Theodore Roosevelt: His Fight for Masculinity
Kelsey Brey
History 300KK: America’s Small Wars
April 17, 2015
Abstract
This paper argues that Theodore Roosevelt, a Rough Rider in the Spanish-American War
and a leading figure in the Progressive Era, believed that all men in the United States, including
himself, should exemplify three core masculine ideals, hard work, strong character, and honor in
both the public and private spheres that can be seen through his writings and speeches. Roosevelt
arrived at his three masculine ideals by observing the time and place that he was living in.
Gender norms had been upheld in the United States since its founding. Women and men lived
and belonged in separate spheres. Women belonged in the home and men belonged in the
occupational sphere. As women began exiting the home around 1880, men began to feel as if
they were losing their masculinity. Theodore Roosevelt helped them restore it through masculine
standards that he set forth for not only himself, but others which can be seen in his writings and
speeches. Using selected letters and speeches by Roosevelt, the paper begins by focusing on the
time period in question and then transitions into his role in the Spanish-American War. The
paper mentions the three masculine ideals throughout with a greater analytical emphasis on the
three at the end of the paper.
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Theodore Roosevelt said, “Never throughout history has a man who lived a life of ease
left a name worth remembering.”1 Roosevelt believed that to make something of himself, he
needed to work hard for what he wanted and show others the obstacles he faced while achieving
his goals. Proving one’s masculinity was not a new idea for Americans during Roosevelt’s time.
Gender ideals have consistently played a huge role in the formation of both men and women in
both the public and private spheres in the United States since its foundation. During the first half
of the nineteenth century, women were expected to remain in the home, cook, clean, and take
care of the children while the men were expected to provide for their families. After the Civil
War which ended in 1865, a shift in gender norms was seen. Women began exiting the home to
find independence and a life outside of the home, and men had to redefine themselves
accordingly in how to prove their masculinity. One person who helped men redefine their
masculinity in the 1890s and beyond was Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt, a Rough Rider in the
Spanish-American War and a leading figure in the Progressive Era, believed that all white,
middle class men in the United States including himself, should exemplify three core masculine
ideals including hard work, strong character, and honor in both the public and private spheres
that can be seen through his speeches and writings.
Since its foundation, the United States has placed great value in maintaining gender
norms. Americans believed that men and women belonged in separate spheres. The common
ideology of the time was that women belonged in the home where she was to cook, clean, and
take care of the children. Men belonged outside of the home where he was supposed to provide
for their families. As the United States transitioned out of the Revolutionary period and into the
“Theodore Roosevelt Quotes,” Goodreads, http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/133593never-throughout-history-has-a-man-who-lived-a-life.
1
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nineteenth century, those mentioned gender norms stayed consistent. From 1800 to 1865, the
United States was in numerous wars. One way for a man to provide for his family was going into
the military. It was a way to provide for their families as well as perform their patriotic duty for
their country. If a man decided to become a soldier, he would be able to assert his masculinity
through enduring the tough climate, war, and battles. However, not all men were soldiers during
this time. Many lived on farms and performed manual labor every day. These men worked out in
the environment and were able to provide a living for their families that way. Because they were
not soldiers, they were expected to be self-made men who were family-oriented.2 Paternalism
was a way in which a man could prove his masculinity during the early nineteenth century. This
early nineteenth century gender ideology would see a switch after the Civil War ended in 1865.
As the United States came out of the Civil War era, men struggled to reinvent themselves
and their masculine image. There was no sign of another war anytime soon after the Civil War
and some men struggled with this because for years, they identified themselves as a soldier and
that allowed them to prove their masculinity to themselves and to others. But for these men the
question then became, “How am I supposed to be a man without being a soldier?” Around 1880,
the United States had entered a period known today as the Gilded Age. In simple terms, the
Gilded Age was a period of economic growth for the United States. The country did very well
for itself and many men decided that they could be “masculine men” in the business sector. Men
were competing with each other in the business world to turn the most profit and in turn, provide
for their families. A man now needed to have passion and “a certain absence of restraint” that
2
Sarah Watts, Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of
Desire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 29.
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allowed men to fight for what they wanted.3 However, he also needed to prove that he was
patient and able to have self-control and that he could make something of himself on his own.4
The hard work mentality took over. This mentality also trickled down to boyhood. Boys, as they
grew up watched their fathers and were supposed to learn the values that were being passed
down.5 In the post-Civil War era, there was a masculinity transformation that happened across
the United States; however, there were distinct regional differences that also occurred between
northern and southern men.
The North and the South had varying opinions as to what it meant to be a man. Although
both regions acknowledged the characteristics of self-control and patience, many people in the
North believed that marital status should not play a role in a man’s masculinity.6 Many men were
married; however, the percentage of men who were not would form fraternal organizations
where they would come together and discuss various vices, such as gambling and prostitution,
and how to determine their own masculinity. One way in which they could be masculine was by
becoming a self-made man who wanted to advance his self-interest. Thus, great value was placed
in productivity and efficiency.7 On the other hand, people in the South placed greater emphasis
on the patriarchy. Paternalism was a common masculine ideal that was held during the
nineteenth century. The man was deemed the head of the household thus giving him complete
3
Watts, Rough Rider in the White House, 29.
Bryan C. Rindfleisch, “’What It Means to Be A Man’: Contested Masculinity in the
Early Republic and Antebellum America,” History Compass 10, no. 11 (2012): 853.
4
5
Watts, Rough Rider in the White House, 30.
6
Rindfleisch, “’What It Means to Be A Man,’ 853.
7
Ibid., 854.
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ability to make decisions for his wife and children. In the South, it was believed that the
patriarchy embodied both society and manhood which meant that a “true man” was a good father
and husband which would also benefit society as a whole.8 These regional decisions helped men
begin the process of reinventing their masculinity; however, Theodore Roosevelt in the 1890s
would provide them with a clear method of becoming a “true, masculine man.”
Between 1890 and 1920, the United States entered a period known today as the
Progressive Era. The Progressive Era was a nation-wide movement that moved towards reform.
There were varying degrees of Progressives. They ranged from moderate to radical; however,
they were all “reformers and supporters of reform who undertook a multiplicity of efforts to
alleviate dysfunction, or the corruption, or the economic injustice, or the human suffering.”9 One
area of reform was gender. Arnaldo Testi in “The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore
Roosevelt and the Culture of Masculinity” states that gender criteria and discourse “marked the
outline of the democratic political universe in the United States in the last three-quarters of the
nineteenth century.”10 As stated previously, for decades women and men lived in separate
spheres. Women belonged in the home where they would cook, clean, and take care of the
children. Men belonged outside of the home where they would provide for their families.
However, during the Progressive Era, women began leaving the home causing men to feel like
their masculinity was being jeopardized once again (first time being after the Civil War). Women
began forming groups where they could talk about the problems they were encountering and
8
Rindfleisch, “’What It Means to Be A Man,’ 858.
9
Faith Jaycox, The Progressive Era: An Eyewitness History (New York: Facts on File,
Inc., 2005), viii.
Arnaldo Testi, “The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the Culture of
Masculinity,” Journal of American History 81, no. 4 (1995): 1510.
10
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experiencing and at times take actions.11 These groups ranged from suffragists to temperance
workers to the 20 percent of women who fought for equal pay working outside of the home.12
Some women decided to become employed as secretaries and clerks, but it was rare for a woman
to move into managerial positions as they were restricted by men.13 As women exited the home,
men decided that they had to redefine themselves. Previously they had prided themselves and
defined their masculinity on being able to work outside the home and support their family. Many
owned farms or small business where they could turn a profit from their work and support their
wives and children.14 They were breadwinners who had most of the say when it came to
financial, political, and social decisions. When women stepped out of the home, men were still
working outside of the home; however, this was not a way in which they could solely prove their
masculinity anymore. Many men would try participating in violent sports such as bodybuilding.15
There was a push towards aggressiveness to compensate for the loss of masculinity many were
feeling. During the 1890s, Theodore Roosevelt and his actions during and after the SpanishAmerican War would help men prove their masculinity.
In the 1890s, expansionism was thriving. Many people recognized that the United States
had expanded all of the way to the Pacific Ocean and many wanted to transition out of an
isolationist country to an imperial one. For the majority of the nineteenth century, Americans
11
Jaycox, The Progressive Era, 27.
12
Ibid., 28-30.
Robyn Muncy, “Trustbusting and White Manhood in America, 1898-1914,” American
Studies 38, no. 3 (1997): 30. These women were mostly young and single women who wanted to
assert some of their independence. However, it showed that even the idea of a woman in the
workforce was thought to jeopardize a man’s masculinity.
13
14
Ibid., 24.
15
Watts, Rough Rider in the White House, 7.
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believed that it was their destiny to expand across the continent. When they could no longer
expand westward, they began looking elsewhere. Several times during the decade, the country
teetered on the brink of war with Spain.16 Around 1897 when war seemed imminent, Americans
were divided on whether or not they should go to war with Spain. Gender played a role in the
decision making process. Men and women were divided into two categories: the jingoists and the
arbitrationists. Jingoists were committed to martial political ideals and as such put great
emphasis on physical power, i.e. war.17 Arbitrationists, on the other hand, promoted peace and
were apt to favor negotiation.18 Arbitrationists were seen as feminine because they wanted to
discuss peace instead of going out and fighting for their country. Jingoists were masculine
because they were championing war and the ideals that war upheld, such as honor, bravery,
courage, and strength. One such jingoist was Theodore Roosevelt.
As war seemed to be imminent, William McKinley, president of the United States, tried
to arbitrate with Spain in relation to the crisis in Cuba. However, this tactic did not work and
respect for McKinley began to wane because people began to question if he was a “true man” or
not. The United States had a battleship that was docked in the harbor of Havana, Cuba. On
February 15, 1898, the USS Maine exploded killing 260 people on board.19 The circumstances
surrounding the explosion were unclear. For years, the United States watched as Cuba struggled
16
Jaycox, The Progressive Era, 77.
17
Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked
the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1998), 15.
18
19
Ibid., 16.
Colonel Red Reeder, The Story of the Spanish-American War (New York: Meredith
Press, 1966), 16.
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to win its independence from Spain. As war was contemplated, one of the issues was whether the
United States should help the Cubans.20 The discussions took a drastic turn after the explosion of
the Maine. Overnight, headlines such as “MAINE HAS BEEN BLOWN UP! HUNDREDS OF
SAILORS KILLED!” spurred the patriotic and masculine mentality of Americans across the
nation.21 Men rushed to enlist to help the Cubans fight the Spaniards. One of those men was
Roosevelt.
Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858 in New York City to Theodore Roosevelt and
Martha Bulloch.22 He was of European heritage, but his family spanned generations back to the
founding of the United States.23 Because of this ancestry, he saw himself as the embodiment of
the “true American man.” Roosevelt idolized his father because Roosevelt believed that his
father embodied all of the characteristics of a man that the younger Roosevelt hoped to achieve.24
In his autobiography, Roosevelt wrote, “He [his father] combined strength and courage with
gentleness, tenderness, and great unselfishness. He would not tolerate in us children selfishness
or cruelty, idleness, cowardice, or untruthfulness.”25 Under his father, Roosevelt grew up with set
20
Kenneth E. Hendrickson, Jr., The Spanish-American War (Westport, CT: Greenwood
Press, 2003), 1.
21
Colonel Red Reeder, The Story of the Spanish-American War, 16.
22
Theodore Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, Inc., 1913), 5.
23
Ibid., 4.
Rob Hardy, “Theodore Roosevelt and the Masculine/Feminine Complex,” New
England Review 26, no. 4 (2005): 178.
24
Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography, 7. Roosevelt’s belief in a man’s
working to overcome hardship would stem from his childhood under his father. He believed that
if it worked for him, it could work for his fellow American men.
25
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gender roles that were expected of him. He was expected to treat his mother and sisters with
respect and act like a gentleman towards them. He was supposed to rough-house with his
brothers and become physically strong so that one day he could grow up and be a man for his
wife and children. The issue was that Roosevelt was a sickly child. He did everything he could to
overcome his asthma and prove that he could do what his brothers could. He threw himself into
sports such as polo, hunting, boxing, and football to prove his strength and hard work.26
Performing in sports was common practice during the nineteenth century. Men saw American
masculinity declining and decided to take up violent sports to prove that they could be
masculine.27 In 1883, he went to out to the Dakota Territory where he fell in love with the
frontier.28 The frontier would play a huge role in Roosevelt’s life.
In 1883 when he went out to the Dakota Territory, he bought two cattle ranches.29 His
hard work mentality would surface. He said in his autobiography, “We knew toil and hardship
and hunger and thirst; and we saw men die violent deaths as they worked among horses and
cattle, or fought in evil feuds with one another; but we felt the beat of hardy life in our veins, and
ours was the glory of work and the joy of living.”30 He found great pride in the work he was
doing because he was a “true cowboy” who could rough and tumble with the wildlife. When he
returned to New York in 1884, he received news that his wife, Alice and his mother both died on
26
Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography, 41-42.
27
Watts, Rough Rider in the White House, 7.
28
Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography, 94.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid., 94-95
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February 14, 1884.31 Roosevelt was devastated because in one day, he lost two of the most
important women in his life.32 His feminine role model was gone and his children were
motherless which was a devastating realization to a man who embodied masculinity. Roosevelt
would take the experiences he had on the frontier which included hard work and the emotional
devastation that accompanied the loss of his wife and mother into his adult life, especially during
the Spanish-American War where he would credit these experiences in shaping him into the
“masculine man.”
In 1898, Russell Alger, United States Secretary of War in the McKinley administration,
wanted to form three regiments of volunteer cavalry. Cavalry had worked well during the Civil
War and he wanted groups of men who could fight quickly on the ground against the Cubans.33
At this time, Roosevelt was assistant secretary of the navy. Alger offered Roosevelt the position
to lead one of the volunteer regiments, but Roosevelt declined and gave the position to Leonard
Wood. Roosevelt took the position of lieutenant colonel instead and his cavalry became known
as the Rough Riders.34 20,000 men tried to enlist in the regiment under Roosevelt. The
enthusiasm that these men had for war with Spain was internal; they needed to prove their
masculinity by taming the perceived threats to their “normative white, male honor, and middleclass identity” that they saw Spain trying to tamper with.35 To enlist under Roosevelt, each man
“Theodore Roosevelt’s Diary the Day his Wife and His Mother Died, 1884,” Rare
Historical Photos, http://rarehistoricalphotos.com/theodore-roosevelts-diary-day-wife-motherdied-1884/. He would never speak of his first wife again, not even in his autobiography.
31
33
Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography, 74.
34
Ibid., 75.
35
Ibid., 14.
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had to pass Roosevelt’s two requirements: they had to be able to handle horses and be athletic.36
Roosevelt took great pride in his athletic ability, especially because he overcame sickness as a
child. He put great value in fitness because he understood the obstacles many had to overcome to
become physically fit. Being physically fit would prove that they were men ready to become
soldiers and defend their country’s honor. All were important characteristics to Roosevelt.
While being a Rough Rider, he began crafting the image of the “cowboy soldier.” Sarah
Watts in Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire, states
that this type of soldier’s “code of conduct arose as he struggled against the overwhelming
wildness of men and beasts and carved out a prairie existence with guns, ropes, and barbed
wire.”37 This code of conduct was what Roosevelt believed to create a “masculine soldier”
because the “cowboy soldier” would “tame the wild beast” which in turn would show him
overcoming hardship. While leading the Rough Riders, Roosevelt presented himself according to
Watts as “a solid and muscular, mature, battle-ready horseman, ready to charge roughly over
Spaniards and ride confidently into the nation’s political consciousness.”38 Roosevelt wanted to
set the best example he could for his men to show them how a masculine man should act.
After the war was over and Roosevelt began reflecting back on the war, he would say in a
1900 speech, “Fellow-Feeling As A Political Factor,” that he thought that “the war with Spain
was the most absolutely righteous foreign war in which any nation has engaged during the
nineteenth century,” because “it brought unity between the sons of men who wore the blue and
36
Roosevelt, Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography, 79.
37
Watts, Rough Rider in the White House, 124.
38
Ibid., 132.
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of those who wore the gray.”39 This unity would help men build character which was a
masculine ideal that he upheld. He recognized the legacy of the Civil War on the SpanishAmerican War and therefore was happy to see a new unity created in the nation and among
fellow soldiers. Roosevelt would take his experiences in the Spanish-American War as a Rough
Rider and assert his masculinity and the masculine characteristics: hard work, strong character,
and honor that he wanted to be upheld.
Taking experiences from both his childhood and his time in the Spanish-American War,
Roosevelt created a masculine ideology which embraced both the traditional views of
masculinity and the ideals that he wanted the modern man to portray. According to Sarah Watts,
“Roosevelt drew men’s sense of belonging into his own personal version of manliness and
inscribed it in new and modern ways on the nation’s collective mind.”40 While the traditional
view of masculinity mandated a man to be a gentleman, Roosevelt believed in civilizing the
manly beast through fighting. He recognized that within every man there was a beast that wanted
to be unleashed. However, he also recognized that a true man would find a way to overcome that
obstacle.41 Sarah Watts states:
His politics called men to escape the confining bonds of civilization and indulge in the
imagined vigor of the cowboys, hunters, and warriors who inhabited America’s vanishing
and increasingly mythic West. It encouraged men to imagine themselves bonded through
loyalty, bravery, and sacrifice that arose in rough play, the killing of animals, and war. It
urged virile men to develop a tough exterior that would direct necessary violence toward
the sinister opposition of other men: the corrupted and corrupted sensualists, pacifists,
and sissies.42
Theodore Roosevelt, “Fellow Feeling as a Political Factor,” The Century, June 1900,
http://www.bartleby.com/58/1.html.
39
40
Watts, Rough Rider in the White House, 2.
41
Ibid., 10.
42
Ibid., 11.
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Roosevelt was able to create his masculine philosophy because he acknowledged and addressed
the fears that many men were having at the end of the late nineteenth century which was the fear
that they were no longer good enough and that women were going to take over.43 Because of
this, men reacted to him, often in a positive way. Many began to accept Roosevelt’s philosophy.
The new masculine ideology that Roosevelt insisted men have and portray in both public and
private life led him to uphold the three ideals he found most important: hard work, strong
character and honor.
Roosevelt believed that to be a true “masculine man” one had to be hard working and
overcome hardships. These hardships could be in a myriad of situations; however, one had to
show that he could overcome it. In his 1899 speech “The Strenuous Life,” he stated, “The
highest form of success . . . comes, not to the man who desires mere easy peace, but to the man
who does not shrink from danger, from hardship, or from bitter toil.”44 For Roosevelt, he
overcame his illness as a young boy by playing sports and going out West. The West was the
best place to assert one’s masculinity because it allowed one to overcome one’s physical
weaknesses. Overcoming moral or emotional weaknesses or tribulations was acceptable for
Roosevelt. For example, in relation to the Spanish-American War, he said in 1899, “All we could
decide was whether we should shrink like cowards from the contest, or enter into it as beseemed
a brave and high-spirited people; and once-in, whether failure or success should crown our
43
Watts, Rough Rider in the White House, 19.
Theodore Roosevelt, “The Strenuous Life,” speech presented at the Hamilton Club,
Chicago, Illinois, April 10, 1899, http://www.bartleby.com/58/1.html.
44
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banners.”45 In saying this, he meant that the country had a problem to fix and Americans could
no longer sit by and hope that someone else solved the problem for them. It was going to be a
challenge, but Americans needed to stand up and help fix it. Roosevelt believed it was America’s
responsibility to help the Cubans and they needed to overcome any obstacle that was impeding
them to do so; this would show true manhood and build character.
Strong character was an ideal that Roosevelt wanted every man to portray in both his
public and private life. Strong character would not only lead to a successful life, but also a happy
one. Roosevelt defined strong character in his 1900 “Character and Success” as “steadfast
resolution.”46 He meant that one should never be afraid to try something and fail. Failure was
acceptable if the journey there was righteous and one did not give up in the process. In the same
speech Roosevelt stated, “But, in the long run in the great battle of life, no brilliancy of intellect,
no perfection of bodily development, will count when weighed in the balance against the
assemblage of virtues, active, and passive, of moral qualities . . . .”47 He meant that character is
shown in all facets of life, both in times of peace and war, in good times and bad times, in
happiness and sadness. Men must uphold the virtues that are seen as sacred such as treating
others with respect, not stealing, and not harming others.48 This strong character would set an
example of what type a life a man should lead and also the type of life that he will pass on to his
sons.
Theodore Roosevelt, “The Strenuous Life,” speech presented at the Hamilton Club,
Chicago, Illinois, April 10, 1899, http://www.bartleby.com/58/1.html.
45
Theodore Roosevelt, “Character and Success,” The Outlook, March 31, 1900,
http://www.bartleby.com/58/1.html.
46
47
Ibid.
48
Ibid.
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For Roosevelt, creating and maintaining one’s honor was everything. Whether one chose
to find and prove this honor in the military, business, political, or family life, it was important
that men proved their honor to themselves and others. For decades, a man proved his honor
through the military because it proved his masculinity. He risked his life for his fellow
Americans by exemplifying bravery, courage, and fraternity, three masculine ideals of the time.49
Roosevelt was a proponent of the Spanish-American War, not only because he was a jingoist, but
also because he believed that the war could ignite the old sparks that existed thirty years before
and allowed men to leave an honorable legacy for their sons.50 Men could prove their honor and
subsequently their patriotism and masculinity again through combat and war. However, he would
add his own masculine twist to it. When Roosevelt and fellow soldiers went to Cuba, they saw
that the Cuban women needed to be “saved.”51 American soldiers could prove their honor and
masculinity by “saving” the “submissive” and “delicate” Cuban women as well as Cuban men
who were seen as feminine. In an excerpt from “Citizenship in a Republic,” Roosevelt states:
It is not the critic who counts; not the man who points out how the strong man stumbles,
or where the doer of deeds could have done them better. The credit belongs to the man
who is actually in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood; who
strives valiantly; who errs, who comes short again and again, because there is no effort
without error and shortcoming; but who does actually strive to do the deeds; who knows
great enthusiasm, the great devotions; who spends himself in worthy cause; who at the
best knows in the end of triumph of high achievement, and who at the worst, if he fails, at
least fails while daring greatly, so that his high achievement, and who at the worst, if he
fails, at least fails while daring greatly, so that his place shall never be with those cold
and timid souls who neither know victory nor defeat.52
49
Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 24, 28.
50
Ibid., 39.
51
Ibid., 50-53.
Theodore Roosevelt, “Citizenship In A Republic,” speech presented at the Sorbornne,
Paris, France April 23, 1910, http://www.theodore-roosevelt.com/trsorbonnespeech.html.
52
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In this excerpt, he meant that only deserving men received the title of being “honorable.” Honor
was earned, not given. Honor was earned by taking risks, achieving goals, and learning from
mistakes. These qualities was what made a man honorable. If a man decided to earn the
“honorable” title by fighting in wars, soldiers could then return home and tell their families,
especially their sons, what they did during the war and begin to leave a legacy. Roosevelt
strongly believed in a lasting legacy. In a letter written to Senator Henry Cabot Lodge on July
19, 1898, Roosevelt states, “I am more than satisfied even though I die of yellow fever
tomorrow, for at least I feel that I have done something which enables me to leave a name to the
children of which they can rightly be proud . . . .”53 A lasting legacy was incredibly important to
Roosevelt because it meant that he would be remembered in history for the work that he did
which would make him honorable.
Theodore Roosevelt died on January 6, 1919, but he left a lasting legacy.54 Roosevelt
pushed himself to be the most masculine man he could be, and he pushed his fellow men during
the Progressive Era and the Spanish-American War to exemplify his three masculine ideals of
hard work, strong character, and honor. In his speeches and writings, he pushed these ideals
because he was a proponent of masculinity. He took experiences from his childhood as well as
experiences as a Rough Rider in the Spanish-American War and exemplified his ideals. He
helped men reinvent their masculinity at a time when they were struggling to find it. Roosevelt’s
three masculine ideals gave white, American, middle-class men something to strive for.
53
Theodore Roosevelt, The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt: The Years of Preparation
1898-1900, Vol.2, Edited by Elting Morison (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951), 852.
“This Day in History,” History.com, http://www.history.com/this-day-inhistory/theodore-roosevelt-dies.
54
Brey 16
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Brey 17
------. “The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt: The Years of Preparation 1898-1900 Vol.2. Edited by
Elting Morison. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951.
------. “The Strenuous Life.” Speech presented at the Hamilton Club, Chicago, Illinois, April 10,
1899, http://www.bartleby.com/58/1.html.
Testi, Arnaldo. “The Gender of Reform Politics: Theodore Roosevelt and the Culture of
Masculinity.” Journal of American History 81, no. 4 (1995): 1509-33.
Watts, Sarah. Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.
Honor Code:
“I hereby declare upon my word of honor, that I have neither given, nor received, any
unauthorized help on this work.”
I do want to acknowledge that I received help from the writing center.
Kelsey Brey