu e of th e m ea su re m e n ts w as d e te rm in e d . T h e c o rre latio n of re su lts
show ed t h a t 100 single m e a su re m e n ts w ere re q u ire d fo r I I I to give f less th a n
1 p e r cen t, a n d 250 m e a siy e m e n ts fo r I I . (B em berg c u p ra m m o n iu m ra y o n g av e
b e tte r resu lts.) C onsiderab le differences e x isted b e tw ee n h ig h a n d low v a lu e s
o f irreg u la rity . G ra p h ic a l d e te rm in a tio n s show ed t h a t 300 single m e a su re m e n ts
A21Ą
5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects
m u s t b e m a d e to d e te rm in e th e ran g e of irreg u la rities, w h ilst 150 can be co n ­
sid ered a d e q u a te fo r ro u tin e c o n tro l.
C.
G lass F ib re: T e stin g . B y ezb o ro d o v a n d R a m la u . Z a v o d sk a y a L a b o ra to riya ,
1941, 10, 182 (th ro u g h In d u s tria l C h em ist, 1945, 21, 28-30). D raw n glass fibre is
o b ta in e d b y p u llin g o u t a fibre fro m a m o lte n m ass of glass a n d rolling i t o n a
d ru m . I t h a s a fa irly u n ifo rm th ic k n e ss a n d is used fo r y a rn a n d c lo th . B low n
p r s ta p le fibre is o b ta in e d b y blow ing a je t o f m o lte n glass w ith co m p ressed a ir
o r ste a m . Single fibres o f th is ty p e v a ry g re a tly in th ic k n e ss alo n g th e ir le n g th
a n d d ifferen t fibres v a ry b e tw e e n 3 a n d 144/i in d ia m e te r. T h e a c tio n of w a te r
w as assessed b y d e te rm in in g th e q u a n tity of a lk a li e x tra c te d fro m a k n o w n surface
a re a in a g iven tim e b y bo ilin g w a te r. M easu rem en ts w ere a lso m a d e of th e
a m o u n t e x tra c te d on s ta n d in g in d istilled w a te r a t room te m p e ra tu re for p erio d s
u p to 31 d a y s. F o r glass fibres b f th e sam e c h em ical c o m p o sitio n th e resistan ce
to a tta c k d ep en d s u p o n th e d ia m e te r an d th e surface a re a . T h e q u a n tity of
a lk a li e x tra c te d p e r u n it a re a of a th in fibre is less th a n t h a t o b ta in e d fro m a
th ic k e r fibre. In b re a k in g s tre n g th te s ts co n sid erab le differences w ere observ ed
b etw e e n fibres of th e sam e d ia m e te r selected fro m th e sam e sam p le. A m ean
v a lu e of 9 0 -7 kg. p e r sq. m m . w as fo u n d fo r one sam p le. M ean te n sile stre n g th s
o f fibres of d ifferen t d ia m e te rs v a rie d w ith th e d ia m e te rs. F o r c h a ra cte risin g a
sam p le th e re s u lts of te s ts o f 25-go -in d iv id u al fibres in each of th e th ick n ess
ran g es p re s e n t in th e sa m p le m u s t be av era g ed . F ig u re s fo r th re e d ifferen t
sam p les a re g iven.
C.
W o o l: S ulp hur C ontent and D egree of D am age. K le p zig 's T e x t. Z ., 1941,
N o. 42, 1172 (th ro u g h T e x tilb e r ., 1943, 24, 194). T h e to ta l su lp h u r of w ool
is no crite rio n of th e ch an g es cau sed d u rin g processing, sin ce th e c y stin e c o n ­
t e n t ca n d ecrease a n d th e to ta l su lp h u r re m a in u n c h a n g e d . C o m p ariso n of th e
to ta l su lp h u r a n d th e c y stin e su lp h u r of a w ool c a n b e used a s a m easu re of
d am ag e , since in a n u n d a m a g e d w ool p ra c tic a lly all th e to ta l su lp h u r c a n b e
a c c o u n te d fo r as c y stin e su lp h u r.
W.
W o o l: Influence of E n viron m en t on S p in n in g Q u a lity . J . C. C otsell a n d E .
A. E llio tt. A g ric. G a zette o f N ew 1 S o u th W ales, 1944, 55, 1446-450. O b serv a­
tio n s w ere m a d e on 2 g ro u p s of sh e e p to in v e s tig a te th e influence of ch an g e of
e n v iro n m e n t on th e sp in n in g q u a lity o f w ool (as in flu en ced b y fineness). O ne .
g ro u p (P ep p in ty p e , p ro d u c in g m ed iu m to stro n g wool) w as tra n sfe rre d from
th e w est of N ew S o u th W ales to th e ta b le la n d s , a n d th e o th e r g ro u p (S axony
ty p e , p ro d u c in g f in e 'to superfine wool) w as tra n sfe rre d fro m th e ta b le la n d s to
th e w est. A t th e en d o f 4 a n d 5 y e a r p erio d s th e re w as no g en eral ch an g e in
th e w ool sp in n in g q u a lity o f e ith e r o f th e g ro u p s. T h is fin d in g is c o n tr a ry to
th e o p in io n s con cern in g w ool q u a lity g e n e ra lly held b y sh eep m en . R e c e n t
evidence suggests th a t , u n d e r n o rm a l c irc u m sta n ce s, th e gerietical m ak e-u p
fixes th e u p p e r a n d lo w er lim its of w ool fineness a n d s tre n g th , th e n u tritio n a l
p la n e o p e ra tin g o n ly w ith in th e ra n g e of th ese fixed lim its. T h e re w ere co n ­
sid era b le v a ria tio n s as th e re s u lt o f seaso n al, n o t ‘ c lim a tic ’ ch an g es, b u t th e
w ools w ere c ap ab le to re tu rn in g to th e ir o rig in a l sp in n in g q u a lities.
W.
N ew Zealand W ool A p p ra isem en t S chem e. J . E . D u n c a n . N e w Z ealand J .
A g ric., 1944, 69, 453-465. A fte r a b rie f review of th e schem e fo r th e re q u isi­
tio n of N ew Z ealan d w ool b ro u g h t in to force a t th e e n d o f 1916 (‘C o m m a n d ee r’),
of th e a c tiv itie s o f B .A .W .R .A ., a n d o f n o rm a l d isp o sal m e th o d s, th e w o rk in g
of th e p re s e n t a p p ra is a l schem e is d escrib ed , w ith d e ta ils o f v a lu a tio n , price
a g re e m e n t, p re p a ra tio n of th e clip fo r a p p ra isa l, a n d /w o o l classing. T h e W ool
B u y e rs ’ A ssociation h a s d ra w n u p a ty p e a n d p rice sch ed u le (‘ B arem e ’)
c o v e rin g 977 ty p e s o f g rea sy w ool, th e o v e r-all a v e ra g e p rice to th e fa rm e r
b e in g 12-25c!. p e r lb . T h e re is also a B arem e fo r n e a rly 500 ty p e s of slipe wool.
A single p ag e o f th e B a re m e is re p ro d u c e d , a n d th e d efin itio n s g iven fo r th e
v a rio u s ty p e s o f fleece w ool.
W.
(B)— Y a r n s
C otton K n ittin g Y arn : K n itta b ility . G . M . C ooper. T e x tile W o rld , 1944,
94, N o. 12, 94-95. T h is p a p e r w as a b s tra c te d fro m a n o th e r source in th e p re ­
ced in g S u m m a r y . I t is n o w asc rib ed to G . M. C ooper, of th e D ix ie M ercerising
Co.
•
C.
R ubber F ila m en t T h read s: T e stin g .
W . A. JohH s.
T e x tile W o rld , 1944,
94, N o. 11, 139, 141, 200, 201. A sim p le d e v ice is d e sc rib e d fo r m easu rin g th e
5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects
A215
ex ten sio n of ru b b e r th r e a d u n d e r lo a d a n d th e re co v ery o n re m o v in g th e lo a d .
Som e co m p ariso n s b etw e e n n a tu r a l ru b b e r a n d N eo p re n e in 44s th r e a d s a re
re p o rte d in ta b le s. B o th h a d th e d ia m e te r
in ., th e n a tu r a l ru b b e r th r e a d
ra n to 1,590 y a rd s p e r lb. a n d 3-iiich loops b ro k e u n d e r lo a d s o f 1-50-2 -25 lb .
a fte r ex te n d in g to 2 3 -3 -2 9 -0 in ch es, w h e re a s th e N eo p ren e th r e a d ra n to 1,333
y a rd s p e r lb . a n d gav e b re a k in g lo ad a n d e x te n sio n figures o f 1 -2 5 -2 -0 0 lb . a n d
17-21-9 inches. A 'fter 10 cycles of lo a d in g a n d u n lo a d in g u n d e r a h a lf-lb . lo a d ,
th e 3-in. lo o p of n a tu r a l ru b b e r w o u ld s tre tc h to 21 -6 in s. a n d reco v e r to 3 -50 in s;
th e N eo p ren e lo o p w ould stre tc h to 14-75 ins. a n d rec o v e r to 3 -9 0 in s. U n d e r a
h alf-lb. lo ad th e 3-in. lo o p o f n a tu r a l ru b b e r ex te n d e d t o 2 5 -0 ins. in 15 h o u rs
b u t reco v ered to 3-75 ins. in 5 h o u rs; co rre sp o n d in g figures fo r N e o p re n e w ere
18-8 a n d 4 -6 5 ins. O th e r figures re la te to te s ts o n c o rse t c lo th s a n d c o n d itio n s
of te n s io n in w eaving a re su g g ested fo r secu rin g w ith N eo p ren e th r e a d s a c lo th
co m p arab le w ith t h a t o b ta in e d w ith n a tu r a l ru b b e r. F o r ex a m p le, i t w o u ld b e
w ell to u se a low er b e am in g ten sio n fo r N e o p ren e w arp s a n d to release th e
w arp te n sio n o v e r th e w eek-end.
C.
M oscrop S in g le T hread T ester: S p eed of L oad in g.
G . W . P fe iffe n b e rg e r.
T e x tile R esea rch , 1944, 14, 421-427. T h e in flu en ce of th e speed o f lo a d in g on
th e re su lts o b ta in e d w ith a M oscrop single th r e a d te s te r h a s b e e n stu d ie d on
a n in s tru m e n t a d a p te d for p e n d u lu m lo a d in g a n d lo ad in g sp eed s o f 1, 12, a n d
24 ft. p e r m in . T ests w ere m ad e 011 22s a n d 60s y a rn s sp u n fro m tw o d iffe re n t
sam ples of c o tto n . P h o to g ra p h ic re p ro d u c tio n s o f sectio n s of th e c h a rts, a n d
tab les show ing th e b re a k in g lo ad c o rre c te d to n o m in a l c o u n ts, th e coefficient
of v a ria tio n for each speed, c o m p a ra tiv e le a te s t d a ta , a n d th e ra tio of 22s
y a rn s tre n g th to 60s y a rn stre n g th , b o th sp u n fro m th e sa m e c o tto n s, a re
p resen ted a n d discussed . T h e re s u lts show th e im p ra c tic a b ility o f te s tin g a t a
speed as h ig h as 24 ft. p e r m in . A t h ig h lo ad in g speeds th e fa c to rs o f in e rtia
a n d m o m e n tu m a re inv o lv ed a n d th e b re a k s te n d to g ro u p th e m se lv e s in to a
b i-m odal freq u en cy . T h e ra tio s of th e stre n g th s of 22s a n d 60s y a rn s o b ta in e d
w ith low speed of lo ad in g a re v e ry close t o th o s e o b ta in e d b y th e le a m e th o d .
W ith th e m id d le speed g re a te r differences a re o b serv ed a n d w ith h ig h speed
th e ra tio s a re co m p lete ly o u t o f lin e. D a ta on s tre n g th v a r i a ti o n . show a
m ed iu m v a ria tio n fo r low sp eed , lo w est v a ria tio n fo r m ed iu m speed, a n d
e x trem ely h ig h v a ria tio n fo r th e h ig h sp e e d . T h e low sp eed o f 1 ft. p e r m in .
a p p e a rs to be th e m o s t su ita b le for a c c u ra te w o rk .
C.
Q u ality C ontrol in P ractice.
‘ Q u e sto r.’ W o o l R e c ., 1945, 67, 361-363.
T ex tiles a n d e n g in ee rin g a re c o m p a re d w ith re g ard to th e a p p lic a tio n o f
q u a lity c o n tro l m e th o d s. I n en gineering, a m u c h g re a te r a m o u n t of te s tin g is
d one, a h ig h e r p ro p o rtio n of m a te ria l is te s te d , a n d th e te s tin g is n o n -d e s tru c ­
tiv e . I n te x tile s, m ore em p h asis is la id o n th e fa c to r of q u a lity th a n o f c o n tro l.
E n g in eerin g p ro ced u re w o u ld need m o d ify in g fo r te x tile use.
T o leran ces
im posed b y th e w eav er o r th e c u sto m e r w ith in w h ich th e s p in n e r m ig h t allow
his y a rn s to v a ry w ith o u t a n x ie ty w'ould p ro v id e a n a lte rn a tiv e m e th o d of
s e ttin g lim its. T h is angle o f a p p ro a c h w ould a cco rd w ith th e th e o r y of th e
q u a lity c o n tro l sy stem , a n d w ould b e m ore a c c e p ta b le in p ra c tic e th a n lim its
b ased m erely on a n o m in a l s ta n d a rd .
W.
Y arns: V a ria b ility . ‘ Q u e sto r.’ W o o l R e c ., 1945, 67, 64-67. Y a rn v a ria b ility
is a n in d ic a to r of y a rn q u a lity a n d o f m a ch in e p e rfo rm a n c e a n d d e fe c ts, a n d
is th e m ain fa c to r in d ecid in g th e a c c u ra c y of te s tin g a n d sam p lin g p ro ced u res.
A tec h n iq u e is n eed ed for th e o b je c tiv e a n d p e rm a n e n t a ss e ssm e n t of v a ri­
a b ility , w h ich th e sp in n e r can use a s a su p p le m e n t to th e u su a l te s ts fo r c o u n t,
stre n g th , etc.
W.
M ill T e stin g : S tatistica l M ethods. ‘ Q u e s to r.’ W o o l R e c ., 1 9 4 5 ,6 7 ,2 3 8 -2 4 0 ,
280-282. E v e ry re s u lt in y a rn te s tin g sh o u ld c o n sist of a n a v e ra g e figure a n d a
second figure expressing s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n . T h e te s t of significance (‘t ’ te s t),
th e c o n tro l c h a r t m e th o d a n d th e a n a ly sis o f v a ria n c e a re d esc rib e d a s re la te d to
th e in v e stig a tio n of p ro b lem s in y a rn m a n u fa c tu re . E x a m p le s g iv en c o n cern
th e difference in s tre n g th of 2 spools o f w o rste d y a rn (' t ’ te s t), a n d th e d e sig n ­
ing o f a c o rrect sam p lin g p ro c e d u re fo r ro u tin e p u rp o ses, e.g . fo r te s tin g th e
regain of cones o r sim ilar 'packages, b y m e a n s o f th e a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e .
W.
(C )— F a b r i c s .
H osiery S h rin k age T ester. S. W . F ra z ie r. T e x tile W o rld , 1944, 94, N o. 1 2 ,
136. A n in s tru m e n t is sh o w n on w hich a sock c a n b e cla m p e d a cro ss th e an k le
A 2 IÓ
5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects
w ith a form in i t to h o ld o u t th e toe. a n d th e n m ea su re d u n d e r a lo ad o f 5 lb .
h a n g in g o v er a p u lle y fro m th e to e . ,
C.
V acu um -typ e P orosity T estin g In stru m en t.
B. F . G o o d rich Co.
T extile
W orld, 1944, 94, N o. i i , 148. A b rie f a n n o u n c e m e n t is m ad e o f a p a te n te d
in s tru m e n t fo r te s tin g re sistan c e t o a ir flow. T h e m a te ria l form s one w all of a
v a c u u m c h a m b e r w h ich is e x h a u ste d b y m e a n s of a c o n sta n t-sp e e d fan . T h e
p ressu re esta b lish e d in th e c h a m b e r is reco rd ed o n a n arc w hich m a y be
g ra d u a te d in su ita b le u n its.
C.
A m erican S old iers’ C lo th in g : S electio n . H . E. R eed. T e x tile W orld, 1944,
94, N o. 11, 113-117. A b rie f a c c o u n t is g iven of th e w o rk o f th e " C lim atology
a n d E n v iro n m e n ta l P ro te c tio n S ectio n , R e se arch a n d D e v e lo p m e n t B ra n c h , M ili­
ta r y P la n n in g D ivisio n ” of th e Office of th e A m erican Q u a rte rm aste r-G e n e ra l,
w h ich is co n cern ed w ith th e design a n d selectio n of c lo th in g b e s t su ite d t o th e
b o d ily n eed s of th e so ld ier in d iffe re n t regions.
O ne sectio n of th e w o rk is
c o n c e rn e d w ith th e p ro d u c tio n of c lim a te m a p s o f d ifferen t c o u n trie s a n d seasons.
T h ese a re coloured in a u n ifo rm sy ste m to show te m p e ra tu re , d ry n ess a n d w et­
ness, so t h a t th e clim a te of a n y p a rtic u la r region co u ld be m a tc h e d b y reference
t o th e m a p fo r th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d c lo th in g selected acco rd in g ly .
I t is
suggested t h a t su ch m a p s w o u ld a ssist tra v e lle rs in th e p o st-w a r e ra of ra p id
c o m m u n ic a tio n s. A n o th e r sectio n is co n cern ed w ith d e te rm in in g th e p ro te c tio n
affo rd ed b y u n ifo rm s a n d ex p ressin g it in u n its.
T h e u n it a d o p te d is th e
“ c lo ,” w hich is a m easu re of h e a t loss b y th e b o d y th ro u g h th e clo th es. As
d ev e lo p e d b y G agge, B u rto n a n d B a z e tte th e m e a su re m e n t re q u ire d th e te c h ­
n iq u e a n d a p p a ra tu s o f a p hysiological la b o ra to ry b u t th e C lim ato lo g y a n d
E n v iro n m e n ta l P ro te c tio n S ectio n h a s fo u n d t h a t one clo is e q u iv a le n t to
t h e effective in su la tio n affo rd ed b y a ^-in ch la y e r of air, so t h a t it is sufficient
t o m easu re th e th ic k n e ss of th e c lo th in g m a te ria l p lu s th e in clu d e d air. A llow ­
a n c e h a s t o be m a d e fo r th e fa c t t h a t th e b o d y is n o t a fla t p la te b u t a series
o f p a r ts a p p ro x im a tin g to cy lin d ers. T h e efficiency of th e in su la tio n decreases
w ith th e ra d iu s of th e c y lin d er, so t h a t th e clo v alu es h a v e to b e w eig h ted
acco rd in g to th e 'm a g n itu d e of th e v a rio u s cy lin d ers— to rso , h e a d , feet, h a n d s,
fingers a n d so fo rth . T h e v a lu e s d e te rm in e d b y m easu rin g th e circum ference
o f th e v ario u s la y e rs of c lo th in g a n d th e th ic k n e ss of th e m a te ria ls, d u ly w eighted,
a re ta b u la te d on c h a rts fo r th e d iffe re n t u n ifo rm s. F ro m th e d a ta it is possible
to ca lc u la te th e b o d y te m p e ra tu re t h a t sh o u ld b e m a in ta in e d in d efin itely w hen
th e c lo th in g h a s a p a rtic u la r clo v a lu e , a n d also to p re d ic t how long th e
w earer co u ld w ith s ta n d th e cold if th e c lo th in g h a p p e n s to be insufficient.
D efectiv e D uck C loth s: C auses and R em ed ies. T. N elso n . T e x tile W orld.
1944, 94, N o. 11, 131-133. Illu s tra tio n s a re g iven of tw elv e ty p e s of d e fe ct in
d u c k c lo th s, a n d th e ir c au ses a n d cu re a re discussed.
C.
U n ion R ayon F abrics: S o ilin g . C. S . W h e w e ll, K . H . M e ssih a a n d A . Selim .
J . T e x tile In s t., 1945, 36, P 6-8.
C.
A ccelerated W eath erin g U n its : O peration R . W . M a tla c k . A .S .T .M . B u ll.,
1944, N o. 131, 34-36. A re p o rt is g iv en o f th e re su lts o f a q u e stio n n a ire se n t
to a b o u t 180 in d iv id u a ls u sin g a c c e le ra ted w e a th e rin g u n its fo r th e te s tin g of
p ro te c tiv e co atin g s. T h e q u estio n s co n cern ed th e c o n tro l o f te m p e ra tu re a n d
h u m id ity a t th e sp ecim en , c o n tro l of th e te m p e ra tu re , v o lu m e, p ressu re a n d
co m p o sitio n of th e s p ra y w a te r, c o n tro l of th e a rc , c o n tin u o u s ru n n in g a n d
th e effect of sh u t-d o w n p erio d s, d ry in g o r c o n d itio n in g p a n e ls b e fo re s ta rtin g
te s ts, a n d o p e ra tin g for a p e rio d w ith lig h t alo n e. T h e rep lies show t h a t th e re
is a g re a t la c k of u n ifo rm ity in th e o p e ra tio n of a c ce le ra te d w e a th e rin g u n its.
A su b -c o m m itte e h a s, th e re fo re , b een e stab lish ed to d ev elo p sta n d a rd iz e d
o p e ra tin g co n d itio n s.
C.
S a lt Spray T est C ab in et; H u m id ity in — .
(1) A . C. H a n so n .
(2) V . M.
D arsey . A .S .T .M . B u ll., 1944, N o. 131, 38-39, 39. (1) T h e a u th o r criticises
D a rse y ’s m e th o d of c a lc u la tin g re la tiv e h u m id ity in th e s a lt s p ra y c a b in e t,
discusses a s ta te m e n t co n cern in g th e fall a n d co llectio n of s a lt fog p artic les,
a n d gives a lis t of fa c to rs in flu en cin g th e cerro sio n of p a n e ls in th e s a lt sp ra y
c a b in e t a n d v a riab les u p o n w h ich th e se fa c to rs d e p e n d . (2) A re p ly to H a n so n ’s
c ritic ism .
C.
P lain -w eave C otton D ress F ab rics: A n a ly sis. M . B. H a y s. J . H om e E co n .,
>9 4 3 > 35» 363-366 (th ro u g h E x p . Sta . R e c ., 1945, 92, 154).
T h e 57 fab rics
5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects
A217
te ste d in clu d ed law n , d im ity , d o tte d sw iss, g in g h am , s h a n tu n g a n d p o p lin .
T he law n, d im ity , a n d sw iss w ith a w oven d o t w eighed less th a n 2 oz. p e r
sq u are y a rd , a n d sw iss w ith a c o m p o sitio n d o t so m e w h a t m o re. W e ft v alu es,
w hich w ere g en erally low er th a n w a rp v a lu es b y b o th th e g ra b a n d s trip
m ethods, w ere below 20 lb . fo r th e 22 sam p les o f law n , d im ity a n d swiss. L oss
of w eight on desizing w as n o t m o re th a n 5 -3 p e r c e n t, in th is g ro u p .
T he
lig h t-w eig h t law n , d im ity an d sw iss, in g e n e ra l sh ra n k m o re in th e w e ft
(4-0-11-5 p e r c e n t.) th a n in th e w arp (1 '3 -5 -4 p e r c e n t.) d ire c tio n . T h e 21
gingham s, v a ry in g from tissu e g in g h am s to coarse p la y -c lo th fab ric, ra n g e d in
w eig h t from 1-63 to 4 •67 a n d a v e ra g e d 3 -23 oz. W a rp c o u n t w as so m ew h a t
h ig h e r th a n w eft. W a rp b re a k in g lo ad (g rab m eth o d ) w as m o re th a n 20 lb .
in m o st sam ples, loss in desizing ra n g e d fro m 0 -9 to 21 p e r c e n t., a n d sh rin k ag e
in th e w arp (g reater th a n in th e w e ft d ire c tio n in m o st gin g h am s) v a rie d from
a b o u t 3 to 12 p e r c e n t. P o p lin s a n d sh a n tu n g s (h eav ier th a n th e m a jo rity of
th e ging ham s tested ) h a d a p p ro x im a te ly tw ic e a s m a n y w a rp as w e ft y a rn s
p e r inch, resu ltin g in th e c h a ra c te ristic rib b e d effect.
T h ese fab rics w ith
m inim um w arp a n d w e ft b re a k in g lo a d (g rab m eth o d ) of 47 -6 a n d 20-4 lb .,
resp ectiv ely , w ere stro n g e r as a g ro u p th a n la w n , d im ity , swiss or g in g h am ,
a n d sh o u ld p ro v e serviceab le w hen h ig h b re a k in g lo ad is re q u ire d in use. Loss
in w eig h t o n desizing th e p o p lin s a n d s h a n tu n g s ra n g e d fro m 1-3 to 10-4 p e r
c e n t., a n d all b u t th re e o f th e fab rics sh ra n k a t le a s t 3 p e r c e n t, in th e w a rp
o r w e ft or b o th d irectio n s. I t is re co m m e n d ed t h a t th e q u a lity of th e ty p e s
of fabrics te s te d sh o u ld b e defined in te rm s of m in im u m w eig h t, c o u n t, b re a k ­
ing load a n d m ax im u m a m o u n t of fin ish in g m a te ria l. T h e co lo u r-fastn ess a n d
m ax im u m sh rin k ag e sho u ld also b e s ta te d . B y defin in g th e se q u a litie s i t w ill
be possible to peg q u a lity to p rice.
C.
U nbleached M u slin s: A n a ly sis. G . B. F r a n k e n b e r g a n d M. B. H a y s . / .
H o m e E c o n ., 1942, 34, 737-741 (th ro u g h E x p . S ta . R e c ., 1945, 92, 153-154).
A re p o rt is given of a s tu d y of 33 re p re s e n ta tiv e q u a litie s of u n b lea c h e d m uslins
o b tain ed from larg e m a n u fa c tu re rs. T h e fab ric s v a rie d in w eig h t fro m 2 -2 5 to
5-32 oz., w ith th e m a jo rity w eighing b etw e e n 3 -0 a n d 4 -5 oz.
In g en eral,
th e re w as a re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n w e ig h t a n d c o u n t, th e la t te r v a ry in g from
4 0 x 4 0 to 6 8 x 7 2 . T h e a m o u n t of sizing v a rie d fro m 6 0 to 11-6 p e r c e n t.,
w ith a n av erag e of 8 -8 p e r c e n t. T h ick n ess ra n g e d fro m 0-0135 'to 0-0204 in ->
w ith a n av erag e o f 0-0158 in . T h e m a x im u m re sid u a l sh rin k a g e v a rie d from
5 to 12 p er c e n t, (averag e 8 p e r c e n t.) w arp -w ay , a n d fro m 4 -9 to 9 p e r c e n t,
(average 7 p e r cent-.) w eft-w ay . T hese a m o u n ts a re h ig h en o u g h to a ffect th e
fit of a g a rm e n t o r m ak e se v e ra l inches difference in th e size of a sh e e t, so t h a t
u n b leac h ed m uslin should be la u n d e re d befo re m a k in g i t in to a n y a rtic le
w here fit is im p o rta n t. A c o m p ariso n b e tw een s trip a n d g ra b m e th o d s of
d e te rm in in g b reak in g lo ad w as m a d e w ith sam ples p a ire d so t h a t th e sam e
s e t of y a rn s w as te s te d b y b o th m e th o d s. A close c o rre la tio n w as o b serv ed
betw een resu lts of th e tw o te s ts , w ith th e a v erag e g ra b b re a k in g lo a d o f all
33 fabrics a p p ro x im a te ly 6 lb . m o re th a n th e s trip b re a k in g lo a d . C alc u la tin g
strip values from g ra b v alu e s a n d vice v e rsa b y th e fo rm u la of M ereness gave
resu lts w h ich te n d e d to b e to o h ig h fo r g ra b v alu e s a n d to o low for th e s trip
values, in co m p ariso n w ith e x p e rim e n ta l v alu es.
C.
F ull-fashioned C otton H o se: S erv ic e a b ility . M. B. H a y s a n d M . C. B oyer.
J. H om e E c o n ., 1944, 36. 35-37 (th ro u g h E x p . S ta . R e c ., >945, 92, 155). T en
doz.pairs of n u rses’ w h ite c o tto n h o sie ry o f each of th re e lo ts w ere p u t in to
service in a W ash in g to n h o sp ita l. T h ese hose, k n it fro m 1 2 0 s/2 S x P v a rie ty
A m e rican -E g y p tian c o tto n , differed o n ly in th e to e re in fo rc e m e n t y a rn . T h e
average tim e of d iscard for th e th re e lo ts of hose w as 19-4 d a y s. If th e e x p e ri­
m e n t w ere re p e a te d , th e p ro b a b ility is 90 p e r c e n t, t h a t th is a v e ra g e w ould
n o t be in erro r m ore th a n 5 p e r c e n t. (1 d a y ). T h e hose m a d e w ith th e to e
rein fo rcem en t of tw o en d s of 8 0 s /2 a n d one en d of 1 2 0 s/2 h a d th e g re a te s t
resistance to ab ra sio n b y la b o ra to ry te s t a n d req u ire d th e le a s t m e n d in g in •
service. T h e hose w ith tw o en d s of 9 0 s /2 a n d one e n d of 1 2 0 s/2 re in fo rc e m e n t
was n e x t, follow ed b y th e re g u la r tw o -en d re in fo rc e m e n t w h ich h a d th e le a st
resistance to ab rasio n a n d n eed ed th e m o s t m en d in g .
C.
H osiery: L ab ellin g. M. S m ith . J . H o m e E c o n ., 1944, 36, 89-92 (th ro u g h
E xp . S ta . R e c ., 1945, 92, 155). T h is p a p e r o u tlin e s in ch ro n o lo g ical o rd e r th e
developm ents lead in g to th e p re s e n t h o siery lab ellin g reg u latio n . A s th e re g u ­
lation now s ta n d s, one sto c k in g o f each p a ir m u s t b e a r a lab el, tra n sfe r, in se rt,
A 2I 8
5— Analysis, Testing, Grading and Defects
o r tic k e t giving th e m a x im u m p rice a n d th e g auge o r n eedle c o u n t for th a t
ty p e of sto ck in g . N o m e n tio n is m a d e of g rad e lab ellin g , b u t th e hose m u st
m e e t m in im u m specificatio n s (for p la in -k n it fu ll-fashioned a n d c irc u la r-k n it
hose) s e t u p in th e A m erican W .P .B . L im ita tio n O rd e r N o. 274, a n d can c a rry
th e tra d e -m a rk , b ra n d n am e, or th e A m erican O .P .A . re g istra tio n n u m b e r of
th e m a n u fa c tu re r o r w holesaler. Since s ta n d a rd s o f in sp ectio n are in clu d ed in
th e reg u latio n , all hose are g ra d ed u n ifo rm ly . Som e of th e q u a litie s in hose
a ssu red b y th ese m in im u m specifications, su ch as th o se for le n g th , w e lt, heel,
to e, colour a n d d en ier, a re p re se n te d .
C.
L ab ellin g T e x tile P rod u cts: S ou th A frican L e g isla tio n . B ra d fo rd C ham ber
o f C om m erce J ., 1945, 25, 218. A S ta n d a rd s B u re a u B ill is to b e in tro d u ce d in to
th e S o u th A frican P a rlia m e n t w hich, if passed, w ill en ab le S o u th A frica to
com e in to line w ith th e U .S .A . a n d w ith A u stra lia on th e q u e stio n of wool
lab ellin g . T h e p ro p o sed A c t w ould give p ro d u c e rs a n d consum ers of wool
goods th e sam e p ro te c tio n as t h a t afforded b y th e U .S . W ool L ab ellin g A ct. W .
L ab ellin g T e x tile P rod u cts: A u stra lia n L eg isla tio n . B o a rd o f T rade /.,
1945, 151, 91-2. T h e t e x t is g iven o f th e A c t o f th e S ta te o f S o u th A u stralia
e n title d ‘ T e x tile P ro d u c ts D escrip tio n A c t, 1944.’ S im ilar legislation w ill be
e n a c te d b y th e o th e r A u stra lia n S ta te s a n d copies of th e re le v a n t B ills of th e
S ta te s of Q ueen slan d a n d V ic to ria h a v e b een receiv ed b y th e B o a rd of T rad e.
(See also th ese A b s., 1945, A 1 2 2 ).
W.
(D )— O t h e r M a t e r i a l s
C ellu lose A cetate and N itrate S h ee ts: Effects of O utdoor E xp osu re.
T. S.
L a w to n , J r ., a n d H . K . N aso n . M odern P lastics, 1945, 22, N o. 5, 145-150,
176-178. T h e g en eral effects of o u td o o r ex p o su re o n cellulose e ste r p la stics are
su m m arised a n d ta b le s a n d g ra p h s are g iven show ing th e effects of ex p o su re
a t M iam i (F lo rid a) a n d S pringfield (M assachusetts) o n th e u ltim a te ten sile
s tre n g th , m o d u lu s of e la stic ity , y ield stress, ten sile s tre n g th a n d elo n g atio n a t
b re a k , im p a c t stre n g th , lig h t tra n sm issio n , h aze, lin e a r sh rin k ag e, visco sity a n d
m o lecu lar w eig h t of cellulose a c e ta te a n d n itra te sh eets. T h e effects of (1) 48 h o u rs
u n d e r a n S -i su n -la m p a t a d is ta n c e of 6 in ., (2) 14 d a y s in a c irc u la tin g -a ir oven
a t 50° C ., a n d (3) tw o m o n th s ’ o u td o o r ex p o su re a t Springfield on s tre s s / stra in
rela tio n sh ip s a re also sho w n . D a ta a re p re se n te d show ing th e effect of th e a m o u n t
of ab ra siv e on th e gloss o f th e sh eets in " a b ra sio n ” tests, a n d th e effect of
im m ersio n tim e on th e to ta l w a te r a b so rp tio n a n d th e loss of soluble m ate ria ls
b y cellulose a c e ta te a n d n itra te sh eets. T h e re su lts show t h a t cellulose a c e ta te is
m o d e ra te ly re s is ta n t to o u td o o r ageing w h ilst cellulose n itra te te n d s to d eg rad e
r a th e r ra p id ly . C ellulose a c e ta te is m o re sen sitiv e to m o istu re th a n cellulose
n itra te , w h ereas th e effect of te m p e ra tu re is a b o u t th e sam e for b o th . T ensile
stre n g th , elo n g atio n a n d y ield stre ss fo r b o th m a te ria ls d ecrease w ith increasing
o u td o o r ex p o su re tim e . T h e m o d u lu s of e la stic ity increases w ith increasing
ex p o su re tim e as long as th e m a te ria l re m a in s sufficiently c o h e re n t to b e te ste d .
Im p a c t s tre n g th decreases w ith in creasin g ex p o su re, w h ereas haze, lig h t tra n sm is­
sion a n d sh rin k ag e increase. T h e in crease in lig h t tra n sm issio n is th o u g h t to
b e d u e to a b leac h in g a c tio n . V isco sity m ea su re m e n ts show th a t , fo r b o th cellu ­
lose a c e ta te a n d cellulose n itr a te sh e e t p la stic, m o s t o f th e d e g ra d a tio n is on
th e surface. As th e ex p o su re tim e in creases, th e d e g ra d a tio n p e n e tra te s d eep er
in to th e sh eet. C ellulose n itr a te show s a m u ch g re a te r decrease in m olecu lar
w e ig h t th a n does cellulose a c e ta te fo r th e sam e exp o su re tim e . P la stic iz e r ap p e ars
to b e lo s t from th e su rface of th e sh eets on exp o su re.
C.
P u lp s: V isco sity D eterm in a tio n s. S . C o p p ick . P aper T rade J ., 1945, 120,
T A P P I , 7-10. V iscosities of p u lp o b ta in e d b y d elignifying w ood to v ario u s
e x te n ts w ere d e te rm in e d b y th e c u p ra m m o n iu m , c u p rie th y le n e d ia m in e a n d
n itr a te m e th o d s a n d th e c o rresp o n d in g a p p a re n t degree of p o ly m e risa tio n v alues
w ere ca lc u la te d . T h e re s u lts in d ic a te t h a t n itra te viscosities a re m u ch m ore
reliab le th a n th e o th e r tw o m e th o d s fo r celluloses c o n ta in in g re sid u al lignin.
N on-cellulosic e n c ru s ta n ts in te rfe re w ith th e so lu tio n of th e p o ly sac c h a rid e in th e
c u p ra m m o n iu m a n d c u p rie th y le n e d ia m in e so lv e n ts to su ch a n e x te n t a s t o p ro ­
d u ce a n erro n eo u s p ic tu re of th e d e g ra d a tio n w h ich o ccu rs d u rin g th e p u rifica­
tio n of w ood cellulose. W ith p u rified celluloses, th e a p p a re n t degree o f p o ly ­
m e risa tio n d eriv ed fo r th e n itra te s b e a rs a lin e a r re la tio n to th e degree of
p o ly m e risa tio n d e te rm in e d b y c u p ra m m o n iu m v iscosities. B y th e a p p lica tio n
of th is re la tio n sh ip th e v a rio u s m e th o d s c a n b e red u ced to a co m m o n b asis an d
7— Laundering and Dry-Cleaning
A219
g o od ag re e m e n t b etw een th e c u p ra m m o n iu m a n d n itr a te m e th o d s can b e o b ta in e d
fo r p u lp s in th e la te r stag es of cooking. T h e n itra te m e th o d h a s th e a d v a n ta g e
o f b eing ap p lic a b le t o b o th cooked a n d u n co o k e d m a te ria l.
C.
Paper B ase P la stics:. A brasion R esista n ce. E . R . H o ffm a n . P ap er Trade J .,
1945, 120, T A P P I , 31-34. A d ev ice fo r te s tin g a b ra s io n re sista n c e com prises a
b ase c a rry in g a tu rn -ta b le fo r s u p p o rtin g th e sp ecim en a n d tw o a b ra d in g h ea d s
e a c h co n sistin g o f a free tu r n in g a b ra d in g w h e e l a n d m ea n s fo r a p p ly in g lo ad s
o f 125-1000 g. T h e tu rn -ta b le is e lec tric a lly d riv e n a t 70 r.p .m . a n d is cooled
b y a fan . T h e a b ra d in g w heels a re i \ in . a p a r t, a re e q u a lly d is ta n t ra d ia lly
from th e c e n tre of th e tu r n -ta b le , a n d h a v e a co m m o n lin e of ro ta tio n a b o u t
J in. from th e c e n tre . T h e w e a r tr a c k o n th e sp ecim en is a c irc u la r p a th
co vering a p p ro x im a te ly 10 sq. cm . of su rface. T h e a b ra sio n re sista n ce o f th e
m a te ria l is defined a s th e loss in w e ig h t re s u ltin g fro m a specified n u m b e r of
rev o lu tio n s of th e m a te ria l w h e n u sin g a g iv en a b ra d in g w heel u n d e r a g iven
lo ad . R e su lts a re g iven fo r p la s tic c o a te d a n d la m in a te d paper* a n d v a rio u s
o th e r m a te ria ls. T h e re su lts o f in v e stig a tio n s of th e in flu en ce of m o istu re ,
th ick n ess o f la m in a te , a n d ty p e of re sin a n d p a p e r a re d iscu ssed . T h e d a ta
show t h a t th e a b ra sio n resista n c e of th e rm o -s e ttin g la m in a te s is b e tte r' th a n
t h a t of w ood a n d pressed, b o a rd s a n d c o m p a ra b le to t h a t of so ft m eta ls. P a p e r
b a se la m in a te s m ad e w ith co m m ercial p h en o lic resin s v a ry in a b ra sio n re s ist­
a n ce, b u t it a p p ears t h a t th e ab ra sio n re sista n c e o f th e resin s c a n b e im p ro v e d
b y th e use of a d d itio n a l a g e n ts to su ch a n e x te n t t h a t th e w e a r-ra te of th e
la m in a te is in d e p e n d e n t o f th e p a p e r b ase. In g e n eral ra g a n d b le ac h e d su l­
p h ite p a p e r b ase la m in a te s h a v e e q u a l a b ra sio n re sista n c e a n d a re b e tte r th a n
u n b leach ed su lp h ite p a p e r b ase la m in a te s. T h e a b ra sio n re sista n c e o f p a p e r
b ase la m in a te s is u n affected b y m o istu re u p to a b o u t 75 p e r c e n t. R .H .,
decreases w ith in crease in th e n u m b e r o f im p re g n a te d sh eets p e r p a n e l u p to
a ce rta in p o in t, a n d does n o t v a ry w ith v a ria tio n in resin c o n te n t b etw e e n
35 a n d 48 p e r c e n t.
C.
T h erm osettin g P la stic s: F lam e R esistan ce. J. A . G ale , R . W . S te w a rt a n d
J . B . A lfers. A .S .T .M . B u ll., 1944, N o. 131, 23-27. I n a m e th o d fo r d e te rm in ­
in g th e flam e resistance of p lastics, a N ic h ro m e w ire coil is u sed a s th e h e a tin g
e lem en t, w ith th e specim en su p p o rte d in a v e rtic a l p o sitio n w ith in th e coil.
M aterials a re ra te d in te rm s of ig n itio n tim e , o r tim e re q u ire d to ig n ite th e
specim en a fte r th e coil is energised, a n d b u rn in g tim e , o r tim e re q u ire d fo r selfe x tin g u ish in g of th e flam e, a fte r th e coil c u rr e n t is s h u t off. T h e a m o u n t of
d isto rtio n caused b y b u rn in g is n o te d a n d , w h ere possible, th e s tre n g th of th e
specim en a fte r te s t is d e te rm in e d . D e ta ils of th e a p p a ra tu s a n d p ro ced u re are
g iven, to g e th e r w ith th e re s u lts o f te s ts o n 16 m o u ld ed a n d 10 la m in a te d ty p e s
of th e rm o -se ttin g p la s tic c o m p o sitio n s, a n d p h o to g ra p h s o f th e a p p a ra tu s a n d
o f specim ens a fte r te s tin g . C o n sid erab le differences b e tw e e n sam p les of d if­
fe re n t ty p e s a n d b e tw e e n sam p les of th e sam e ty p e su p p lied b y d iffe re n t
m a n u fa c tu re rs w ere o b serv ed . W ith re sp e c t to ig n itio n a n d b u rn in g tim es,
th e m elam in e resin p lastic s gave b e tte r resu lts th a n m o st o f th e p h en o lic resin
m a te ria ls. G en erally , th e m ineral-filled m a te ria ls (in clu d in g asb esto s a n d glass
b ase m aterials) w ere le a s t affected b y ex p o su re to th e te s t c o n d itio n s.
T hey
re ta in e d som e sem b lan ce o f m ech a n ica l s tre n g th a fte r b u rn in g a n d resisted th e
effect of flam e to a g re a te r e x te n t th a n th e cellulose-filled m a te ria ls. A ll th e
cellulosic sp ecim ens eith e r carb o n izd co m p le te ly o r c o n tin u e d to sm o u ld e r a fte r
b eing te s te d . M echanical s tre n g th w as n il in b o th cases. M ineral-filled m e la ­
m ine m a te ria ls a p p eared to b e su ita b le fo r a p p lic a tio n s re q u irin g flam e
re sista n c e .
C.
7—LAUNDERING AND DRY CLEANING
P
atent
A m idophosph oric A cid S a lts: A p p lica tio n in W ash W aters. Z sc h im m e r &
S chw arz C hem ische F a b rik D o lau . G .P .728,926 (th ro u g h C hem . Z en tr., 1943, i,
1836, a n d W ater P o llu tio n R e s. Sum m . Current L it ., 1944, 1 7 , 12-13). S o d iu m
m ono- a n d d i-a m id o p h o sp h a te s a re c laim ed as a g e n ts fo r th e tr e a tm e n t of w a te r
fo r w ash in g te x tile s. If 3 gm . of th e d ia m id o p h o s p h a te a re a d d e d to 1 1. o f
-w ater w ith 180 of h a rd n e ss (G erm an ), 3 gm . of so ap p e r 1. m a y b e a d d e d w ith o u t
d ep o sitio n of C a soaps.
C.
A220
8— Building and Engineering
8-B U IL D IN G AND ENGINEERING
(A)— C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d M a i n t e n a n c e o f B u i l d i n g s a n d P l a n t
M elam ine R e sin s: U se in P roduction of L am inated M aterials.
M odern
P la stics, 1945, 22, N o. 5, 105-107, 182, 184. D e c o ra tiv e l'am in ated p a n e ls a n d
o th e r p ro d u c ts a re o b ta in e d b y th e use of p ig m e n te d o r p rin te d p a p e r o r fab ric
su rface sh eets im p re g n a te d w ith m elam in e resins. T h e fa b ric o r p a p e r is p assed
th ro u g h a b a th of re sin in th e fo rm of a v a rn ish a n d th e n th ro u g h d ry in g o v e n s
w h ich e v a p o ra te th e so lv e n t in th e v a rn ish a n d p a rtia lly p o ly m erize th e resin .
L a m in a tio n is c a rrie d o u t in a n o rd in a ry h a t- ty p e p ress u n d e r a p ressu re of n o t
m o re th a n 250 lb . p e r sq . in . W h e n s u ita b le d y es a re u sed , th e im p re g n a tio n
a n d la m in a tio n c a n be c a rrie d o u t w ith o u t p ro d u cin g a n y d is to rtio n of th e
co lo u red p a tte r n . T h e su rfaces show h ig h resista n c e to a b ra sio n a n d alk alis,
low m o istu re a b so rp tio n , a n d g en eral in e rtn e ss in reg ard t o o d o u r a n d ta s te .
L a m in a te d p a n e ls of th is ty p e a re s u ita b le fo r u se in th e p ro d u c tio n o f tr a y s ,
g am e b o a rd s, ra d io p an els, ta b le to p s a n d o th e r articles o f fu rn itu re . A p p lica­
tio n s of th e pro cess t o th e p ro d u c tio n of w e a th e r-p ro o f signs, au to m o b ile d ash
b o a rd s, e tc ., a re also sug g ested .
C.
P la stic s: A p p lica tio n in P rotection of F in ish in g P la n t.
C. N . R a b o ld .
T e x tile W o rld , 1944, 94, N o. 12, 105-106. B rie f referen ces a re g iv en to th e
use of m o d e rn p la stic s a s v a rn ish e s a n d sh e e ts fo r p ro te c tin g finishing p la n t
from co rro sio n a n d fo r m o u ld in g in to p ip es, h o o d s a n d d u c ts . A n illu s tra tio n
show s L u c ite (m e th y l m e th a c ry la te ) sh ee ts b ein g a p p lie d a s a n ac id -re sista n t
lin in g t o a ta n k .
C.
S ta y p a k H eat-stab ilized C om pressed W ood : P roduction and P ro p erties.
R . M. S eborg, M. A . M ille tt a n d A . J . S ta m m . M echanical E n g in eerin g , 1945,
67, 25-31. S olid flat-saw n n o n -resin o u s w ood a n d v e n ee r sp re a d w ith g lu e a n d
a ssem b led in p a ra lle l-la m in a te d o r c ro ss-b an d ed fo rm c a n b e co m p ressed to a
d ense p ro d u c t t h a t does n o t te n d to sp rin g b a c k u n d e r m o ist c o n d itio n s if i t is
p ressed u n d e r co n d itio n s t h a t cau se som e flow o f th e lig n in . T h e p ro d u c t is
c a lle d “ S ta y p a k .” A re p o r t is g iv en of te s ts o n y ello w -p o p lar v e n e e r designed
t o d e te rm in e th e b e s t c o m b in a tio n s o f m o istu re c o n te n t, te m p e ra tu re , a n d tim e
o f p ressin g to o b ta in p an e ls w ith o p tim u m sta b ility , a n d t h e m o s t su ita b le co n d i­
tio n s fo r th e m a n u fa c tu re of S ta y p a k a re d escrib ed . T h e s u ita b ility o f v ario u s
ty p e s a n d species of w ood is d iscu ssed a n d a ta b le is g iv en show ing th e p ro p e r­
tie s of S ta y p a k m a d e fro m v en e ers of fo u r species c o n d itio n ed a t th re e re la tiv e
h u m id itie s. S ta y p a k sw ells a p p re c ia b ly in w a te r b u t re tu rn s t o p ra c tic a lly th e
o rig in al com p ressed th ic k n e ss on d ry in g , w h ereas densified w ood te n d s to lose
its com pression t o a m a rk e d degree u n d e r co n d itio n s t h a t cause sw elling. T h e
s tre n g th p ro p e rtie s of S ta y p a k a re c o n sid e ra b ly h ig h e r th a n th o s e of th e w ood
fro m w h ich i t is m a d e a n d th e te n sile s tre n g th , m o d u lu s of ru p tu re a n d m o d u lu s
of e la stic ity in b e n d in g a re sig n ifican tly g re a te r th a n fo r C o m p reg of th e sam e
specific g ra v ity . 'I h e ch ief a d v a n ta g e of S ta y p a k o v e r a d e q u a te ly stab ilized
C om preg is its su p erio r im p a c t stre n g th . P o te n tia l u ses of S ta y p a k a re in d ic a te d .
• C.
C otton M ill W arehou se: M an agem en t. H . M a rsd e n . T e x tile M a n u fa ctu rer,
1945, 71, 22-23, 63-65.
T h e w rite r a d v o c a te s th e a d o p tio n of m ech a n ica l
devices fo r h a n d lin g clo th fo r b ru sh in g , sh e a rin g , in sp ectio n , e tc ., in m ill w a re ­
houses, a n d describes, w ith illu s tra tio n s , com m on p ra c tic e in A m erican m ills. C.
Spray N o zzles: D e sig n . S. M. D oble. E n g in eerin g , 1945, 159, 21-23, 61-63,
103-104. A n a c c o u n t is g iv en of th e o re tic a l co n sid eratio n s a n d e x p e rim e n ta l
w o rk u n d e rta k e n w ith th e a im o f d esig n in g nozzles to give sp ra y s of defined
c h a ra c te ristic s (e.g. p a rtic le size). T h e p ra c tic a l o b je c t in view w as th e a c tiv a ­
tio n of coke b y sp ra y in g i t w ith a so d a so lu tio n .
V ario u s re la tio n sh ip s a re
estab lish ed b etw e e n th e p re ssu re , p a rtic le size, orifice d ia m e te r, sp ra y cone
a p e x an g le, cross-sectio n al a re a o f th e c h an n els, a n d spin o f th e liq u id in th e
v o rte x c h a m b e r, a n d th re e n o m o g ram s a re p ro v id ed .for so lv in g n u m erical
pro b lem s.
C.
W ea v in g S h ed : R esta rtin g . I. L a ird . T e x tile M a n u fa ctu rer, 1945, 71, 4-6.
• P ra c tic a l ad v ice is g iven o n th e re n e w a l o f th e flooring, h e a tin g a n d h u m id ificatio n sy stem , p a in tin g , lig h tin g , la v a to rie s a n d cloak ro o m s, a n d first-aid
an d re s t room s in p re p a ra tio n fo r re s ta rtin g a closed w e a v in g sh ed .
C.
8— Building and Engineering
A22I
C hem ical R em oval of S cale b y A cid S o lu tio n s.
D . B ro w n lie.
S te a m
E n g in eer, 1945, 14, N o . 163, 195-7. A n im p o rta n t in v e s tig a tio n o n th is s u b ­
je c t h a s re c e n tly b e e n c arrie d o u t in A m e ric a a n d th is a rtic le is a s u m m a ry <Jf
th e p u b lish ed re s u lts . B efore c h e m ic al tr e a tm e n t is c a rrie d o u t a sa m p le o f
scale, s u ita b ly ch o se n , should b e s u b je c te d to X -ra y a n a ly s is so t h a t its c o n ­
s titu tio n ca n b e d e te rm in e d . T h e c o m p o sitio n o f th e c le a n in g liq u o r, e .g .
in h ib ito rs to b e u sed , is b a se d o n th e re s u lts o f th is a n aly sis. C h em ical t r e a t ­
m e n t offers se v e ra l a d v a n ta g e s o v e r m a n u a l o r m e ch a n ic al d escalin g , n a m e ly ,
e lim in a tio n o f d ism a n tlin g , a n d re d u c tio n in tim e , e q u ip m e n t a n d la b o u r
re q u ire d . T h e tr e a tm e n t is now w id ely u sed in A m e rica o n all ty p e s o f b o ile r
a n d ex am p les a re q u o te d .
L a.
F actory P la n n in g F u n d am en tals. H . G u tte rid g e . Pointer &• W o rk s E n g in eer,
1945, 40, 66-7. A n a b s tr a c t o f a p a p e r re a d b efo re th e In s titu tio n of E n g in e e r­
in g In sp e c tio n . T h e re c e p tio n a n d p ro cessin g o f raw m a te ria ls a n d d e s p a tc h o f
finished p ro d u c ts a re c o n sid ered .
L a.
O il-E n gin e C ranksh afts. E . In g h a m . P o w er (S- W o rk s E n g in e e r, 1945, 40,
56-7. T h e life o f a n oil eng in e c ra n k s h a ft d e p e n d s o n th e q u a lity o f th e
m a te ria l fro m w h ich i t is m a d e , its d esig n a n d tr e a tm e n t d u rin g m a n u fa c tu re
and its m a in te n a n c e d u rin g use.
M isalig n m en t, o v erlo ad in g , sh o ck s a n d
v ib ra tio n , o v e rh e a tin g o f th e s h a f t jo u rn a ls a n d lo ca l h e a tin g of th e s h a f t b y
a w eld in g flam e c a n a ll c o n trib u te to a n e a rly b re a k d o w n .
E a c h of th e s e
p o in ts is briefly discussed.
L a.
E n g in eerin g Insurance. F . G . W . T re e . P o w er &• W o rk s E n g in eer, 1945, 40,
87-8. In s u ra n c e a g a in s t b re a k d o w n o r fo r “ in sp e c tio n o n ly ” is d iscu ssed
a n d is show n to h a v e a d v a n ta g e s w o rth th e m o n e y e x p e n d e d o n p re m iu m s.
T y p ic a l p re m iu m figures a re q u o te d .
L a.
C ooling and L u bricatin g D r ills. M ech. W o rld , 1945, 1x7, 328-30.
A con­
den sed tr a n s la tio n fro m T ech n isch e R u n d sc h a u (B erne, 1944, N o. 21 a n d 22)
describes a m e th o d o f u sin g a ir-d riv e n o il v a p o u r fo r th is p u rp o se.
D rills
h a v e holes b o red th ro u g h th e ir le n g th so t h a t th e oil v a p o u r c a n b e fo rced
th ro u g h to th e c u ttin g edges. Im p ro v e m e n t in o u tp u t, d rill life a n d su rface
finish a re said to b e o b ta in e d .
L a.
F low P a ck in g . M ech. W o rld , 1945, 117, 341-6. A n a rtic le o n th e p rin cip les
a n d m e th o d s of flow p ac k in g b a sed o n th e w ide ex p erien ce of A rm y O rd n a n c e
D ep ó ts.
L a.
P la stics. A . E . W illiam s. M ech. W o rld , 1945, 117, 371-5- N o ta b le pro g ress
in th e use o f p la stic s h a s b e e n m ad e d u rin g th e la s t few y e a rs a n d a n u m b e r
of th ese a re d escrib ed . C om posite c o n stru c tio n fre q u e n tly offers a p p re c ia b le
a d v a n ta g e s. T h e su b je c ts a re co n sid ered u n d e r th e h e a d in g s : la m in a te d sh e e t
(u rea-fo rm ald eh y d e), b e ltin g , h e a tin g b y h ig h fre q u e n c y m e th o d s, ch em ic a l
p la n t s y n th e tic ru b b e rs, ru b b e r in e n g in e e rin g a n d b o n d in g ru b b e r to m e ta l.
L a.
A ctiv a ted A lu m in a .
J . H a rw o o d a n d W . C. D av ie s.
P o w er &■ W o rk s
E n g in eer, 1945, 40, 59-62. A b rie f o u tlin e o f th e a p p lic a tio n s o f th is new
ab so rb in g m a te ria l in th e d ry in g o f gases, liq u id s a n d solids a n d in t h e o il
in d u s try .
L a.
(B )— F i r e P r e v e n t i o n
E lectrical P la n t: E a rth in g . S ilk a n d R a y o n , 1945, 19, 217-221. T h e re g u la ­
tio n s of th e I n s titu tio n o f E le c tric a l E n g in e e rs fo r th e p ro te c tio n of e le c tric a l
p la n t in circu m stan c e s w h ere i t is d ifficult to o b ta in a lo w -resistan ce c o n n e c ­
tio n to e a rth a re satisfied b y fittin g v o lta g e -o p e ra te d leak a g e trip s . T h e elec­
tric a l fe a tu re s a n d m a in te n a n c e a re e x p la in ed w ith th e h e lp of w irin g d ia g ra m s
a n d e a rth resistan ce te s ts a re d escrib ed .
•
C.
(C)— S t e a m R a i s i n g a n d P o w e r S u p p l y
S tea m : G eneration ; P roduction and S u p p ressio n of Foam .
H . M. C assel.
/ . A p p lie d P h y sic s, 1944, 15, 792-798. V a p o riz a tio n of p u re liq u id s is rev iew ed
as a p ro b lem of h e a t tra n s fe r a n d t h e ra te of v a p o u r b u b b le c re a tio n . B a se d o n
a n id ea of G ibbs, th e influence o n th e a c tiv a tio n e n erg y o f n u c le u s fo rm a tio n
ex e rte d b y th e c o n ta c t an g le a t th e v a p o u r /l iq u i d / solid p h a s e b o u n d a rie s a s
w ell a s b y th e sh ap e a n d size of su b m erg ed so lid s is q u a n tita tiv e ly ex p ressed
b y th e re d u c tio n in th e v o lu m e re q u ire m e n t of th e n u cleu s. P o ssib le effects o f
A222
8— Building and Engineering
so lu tes in su p e rh e a te d liq u id s o n ste a m b u b b le c re a tio n a n d g ro w th a re d is­
cu ssed . T h e s ta b iliz a tio n o f fo am in bo ilin g e le c tro ly te so lu tio n s is ex p lain ed
b y th e th e rm o e le c tric p o te n tia l differences o rig in a tin g fro m th e te m p e ra tu re
g ra d ie n t a ro u n d grow ing b u b b les. T h e effect o f fo a m -in h ib itin g a g e n ts (e.g.
c a s to r oil) is in te rp re te d a s a ch an g e in th e ra te of b u b b le c re a tio n c au sed b y
su rfa c e co n d itio n in g of h e a tin g e lem en ts a n d su sp e n d e d p a rtic le s.
C.
S tea m : U n dercoolin g and R ate of C ondensation.
R . R uedy.
Canadian J.
R e s ., 1944, A 22, 77-94. T h e first a n d m o s t difficu lt sta g e in th e co n d e n sa tio n
o f w a te r v a p o u r is th e in c rea se in th e size of th e d ro p s u n til th e ir ra d iu s satisfies
th e K e lv in -H e lm h o ltz e q u a tio n fo r th e degree of u n d erco o lin g o r su p e rsa tu ra tio n
re a c h e d a t th e te m p e ra tu re o f th e v a p o u r; th e second sta g e is th e in crease in
size b y c o n tin u e d a d d itio n of m olecules u n til th e v a p o u r p re ssu re p(y) of th e
d ro p co n ta in in g v m olecules a p p ro a c h e s th e p ressu re p x e x e rte d a t th e sam e
te m p e ra tu re b y a pool of w a te r. A g ra d u a l en la rg e m e n t t o v isib le d ro p s follow s.
C o n sid e ra tio n of th e n u m b e r of collisions of th e m olecules w ith th e d ro p s fo rm in g
a t th e v a p o u r p ressu re p c o f ste a m , a n d th e loss o f m olecutós b y v irtu e o f th e
h ig h e r v a p o u r p re ssu re of sm all d ro p s lead s t o th e conclusion t h a t a t co n d en sa tio n
te m p e ra tu re s b etw een 0 ° a n d 50° C. th e c e n tre s of c o n d e n sa tio n in th e a b sen ce of
d u s t o r io n s c o n ta in few er th a n 100 m olecules. W h e n th e degree o f su p e rsa tu ra tio n
co rresp o n d s to la rg e r d ro p s, c o n d e n sa tio n is b o u n d t o fail. T h e conclusion d ra w n
from th e th e o ry is co n firm ed b y th e v a lu e s o b ta in e d in th e te s ts w ith flow ing
s te a m a n d w ith cloud c h a m b e rs. A t h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re s la rg e r d ro p s a c t as
n u clei. T h e g ro w th in th e second stag e is also e x tre m e ly ra p id , a t le a s t u n til
t h e ra d iu s e q u a ls in size th e w av e le n g th of v isib le ra d ia tio n . W a te r d ro p s o f
th is size, t h a t is, d ro p s t h a t p ro d u c e coloured d iffra c tio n rin g s b e h a v e a s large
d ro p s. T h e h e a t of co n d e n sa tio n m a y fu rn ish p a r t of th e w o rk to b e p e rfo rm ed
a g a in s t th e su rface te n sio n .
C.
F la m es: M easurem ent of E m is siv ity . R . H . B a u lk . B ritish Coal U tilisation
R e s. A sso c. B u ll., 1945, 9, 33-39. R a d ia tio n fro m flam es ta k e s p la ce fro m th e
gas m olecules a n d fro m solid p a rtic le s. R a d ia tio n fro m gases o ccu rs m a in ly
in th e in fra -re d a n d is p rin c ip a lly d u e to th e p resen ce of w a te r v a p o u r an d
c a rb o n d io x id e. T h e ra d ia tio n fro m th e solid p a rtic le s, w h ich a re p rin cip a lly
c a rb o n , covers b o th th e v isible a n d th e in fra -red w av e le n g th s. T h e n a tu re
o f th e n o n -lu m in o u s ra d ia tio n , th e p ro d u c tio n of th e lu m in o u s ra d ia tio n , th e
im p o rta n c e of lu m in o sity , a n d th e im p o rta n c e o f flam e-em issiv ity m ea su re ­
m e n ts a re discussed. V ario u s m e th o d s o f m e a su rin g em issiv ity , w h ich a re
d iv id e d in to (a) ra d io m e te r m e th o d s u sin g a w av e -le n g th ran g e e x te n d in g
b ey o n d th e lim its of th e v isib le sp e c tru m , a n d (b) o p tic a l m e th o d s u sin g w av e
le n g th s w ith in th e visib le ra n g e , a re b rie fly d escrib ed .
C.
H ig h P ressure Land B oilers.
R . C a rsta irs, P . H a m e r a n d B . M. T h o rn to n .
O p e ra tin g ex p erien ces
w ith su ch b o ilers a re d e sc rib e d . H e a d e r d is to rtio n , su p e rh e a te r c o n stru c tio n
a n d a ir h e a te r losses in p a rtic u la r a re d iscu ssed . B . & W . a n d L a M o n t b oilers
a re a m o n g th o se co n sid ered . F e e d p u m p s, feed w a te r re g u la to rs, sa fte y v alv es,
g a u g e glasses, H i-L o w a te r a la rm s, c o n tin u o u s b lo w d o w n v a lv e s a n d ste a m
tr a p s a re th e b o ile r au x ilia rie s co n sid ered . T h e th ird se c tio n o f th e p a p e r deals
w ith b o ile r o p e ra tio n a n d in clu d es w a te r tr e a tm e n t a n d te s tin g , c a rry o v er,
scale fo rm a tio n , corro sio n a n d id le boilers. F in a lly , fo u lin g o f tu rb in e s, fouling
o f fu rn a c e , s u p e rh e a te r, econom iser, e tc ., a n d th e re m o v a l of d ep o sits are
discussed.
'
L a.
S team for Pow er. G . H . P e a rso n . M ech. W orld, 1945, 117, 291-2. A review
of F u e l E fficien cy B u lle tin N o. 33.
L a.
F .B .I . F orm ula for C h im n ey L o sses (C reosote-P itch M ix tu r e ). R . H . P a rs o n s.
Powier <Sr W orks E ngineer, 1945, 40, N o. 466, 84. A n o m o g ra p h fo r th e use of
th is fo rm u la is g iven.
L a.
R ed u cin g B oiler O u tages. W . M. G ore. Pow er &• W orks Engineer, 1945, 40,
N o. 466, 85-6. N o te s o n so o tb lo w ers a n d ste a m a n d w a te r lan c in g o f w a te r
tu b e b o ilers a re g iv en to show how a tte n tio n to th e s e m a tte r s c a n re d u ce tim e
lo s t in b o iler o u tag es.
L a.
A v o id a b le L osses in L ancashire B oiler P la n ts— I. I .B .F r i s b y . Steam Engineer.
1945, 14, 198-9, 204. I n th e d riv e fo r th e efficient o p e ra tio n o f a ll bo iler
in s ta lla tio n s th e c a re fu l m a in te n a n c e of b ric k w o rk is ex ceed in g ly im p o rta n t.
M ech. W orld, 1945, 117, 388-94, 420-2, 445-8, 476-9.
8— Building and Engineering
A223
T he sim p le st m e th o d of d e te c tin g b ric k w o rk fa u lts is b y m e a s u re m e n t of te m ­
p e ra tu re s a n d te m p e ra tu re g ra d ie n ts a t v a rio u s p a r ts o f th e sy ste m a n d a m u lti­
p o in t in d ic a tin g p y ro m e te r is th e b e s t in s tru m e n t fo r th e p u rp o se . C old a ir
in filtra tio n m u s t b e p re v e n te d a n d th e follow ing ite m s re q u ire re g u la r e x a m in a ­
tio n : ex te rn a l b rick w o rk , m an h o le a n d fu rn a ce doors, d a m p e rs, eco n o m iser
ch ain holes, fro n t cross w all a n d b lo w -dow n recess.
L a.
S a v in g M oney in th e B oiler H ou se. S . N . D u g u id . Steam E ngineer, 1945,
14, 200-1. T h e d e sira b ility of tr a in in g sto k e rs is stressed a n d su g g estio n s fo r
c a rry in g i t o u t a re g iven.
L a.
(D )— P o w e r T r a n s m i s s i o n
S haft Sp eed Indicator. M. J . W ilkie. J . S ci. In strum ents, 1945, 22, 36-37.
A p p a ra tu s fo r m easu rin g th e sp eed of a b e lt-d riv e n h ig h -sp eed b e a rin g m a c h in e
is described a n d sh o w n in d ia g ra m s. A n im ag e of a la m p fila m e n t is focused
o n to a stain less steel m irro r fix ed t o th e e n d of th e h ig h -sp eed sh a ft, a n d is
reflected on to a p h o to cell. H a lf of th e m irro r is b la c k e d , so t h a t a s th e s h a ft
ro ta te s a c u rre n t of a p p ro x im a te ly sq u are w a v e fo rm is g e n e ra te d in th e p h o to ­
cell. B y m e a n s of a s u ita b le c irc u it a n d fre q u e n c y m e te r, a d ire c t re a d in g is
o b ta in e d o n a lin e a r scale. T h e a c c u ra c y is of th e o rd e r of + o ■1 p e r c e n t, a n d
th e in d ic a to r is p a rtic u la rly u sefu l fo r th e ra n g e 3,000-100,oocT r.p.m .
C.
Coloured G uide Card L ubrication S y stem . A le m ite D iv is io n , S te w a rt-W a rn e r
C o rp o ratio n . T e x tile W orld, 1944, 94, N o. 12, 99-101. A n illu s tra te d a c c o u n t
is g iven of a “ C oloroute ” sy s te m to g o v ern lu b ric a tio n . D ifferen t c o lo u rs a re
assigned to th e v a rio u s lu b ric a n ts a n d em p lo y ed to id e n tify th e o il c a n s a n d
o th e r c o n ta in e rs a n d th e lu b ric a tin g p o in ts on th e m ach in es.
A sy ste m o f
m ark in g s in d ic a te s th e fre q u e n c y w ith w h ich th e lu b ric a tio n is to b e d o n e;
circles fo r d a y s (a figure 2 in th e circle w o u ld in d ic a te " e v e ry tw o d a y s ” ),
sq u ares fo r w eeks a n d h e x ag o n s fo r m o n th s. G u id e c a rd s a re u sed t o ta b u la te
th e p a rtic u la rs a n d one is a tta c h e d t o each m a c h in e w ith th e row s a n d co lu m n s
a p p ro p ria te ly filled in a fte r fin d in g th e b e s t lu b ric a n ts a n d freq u en cies fo r th e
v ario u s p o in ts.
C.
L ubricants: D u ra b ility .
E . N . D ac u s, F . F . C o le m an a n d L . C. R o ess.
/ . A p p l. P h y sics, 1944, I 5 ' 813-824. A d e sc rip tio n is g iv en o f a p p a ra tu s fo r
m easu rin g th e re la tiv e a b ility of ru b b e d -d o w n m o n o lay e rs of p o la r lu b ric a n ts
to m a in ta in low fric tio n u n d e r te s t C onditions w h ich d o n o t p e rm it re p la c e m e n t
of th e lu b ric a n t. T h is q u a lity of a lu b ric a n t is called its “ d u r a b ility .” T h e
clean p olished rim of a slow ly ro ta tin g steel w heel ru b s o n th e m o n o la y e r
d ep o sited on a p o lish ed fla t steel specim en a n d th e slip b e tw e e n th e w h eel a n d
specim en is o b serv ed . T h e p re p a ra tio n of th e su rfaces a n d film s is d escrib ed . I t
w as n o t fo u n d possible t o p re p a re rep ro d u cib le te s t su rfa ce -m o n o lay e r co m ­
b in atio n s, h en ce i t w as n e c essary t o c o m p a re each lu b r ic a n t w ith a s ta n d a rd
d ep o sited o n a se p a ra te a re a of th e sa m e su rface. S ig n ifican t differences w ere
fo u n d in th e re la tiv e d u ra b ilitie s o f a n u m b e r of p o la r co m p o u n d s. F o r th e
m o n o carb o x y lic acids te s te d , th e v a lu e s in crease w ith th e n u m b e r o f c a rb o n
a to m s p e r m olecule. A n in v e s tig a tio n of th e s ta b ility o f ru b b e d -d o w n m o n o ­
la y e rs on p o lish ed stain less ste el show s t h a t ageing in a d e sic ca to r c au ses a
c o n tin u o u s decrease in d u ra b ility , a n d also a d ecrease in m o le cu la r o rie n ta tio n
a s show n b y electro n d iffractio n . S im ila r re d u c tio n of d u ra b ility a n d o rie n ta tio n
re su lts w h en th e film is flu sh ed w ith a fine stre a m of b en zen e. O n c h ro m iu m th e
o rie n ta tio n is d estro y e d b y th e so lv e n t, b u t th e d u ra b ility is n o t c h a n g e d .
C.
T herm ionic R ectifiers.
“ E n g in e e r-in -C h a rg e.”
M ech. W orld, 1945, 117.
293-5, 3 ° 7 - T h e o p e ra tin g p rin cip les of th e rm io n ic rectifiers a re d iscu ssed
a n d illu s tra te d b y c irc u it d ia g ra m s. H a lf-, full-w ave re c tific a tio n a n d singlea n d m u ltip h a se supplies a re co n sid ered .
L a.
A ir-F low C urves. R . F . B ro w n . M ech. W orld, 1945, 1 1 7 , 320-1. I t is o fte n
d esirab le o r necessary to c a lc u la te th e flow o f co m p ressed a ir fro m a le a k o r
from a h ig h to a low pressu re. A g ra p h is g iv en w h ich en a b le s su c h p ro b le m s
to be solved u p to p ressu re d ro p s o f 100 p .s.i.
L a.
C olloidal G raphite. A. H . S tu a r t. M ech. W orld, 1945, 1 1 7 , 353. A n oil film
is re q u ire d to red u ce th e fric tio n b e tw e e n tw o m o v in g surfaces; b u t c o n d itio n s
o f ru n n in g m a y b e s u c h .a s to re d u c e th e th ic k n e ss to o n e o r tw o m olecules o r
ev en to b re a k th e film a n d e sta b lish m e ta l to m e ta l c o n ta c t. G ra p h ite in c o r­
p o ra te d in th e oil form s a film w h ich , u n d e r th e s e circ u m sta n c e s, h a s v e ry
A
224
8— Building and Engineering
d e sirab le p ro p e rtie s w h ich c o u n te ra c t th e likelihood of fa ilu re ow ing to seizing
up.
L a.
C on trol of M ercury A rc R ectifiers.
“ E n g in e e r-in -C h arg e .” M ech. W orld,
1945, 117, 363-6.
T h e tra n sfo rm e r ta p p in g , g rid , th y r a tr o n a n d in v e rte d
sy s te m s o f c o n tro l a re d esc rib e d w ith th e n ecessary c irc u it d ia g ra m s.
L a.
O il C ircuit-B reakers. P o w er &■ W o rk s E n g in eer, 1945, 40, 89-91. A su rv e y
o f fac to rs g o v ern in g th e selectio n of oil circ u it-b re a k e rs fo r in d u s tria l su b ­
s ta tio n s w ith p a rtic u la r referen ce to in co m in g h ig h -v o lta g e su p p lies.
L a.
K .V . R ope-D rive. P o w er &• W o rk s E n g in e e r, 1945, 40, 92. A n illu stra te d
d e s c rip tio n of a ro p e -d riv e fo r s h o rt c e n tre s w hich h a s b e e n dev elo p ed b y
M essrs. W m . K e n y o n & Sons, L td .
L a.
E lectric B rak in g. G. W . S tu b b in g s. M ech. W o rld , 1945, 117, 380-1. A b rief
d iscu ssio n of th e b asic p rin cip les o f ele c tric b ra k in g .
L a.
(F) — L i g h t i n g
K n ittin g F actory: L ig h tin g .
S w e e tw a te r H o s ie ry M ill.
T e x tile W orld,
1944, 94, N o. 12, 96-97. A n illu s tra te d a c c o u n t is g iv en of th e in s ta lla tio n of
flu o rescen t tu b u la r lig h tin g in a k n ittin g fa c to ry . A fte r o n e y e a r’s o p e ra tio n
t h e sy s te m is p ro v id in g 65 fo o t-c a n d les a t th e k n ittin g p la n e , 83 f.-c. a t th e
seam ers, a n d 45 f.-c. a t th e in sp ectio n b e n ch .
C.
F lu orescent L ig h tin g S y ste m s: A p p lic a tio n s.
T e x tile M a n u fa ctu rer, 1945,
71, 25. R e c e n t d ev elo p m e n ts in flu o rescen t lig h tin g (O sram ; Siem ens E le c tric
L a m p s a n d S upplies L td .; M etro p o litan -V ick ers E le c tric Co.) a re b riefly
rev iew ed . T h e “ cold ” d a y lig h t ty p e s o f la m p a re now su p p le m e n te d b y
■" w a rm w h ite ,” w h ich m a y b e p re fe rre d fo r re s t room s.
C.
(G )— H e a t in g , V e n t i l a t i o n a n d H u m i d i f i c a t i o n
•
G as F ilter M edia: P rop erties.
L . C. V e rm a n , K . A . N a ir, M. L . K h a n n a
a n d S. K . D . G u p ta . / . S ci. I n d . R e s. (In d ia ), 1944, 3, 251-258. I n a search for
filte r m ed ia s u ita b le fo r u se in p o rta b le p ro d u c e r-g a s p la n ts te s ts w ere m a d e on
sam p les of s a tin d rill, d rill, lo n g c lo th , tw ill, p ressed w ool fe lt a n d C h este r c lo th .
P h o to -m ic ro g ra p h s a re g iv en , a n d th e re su lts o f v isu a l o b serv a tio n s, m easu re­
m e n ts o f th e difference in p ressu re o n th e tw o sides a t v a rio u s ra te s o f a ir flow,
a n d m e a su re m e n ts of p o re size b a se d o n m icroscopic m e a su re m e n ts o f th e size
o f p a rtic le s c a rrie d th ro u g h b y a ir a t a v e lo c ity of 25 ft. p e r m in . a re ta b u la te d
a n d discussed. ' T h e co n clu sio n is re a c h e d t h a t th e s a tin d rills, especially th e
w e ft sa te e n s, a re th e m o s t s u ita b le fo r p ro d u cer-g as filtra tio n . S pecifications
fo r th e s e m a te ria ls a re g iv en . N e x t in o rd e r a re th e d rills. C h e ster c lo th is co m ­
p a ra b le to th e d rills b u t to o ex p en siv e fo r th is p u rp o se. T h e p ressed w ool felts
a r e in fe rio r t o th e drills, a n d lo n g c lo th a n d tw ill a re u n su ita b le .
C.
L ith iu m C om pound s: U se in A ir C on d itio n in g . K . S . B e rg stre ss e r. F o o te
P rin ts, 1944, 16, N o. 2, 9-16 (th ro u g h C h em . A b s tr ., 1945, 39, 44). S ev eral new
in d u s tria l uses of lith iu m a re discussed in clu d in g th e u se of lith iu m s a lt b rin es
fo r d e h u m id ify in g air.
C.
Zeo-Karb C ation E x ch a n g e r : A ctio n at H ig h p H .
R . N e lso n a n d H . F .
W a lto n . / . P h y s . C h e m ., 1944, 48, 406-410. C u rv es a re g iv en sho w in g th e
u p ta k e of C a a n d K io n s fro m so lu tio n s of th e ir sa lts a s a fu n c tio n o f p H . In
b o th cases th e ex ch an g e in creases a lm o st lin e a rly w ith p H , su g g estin g t h a t th e
in creasin g C a ex ch an g e is n o t d u e to th e a b so rp tio n of C aO H + . T h e co n tin u e d
in crease in ex ch an g e u p to p H 12-5 in d ic a te s t h a t Z eo -K arb c o n ta in s e x tre m ely
w e a k acid ic g ro u p s w ith d isso cia tio n c o n s ta n ts of th e o rd e r of io ~ 13. T h ese a re
p ro b a b ly p h en o lic h y d ro x y ls, th e a c id ity of w h ich is d e p ressed b y th e presence
o f s u lp h o n a te o r c a rb o x y la te ra d ic a ls in th e sam e m o lecu le. T h e u p ta k e of
N i, C u a n d Z n is m u c h g re a te r in a m m o n ia c a l th a n in a c id so lu tio n . C opper
a p p e a rs t o b e ab so rb e d p rin c ip a lly a s C u (N H 3)2++, n ic k el as N i(N H .,)4++, a n d
.zinc as a co m p lex o r co m p lex es of in te rm e d ia te c o m p o sitio n .
C.
D ielec tric H ea tin g and D ry in g . L . H a rts h o rn . T e x tile M a n u fa ctu rer, 1945,
71, 37-38. A n o n -te c h n ic a l a c c o u n t is g iv en o f th e p rin cip les of d ielectric
h e a tin g a n d d ry in g b y h ig h -fre q u e n c y h e a tin g .
^C.
W oollen M ill: F u el E con om y. D . R . H . W illia m s . T e x tile M a n u fa ctu rer,
1945, 71, 39-41. A p erso n a l s to ry o f fuel econom ies a ch ie v ed d u rin g re c e n t
m o n th s . T h e follow ing p o in ts a re e m p h a sise d : (1) T h e v a lu e of red u c in g t h e
9— Pure Science
A225
lo a d to sm all u n its w ith in d iv id u a l o r g ro u p e lectric d riv e s. (2) T h e d ifficu lty
o f g e ttin g m achine m ak ers to s ta te th e h .p . re q u ire d for a n y p a rtic u la r m ach in e .
(3) T he value of p ro v id in g e x tr a p o w er fo r s ta rtin g a m ac h in e, th e a c tu a l p ow er
for ru n n in g b e in g in m a n y in sta n c e s m u c h less. (4) F u e l sa v in g b y fittin g
ap p ro p ria te v a lv e s to p u m p s, ste a m lin es, re tu rn v a lv e s a n d th e lik e. (5) F u e l
eco n o m y b y th e even d is trib u tio n o f h e a t in a ro o m fo r c lo th in sp e ctio n a n d
m ending, d o w n -d ra u g h t b ein g cu ried .
(6) T h e rm o s ta tic c o n tro l o f h e a tin g
sy stem s. (7) F u e l sav in g b y p a in tin g a n d v a rn ish in g s te a m p ip es.
C.
(H )— W a t e r P u r i f i c a t i o n
L im e-Soda W ater T reatm en t D ev elo p m en ts.
R . P . D o n n elly .
Pow er &•
W orks E ngineer, 1945, 4 0 , N o . 466, 79782 , 88 . I n th e s e ttle m e n t stag e in th e
o rd in a ry lim e-soda process n o m a rk e d pro g ress w as m a d e u n til c o m p a ra tiv e ly
(recently a lth o u g h co n sid e ra b le im p ro v e m e n t h a d b een m a d e in th e desig n of
p ro p o rtio n in g gear a n d o th e r p a r ts o f th e p la n t.
T h e re c e n t a d v a n c e s a ll
d e p e n d on th e a c c e le ra tio n of p re c ip ita tio n b y g row ing th e se ttlin g h a rd n e ss
o n nuclei, in o rd e r to fo rm la rg e r p a rtic le s. W ith th is process th e re a c tio n is
b ro u g h t to a d efin ite ch em ical en d p o in t a n d th e re s u ltin g liq u id is sta b le so
t h a t th e re is no a fte r p re c ip ita tio n in p ipes, lines, p u m p s, filters, e tc .
The
‘ ‘ S p ira c to r ’ ’ process uses sa n d a s n u cleu s fo r p re c ip ita tio n a n d th e n ece ssa ry
p la n t is h e re described in som e d e ta il, in clu d in g its use in c o n ju n c tio n w ith
b a se exchange p la n t. T h e “ A c c e la to r,” S p a u ld in g p re c ip ita to r a n d h o t p ro ­
cess p la n t d ep en d on th e u se o f p re v io u sly d e p o site d sludge. T hese processes
a re describ ed a n d c o m p a re d .
L a.
B enzole, T oluen e and P h en o ls: D eterm in ation . M ech. W orld, 1945, 117, 325.
A n o te of special a p p a ra tu s d ev ised b y M essrs. G riffin a n d T a tlo c k L td .
L a.
(I)— W
a ste
D is p o s a l
L aundry W aste W ater: T reatm ent b y F lo ta tio n .
R . E lia s s e n a n d H . B.
SchulhofE. W aterw orks and Sewerage, 1943, 9 0 , 419 ^ th ro u g h W ater P o llu tio n
R es. Sum m . Current L it ., 1944, 17, 26). E x p e rim e n ts a re re p o rte d o n th e fo rm a ­
tio n of th e floe o b ta in e d b y th e a d d itio n o f c o a g u la n ts t o la u n d r y w a s te w a te rs
a s a flo atin g m ass in s te a d of a d ep o sit. F o r ex a m p le , b y a d d in g 500 p .p .m . of
ferric ch lo rid e t o th e w a ste a t p H 4-6, a e ra tin g fo r 5 m in u te s a n d {hen sto rin g
in a v ac u u m ta n k fo r 15 m in u te s, th e grease in th e w a te r w as re d u c e d b y 97 p e r
c e n t, a n d th e “ biological o x y g en d e m a n d ” b y 83 p e r c e n t. T h e c a p a c ity
re q u ire d is o n ly a b o u t 15 p e r c e n t, o f t h a t of th e u su a l s e ttlin g ta n k s .
C.
9—PURE SCIENCE
L eath er and D isin fecta n ts: F u n g icid a l Effect. C. O. F o u lto n , N . E . G ib b o u s
a n d R . L . M oore. Canadian ] . R e s ., 1944, F 22, 1Ó3-168. V e g e ta b le -ta n n e d
le a th e r h a d a fu n g icid al effect o n o n e s tra in o f T rich o p h y ton gypseum a n d tw o
s tra in s of T . interdigitale (asso ciated w ith “ a th le te ’s fo o t ” ) b u t n o t o n sev eral
s tra in s of com m on m o u ld c o n ta m in a n ts . C h ro m e -ta n n ed le a th e r, v eg eta b leta n n e d le a th e r from a n o ld shoe, a n d v e g e ta b le -ta n n e d le a th e r leac h ed o v e r­
n ig h t in ru n n in g w a te r d id n o t possess fu n g ista tic o r fu n g ic id a l p ro p e rtie s. T h re e
o f th e co m p o u n d s u sually fo u n d in v e g e ta b le -ta n n in g liq u o rs, ta n n ic acid ,
gallic a cid a n d p yrogallic acid , w ere in h ib ito ry . O f a n u m b e r of d is in fe c ta n ts
te s te d u n d e r co n d itio n s sim ila r to th o s e o ccu rrin g d u rin g th e fa t-liq o u rin g o p e ra ­
tio n , p h en y lm ercu ric a c e ta te w as t h e m o s t effective, d estro y in g th e ab o v e
o rg an ism s in a c o n c e n tra tio n of 1 :1 0 0 ,0 0 0 . U n d e r th e sam e c o n d itio n s a 1 :1 ,0 0 0
■dilution of commdfccial fo rm alin w as re q u ire d .
' C.
“ G lycostat ” G lycol V apour C oncentration C on trollin g D ev ice. T . T . P u c k ,
H . W ise a n d O . H . R o b e rtso n . / . E x p tl. M ed ., 1944, 8 0 , 377-381 (th ro u g h
C hem . A b str ., 1945, 3 9 , 4"). G lycol v a p o u r in th e a ir is co n d en sed o n a cooled
surface so as to in te rfe re w ith th e tra n sm issio n o f a r a y o f lig h t. A p h o to -e lec tric
cell, resp o n d in g t o th e flu c tu a tio n s, cau ses a g ly co l v a p o riz e r to b e tu r n e d o n
o r off, d ep e n d in g on w h e th e r th e a ir c o n ta in s t(?o little o r to o m u c h of th is
m a te ria l. T h e c o n c e n tra tio n is re g u la te d w ith in a few th o u s a n d th s of a m g.
p e r 1. T h e in s tru m e n t (te rm e d a g ly c o sta t) c a n b e u se d also to m e asu re th e glycol
c o n te n t of a ir d ire c tly , e v e n in a ir co n ta in in g h ig h c o n c e n tra tio n s of d u s t o r
o th e r foreign iftaterials w h ic h in te rfe re w ith a ch em ical a n aly sis. T h e g ly c o s ta t
c a n b e u sed fo r e ith e r p ro p y le n e o r trie th y le n e glycol.
C.
A22Ó
9— Pure Science
A lk y lc e llu lo s e s : M eth o x y l and E th o x y l Group M icro-determ ination. A . A.
H o u g h to n . A n a ly st, 1945, 70, 19-21. A m icro m e th o d is d escrib ed fo r q u a n tita ­
tiv e ly collecting a s liq u id all th e a lk y l io d id e evo lv ed w h e n a c o m p o u n d such
a s m e th y leth y lcellu lo se is b o iled w ith h y d rio d ic acid . A tte m p ts to d e te rm in e
th e ra tio of m e th y l to e th y l io d id e in m ix tu re s o b ta in e d in th is w a y b y m icro
c ritic a l te m p e ra tu re m e a s u re m e n ts w ere u n su ccessfu l ow ing t o d eco m p o sitio n .
D e n sity d e te rm in a tio n s g av e a c c u ra te re s u lts w ith in 1 p e r c e n t, b u t re q u ire d
30 m g. of sam p le. B o ilin g -p o in t d e te rm in a tio n s re q u ire d o n ly '3 m g. of s a m p le
a n d gav e re s u lts to w ith in a b o u t 5 p e r c e n t., th e e rro r b ein g d u e to false b o ilin g
p o in ts cau sed b y disso lv ed g as.
R e su lts o b ta in e d w ith m ix tu re s of k n o w n
q u a n titie s of m e th y l a n d e th y l cellulose are p resen te d .
C.
Corn and W h eat S tarch :
D eterm in ation .
F . R . E a rle a n d R . T . M iln er.
S even sam p les of s ta rc h co m p risin g tw o
fro m c o m , tw o from w h e a t, a n d o n e each fro m w a x y co rn , ta p io c a a n d p o ta to ,
w ere a n a ly se d fo r n o n -s ta rc h c o n stitu e n ts. T h e re su lts a re ta b u la te d to g e th e r
w ith th e re s u lts of m o istu re c o n te n t d e te rm in a tio n s, specific ro ta tio n s , a n d sta rc h
c o n te n ts b y difference. T h e specific ro ta tio n of a ll th e s e s ta rc h e s w as fo u n d
to b e 2030 in calciu m ch lo rid e disp ersio n , w h en co rrec ted fo r th e n o n -sta rc h y
m a te ria l. S ta rc h d e te rm in a tio n s w ere m a d e b y p o la rim e te r, ac id h y d ro ly sis, a n d
d ia s ta se m e th o d s. T h e re s u lts of th e p o la rim e te r a n d d ia sta se m e th o d s a g re e d
s a tisfa c to rily w ith th e sta rc h b y difference v alu es, w h ilst th e re s u lts o b ta in e d b y
a c id h y d ro ly sis w ere c o n siste n tly low er. T h e a p p lic a tio n of th e p o la rim e tric
m e th o d to th e d e te rm in a tio n of stanch in c o rn a n d w h e a t w as stu d ie d a n d m o d i­
fied p ro ced u res w ere d ev ised w h ich g av e re su lts ag reein g closely w ith th o s e
o b ta in e d b y th e d ia sta se m e th o d . D e ta ils of th e im p ro v e d p ro c e d u re s a re g iv en .
C.
W h eat and Flour P ro tein s: D eterm in ation , W . J. E v a a n d J. A . A n d e rso n .
Cereal C h em istry , 1944, 21, 560-566. T h e p h o to m e tric m e th o d d ev elo p e d b y
Z eleny fo r d e te rm in in g p ro te in c o n te n t in w h e a t a n d flo u r h a s b e e n e x a m in e d
t o decide w h e th e r i t gives re su lts t h a t a re m o re closely re la te d t o lo af v o lu m e
th a n a re co n v e n tio n a l K je ld a h l d a ta . T h e Z elen y c o rre latio n s, b o th w ith in one
v a rie ty o r b e tw e e n 25 v a rie tie s, w ere n o t a s h ig h a s t h e co rresp o n d in g K je ld a h l
c o rrelatio n s. T h e co rre la tio n s b etw e e n Z elen y v a lu e s a n d K je ld a h l p ro te in w e re
—0 .9 2 a n d - 0 - 9 3 fo r w h e a t a n d flo u r in th e in te r-v a rie ta l series, a n d - 0 - 9 8
a n d - 0 - 9 9 fo r w h e a t a n d flo u r in th e o n e -v a rie ty series. T h e Z eleny m e th o d
c a n a p p a re n tly b e u sed fo r p re d ic tin g K je ld a h l p ro te in in so u n d sam p les o f o n e
w h e a t v a rie ty grow n in d iffe re n t p laces, o r in sam p le s o f d ifferen t v a rie tie s grow n
a t o ne place. I t is im p ro b a b le t h a t a s a tisfa c to ry g e n eral e q u a tio n fo r a ll sam ples
c a n b e d ev elo p ed . T h e ev id en c e stro n g ly su g g ests t h a t th e Z eleny p ro c e d u re is
m ea su rin g so m e re la tiv e ly c o n s ta n t p ro p o rtio n o f th e to t a l p ro te in a n d t h a t
th is p ro te in fra c tio n is c o n c e n tra te d la rg e ly in th e en d o sp erm . T h e m e th o d is
v e ry sim ple, b u t a t p re s e n t th e a n a ly tic a l e rro r is h ig h e r th a n t h a t o f th e
K je ld a h l te s t.
C.
Cereal C h em istry , 1944, 21, 567-575.
T a n n in : Q u an titative P recip itation w ith A zo D y e s. R . C. D av ie s, M . N ie re n s te in a n d C. W . W e b ste r.
A n a ly st, 1945, 70, 17-18.
C h ry so id in e, B ism arck
b ro w n , Congo red , T ry p a n re d , A frid o l b lu e a n d F a s t Y ellow fo rm p re c ip ita te s
w ith ta n n in w h ich a re in so lu b le in w a te r a n d s u ita b le fo r q u a n tita tiv e w o rk . T h e
follow ing m e th o d is re c o m m en d ed . T o a m o lec u la r suspension in w a te r o f F a s t
Y ellow (E ger; C olour In d e x N o. 16) a d d a n a q u eo u s so lu tio n o f 2 m ols. of
p o ta ssiu m h y d ro x id e , a n d r u n th e so lu tio n slow ly fro m a b u r e tte in to an
aq u e o u s so lu tio n of th e ta n n in u n til n o m o re p re c ip ita te * is fo rm ed .
A fte r
48 h o u rs co llect th e p re c ip ita te in a G ooch cru cib le, a n d w ash i t first w ith 250 m l.
o f 5 p e r c e n t, h y d ro c h lo ric a cid a n d th e n w ith 500 m l. of w a te r. D ry a t 160° C.
to c o n s ta n t w eig h t. T h e difference b e tw e en th e w eig h t o f th e ta n n e d d y e a n d
th e w e ig h t of d y e used giv es b o th th e ta n n in a n d th e d e p sip h o re c o n te n ts.
R e su lts a re c o m p a re d w ith ta n n in d e te rm in a tio n s b y o th e r m e th o d s. P h e n o ls
a n d ca te c h in s d o n o t give p re c ip ita te s t h a t re sist w ash in g w ith w a te r.
C.
H yd rogen P eroxid e and R elated C om pounds: Production, P roperties and
U ses. V . W . S la te r. C hem istry and In d u stry , 1945, 42-46. A n a c c o u n t is
g iv en of th e p ro d u c tio n , p ro p e rtie s a n d in d u s tria l uses o f h y d ro g e n p ero x id e,
a lk a lin e e a rth p ero x id es, p e ro x y sa lts a n d p e ro x y h y d ra te s , a n d o rg an ic p e r­
oxides.
C.
g— Pure Science
A.22J
N itrocellu loses D erived from M odified C otton C ellu lo se s: V isc o sity .
B ro w n se tt a n d G. F . D avid so n , j . T e x tile In s t., 1945, 36, T 1-9.
T.
C.
W heat Starch “ A m ylod ex trin ” F ra ctio n : C om p osition .
M. M. M acM asters a n d G . E . H ilb e rt. Cereal C h em istry, 1944, 21, 548-555. M icroscopic
a n d a n a ly tic a l stu d ie s h a v e sh o w n t h a t th e so-called “ a m y lo d e x tr in ,” sm allg ran u le o r ta ilin g s fra c tio n se p a ra te d b y c e n trifu g in g c ru d e w h e a t s ta rc h a fte r
th e re m o v a l of t h e b ra n 'and g lu te n co m p rises s ta rc h (87-94 p e r c e n t.), p ro te in
(1-2 p e r c e n t.), p e n to sa n s (4 p e r c e n t.), f a t ty m a te ria l (a b o u t 0 -7 p e r c e n t.) a n d
a sh (a b o u t 0 -3 p e r ce n t.). In a d d itio n th e r e is a sm a ll a m o u n t of cellulosic
m a te ria l, p ro b a b ly a b o u t 3 p e r c e n t., p re s e n t in cell w all fra g m e n ts. T h e s ta rc h y
m a te ria l is com posed of u n g e latin iz ed sm a ll g ra n u le s a n d d a m a g e d , la rg e
g ran u les w h ich g elatin ize p a rtia lly o r w h o lly in cold w a te r, th e fo rm e r p re ­
d o m in a tin g . A n o u ts ta n d in g c h a ra c te ristic o f t h e sm all-g ran u le fra c tio n is its
sem i-fluid n a tu re , w h ich c a n n o t b e a ttr ib u te d to d e n sity alo n e.
T h e la rg e
difference in v o lu m es (per u n it 'w e i g h t o f d ry su b stan c e) o f th e s ta rc h a n d
“ a m y lo d e x trin ” la y ers a fte r c e n trifu g in g in d ic a te s a difference in th e p a c k in g
of th e p a rticles. T h ese c h a ra c te ristic s m a y b e d u e to th e m u c h la rg e r ionic c h a rg e
p er u n it v o lu m e t h a t sm all g ra n u le s possess, th e effect o f a c h a rg e o n a p a rtic le
becom ing m ore p ro n o u n ced a s th e size of th e p a rtic le decreases a n d its su rface
a re a p e r u n it volum e increases. T h e h ig h a sh c o n te n t o f th e sm all-g ran u le fra c ­
tio n suggests t h a t a consid erable p a r t o f th e in o rg a n ic m a tte r m a y b e a d so rb e d
b y th e p a rticles, th u s in creasin g th e ir p o la rity . P a rtic le size is n o t, h o w ev er,
th e sole fa c to r influencing co n siste n c y . I t w o u ld a p p e a r d e sirab le to a v o id
th e d esig n atio n of th e sm all-g ran u le fra c tio n b y th e n a m e " a m y lo d e x t r in ,”
since a m y lo d e x trin is a recognised en zy m ic d e g ra d a tio n p ro d u c t of sta rc h , w h ich ,
u n like th e sm all-g ran u le fra c tio n , is so lu b le in w a te r.
C.
S ilk F ib roin : D en aturation . D . C o le m a n a n d F . O. H o w itt. N ature, 1945,
*55 ’ 78 - 7 9 - T h e re su lts o f stu d ie s o f silk fib ro in le a d t o th e follow ing te n ta tiv e
conclusions.
T h e m olecules o f fib ro in co n sist of lo n g c h a in s (len g th a b o u t
1300 A .; w e ig h t 33,000) o rie n ta te d p a ra lle l to th e fibre axis. I n its n a tu r a l s ta te
th e ch ain s a re in th e a lm o st fu lly -e x te n d e d c o n fig u ratio n , co rresp o n d in g t o
A stb u ry ’s /3-k e r a tin . T h e g re a te r p a r t of th e c h a in show s a re g u la r p e rio d ic ity
of am in o -acid d is trib u tio n b u t th e r e a p p e a r to b e tw o regions, re la tiv e ly sm all
a n d sy m m e tric a lly placed in th e c h a in , t h a t a re rich in ty ro sin e , a n d in c lu d e all
of th e fo u r p ro lin e residues. A d ja c e n t c h a in m olecules a re lin k e d b y h y d ro g e n
b o nds b etw een op p o sin g : CO a n d : N H g ro u p s of th e p e p tid e lin k in g s.
On
d isso lu tio n of fibroin in c u p ri-e th y le n e d ia m in e , th e s e b o n d s a re b ro k e n a n d
each of th e C u-en g ro u p s co m b in es w ith tw o p ro x im a te : N H g ro u p s alo n g
alm o st th e w hole le n g th of th e c h a in so t h a t th e w h o le m o lec u lar co m p lex h a s
a ra tio of C u to fibroin-N o f n e a rly 1 :2 . T h is co m p lex fo rm a tio n o ccu rs v e ry
ra p id ly a n d is follow ed b y a slow er re a c tio n in w h ich th e c h a in fo ld s b a c k o n
itself a t th e tw o p ro lin e-c o n ta in in g c e n tre s t o g iv e a 3-lim b ed co n fig u ratio n
(eith er a s a la m in a o r a p rism of a x ia l ra tio a p p ro x im a te ly 2 0 :1 ) . T h e e x te n t
of th e fo lding is» d e p e n d e n t on tim e a n d c o n c e n tra tio n of th e c u p ri-e th y le n e d ia m in e. T h is folding is p ro b a b ly d u e t o sw ivelling of th e m o lecu lar p a r ts a t a
p ro ly l-ty ro sy lp ro ly l g ro u p in g in th e tw o ty ro sin e -ric h regions of th e c h a in .
N e u tra lisa tio n of th e cu p ri-e th y le n e d ia m in e co m p lex lib e ra te s th e fib ro in e ith e r
in th e co m p letely re n a tu re d fo rm (for w h ic h th e n a m e “ fib rin o g en ” is sug­
gested) o r as a m ix tu re of re n a tu re d a n d d e n a tu re d fo rm s (b o th of m o le c u la r
w e ig h t a p p ro x im a te ly 33,000) a c co rd in g to th e c o n d itio n s o f d isso lu tio n . I n
th e fo rm er case, d ialysis affo rd s a w a te r-c le a r so lu tio n t h a t giv es n o im m e d ia te
p re c ip ita te on acidificatio n a n d fro m w h ich p ro te in se p a ra te s as a gel in th e
course of tw o o r th r e e days; in th e la tte r , t h e so lu tio n is m o re o p a q u e a n d s ta b le
for p erio d s u p to 14 d a y s, a n d acid ificatio n to p H 3 cau ses im m e d ia te p re c ip ita ­
tio n of th e d e n a tu re d p o rtio n . I t follow s t h a t th e p ro cess of d e n a tu ra tio n of
fibroin is e ss en tially a n u n fo ld in g of m o le c u la r ch ain s, w h ich , in a p p ro p ria te
c ircu m stan ces, is follow ed b y th e ir s u b s e q u e n t ag g reg a tio n . I n th e fo ld ed c h a in
th e /3-k e ra tin co n fig u ratio n o f th e c h a in itse lf a p p e a rs to b e re ta in e d .
C.
D D T In secticid e: D evelo p m en t and A p p lica tio n s.
T . F . W est. ■/. O il &• Colour C h em ists’ A sso c., 1944, 27,
g atio n s o f m o th -p ro o fin g a g e n ts o f th e sto m a ch -p o iso n
selection of M itin F F , a n d th e e x te n sio n o f th e w o rk
poisons fo r o th e r in sects t h a t led to th e d e v e lo p m e n t
G . A . C a m p b e ll a n d
241-262. T h e in v e s ti­
ty p e t h a t led to th e
to stu d ie s of c o n ta c t
o f D D T (aa-dichloro-
A 228
g— Pure Science
<Iiphenyl-/ 8 /3/8 -tric h lo ro e th a n e ) a re rev iew ed . T h e m o d e of a c tio n o f D D T on
in se c ts is briefly discu ssed a n d uses fo r th e c o n tro l of lice a n d m o sq u ito es are
d e sc rib e d . A n a c c o u n t is g iv en o f tria ls o f D D T a g a in s t h o u se flies. P ro m isin g
re su lts in th e k illing o f flies h a v e b een o b ta in e d w ith o il-bound w a te r p a in ts,
co u m a ro n e resin film s, fa b ric s, a n d w a x floor polishes co n ta in in g D D T .
C.
D iazotised A n ilin e : D ecom p osition at D ifferent p H V a lu es. H . H . H o d g son
a n d E . M arsden. J . Soc. D y e rs <&• C ol., 1945, 61, 2 0 -ai. P rev io u s stu d ie s of
th e d eco m p o sitio n o f a q u eo u s so lu tio n s o f d iazo tised am ines in th e p resen ce of
c a lc iu m c a rb o n a te affo rd ed d a ta in fa v o u r o f a coupling m e ch a n ism b e tw e e n
d ia z o h y d ro x id e a n d p h e n o l. T h ese d a ta are now su p p le m en ted a n d su p p o rte d
b y fu r th e r e x p e rim e n ta l ev id en c e o b ta in e d fro m a s tu d y o f th e d eco m p o sitio n
o f d iazo tised an ilin e a t th e six a p p ro x im a te p H valu es, viz. 10-5, 8 -8 , 6 -7 ,
5 • 3, 5 -2 a n d 4 -2 , o b ta in e d b y th e p resen ce of a n excess of a m e ta llic h y d ro x id e
in s te a d of calc iu m c a rb o n a te . T ab les a re g iven show ing th e w eig h t of
u n c o u p led p h en o l, w e ig h t of azo com pounds', co m p o sitio n o f m ix tu re of azo
c o m p o u n d s , a n d ra tio s of co u p led p h e n o l to to ta l p h en o l a n d w e ig h t of coupled
p ro d u c t to to ta l p h en o l. T h e ra te s of d eco m p o sitio n re la tiv e to th e ra te s of
co u p lin g d ecrease as th e p H v a lu e increases. T h is fa c t a n d th e w ell-know n
fa c t t h a t r a te of co u p lin g in creases w ith increase of p H u p to a lim itin g v alu e,
a re illu s tra te d b y decreases in th e a m o u n ts of m o n o -co u p led p ro d u c ts w ith
c o rre sp o n d in g in creases in th e a m o u n ts of d i-co u p led p ro d u c ts a s th e p H value
increases. T h e a m o u n t of tri-co u p led p ro d u c t increases w ith in crease in p H
u p to 8 -8 a n d th e n falls a g a in . T h is m a y in d ic a te a te n d e n c y o f th e coupling
■diazohydroxide to be in eq u ilib riu m w ith th e n o n -co u p lin g d ia z o ta te a t p H
105.
C.
C on tact A n g le M easuring A p p aratu s.
J. W . L . B ea m e n t.
T rans. F a ra d a y
S o c ., 1945, 4 1 , 45-47. A n a p p a ra tu s is d escrib ed w h ich is b e in g u sed to in v e s ti­
g a te v a ria tio n s w ith te m p e ra tu re in th e h y d ro p h ilic p ro p e rtie s o f lip o id e x tra c ts
o f in s e c t cuticle a n d ch an g e s in th e su rfa ce o f th e cu ticle a fte r m o u ltin g , b y
m e a s u re m e n t of th e an g le of c o n ta c t o f w a te r d ro p le ts. F o r te s ts o n lipoid
e x tra c ts th e film is la id d o w n fro m a c h lo ro fo rm so lu tio n as a u n ifo rm la y e r on
a glass cover-slip a n d s u p p o rte d in th e su rfa c e of a b e a k e r o f w a te r b y co rk
slip s. W a te r p asses th ro u g h a fine glass je t in to th e c e n tre o f a d ro p le t o n th e
film a n d w a te r is rem o v ed fro m th e d ro p le t b y a seco n d je t w h ich ju s t to u ch es
th e to p of it, a n d is a tta c h e d to a filter p u m p . I n th is w a y th e su rface of th e
■drop is alw ay s b ein g rem o v ed a n d th e w a te r k e p t clean . T h e p o sitio n s o f th e
je ts c a n b e a d ju s te d to p ro d u c e a n y c o n s ta n t size of d ro p le t o r a n a d v a n c in g
o r reced in g b o u n d a ry . D ire c t re a d in g s of th e c o n ta c t an g le a re o b ta in e d b y
m e a n s o f a n o p tic a l sy ste m co m p risin g a low -pow er c o m p o u n d *m icroscope
h a v in g a ro ta ta b le h a ir-lin e, a tr a n s m ittin g a n d reflectin g p rism , a p ro tra c to r
a n d a m irro r. D e ta ils of c o n stru c tio n are sh o w n in a d ia g ra m .
C.
R ain d rop s: R elation of S ize to In te n sity .
J. O. L a w s a n d D . O. P a rs o n s.
A m e r . G eo p h ys. U nion T ra n s., 1944, 24, 432-460 (th ro u g h ’ E x p . S ta . R e c .,
1944, 91, 640). A tte m p ts h a v e b e e n m ad e to m easu re e ro d ib ility a n d in filtra ­
tio n c a p a c ity b y sp rin k lin g sm all a re a s of la n d w ith artific ial ra in . T h e re su lts
a re affected b y th e d ro p size a n d v e lo c ity o f th e a rtificia l ra in s, a n d th e
a p p lic a b ility o f su ch re su lts to c o n d itio n s of n a tu ra l rain fa ll h a s b ee n th ro w n
in d o u b t. D rop-size m e a su re m e n ts a re p re se n ted (in th e o rig in al) w h ich should
b e useful in e v a lu a tin g sim u la te d ra in te s ts a n d in in te rp re tin g p h e n o m e n a of
ero sio n g en erally . T h e lite r a tu re of th e s u b je c t is b rie fly rev iew ed .
C.
C alcium Soap-O il S y ste m s: W e ttin g Pow er. W . G a lla y a n d I. E . P u d d in g to n . C anadian J . R e s ., 1944, B 22, 155-160. C o n ta c t an g le s w ere m easu red
o f v a rio u s m in e ra l oils a n d w a te r o n re la tiv e ly p o la r a n d n o n -p o la r calciu m
s te a ra te su rfaces p re p a re d b y sp ecial m ea n s. P rev io u s m o iste n in g o f th e so ap
su rfa c e w ith sm a ll q u a n titie s of w a te r d ecreased th e s u b s e q u e n t c o n ta c t angle
a g a in s t oil. C o n ta c t an g les of oils w ere low er o n n o n -p o la r th a n o n p o la r su r­
faces. A fte r m o isten in g th e su rfa c es w ith w a te r, c o n ta c t angles w ere o f th e
sam e o rd e r in all cases. T h e s e d im e n ta tio n v o lu m e o f c a lc iu m ste a ra te in
m in e ra l oil, w ith a n d w ith o u t v a rio u s a d d e d m a te ria ls, w as m easu re d . A d d i­
tio n s of w a te r, glycero l a n d f a t ty acid re su lte d in ra p id se ttlin g , ag g lo m eratio n
a n d la rg e r se d im e n ta tio n v o lu m e . E th y l alco h o l h a d a sm a lle r ag g lo m eratin g
■effect a n d o th e r less p o la r m a te ria ls h a d n o effect.
C.
9— Pure Science
A229
C a lciu m Stearate: S tate of D isp ersio n in M ineral O ils. W . G a lla y a n d I. E .
P u d d in g to n . Canadian J . R e s ., 1944, B 22, 161-172. C alciu m s te a ra te u n d e r­
goes a p a rtia l m e ltin g to a m eso m o rp h ic s ta te a t a b o u t 100° C ., as sh ow n b y
d isc o n tin u ities in th e d e n sity / te m p e ra tu re re la tio n a n d in d iffe re n tia l cooling
m easu rem en ts, a n d b y th e o n se t o f p la s tic ity . N o su rface a c tiv ity is e x h ib ite d
b y th e so ap in m in eral oil, even in th e m eso m o rp h ic s ta te . C alciu m s te a ra te
d ispersions in a n o n -p o lar m in e ra l oil a re essen tially ly o p h o b ic u p to 180° C .,
w h ereas so ap is d isp ersed to a sol in m o re p o la r oils a t a te m p e ra tu re slig h tly
a b o v e th e p a rtia l m e ltin g p o in t. T h e v isc o sity of th ese d isp ersio n s, m ea su re d
o v e r a ran g e of te m p e ra tu re s in a v a ria b le -p re ssu re efflux v isc o m e te r show s
u n u su a l ch ara c te ristic s. A m a x im u m v isco sity a t in te rm e d ia te te m p e ra tu re s
is observed, acco m p an ied b y a h ig h deg ree o f d ila ta n c y .
T h e p resen ce of
w a te r low ers th e v isco sity a n d d e stro y s d ila ta n c y b y a g g lo m e ra tio n o f th e
■dispersed soap.
C.
C a lciu m S o a p s: R ecry sta llisa tio n in M ineral O ils.
W . G a lla y a n d I. B .
P u d d in g to n . Canadian J . R e s ., 1944, B 22, 173-181. W h e n a su sp en sio n of
c a lc iu m s te a ra te in a n o n -p o la r m in e ra l oil is h e a te d to p ro d u ce a w ell-dispersed
so l a n d th e n cooled th e so ap recry sta llise s to a fo rm t h a t is in c a p a b le o f h o ld ­
in g oil. T h e dispersion is essen tia lly ly o p h o b ic a t low er te m p e ra tu re s a n d is
u n stab le. In p o la r oils, su spensions a re p ro d u ce d t h a t a re sta b le a n d ly o p h ilic
in c h a ra c te r, w ith little o r n o rig id ity . T h e effect of th e p resen ce o f w a te r in
th e sy stem is v e ry m a rk e d . W h ere a n o n -p o la r oil is u sed , th e su sp en sio n
show s a h ig h degree of s ta b ility a n d a h ig h y ield v a lu e in flow. As a re s u lt of
a g g lo m e ra tio n , a s tru c tu re is d ev elo p e d , a n d th e sy ste m show s a stro n g s tre a m
d o u b le re fra c tio n . L o w er alcohols h a v e a sim ilar effect. F a t t y a cid b rin g s
a b o u t ag g lo m eratio n also, b u t in c rea sin g q u a n titie s p ro d u c e a so lv e n t effect.
C a lc iu m o leate b e h av es sim ila rly to c alc iu m s te a ra te , b u t re c ry sta llise d c a l­
c iu m lin o leate dispersions show low er s ta b ility a n d v isco sity th a n th o se of th e
o le a te o r s te a ra te .
C.
C o llo id P articles: L yoph ob ic A sso c ia tio n .
O . N e u n h o e fie r.
K o llo id Z .,
1944, 107, 104-107 (th ro u g h C h em . A b str ., 1945, 39, n 7). T h e asso c ia tio n of
■molecules dissolved in w a te r is affected , n o t o n ly b y th e forces e m a n a tin g
fro m th e m olecules th em selv es, b u t also b y th e resistan ce to p e n e tra tio n o f
■water m olecules b etw een th e c o n ta c t surfaces fo rm ed b y ch a n c e m e e tin g of
m olecules, p a rtic u la rly th o se o f n o n p o lar-p o la r n a tu r e , su c h as f a t ty acid s. T h e
cohesion in th is case is d u e to th e com pression o f th e w a te r, a n d is d e sig n a te d
a s “ ly o p h o b ic a ss o c ia tio n .” T h e cohesion of colloid p a rtic le s in so ap so lu tio n s
d ep en d s u p o n ly o p h o b ic a sso ciatio n . T h is a ssu m p tio n is used to e x p la in th e
clean sin g a c tio n o f soaps. T h e h y p o th e sis of ly o p h o b ic a sso ciatio n in c e rta in
■surface elem en ts (h y d ro c a rb o n surfaces) in th e s tru c tu r e of n a tiv e cellulose
m akes i t possible to c larify c e rta in p h e n o m e n a in th e b e h a v io u r of cellulose
(such a s th e h ig h am m o n ia c o n te n t o f th e c u p ra m m o n iu m cellulose sp in n in g
so lu tio n a n d sim ilar p ro b lem s in cellulose n itr a te a n d cellulose a c e ta te m a n u ­
factu re) n o t easily ex p lain ed h ith e rto .
C.
G lu ten : D isp ersion b y S a lt S o lu tio n s.
N . H . G race.
Canadian J . R e s .,
1944, C 2 2 ,280-281. A p p ro x im a te ly n e u tr a l N a s a lt so lu tio n s of k n o w n p la n t g ro w th
s tim u la n ts disperse fresh, n a tu r a l g lu te n . M ark ed d isp ersin g effects h a v e b e e n
n o te d w ith sa lts of n a p h th y la c e tic , n a p h th y lb u ty r ic , n a p h th y lh e x o ic , in d o ly la c e tic , in d o ly lb u ty ric , a n d p h e n y la c e tic a cid s.
S a lts o f a n th ra n ilic a n d
su lp h an ilic acid s also h a d som e effect.
W h e n n itro g e n d e te rm in a tio n s w ere
m a d e on disp ersio n s a n d th e d isp ersed n itro g e n w as ex p ressed a s a p e rce n tag e
•of th e to ta l n itro g en of fresh g lu ten , t h e v a lu e s o b ta in e d w ith d isp e rsio n s in
so lu tio n s of sa lts of th e follow ing a cid s w ere 97 p e r c e n t, fo r n a p h th y la c e tic ,
86 p e r c e n t, fo r p h en y lac e tic , 85 p e r c e n t, fo r a n th ra n ilic , a n d 67 p e r c e n t, fo r
su lp h an ilic; 1 p e r c e n t, sodium h y d ro x id e a n d 10 p e r c e n t, so d iu m sa lic y la te
effected d isp ersio n s of 94 a n d 96 p e r c e n t, of to t a l n itro g e n , re sp e ctiv e ly .
C.
S o lv en t
E xtraction :
D iffu sion
T h eory.
J. O . O sb u rn a n d D . L . K a tz .
Trans. A m er. In st. C hem . E n g rs., 1944, 40, 511-531 (th ro u g h C hem . A b str ., 1945,
39, 37). T h e a p p lic a tio n of diffusion th e o ry to so lv e n t e x tra c tio n fro m a
p o ro u s solid h a s b een ex p a n d e d t o in clu d e th e s tru c tu re of th e solid. I t is sh o w n
t h a t d ifferen t s tru c tu re s m a y p ro d u c e w ide v a ria tio n s in th e ty p e o f th e o re tic a l
e x tra c tio n cu rv e. E x tra c tio n d a ta fo r d iffe re n t m a te ria ls c a n b e c o m p a re d o n ly
-when d etails of s tru c tu re of th e solid a re co m p a re d . E x tra c tio n c u rv e s fo r th e
A 230
9— Pure Science
e x tra c tio n of so y b e a n flakes a re sim ilar t o th e o re tic a l cu rv es fo r e x tra c tio n w ith
tw o d ifferen t diffusion coefficients. A m e th o d is sh o w n fo r fin d in g th e tw o
coefficients from th e e x tra c tio n cu rv e .
C.
Soyb ean F la k e s: S o lv e n t E x tra ctio n .
C. O. K ing', D . L . K a tz a n d J. C.
B rie r. T rans. A m e r . I n s t. C h em . E n g rs., 1944, 40, 533-556 (th ro u g h C h em .
A b s tr ., 1945, 39, 39). E x p e rim e n ta l d a ta w ere o b ta in e d o n th e so lv e n t e x tra c ­
tio n of so y b ean flakes of v a rio u s screen sizes a n d a v erag e th ick n esses of 0 .0 0 8 0 ,
0-0 1 0 9 , 0 .0 1 7 1 a n d 0-0207 in . in s o lv e n t m ix tu re s c o n ta in in g a p p ro x im a te ly
o, 5, 10 a n d 15 p e r c e n t, ra w so y b e a n oil in tric h lo ro e th y le n e . S u p p le m e n ta l
d a ta w ere o b ta in e d fo r th e e x tra c tio n of o il-sa tu ra te d p o ro u s cla y p la te s w ith
tric h lo ro e th y le n e a n d fo r th e e x tra c tio n o f d iffe re n t so y b e a n flakes w ith a c a rb o n
te tra c h lo rid e -e th y le n e d ich lo rid e m ix tu re . T h e a p p lic a tio n p f th e th e o ry of
m o lecu lar diffusion to th e e x tra c tio n of th e oil fro m a u n ifo rm p o ro u s in organic
solid w as confirm ed. T h e sim ple diffusion th e o r y fo r u n ifo rm p o ro u s solids doesn o t c o rre la te th e e x tra c tio n d a ta fo r th e so y b e a n flak es. T h e s tru c tu re of th e
so y b e a n flakes w as co n sid ered to b e t h e c a u se of th e div erg en ce from th e o ry .
G en eral e x tra c tio n ra te cu rv e s a n d e q u ilib riu m d a ta h a v e b e e n u tilise d fo r th e
p re d ic tio n of e x tra c tio n tim e u n d e r co m m ercia l c o n d itio n s.
C.
“ M egap erm selective ” C ollodion M em branes: P reparation and Properties.
C. W . C a rr a n d K . S ollner. J . G en. P h y sio l., 1944, 28, 119-130. P o ro u s collodion
m e m b ra n e s w ere c a s t o n th e o u tsid e o f r o ta tin g tu b e s a n d th e n a c tu a te d ( " o x i­
dised ” ) w ith i m . c a u stic so d a. B y allow ing th e o x id ised p o ro u s m e m b ra n e s
t o d ry in a ir on th e tu b e s m e m b ra n e s o f d esirab le p ro p e rtie s a re o b tain ed .' T hese
m e m b ra n e s a re sm o o th , h a v e a w ell d efined sh a p e , a n d allow co n sid erab le
h a n d lin g w ith o u t b reak in g . T h is ty p e of m e m b ra n e w h e n te s te d fo r io n ic selec­
ti v it y b y th e m e a s u re m e n t o f c h a ra c te ristic c o n c e n tra tio n p o te n tia l, c o n siste n tly
gives p o te n tia ls of 54 to 55 m v ., th e m a x im u m th e rm o d y n a m ic a lly possible
v a lu e (a t 25° C .) b ein g 5 5 .1 m v . T h is h ig h deg ree of ionic se le c tiv ity is n o t lo st
o n prolo n g ed c o n ta c t w ith w a te r, a n d is o n ly v e ry slow ly affected b y e lec tro ly te
so lu tio n s. T h e a b so lu te p e rm e a b ility o f su ch m e m b ra n e s c a n b e v a rie d o v e r a
w ide ra n g e b y c h an g in g th e tim e o f a c tiv a tio n . U n d e r o p tim u m co n d itio n s
m e m b ra n e s c an be o b ta in e d w ith a re sistan c e in o . i n . p o ta ssiu m ch lo rid e so lu ­
tio n of o n ly o -5 o h m p e r 50 sq. cm . m e m b ra n e a re a . T h e a b so lu te ra te of
c a tio n ex ch an g e th ro u g h th e se m e m b ra n e s b etw e e n so lu tio n s of d iffe re n t u n i­
u n iv a le n t e le c tro ly tes is v e ry h ig h , in o n e case 0 -9 m . eq . c a tio n s p e r 4 h o u rs,
t h e a n io n le a k b ein g 0 -0 2 m . eq . T h e a b so lu te p e rm e a b ility of th e s e m e m b ran es
is th u s tw o t o fo u r o rd e rs o f m a g n itu d e g re a te r th a n th e p e rm e a b ility o f th e
d rie d collodion m e m b ra n e s a n d th e o x id ised (a c tiv a te d ) d rie d collodion m e m ­
b ra n e s u sed h e re to fo re . B ecau se o f th e c h a ra c te ris tic p ro p e rtie s o f th e s e
m e m b ra n e s, th e te rm “ m e g a p e rm s e le c tiv e ” (or “ p erm se le ctiv e ” ) co llodion
m e m b ra n e s is p ro p o sed fo r th e m .
C.
Sem i-perm eable M em branes: D ep o sitio n of M etals in th e Pore Sp aces. W .
A . M oor. Science, 1944, 100, 494-495. F o llo w in g a tte m p ts t o silv e r sh eets o f
cellulose, th e a u th o r tr ie d th e effect of s e p a ra tin g th e re a c ta n ts b y th e m e m ­
b ra n e a n d th u s o b ta in in g a d e p o sit in th e in te rio r. A silv er m irro r t h a t co u ld
b e ro lled u p w as o b ta in e d w ith a trie th a n o la m in e so lu tio n . A la v e n d e r-b ro w n
d e p o sit of c o p p e r w as m a d e b y h a v in g c o p p e r su lp h a te o n o n e side a n d a su s­
p en sio n of finely d iv id e d iro n o n the. o th e r. S ilv er h a lid es w ere d e p o site d in
th e d a rk , d rie d , ex p o sed b e h in d a n e g a tiv e a n d d ev elo p e d ; v e ry d is tin c t im ages
w ere fo rm ed w ith in th e m e m b ra n e a n d th e silver p a rtic le s w ere m u c h m o re
re g u la r in size, sh a p e a n d a rra n g e m e n t th a n in o rd in a ry p h o to g ra p h ic em ulsions.
S im ila r d ep o sits in o th e r m e m b ra n e s, in c lu d in g viscose sau sa g e sk in , w ere also
fo u n d t o b e o rd ered in d efin ite a rra n g e m e n ts, d ep e n d in g o n t h e m a te ria l. S alts
re a c tin g to g ive in so lu b le p ro d u c ts also g a v e o rd erly a rra n g e m e n ts. T h e te c h ­
n iq u e m ig h t be u sed in stu d ie s of th e p o re stru c tu re of m e m b ra n e s.
C.
L ong-ch ain P olym er S o lu tio n s: V isc o s ity ; E ffect of S o lv e n t T y p e. E liz a b e th
M. F r ith . T rans. F a ra d a y S o c ., 1945, 41, 17-27. A s e m i-q u a n tita tiv e d iscu s­
sion is g iv en of th e v isc o sity re la tio n sh ip s of p o ly m ers in v a rio u s so lv en ts.
Q u a si-th e m o d y n a m ic reaso n in g , b ase d o n m o d e rn s ta tis tic a l th e o rie s, show s how
th e slope o f th e o rd in a ry v isc o sity / c o n c e n tra tio n [((jgp /c ) —c] c u rv e is re la te d
t o th e in te ra c tio n en erg y b etw e e n so lv e n t a n d p o ly m er, a n d i t is show n howsm all differences in in te ra c tio n e n erg y a p p re c ia b ly a lte r th e slope. T h e differ­
ences a re tra c e d b a c k to slig h t k in k in g of th e lo n g m o le c u lar ch a in s in a g re e m e n t
9— Pure Science
A231
■with th e q u a lita tiv e view s of M ark. R e te n tio n of a so lv e n t effect o n th e lim it­
in g in trin sic v isco sity , [tj], a t zero c o n c e n tra tio n is d e m o n s tra te d b u t n o t p ro v ed ;
i t is in ferred t h a t m ore ex te n siv e coiling of t h e c h a in s is n ecessary th a n th e
slig h t k in k in g w h ich affects th e slope.
C.
Structural S u sp e n sio n s: V isc o sity and R ig id ity .
P . S. R o lle r a n d C. K .
S to d d a rd . / . P h y s . C h em ., 1944, 48, 410-425. T h e a u th o rs h a v e s tu d ie d th e
re la tio n b etw e e n th e v isco sity a n d rig id ity o f s tru c tu r a l su sp en sion s, w h ich
c o n sist in t h e re s tin g s ta te o f a rig id n e tw o rk of p a rtic le s enclosing th e liq u id
m ed iu m , u sin g in p a r t o rig in a l d a ta o n b e n to n ite su sp en sio n s. T h e o ccu rren ce
of s tru c tu ra l suspensions is w id e sp re a d , a n d rig id ity m a y b e p re s e n t in su sp e n ­
sions co n ta in in g less th a n o - i p e r c e n t, solids. D u rin g s tru c tu r a l v isco u s flow,
th e s tru c tu re is b ro k e n a n d th e su sp en sio n co n sists of a c o n c e n tric a lly d isp o sed
co m p o site of liq u id su sp en sio n a n d u n d eco m p o sed resid u e. T h e tr a n s itio n of a
s tru c tu ra l su sp en sio n fro m its rig id s ta te d u rin g re s t t o its b ro k e n s ta te d u rin g
v iscous flow is a n a ly s e d . I t is in d ic a te d t h a t e q u ilib riu m v a lu e s fo r th e s tru c ­
t u r a l v isco sity m a y b e closely realised . A t a sufficiently h ig h m e a n r a te o f sh ear,
t h e s t r u c tu r e . is co m p letely deco m p o sed a n d th e v isco sity , h ith e rto d ecreasin g
w ith in crease in r a te of sh ear, becom es c o n s ta n t. A t c o n s ta n t v isco sity , th e
s tru c tu r a l suspension is e q u iv a le n t t o a sim p le su sp en sio n h a v in g d is c re te
p articles. T h e a p p lic a tio n o f th e E in ste in e q u a tio n to s tru c tu r a l su p en sio n s in
th e range of c o n s ta n t v isc o sity is d iscu ssed a n d sev e ra l ex a m p le s a re g iv en ,
in cluding su sp en sio n s of a sy m m e tric p a rtic le s. A t zero r a te o f sh e a r, th e sh e a r
stress fo r a s tru c tu r a l suspen sio n is sh o w n e x p e rim e n ta lly a n d th e o re tic a lly t o b e
zero. A lth o u g h a b re a k in g s tre n g th ex ists, i t m a y b e d e te rm in e d o n ly w ith
a n g u la r d isp la c e m e n t a s v a ria b le . I t c a n n o t b e m e a su re d w ith m e a n r a te of
sh e a r as v a ria b le , a n d a n y re s u lt o b ta in e d in th is w a y is n e cessarily fictitio u s.
I t is p ro v ed t h a t a t zero r a te o f . sh e a r a sin g u la r co n d itio n d o es e x is t fo r a
s tru c tu r a l suspension w h ich is t h a t th e v isco sity is in fin ite.
T h e O stw ald -d e
W aele p o w er e q u a tio n fo r s tru c tu r a l su sp en sio n s satisfies th e n ecessary b o u n d a ry
c o n d itio n s o f zero sh e a r stre ss a n d in fin ite v isc o sity , a n d its a p p lic a tio n is
co n sid ered .
C.
V iscom eters: V ertical M o u n tin g . T o w n so n & M ercer L td . Chem istrty a n d
In d u s tr y , 1945, 39. D e ta ils a re g iv en of a m e th o d of m o u n tin g a “ V ” tu b e
v isco m eter in a fla t T u fn o l disc in su ch a w a y t h a t t h e c a p illa ry tu b e itse lf
is a t rig h t angles t o th e u n d e r su rface o f th e disc in b o th p lan es.
C.
G erm icidal E n ergy M easuring D ev ices.
A . H . T a y lo r.
G en. E lec. R e v .,
1944, 47, N o. 10, 53-55. G e rm icid al sources ra d ia te m o s t of th e ir u ltra -v io le t
energy in th e A 2537 line. T h e se p a ra tio n of th is reg io n fro m t h e A 3000 a n d
lo nger c a n b e accom plished b y ex p o sin g th e p h o to c ell o r o th e r m e a su rin g dev ice
first th ro u g h q u a rtz a n d th e n th ro u g h a th in p y re x filter. T h e p y r e x tra n s m its
th e en erg y in th e A 3000 reg io n a n d lo n g er b u t n o t t h e A 2537 en erg y , w h ereas
th e q u a rtz is tr a n s p a re n t to b o th . A zinc-silicate p h o sp h o r rece iv e r show s s a tis ­
fa c to ry selectiv ity of resp o n se. A n a tta c h m e n t fo r use w ith a G en e ra l E le c tric
L ig h t M eter fo r th e m e a s u re m e n t of g erm icid al e n erg y em p lo y s a th in film of
flu o rescen t m a te ria l b e tw e e n q u a rtz a n d glass. R a d ia n t e n erg y of A 2537 m a y
also b e m e asu red b y m e a n s of a n a rra n g e m e n t o f c o m p e n sa te d lig h t m e te r
cells w ith zinc-silicate p h o sp h o r in c o m b in a tio n w ith m ic ro a m m e te r o r g a lv a n o ­
m e te r, o r a sy stem com p risin g a c a d m iu m -m a g n esiu m a llo y p h o to tu b e a n d
am plifier. T h e sen sitiv ities o f th e s e d ev ice s a re c o m p are d . A p p a ra tu s u sed
in th e m e a su re m e n t of th e tra n sm issio n o f A 2537 e n erg y b y w a te r a n d a n a b so ­
lu te reflecto m eter fo r th e m e a s u re m e n t of th e to ta l re flec ta n c e o f v a rio u s
m a te ria ls a t A 2537 a re b rie fly d escrib ed .
C.
P hase D ifference M icroscopy. E . H . L in fo o t. N a tu re , 1945, 155, 76. A d v a n ­
ta g e s of th e ap p lic a tio n of Z e rn ik e ’s p h a se c o n tr a s t m e th o d to m icro sco p y a re
o u tlin e d . N ew possibilities in th e p re p a ra tio n of p h a se -c o n tra s t co n fig u ratio n s,
e.g. d isk s a n d s trip s , h a v e la te ly b e e n o p en ed u p b y th e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e
m o d e m te c h n iq u e of co n tro lle d e v a p o ra tio n in vacu o . B y th is process, a tr a n s ­
p a re n t la y e r c a n b e d e p o site d o n a th i n glass p la te of su ch a th ic k n e ss as to
in crease b y one q u a rte r of a w av e le n g th th e re ta rd a tio n o f y ellow lig h t p assin g
th ro u g h th e p la te . B y d ra w in g a fa irly s h a rp s ty lu s acro ss th is la y e r i t is p o s­
sible to rem o v e th e so ft c o a tin g from a n a rro w s trip o f th e g lass w ith o u t d a m a g ­
in g th e glass su rface. T h e re s u lt is a " p h a se -a d v a n c in g s trip ” w h ich c a n b e
used fo r p h a se -c o n tra s t te s tin g in th e sa m e w a y a s th e p h a se -re ta rd in g d isk s
A 232
9— Pure Science
a n d strip s p re p a re d b y B u rc h . A re la tiv e ly ea sy w ay of p ro d u c in g su ch c o a t­
in g s is to leav e th e glass p la te in a len s-b lo o m in g c h a m b e r d u rin g five o r six
c o n secu tiv e ru n s. T h is b u ild s u p a la y e r o f a p p ro x im a te ly th e d esired th ic k n ess.
C.
P hoto-electric R eflectom eter. E . G lu ck au f. / . S ci. In s tr u m e n ts , 1945, 22,
34-36. A c irc u it d esig n ed fo r m e a su rin g th e a m o u n t o f lig h t reflected fro m a
su rface in re la tio n to th e in te n s ity o f th e lig h t source m a k e s u se of th e a p p ro x i­
m a te ly lo g a rith m ic v o lta g e -c u rre n t c h a ra c te ristic of gas-filled p h o to cells. T h e
reflected a n d th e d ire c t lig h t fa ll o n se p a ra te p h o to cells, a n d a m ic ro a m m e te r
in d ic a te s d ire c tly th e ra tio of th e tw o lig h t in te n sitie s, in d e p e n d e n t of th e a b so ­
lu te v a lu e. T h e c irc u it is in d e p e n d e n t o f larg e v a ria tio n s in th e a b so lu te v a lu e
o f th e lig h t in te n s ity u sed , a n d th e ra tio of th e illu m in atio n s c a n b e v a rie d o v e r
a ra n g e fro m 0 -2 5 to 4. T h is ra n g e c a n be w id en ed b y th e use of s h u tte rs e x c lu d ­
in g p a r t of th e m o re in te n se lig h t..
C.
A co u stic Strain G au ge. R . S. J e r r e tt. ] . Sci. In s tr u m e n ts , 1945, 22, 29-34.
T h e a u th o r describes a n a c o u stic s tra in g au g e a n d its ap p lic a tio n to th e m ea su re ­
m e n t of su rfa c e stra in s p ro d u c e d b o th b y sta tic a n d d y n a m ic lo ad in g . I n th is
d ev ice t h e fre q u e n c y of v ib ra tio n 6f a s tre tc h e d w ire clam p e d to th e s tru c tu re
u n d e r o b se rv a tio n is m a tc h e d a g a in s t th e fre q u en cy of a seco n d ste e l w ire. T h e
a p p a ra tu s co n sists, in effect, of tw o sim ilar g auges. I n o n e, t h e te s t gauge, a
th i n steel w ire is m o u n te d b e tw e e n tw o knife-edges, o n e o f 'w h ic h is free t o
m o v e lo n g itu d in a lly . T h e w ire is m a in ta in e d v ib ra tin g a t its n a tu r a l freq u en cy
b y a n elec trical m e th o d a n d a n y re la tiv e m o v e m e n t b e tw e e n th e knife-edges is
a c co m p an ied b y a c h a n g e in th e p itc h of th e n o te . I n th e o th e r gau g e, th e
referen ce gauge, th e te n s io n of th e w ire m a y b e v a rie d b y a m ic ro m e te r screw h e a d a n d th e gauge is u sed as a s ta n d a rd o f referen ce. A d ju s tm e n t of th e
screw h ead w ill cause th e fre q u e n cy o f th e refęren ce w ire to a p p ro a c h t h a t o f th e
w ire in th e te s t gau g e w h en b e a ts w ill b e p ro d u c e d . W h e n stra in s p ro d u c e d b y
sta tic lo ad s a re b ein g m e a su re d a re a d in g is o b ta in e d b y re d u cin g th e b e a t
fre q u en cy to zero, w h ilst fo r c o n s ta n tly c h a n g in g stra in s a reco rd is ta k e n of th e
c h an g e in b e a t freq u e n c y . U n d e r n o rm a l c o n d itio n s s tra in s of th e o rd e r of
1 x i o r 6 ca n b e reco rd ed . T h e te s t gauge m a y b e u sed in rem o te p o sitio n s a n d
c o n tro lle d fro m a d ista n c e .
C.
A llo y s : D am p in g C ap acity; D ep en d en ce on S tress. A . G e m a n t. M echanical
E ng in eerin g , 1945, 67, 33-38. I t is p o in te d o u t t h a t d a m p in g d a ta o n alloys
c a n b e rev iew ed b y p lo ttin g th e e x p e rim e n ta lly o b ta in a b le lo g a rith m ic d ecre­
m e n t a s a fu n c tio n of stress, a n d e x a m in in g th e v a rio u s cu rv e s o b ta in e d . A n
a lte rn a tiv e p ro ced u re is su g g ested w h ich c o n sists in c o n v e rtin g th e d e c re m e n t
in to a q u a n tity called th e tr a n s ie n t flow re sista n c e a n d th e n p lo ttin g th is
q u a n tity a g a in s t th e stress. T h e b asis fo r a co n v ersio n o f th e lo g a rith m ic d ec re ­
m e n t to tr a n s ie n t flow re sista n c e is e x p lain ed a n d i t is show n t h a t th e re is a
c o rre la tio n b etw een cre ep a n d d a m p in g ,
p re e p d a ta o n steel allo y s, c o p p er
a lloys, a n d le a d a n d le a d a llo y s, a n d d a m p in g d a ta on allo y a n d c a rb o n steels
a n d co p p er, nick el a n d lig h t a llo y s a re a n aly se d . I t is sh o w n t h a t allo y s h a v in g
d a m p in g c h a ra c te ristic s of p ro n o u n c e d stress d e p en d en ce d o ex ist, a n d t h a t
su ch a c h a ra c te ristic is p a rtic u la rly p ro m o te d b y a d d itio n s of silicon a n d nickel.
C.
E lectronic M easuring D ev ic e s: A p p lica tio n .
i ł . D . M id d el.
G en. E lec.
R e v ., 1944, 47, N o. 11, 9-16. A n a c c o u n t is g iv en of th e use of elec tro n ic devices
in p H m e te rs, reco rd in g sp e c tro p h o to m e te rs, to r q u e am plifiers, a p p a ra tu s fo r
gas a n aly sis, a n d in s tru m e n ts fo r th e m e a s u re m e n t a n d c o n tro l o f p ressu re,
te m p e ra tu re , a n d flow.
C.
H ex a p lo id C otton s: C y to lo g y . N . K . Iy e n g a r . In d ia n ] . A g ric. S c i., 1944,
14, 142-151.
C hrom osom e c o n ju g a tio n h a s b een stu d ie d in fo u r h ex ap lo id s
in v o lv in g c u ltiv a te d A siatic a n d A m erican c o tto n s, tw o h e x ap lo id s in v o lv in g
w ild a n d c u ltiv a te d A m e rica n c o tto n s, a n d tw o h e x a p lo id s in v o lv in g w ild
A frican a n d c u ltiv a te d A m erican c o tto n s. C o n ju g a tio n h a s also b een stu d ie d
in th e trip lo id s fro m w h ich th e h ex ap lo id s w ere d eriv e d . T h o u g h th e trip lo id s
show ed m a rk e d v a ria tio n s in c o n ju g a tio n , th e h ex ap lo id s show ed o n ly slig h t
differences. T h e p ro g e n y b e h a v io u r of th e se v e ra l h ex a p lo id s stu d ie d show ed
t h a t g a m etes w ith 39 ch ro m o so m es seem to fu n c tio n m o st in th e p a re n t h e x a ­
ploids a n d som e of th e g a m etes h a v e th e sam e c o n stitu tio n as th e trip lo id
p ro g en ito rs. Crosses of h e x a p lo id s w ith su ita b le d ip lo id s g av e fertile te tra p lo id s
io — Econom ics
A233.
w ith 52 chrom osom es. D u rin g ineiosis, th e chrom osom es p a ire d m o stly as
b iv a le n ts. T h ese fa c ts in d ire c tly show t h a t th e c u ltiv a te d A m e ric a n c o tto n s
w ith 52 chrom osom es a re allo p o ly p lo id s h a v in g tw o sets of A sia tic a n d tw o sets
of w ild A m erican chrom osom es.
C.
C ellulose-decom posing B acteria: A c tiv ity . C. E . S k in n e r a n d E . M. M ellem .
E cology, 1944, 25, 360-365 (th ro u g h E x p . S ta . R e c ., 1945, 92, 20). O n a d d in g
finely d iv id ed filter p a p e r to a cid soils, 60 p e r c e n t, s a tu ra te d w ith w a te r, w ith
of w ith o u t n itra te s , no ev id en ce w as fo u n d of th e a c tiv ity o f cellulose-decom ­
posing b a c te ria , a lth o u g h m o u ld g ro w th in creased g re a tly .
I n soils w ith a n
in itia l p H a b o v e 5 -0 , b o th m o u ld y a n d cellulose-decom posing b a c te ria show ed
a sig n ifican t increase. T h e co n clu sio n o f D u b o s t h a t b o th aero b ic b a c te ria
a n d m oulds ta k e p a r t in th e d e co m p o sitio n of cellulose in n o n -s a tu ra te d soils,
unless th e y a re d is tin c tly acid , is sh o w n to be c o rre c t.
C.
L y sin e: D eterm in ation in P rotein H y d ro ly sa tes. M. S . D u n n , M. N . C a m ie ti,
S. S h a n k m a n , W . F r a n k i a n d L.- B . R o ck la n d . / . B io l. C h em ., 1944, 156,
715-724.
A m icrobiological m e th o d is d escrib ed fo r th e d e te rm in a tio n o f
Z( + )-lysine in p ro te in h y d ro ly sa te s w ith L eu con osto c m esenteroides P -60.
R e su lts o b ta in e d w ith casein a n d silk fibroin h y d ro ly sa te s a n d m ix tu re s o f
am in o a cid s a re p re se n te d a n d co m p a re d w ith re su lts of ly sin e d e te rm in a tio n s
b y o th e r m e th o d s. T h e d a ta in d ic a te t h a t casein a n d silk fib ro in c o n ta in 8 -3
a n d o -6 p e r c e n t., resp ectiv ely , of ly sin e.
C.
C ellu losic M aterials: Q u an titative Saccharification. J. F . S a e in a n , J a n e t L .
B u b l a n d E . E . H a rris. In d . E n g . C h em ., A n a l. E d n ., 1945, 17, 35-37. A
ra p id a n a ly tic a l te c h n iq u e fo r th e h y d ro ly sis of cellulosic m a te ria ls to re d u c in g
su g a r in n e a rly q u a n tita tiv e yields in v o lv es tr e a tm e n t of th e m a te ria l w ith 72
pe<r c e n t, su lp h u ric acid for 45 m in . a t 30° C. follow ed, a fte r d ilu tio n o f th e
acid , b y a seco n d a ry h y d ro ly sis fo r 1 h o u r in a 15 -p o u n d a u to c la v e o r fo r 4 !
>h o u rs a t th e bo ilin g p o in t. D a ta a re p re se n te d to show how th e y ield o f
red u cin g su g a r v aries w ith th e co n d itio n s u sed . A ta b le show s th e “ p o te n tia l
re d u cin g su g ar ” c o n te n t of 15 species of w ood a n d th e v a ria tio n o c c u rrin g
w ith in a species.
.
'
C.
D extran : E lectron-m icroscopic S tu d y .
B. In g e lm a n a n d K . S ie g b a lm .
A rk iv ite m i, M in., G eol., 1944, 18 B , N o. 1, 6 pp< (th ro u g h B r it. C hem .
P h ysio l. A b s tr .,' 1944, A I , 271). A d ilu te d e x tr a n so lu tio n d rie d o n “ Z ap o n ”
lac foil show s a b ra n c h e d th re a d -lik e s tru c tu re w ith m a g n ific a tio n 65,000
d ia m e te rs. T h e th re a d s h a v e a m in im u m th ic k n e ss of 30-100 A ., w ith sw ellings
a t in te rv a ls o f a p p ro x im a te ly 800 A . T h e o b serv ed th ic k n e ss is o f th e o rd e r
e x p ected fo r th e p o ly sacc h arid e c h ain s.
C.
T all O il: C om position an d U ses.
R . H . M cK ee.
P ap er Trade ] . , 1945,
120, T A P P I , 35-36. R e c e n t d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e refin in g o f ta ll oil a re b rie fly
discussed a n d th e d e m a n d fo r a h ig h e r degree of refining, a n d p a rtic u la rly for
fra c tio n a l se p a ra tio n of th e f a t ty a cid s fro m th e resin acid s, is m e n tio n e d .
R e q u ire m e n ts of th e so ap , v a rn ish , p a in t, te x tile , s y n th e tic resin a n d o th e r
in d u stries a re review ed. T h e f a t t y a cid s of ta ll oil co m p rise 75 p e r c e n t,
linoleic, 6 p e r c e n t, linolen ic a n d 19 p e r c e n t, oleic ac id . S te e le’s a b ie tic acid
form s 60-90 p er c e n t, of th e resin ac id s, a n d th e n o n -acid p o rtio n c o n ta in s
2 : 2 -dihydrostigm asterol a n d lig n o cery l alcohol.
C.
10—ECONOMICS
C otton: W orld S u p p ly and C on su m p tion , 1920-1944. R ayon Organon, 1944,
15, 172-175. T ab les give th e c a rry -o v e r a n d c o n su m p tio n in th e U n ite d S ta te s
a n d ' ‘ o th e r co u n tries ’ ’ a n d th e w orld p ro d u c tio n fo r ‘ ‘ a ll c o tto n ’ ’ a n d for
A m erican co tto n , from 1920-1944. T h e tre n d s a re d iscussed. T h e la te s t figures
for a co m p lete y e a r (1943) a re : T o ta l w orld su p p ly of all c o tto n 49,710,000
b ales; to t a l w o rld co n su m p tio n 23,778,000 b ales; w o rld su p p ly o f A m erican
c o tto n 22,529,000 b ales; c o n su m p tio n 11,078,000 b ales.
( C.
C otton P iece G oods: P roduction in th e U n ited S ta tes, 1943. R a y o n Organon,
1944, 15, 74-76. A d e ta ile d , ta b u la r a n aly sis is g iv en of th e y a rd a g e o f v a rio u s
piece goods (m ore th a n 12 in ch e s w id e b u t e x clu d in g ty r e fab ric) p ro d u c e d in
th e U n ite d S ta te s, q u a rte r b y q u a rte r fo r 1943. T h e to ta ls , in th o u s a n d s o f y a rd s
a re : D u ck 578,655, n a rro w sh e etin g s 2,888,443, p rin te rs 3,288,968, n a p p e d c lo th s
447,177, co lo u red -y arn clo th s 699,406, fine co m b ed a n d c a rd e d fab rics 1,322,012,
A234
io — Economics
tow els, e tc ., 416,695, w ide sh e e tin g s a n d d rills 584,600, sp e cia litie s (pile fab rics,
fu rn ish in g s, etc .) 388,260; g ra n d to ta l, 10,614,216 th o u s a n d y a rd s . I n a d d itio n ,
184,678 th o u s a n d lb. of c o tto n ty r e fa b ric w as p ro d u c e d .
C.
D y e In d u stry: R elation to N a tio n a l S ecu rity . J. E w in g . J . Soc. D y ers &•
C ol., 1945, 61, 3-8. T h e d e v e lo p m e n t of th e B ritis h d y e in d u s try sin ce 1914 is
rev iew ed a n d its im p o rta n c e fo r n a tio n a l se c u rity is p o in te d o u t. T h e m e th o d s
em p lo y ed b y G e rm a n y to d o m in a te th e econom ic life of E u ro p e a re d escrib ed .
T h e ra m ificatio n s of th e I.G . F a rb e n in d u s trie A .-G . in th e U n ite d S ta te s are
d iscu ssed a n d ex am p les a re q u o te d sho w in g how c a rte l a c tiv itie s b e tw e e n th e tw o
w a rs c o n trib u te d t o a re -a rm e d a n d aggressive G e rm a n y a n d t o th e w eak en in g
o f S ta te s w h ich w ere lik ely to op p o se G e rm a n y ’s n a tio n a l p olicy. T h e ex am p le
o f th e S terlin g P ro d u c ts Co. (U .S .A .) is g iv en to show how th e I .G ., a fte r th e
firs t w orld w a r, c irc u m v e n te d p re c a u tio n s d esigned t o p re v e n t th e m fro m reg a in ­
in g th e ir w o rld -d o m in a tin g p o sitio n , a n d i t is p o in te d o u t t h a t th e I.G . co m ­
m e rc ia l a c tiv itie s w ere q u ite se c o n d a ry t o th e ir -p rim ary fu n c tio n a s t h e in s tru m e n t
o f G erm an G o v e rn m e n t p o licy .
R e stric tio n of th e c a p a c ity o f G e rm a n y ’s
c h e m ic a l a n d d y e m a n u fa c tu re to h e r ow n d o m e stic re q u ire m e n ts fo r a long
p erio d a fte r th e w a r is re c o m m en d ed . T h e n e e d s of th e B ritis h te x tile in d u s try ,
th e c a p a b ility of th e B ritis h d y e in d u s try to m e e t th o se n eed s, a n d pro b lem s
o f p rice a re discussed.
C.
H o sie r y : P roduction in the U n ited S ta tes, 1943.
N a tio n a l A sso c ia tio n of
H o siery M an u fa c tu re rs. R a y o n O rganon, 1944, 15, 62-63. A ta b le a n aly ses th e
p ro d u c tio n of h o siery fo r 1942 a n d 1943.
I n m a n y classes th e figures a re
e n tire ly d ifferen t, chiefly b ecau se of th e a lm o st c o m p le te a b sen ce of silk a n d
n y lo n in 1943. T h e to ta l fo r 1943 w as 149,281,974 d ozen p a irs.
C.
P n eu m a tic T y res: P roduction in th e U n ited S ta tes. R a y o n O rganon, 1944,
15, 57-61. T h e A m erican p ro g ra m m e for m e e tin g th e ru b b e r a n d fa b ric re q u ire ­
m e n ts in ty re s is su m m a rise d w ith th e h e lp o f: (1) A m a p show ing th e lo c a­
tio n of p la n t fo r p ro d u c in g ru b b e rs o f th e b u ta d ie n e , sty re n e , co p o ly m er, b u ty l
a n d N eoprene ty p e s , ^2) d ia g ra m s of ty r e cross-sections giv in g th e w eig h ts of
th e ru b b e r, fa b ric a n d o th e r c o m p o n e n ts, a n d (3) h isto g ram s to show th e p ro ­
je c te d q u a rte rly co n su m p tio n of ru b b e rs a n d of ra y o n a n d c o tto n cords from
M arch, 1944. I t is sa id t h a t th e n eed fo r u sin g th e a rtific ia l B u n a S ru b b e r in
th e larg e ty re s re q u ire d for in te r-c ity b u sses a n d lo rries d e m a n d s th e em p lo y ­
m e n t of ra y o n co rd b e cau se of th e h e a t effect.
C.
T e x tile F ib res: C on su m p tion in th e U n ited S ta tes, 1923-1943.
R ayon
O rganon, 1944, 15, 131-133. T h e m o n th ly c o n su m p tio n figures o f c o tto n , wool,
ra y o n filam en t, ra y o n s ta p le a n d silk a re p lo tte d on a larg e c h a rt from 1923
(m id-1936 fo r ra y o n sta p le ) to m id -1944 (1941 fo r silk).
C.
T e x tile In v en tio n s: P a ten tin g . W . A . S ilv e ste r. J . T e x tile I n s t., 1945, 36,
P 1- 5 C.
T e x tile W h olesale P rices, 1944. B d . T rade J ., 1945, 151, 25-27. T a b le s a re
g iv en show ing th e m o v e m e n t of w holesale prices from D ecem b er, 1943, to
D ecem ber, 1944, in v a rio u s g ro u p s of c o m m o d ities, a n d th e ch a n g e s in th e
in d iv id u a l groups a re d iscu ssed . T h e figures show a n a d v a n ce o f 17-2 p e r c e n t,
in th e c o tto n in d e x w h ich w as e ssen tia lly th e re s u lt of a n in crease o f 4 jd . p er
lb . on 17th A p ril in th e issue p ric e o f ra w c o tto n to sp in n ers, th e p erce n ta g e
rise b e in g 58 p e r c e n t, fo r A m erican a n d 43 p e r ce n t, fo r E g y p tia n . T h is w as
refle c te d in d e a re r y a rn p rices, w h ich h a d also sh o w n a sm a ll rise in J a n u a r y as
a re s u lt o f ch an g es m a d e o n 22nd D ecem b er, 1943; th ese tw o fa c to rs com bined
t o give increases o n th e y e a r fo r th o se y a rn s used in th e in d e x ra n g in g from
21 to 31 p e r c e n t., A m erican y a rn s risin g m o re th a h E g y p tia n . A sy ste m of
re b a te s w as in tro d u c e d t o p re v e n t th e p rices o f u tility c lo th s fro m risin g as a
re s u lt of increases in w ages a n d m a te ria l co sts, b u t a n in crease o f 22 p e r c e n t,
w as reco rd ed fo r in d u s tria l c a n v a s. T h e re w ere few ch a n g e s o f n o te in th e
in d e x fo r th e w ool g ro u p , w h ich rose b y b a re ly 1 p e r c e n t, d u rin g 1944. An
in crease of 2 -2 p e r c e n t, in th e “ o th e r te x tile s ” g ro u p w as la rg e ly th e re su lt
o f a rise of i8g p e r c e n t, in th e p ric e o f sisal. R aw ju te ro se b y ą \: p e r c e n t.,
b u t th e p rice of a e ro w arp lin e n y a m fell b y o v e r 4 p e r c e n t, o n th e y ear.
C.
U n ite d S ta tes R ayon P roducers. R a y o n O rganon, 1944, 15, 90, 91, 93. A lis t
is g iven of th e p ro d u c e rs of ra y o n in th e U n ite d S ta te s, w ith th e lo c atio n of
i \— Industrial Welfare, Industrial Psychology and Education
A235
th e ir a d m in is tra tiv e and sales offices a n d p la n t a n d th e tr a d e n am es of th e ir
ch ief p ro d u c ts. A m ap is also p ro v id e d to show th e lo ca tio n of th e facto ries. C.
Cotton Trade: C om petition. S ir E . R a y m o n d S tr e a t. T e x tile M ercu ry &■
A rgus, 1945, 112, 281-285. A re p o rt of a n ad d re ss o n th e w ay. c o m p e titio n affects
th e c o tto n tr a d e in resp ec t to (1) riv a lry b e tw e e n c o tto n -g ro w in g co u n trie s,
(2) a lte rn a tiv e use of c o tto n a n d (a) o th e r n a tu r a l fibres, (b) ra y o n , o r (c) n o n ­
te x tile m a te ria ls, (3) in te rn a tio n a l riv a lry , a n d (4) riv a lry b e tw een firm s w ith in
a n a tio n a l in d u s try .
C.
M ill C ou n tin g H ouse E q uipm ent. H . M . B ro a d le y . T e x tile M a n u fa ctu rer,
1945, 71, 35-36. Illu stra tio n s are g iven of (1) a p a y -ro ll, (2) a te ar-o ff ad v ice
slip, (3) a h is to ry c a rd show ing earn in g s, efficiency ra tin g , p a y -a s-y o u -e arn
item s an d h o lid a y p a y , a n d (4) a w age en v elo p e giv in g gross w ages a n d d e d u c ­
tions, w hich, w ith a n ad d ressin g m ach in e a n d s u ita b le filing a p p a ra tu s a re
designed to “ m ech an ise ” w age ac co u n tin g .
C.
T ex tile M ach inery: D ep reciation A ccou n tan cy.
S. H . W ith e y .
T e x tile
W eekly, 1943, 32, 706-8, 746-7; S ilk a n d R a y o n , 1943, 17. 792-4, 860-2; 1944,
18. 45-7, 203-6, 325-6, 449, 664^6, 879-880. T h e w rite r e x p lain s a sy ste m of
b ook-keeping for costing th e m a c h in e ry d e p re c ia tio n a n d m a in te n a n c e in a
m ill.
C.
11—INDUSTRIAL WELFARE, INDU STRIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND
EDUCATION
S ilk O peratives: T rain in g .
M acclesfield T e x tile C lasses A d v iso ry P a n e l.
S ilk and R a y o n , 1945, 19, 326, 335. A n a c c o u n t is g iv en of ste p s ta k e n b y
em ployers a n d w orkers in th e M acclesfield d is tric t to re -e sta b lish te x tile classes
a t th e T ech n ical School a n d S chool of A rt. A n a d v iso ry p a n e l h a s b een s e t
u p a n d th e ir re c o m m en d a tio n s a re re co rd ed .
C.
A m erican E conom ic T e x tile R esearch Project.
A. M. M c lsaa c .
T e x tile
R esearch, 1944, 14, 405-408. A n a c c o u n t is g iv en o f th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e
econom ic research p ro je c t of th e U .S . T e x tile R e sea rc h In s titu te . T h e p ro je c t
involves a p re lim in a ry su rv e y of th e p re s e n t p o sitio n a n d p ro b le m s o f th e
te x tile in d u s try , stu d ie s o f special p ro b lem s, a n d th e p re p a ra tio n of a final
su m m arizin g a n d in te g ra tin g re p o rt. T h e su b je c ts liste d fo r d e ta ile d s tu d y
in clude th e d e m a n d for te x tile s, foreign te x tile in d u strie s a n d m a rk e ts, to p ics
b earin g on th e c o st co n d itio n s a ffectin g te x tile p ro d u c tio n , a n d p ro b le m s of
in d u s tria l o rg an izatio n , m a rk e tin g a n d d is trib u tio n .
C.
A m erican F u ndam ental T e x tile R esearch P rogram m e. H . E y rin g . T e x tile
R esearch, 1944, 14, 396-399. In th is a c c o u n t of th e fu n d a m e n ta l research p r o ­
gram m e of th e U .S . T e x tile F o u n d a tio n a n d T e x tile R ese a rc h I n s titu te th e
a u th o r in d ic a te s th e c o m p le x ity of th e p ro b lem s to b e stu d ie d a n d discusses
b riefly th e w o rk being c a rrie d o u t on th e d e fo rm a tio n of fibres a n d th e re la x a ­
tio n of stress a t c o n s ta n t s tra in o f n a tu r a l cellulosic fibres, a n d p la n s for th e
stu d y of th e effect of ch em ical tr e a tm e n t 011 n a tu r a l a n d a rtific ia l fibres, th e
m ech a n ism of d yeing, th e c o n s titu tio n o f d y e s, p o ly m e r le n g th d is trib u tio n in
a rtificial fibres, a n d th e m e th o d s a n d m ech a n ism s of w a te r-, fire- a n d ro tproofing.
C.
E xp erim en tal R esearch: O rgan isation . W . G. R a d le y . E n g in eerin g , 1944,
158, 416-7, 445, 485. A re p o rt o f a n ad d re ss to th e M easu rem en ts S ectio n of
th e In s titu tio n of E le c tric a l E n g in e ers, co n c lu d in g w ith referen ces to s ta tis tic a l
p roblem s in h e re n t in “ q u a lity c o n tr o l.”
' C.
Industrial R esearch: O rgan isation in S w ed en . E . V ela n d er. E n g in eerin g ,
1945, 159, 141-143.
A n a c c o u n t is g iven of th e o rg a n isa tio n of in d u s tria l
research in Sw eden w ith th e R o y a l I n s titu te fo r E n g in e e rin g R e se a rc h (the
Ingeniors V e te n sk a p A k ad em ie n = I.V .A .) as n e rv e c e n tre a n d th e T ech n ica l
R esearch O rg an isatio n ( = F .B .O .) as in fo rm a l c o n su lta tiv e c o m m itte e . E s ta b ­
lish m en ts a re m e n tio n e d , in c lu d in g a T e x tile R e se a rc h I n s titu te a t G o teb o rg ,
w hich w ill be e q u ip p ed w ith th e a p p a ra tu s d ev elo p e d b y S v ed b erg a n d
T iselius fo r th e s tu d y of larg e m olecules.
D ia g ra m s ex p la in th e in te rn a l
o fganisation o f th e I.V .A ., a re search c e n tre a tta c h e d to th e I.V .A ., th e
I.V .A .’s ow n research in s titu te s a n d w ork g ro u p s, a n d th e F .B .O .
C.
A236
11— Industrial Welfare, Industrial Psychology and Education
T e x tile In d u stry: P rosp ects.
G . J . E sse le n .
T e x tile R esearch, 1944, 14,
410-413. T h e effect of th e w a r on th e te x tile in d u s try , p ro b a b le fu tu re co m ­
p e titio n from p a p e r a n d p la stic p ro d u c ts, a n d o p p o rtu n itie s for new d ev elo p ­
m e n ts in fab rics for la m in a tin g p u rp o se s, in th e p ro d u c tio n of finished w ebs
w ith o u t th e use of e la b o ra te w eav in g m a c h in e ry , a n d in new su rface coatings
a re discussed. I t is p o in te d o u t t h a t i t is to th e a p p lic a tio n of c h em istry th a t
th e te x tile in d u s try c a n p ro b a b ly lo o k fo r th e g re a te s t im p ro v e m e n t in th e
n e x t 10 o r 20 y ears, a n d referen ce is m a d e to th e c h lo rin a tio n of w ool, th e
tr e a tm e n t o f ra y o n pale fab rics w ith fo rm a ld e h y d e to p re v e n t cru sh in g , th e
use of p lastics in th e p ro d u c tio n of b o n d ed -fib re w ebs a n d in th e p ro d u c tio n
of w a te rp ro o f a n d c re a s e -re sista n t m a te ria ls, a n d v a rio u s ch e m ic al tre a tm e n ts
fo r m a k in g fabrics re s is ta n t to fire, w a te r, in sects, m ildew , e tc.
T he
a d v a n ta g e s t h a t c a n b e d eriv ed fro m th e a p p lic a tio n o f s ta tis tic a l an aly sis are
in d ic a te d . I t is su g g ested t h a t in d u s try is o n th e th re sh o ld of m a n y new
d ev e lo p m e n ts w hich , if p ro p e rly receiv ed a n d u tilized , sh o u ld re s u lt in th e
renaissan ce o f th e te x tile in d u s try . T h e im p o rta n c e o f re se a rc h is em p h asized ,
a n d th e su p p o rt of c o -o p era tiv e research , th e e sta b lish m e n t of research an d
d e v e lo p m e n t divisio n s in in d iv id u a l m ills o r g ro u p s o f m ills, a n d th e use of
c o n su ltin g o rg an izatio n s a re u rg ed .
C.
T e x tile O p eratives: “ Work S im p lific a tio n ” S tu d ies.
C. W . B endigo.
T e x tile W o rld , 1944, 94, N o. 12, 77-80. A n a c c o u n t is g iven of “ w o rk sim p li­
fication ” in v e stig a tio n s in tro d u c e d b y A. H . M ogensen in a n u m b e r of te x tile
facto ries in th e U n ite d S ta te s. A b asic id e a is to in d u ce th e w orkers th em selv es
to in q u ire c ritically in to th e “ w h y ,” “ w h a t,” “ w h e re ,” “ w h en ” a n d “ w ho ”
a sp e c ts of th e ir jo b s a n d th e n t o a sk “ how ” b e s t c a n th e jo b b e p erfo rm ed .
E x a m p le s a re g iven of a “ flow process c h a rt ” u sed fo r ta b u la tin g n o te s m ade
in a c lo th fo lding in q u iry , a n d also of a " s ta n d a rd s m o tio n c h a r t ” u sed in a
s tu d y of cone w indin g . T h e “ th e rb lig ” sy m b o ls (d eriv ed from re v e rsin g th e
n a m e G ilb reth ) a re em p lo y ed . E m p h a sis is also p lace d o n th e “ m a k e re a d y ”
a n d “ p u t a w a y ” p h a se s of th e jo b a s w ell as o n th e " d o ” p h a se , since i t is
in th e se neg lected p h a ses t h a t la b o u r sa v in g is o fte n possible.
G re a t use is
m a d e of m o tio n p ic tu re s. I t is claim ed t h a t m o n ey a n d p rid e a re th e im p o rta n t
th in g s fo r w hich p eo p le w o rk a n d t h a t in m a n y facto ries th e m o s t p o w erfu l in c e n ­
tiv e t o m a k in g su g g estio n s fo r im p ro v e m e n t is th e p rid e of seeing a n id ea
tra n s la te d t o th e cin em a screen.
C.
C otton M ill L abour-saving D ev ices.
0 . G la e ss n e r.
T e x tile W e e k ly , 1945,
35, 582-6, 686-8.
A re p o r t of a le c tu re a n d discussion u n d e r th e h ead in g s
(a) red u c in g th e h u m a n effo rt re q u ire d to p e rfo rm d u tie s in th e sp in n in g m ill,
(b) re p la c e m e n t o f h u m a n effort b y s te a m o r elec trical pow er, a n d (e) an a ly sin g
th e a p p lic a tio n of ste a m p o w er in th e form of m ech a n ic al o r elec tric a l m o tiv e
en erg y .
C.
C otton O p eratives: E m p lo y m en t P o licy . J. S. H a y d o e k .
T e x tile W e e k ly ,
1945, 35, 394-6, 442-6, 456. A re p o rt of a le c tu re o n th e in tro d u c tio n a n d
tr a in in g of new w orkers a n d th e s ta tu s a n d tra in in g o f m ill officials as m ain
asp e c ts of th e em p lo y m e n t p o licy of th e B ritish c o tto n in d u s try . A discussion
is a p p e n d e d .
C.
S afety G lo v es: S p ecification s. S . ,T. O w en , Jr. In d u s tr ia l S ta n d a rd iza tio n ,
1944, 15. 221-223. A discussion of p ro te c tiv e c lo th in g re q u ire m e n ts a n d th e
sta n d a rd s for w eld ers’ le a th e r g a u n tle t gloves, ste e l-sta p le d le a th e r gloves,
asb esto s gloves, le a th e r-re in fo rc ed asb esto s gloves, a sb e sto s m itte n s, an d
le a th e r-rein fo rced a sb esto s m itte n s issued b y th e A m erican S ta n d a rd s
A sso ciation.
C.