JEAN-MICHEL DEFAYE’S Á LA MANIÉRE DE DEBUSSY POUR TROMBONE ET
PIANO: A COMPOSITIONAL COMPARISON TO CLAUDE DEBUSSY’S
HARMONIC, MELODIC, AND RHYTHMIC PRACTICES
Aaron Christian Rader, B.M., M.M.
Dissertation Prepared for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS
December 2011
APPROVED:
Vern Kagarice, Major Professor
Steve Wiest, Minor Professor
Tony Baker, Committee Member
John Holt, Chair of the Division of
Instrumental Studies
Lynn Eustis, Director of Graduate
Studies in the College of Music
James D. Meernik, Acting Dean of the
Toulouse Graduate School
Rader, Aaron Christian. Jean-Michel Defaye’s Á La Maniére de Debussy pour
Trombone et Piano: A Compositional Comparison to Claude Debussy’s Harmonic,
Melodic, and Rhythmic Practices. Doctor of Musical Arts (Performance), December
2011, 40 pp., 30 examples, references, 34 titles.
Jean-Michel Defaye composed Á La Maniére de Debussy in 2001 as part of a
series of trombone solos written to emulate the compositional styles of significant
predecessors. This study compares Á La Maniére de Debussy to the harmonic,
melodic, and rhythmic practices of Claude Debussy (1862–1918), an innovative French
composer and recognized figure of musical Impressionism. At present, there is limited
scholarship on Defaye’s Á La Maniére de Debussy and its compositionally imitative
nature.
The first section of this document presents a survey of historical information,
current literature, and methods of examination. The second section provides
biographical information on composers Jean-Michel Defaye and Claude Debussy. The
third section exhibits a compositional comparison of Á La Maniére de Debussy to
Debussy’s use of harmony, melody, and rhythm. The final section draws a conclusion
to the piece’s importance to the trombone solo repertoire and includes an interview with
French trombonist Jacques Mauger who collaborated with Defaye on Á La Maniére de
Debussy.
Although this document is not a performance guide, an informed performance of
Á La Maniére de Debussy requires a trombonist to understand Debussy’s unique
treatment of harmony, melody, and rhythm.
Copyright 2011
by
Aaron Christian Rader
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Vern Kagarice, Tony Baker, and Steve Wiest for serving as
members of my doctoral committee. Your guidance through this project has been
deeply appreciated.
Vern Kagarice encouraged me to perform Defaye’s Á La Maniére de Debussy
almost five years ago, and it quickly became one of my favorite pieces for trombone and
piano. I had never envisioned this document being the result.
Jacques Mauger greatly broadened my research by speaking to me about JeanMichel Defaye and Á La Maniére de Debussy. I hope to share his thoughts and
sentiments with as many trombonists as possible.
Etienne Stoupy translated my electronic interview with Jacques Mauger, and he
also provided first-hand knowledge of his native France.
Nataliya Sukhina accompanied me during my lecture recital and made the
performance of a great piece even more enjoyable.
My parents John and Carol Rader have encouraged my musical aspirations
throughout the years, and I am forever grateful of their unconditional love and
inspiration.
To my wife Erin Rader, thank you for unknowingly giving me the motivation to
finish my doctoral degree. Your faith in my potential is truly a gift.
All images in this document are reproduced under Public Domain or Fair Use
Provisions.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF EXAMPLES ..................................................................................................... vii
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1
Survey of Historical Information ............................................................................ 1
Current Literature ................................................................................................. 3
Methods of Examination ....................................................................................... 6
COMPOSER BIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 7
Jean-Michel Defaye .............................................................................................. 7
Achille-Claude Debussy ....................................................................................... 8
HARMONIC COMPARISON ......................................................................................... 11
Non-Functional Pedal Point ................................................................................ 11
Parallel Chord Succession.................................................................................. 15
Extended Tertian Chord Tones........................................................................... 19
MELODIC COMPARISON ............................................................................................ 23
Medieval Church Modes ..................................................................................... 23
Pentatonic .......................................................................................................... 26
Whole-Tone ........................................................................................................ 29
RHYTHMIC COMPARISON .......................................................................................... 31
Horizontal Polyrhythms ....................................................................................... 31
Tempo Fluctuation .............................................................................................. 33
iv
CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................ 36
Importance to Trombone Solo Repertoire .......................................................... 36
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 38
v
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Extensions in trombone part – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy ........................... 22
2. Tempo Fluctuation – Debussy, Arabesque No. 1 ...................................................... 34
3. Tempo Fluctuation – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy .......................................... 35
vi
LIST OF EXAMPLES
Page
1. Monet, Impression – Sunrise ....................................................................................... 2
2. Pedal Point – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 20–25.................................. 12
3. Pedal Point – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 45–49.................................. 12
4. Pedal Point – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 56–61.................................. 13
5. Pedal Point – Debussy, La Cathedrale Engloutie, mm. 28–41 .................................. 14
6. Pedal Point – Debussy, La Cathedrale Engloutie, mm. 72–77 .................................. 15
7. Fauxbourdon – Binchois, Da Pacem Domine, line 3 ................................................. 15
8. Parallel Succession – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 29–30 ..................... 16
9. Parallel Succession – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, m. 40 .............................. 16
10. Parallel Succession – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 50–56 ................... 17
11. Parallel Succession – Debussy, Girl with the Flaxen Hair, mm. 33–35 ................... 18
12. Parallel Succession – Debussy, La Cathedrale Engloutie, mm. 62–67 ................... 19
13. 16 Partials of the Overtone Series........................................................................... 20
14. Extensions – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, m. 1 ........................................... 21
15. The Medieval Church Modes .................................................................................. 24
16. Church Modes – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 20–28 ........................... 25
17. Church Modes – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 35–49 ........................... 25
18. Church Modes – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 56–63 ........................... 26
19. Pentatonic Scale compared to Major Scale ............................................................. 26
20. Pentatonic – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 1–5 ..................................... 27
21. Pentatonic – Debussy, Printemps, mm. 1–5 ........................................................... 27
22. Pentatonic – Debussy, Arabesque No. 1, mm. 6–9 ................................................. 28
vii
23. Pentatonic – Debussy, Girl with the Flaxen Hair, mm. 1–7 ..................................... 28
24. Whole-Tone – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 50–56 .............................. 29
25. Whole-Tone – Debussy, Beau Soir, mm. 9–11 ....................................................... 30
26. Whole-Tone – Debussy, Clair de Lune, mm. 29–30 ................................................ 30
27. Rhythmic Outline – Guiraud, Cavatine de Marthe, mm. 55–58 ............................... 32
28. Horizontal Polyrhythms – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 12–13 ............. 32
29. Horizontal Polyrhythms – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 71–75 ............. 32
30. Horizontal Polyrhythms – Debussy, Clair de Lune, mm. 1–4 .................................. 33
viii
INTRODUCTION
Survey of Historical Information
Jean-Michel Defaye (b. 1932) has been an active composer in France for more
than 60 years. He studied musical composition with Darius Milhaud and Tony Aubin at
the Conservatoire National Supérior de Musique de Paris, graduating in 1953.1 While
trombonists widely know of Deux Danses for trombone and piano (1953), Defaye has
continued to compose solo repertoire for the instrument. In 1990, he released the first
piece in a series of trombone solos based on the compositional styles of significant
predecessors. Each title begins with Á La Maniére de, which translates to In the
Manner of:
Á La Maniére de Bach (1990)
Á La Maniére de Schumann (2000)
Á La Maniére de Debussy (2001)
Á La Maniére de Vivaldi (2002)
Á La Maniére de Stravinsky (2005)
Á La Maniére de Brahms (2011)
This document focuses on Á La Maniére de Debussy (In the Manner of
Debussy). Although the piece was written in the 21st century, it assimilates the
harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic practices of Claude Debussy (1862–1918), an
innovative French composer and recognized leader of musical Impressionism.
In an attempt to define “Impressionism” in musical terms, one must understand
the origins of such a classification. The term was first applied to the realm of painted
art. In 1874, Parisian art critic Jules Antoine Castagnary wrote an article in the
newspaper Le Siécle concerning an innovative group of French artists whom he
1
Flanigan, Sean Gerald. From Deux Danses to Fluctuations: Compositional Components and Innovations
in Two Solo Trombone Works of Jean-Michel Defaye. Diss. University of North Texas, August 2006, 3.
1
characterized as “Impressionists” based on painter Claude Monet’s Impression –
Sunrise (1872).2 Monet’s harbor scene, as seen through the early morning mist,
Example 1. Monet, Impression – Sunrise
lacked definite boundaries and had the effect of “merging sky and water imperceptibly
into the other.”3 The Impressionist technique of artistry created an almost moving
aesthetic of light and color. Above all, Impressionism in art was concerned with
sensation, rather than the absolute rendering of an object or landscape.4 Claude Monet
painted an image not as it stood in reality, but as an individual perceived it in the
surrounding atmosphere.5
Claude Debussy took influence from Impressionistic artists and applied it to
music. In 1887, members of the Académie des Beaux-Arts issued a report about the
composer’s orchestral piece Printemps, saying, “His feeling for musical color is so
2
Byrnside, Ronald. “Musical Impressionism: The Early History of the Term,” The Musical Quarterly, Vol.
66, No. 4 (October 1980), 522.
3
Palmer, Christopher. Impressionism in Music. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1974, 14.
4
Pasler, Jann. “Impressionism.” Oxford Music Online. Web. 1 Mar 2010.
5
Palmer, 13.
2
strong that he is apt to forget the importance of accuracy of line and form. He should
beware this vague impressionism which is one of the most dangerous enemies of
artistic truth.”6 Regarding Impressionistic art, the importance of color surpassed that of
design, clarity, and clear-cut forms.7 This lack of definition appealed to Debussy, whose
musical ambition was to focus on sensation over form, auditory pleasure before
academic law.8
Current Literature
Since the initial publication of Á La Maniére de Debussy in 2001, few have
written about the piece and its compositionally imitative nature.
In October 2003, Wayne Groves included a literature review of Á La Maniére de
Debussy in the International Trombone Association (ITA) Journal.9 He described the
trombone solo as being similar to Deux Danses with its “beautiful melodic material” and
mentioned Defaye’s inclusion of “pentatonic material as well as 9th, 11th, and 13th chords
that are usually associated with the style of Debussy.”10 The literature review closes
with a brief discussion of range, clefs, mutes (none), and difficulty of the piano
accompaniment.11
In 2009, trombonist and college professor Brent Phillips released a recording of Á
La Maniére de Debussy on his album “Stepping Stones for Trombone, Volume 1.”12 In
the liner notes, Phillips mentioned how the piece “mimics the compositional style of
6
Byrnside, “Musical Impressionism: The Early History of the Term,” 523.
Mueller, Robert. The Concept of Tonality in Impressionist Music: Based on the Works of Debussy and
Ravel. Diss. Indiana University, August 1954, 5.
8
Palmer, 22.
9
Groves, Wayne. “Literature Reviews,” International Trombone Association Journal, Vol. 31, No. 4
(October 2003), 81.
10
Ibid.
11
Ibid.
12
Phillips, Brent. Stepping Stones for Trombone, Vol. 1. Potenza Music, 2009.
7
3
Debussy” and “resembles [Debussy’s] Arabesque, Clair de Lune, and Girl with the
Flaxen Hair.”13
Information on Jean-Michel Defaye is not abundant. Alphonse Leduc, Parisian
music publishing company and Defaye’s primary publisher, places the respective
composer’s biography on the back cover of each piece. Every trombone solo by Defaye
from Alphonse Leduc, including Á La Maniére de Debussy, has a brief biographical
paragraph in regards to his time and place of birth, musical training at The Paris
Conservatory, prizes from professional competitions, and compositional preference to
instrumental music.14
In 2006, Dr. Sean Flanigan wrote a doctoral document about Jean-Michel Defaye
and two of his solo pieces for trombone: Deux Danses and Fluctuations. Although the
project centered on these two compositions, Flanigan provided new biographical and
compositional information through interviews with the composer.15
Critics and musicologists have written an extensive amount of books,
dissertations, and articles about Claude Debussy and his compositional style. Relevant
sources to this topic contain references to his harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic
practices.
In 1954, Dr. Robert Earl Mueller’s dissertation, The Concept of Tonality in
Impressionist Music: Based on the Works of Debussy and Ravel, utilized the musical
works of Debussy and Ravel to define tonal characteristics of Impressionism.16 To
describe Debussy’s harmonic and melodic innovation, Mueller said the composer
13
Phillips, Brent. Liner Notes. Stepping Stones for Trombone, Vol. 1. Potenza Music, 2009.
Defaye, Jean-Michel. Á La Maniére de Debussy. Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 2001.
15
Flanigan.
16
Mueller.
14
4
evaded major and minor scales, used successions of altered chords, added extended
tertian chord tones, and utilized the whole-tone scale to “blur” the tonality.17
Edward Lockspeiser authored a biography entitled Debussy: His Life and Mind in
1962 and provided chronological information about the late French composer’s
professional interactions and compositional mindset.18 Although Lockspeiser focused
on historical aspects of Debussy’s career rather than the technical properties of his
music, two particular appendixes provide direct quotes from Debussy about his (then)
unconventional brand of tonality.
In 1979, Dr. James Robert Briscoe wrote The Compositions of Claude Debussy’s
Formative Years (1879–1887), an examination of Debussy’s early influences, methods,
and compositions.19 He expounded upon four overall categories: melody, harmony,
structure, and horizontal polyrhythms.20 Each is thoroughly supported with historical
and musical examples from Debussy’s early compositions.
While Á La Maniére de Debussy has been currently available for ten years and
has gained popularity among professional and student trombonists, scholarly
comparisons to Debussy’s compositional style remain nonexistent at length. Despite his
integration of trombonists into various orchestral works, Debussy never composed a
solo piece for trombone, despite modern day arrangements and transcriptions in the
trombone solo repertoire. An informed performance of Á La Maniére de Debussy
requires a trombonist to understand Debussy’s unique treatment of harmony, melody,
and rhythm.
17
Ibid., 2.
Lockspeiser, Edward. Debussy: His Life and Mind, Vol. 1. London: Cassell & Company Limited, 1962.
19
Briscoe, James Robert. The Compositions of Claude Debussy’s Formative Years (1879–1887). Diss.
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1979.
20
Ibid.
18
5
Methods of Examination
Despite the writer’s unsuccessful attempts at an interview with Jean-Michel
Defaye, Jacques Mauger, trombone professor at the Conservatoire à Rayonnement
Régional de Paris, graciously answered interview questions about his collaboration with
Defaye and the musical components within Á La Maniére de Debussy. The following
chapters will discuss three main attributes of Debussy’s compositional practice:
harmony, melody, and rhythm. Each characteristic will divide into multiple facets,
comparing Á La Maniére de Debussy to musical excerpts of and historical references to
Claude Debussy’s music as assimilated by Jean-Michel Defaye.
6
COMPOSER BIOGRAPHY
Jean-Michel Defaye
Jean-Michel Defaye (b. 1932) was born in Saint-Mandé, France. At the young
age of 10, he enrolled at the Conservatoire National Supérior de Musique de Paris,
studying piano and theory.21 At the age of 14, he decided to pursue composition under
the professorship of Darius Milhaud and Tony Aubin.22 While studying composition at
the Conservatoire, Defaye received the First Prize in Harmony (1948), Premiere Medal
in Counterpoint (1949), and Second Prize in Composition (1950).23 Before graduating
in 1953, he earned recognition from professional competitions, receiving the Premiere
Second Grand Prize of Rome (1952) and Second Prize in Composition from Queen
Elizabeth of Belgium (1953).24
Defaye prefers to write solo instrumental music with a special interest in brass.25
While his primary instrument is piano, he played trombone at ages 17 and 18 before
switching to trumpet, an instrument he continues to play for enjoyment.26 At the age of
21, Defaye wrote Deux Danses for trombone and piano, which became his first of many
contributions to the trombone solo repertoire. The titles of the two movements, Danse
Sacree and Danse Profane, are the same as Debussy’s orchestral piece Danse sacree
et danse profane pour harpe et orchestra a cordes (1904), a relevant observation for
this topic.27 Defaye has never been an active teacher, but he encourages young
21
Defaye.
Flanigan, 3.
23
Ibid.
24
Defaye.
25
Flanigan, 4.
26
Ibid., 10.
27
Ibid., 6.
22
7
composers “to acquire a strong classical basis.”28 He has studied the compositional
styles of prominent composers, which prepared him to compose in the manner of
numerous predecessors such as Claude Debussy, as seen in his Á La Maniére de
series for trombone and piano.
Achille-Claude Debussy
French composer Achille-Claude Debussy (1862–1918) held a reputation as a
compositional innovator whose music was “freed from tradition and the grip of the
academic.”29 At the age of 10, he entered the Conservatoire National Supérior de
Musique de Paris to begin his musical training as one of the youngest piano students to
be accepted that year.30 Under the instruction of piano professor Antoine Marmontel,
Debussy experienced early success as a pianist, deemed as “a twelve-year-old prodigy
who promise[d] to be a virtuoso of the first order.”31 Throughout his initial recognition as
a young, gifted performer, he also studied theory under Albert Lavignac, founder of the
pedagogically influential sight-reading and musical dictation course at the
Conservatoire,32 leading Debussy to win an eventual First Medal in Solfége (1876).33
While enrolled in the harmony class of Emile Durand, Debussy became
rebellious against orders to work on his functional harmonic progressions and spent
more time improvising at the piano after class.34 In retrospect, the late French
composer proudly spoke of his inability to “harmonize a melody in a respectable
28
Ibid., 5.
Sabaneev, Leonid. “Claude Debussy,” Music & Letters, Vol. 10, No. 1 (January 1929), 2.
30
Lockspeiser, 25.
31
Ibid., 26.
32
Ibid., 31.
33
Ibid., 33.
34
Ibid., 32.
29
8
manner.”35 During the late 19th century, the Conservatoire modeled its harmony
curriculum after theoretical writings by French composer and theorist Jean-Philippe
Rameau (1683–1764) who introduced “basse fondamentale” (fundamental bass) in his
Traite de l’harmonie (1722).36 This treatise outlined bass functions of triads and
seventh chords on varying scale degrees, proper resolution for seventh chord tones,
and different cadences to finalize a chord progression.37 Rameau continued his
harmonic ideology with Génération harmonique (1737), in which he categorized the
subdominant chord as a precursor to the dominant in a progression ultimately leading to
the tonic, due to its “gravitational force.”38 By the late 18th century, the harmonic
theories of Jean-Philippe Rameau became a “dominant pedagogical paradigm”
throughout Europe.39
In 1880 as his interest in piano gradually diminished, Debussy enrolled in the
composition class of Ernest Guiraud, who spoke of the aspiring composer’s tendency to
“write music clumsily.”40 Maurice Emmanuel, a fellow composition student, often
noticed Debussy improvising at the piano with consecutive fifths and octaves,
improperly resolved sevenths, ninth chords on all degrees of the scale, and other
“shameful false relations.”41 Professor Guiraud’s approach to composition was more
broad-minded than others’, yet he could not fully accept the emancipated compositional
tendencies of student Claude Debussy.42 During a classroom discussion on harmony,
Guiraud played a French augmented sixth chord and stated, “When I play this it has to
35
Ibid.
Christensen, Thomas. “Rameau, Jean-Philippe.” Grove Music Online. Web. 4 August 2011.
37
Ibid.
38
Ibid.
39
Ibid.
40
Lockspeiser, 57.
41
Ibid., 59.
42
Ibid., 204.
36
9
resolve;” Debussy responded, “I don’t see that it should. Why?”43 Professors at the
Conservatoire regarded the young, aspiring composer as “a little backwards in the
rudiments,” but after his ten years of study, Debussy went on to receive runner-up for
the Prize of Rome in 1883 and won the Prize of Rome in 1884.44
By sacrificing compositional values in search of alternate tonal possibilities,
Claude Debussy “enriched the vocabulary of music” with his preference for aesthetically
pleasing sounds over academically proper guidelines.45
43
Ibid., 206.
Lesure, Francois. “(Achille-)Claude Debussy.” Oxford Music Online. Web. 1 March 2010.
45
Ashworth, Alec Hargreaves. “Twentieth-Century Painting: The Approach Through Music,” Music &
Letters, Vol. 20, No. 2 (April 1939), 120.
44
10
HARMONIC COMPARISON
On February 15, 1889, a Parisian hostess requested Claude Debussy to answer
a customary questionnaire during his visit to an artistic and social gathering.46 Upon
inquiry of which fault he was most able to accept, Debussy answered, “Faults in
harmony.”47 Although he often ignored the established harmonic practice of the time,
Debussy sought to “revitalize tonality rather than to abandon it.”48 In 1974, musicologist
Christopher Palmer credited Debussy for “raising the status of harmony to a level as
high and even higher than that of melody;” harmony no longer existed as an
accompaniment to the melody, but “a thing in its own right.”49 Defaye imitated
Debussy’s harmonic practice with the inclusion of non-functional pedal point, parallel
chord succession, and extended tertian chord tones in his Á La Maniére de Debussy.
Non-Functional Pedal Point
Claude Debussy created an “illusion” of harmonic motion with shifting chords
above a pedal point in the lowest note, which became one of his identifying harmonic
characteristics.50 The term “pedal point,” originally derived from organ music, most
commonly refers to a lengthy bass note of the dominant that eventually resolves to the
tonic, but Debussy utilized pedal point without such bass resolutions.51 Also, the
overhead chordal movement, while giving musical direction, lacked traditional
progression and remained static in the functional sense.52
46
Lockspeiser, 229.
Ibid., 230.
48
Wenk, Arthur. Claude Debussy and Twentieth-Century Music. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983, 68.
49
Palmer, 21.
50
Park, Robert. The Later Style of Claude Debussy, Vol. 1. Diss. University of Michigan, 1967, 62.
51
Walker, Paul M. “Pedal Point.” Grove Music Online. Web. 7 August 2011.
52
Byrnside, Ronald. Debussy’s Second Style. Diss. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1971,
122.
47
11
Á La Maniére de Debussy contains three separate sections with a prominent
pedal point in the piano accompaniment. Through measures 20–25, the first instance of
pedal point centers on F while the piano accompaniment cycles through an ascending
and descending succession of three arpeggiated chords: F minor, G minor, and Ab
major (Ex. 2). At measures 45–49, the accompaniment again creates a false sense of
Example 2. Pedal Point – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 20–25
Fm
Gm
Fm
Ab
Gm
Ab
Gm
Gm
Fm
Gm
Ab
Example 3. Pedal Point – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 45–49
7
C
C
Gm
7
Gm
7
C
Gm
C
12
C
7
Gm
harmonic motion with a C pedal as the chord motion shifts between C major and G
minor seventh chords (Ex. 3). Between measures 56–61, the final instance of pedal
point reveals itself in Á La Maniére de Debussy. Defaye devised an Ab pedal point
below two alternating chords: Ab dominant ninth and Gb major. While the right-handed
accompaniment contains block chords, the left-handed accompaniment resembles a
descending arpeggio without the 3rd. Under the Ab dominant ninth chord, the left hand
plays Ab–Eb–Ab. When the chord changes to Gb major, the descending figure
minimally changes its top-most note, producing Bb–Eb–Ab. Although the inclusion of
Eb under the Gb major chord creates the possibility of a sixth chord, the recurring
perfect fifth established by Eb–Ab simply reinforces the pedal point in Ab (Ex. 4).
James Robert Briscoe, in his dissertation on Claude Debussy’s early compositions,
described a similar technique, which “consists of not a single tone pedal point but a
sonority, usually a perfect 5th.”53
Example 4. Pedal Point – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 56–61
7(9)
Ab
7(9)
Ab
7(9)
Gb
Ab
Gb
Ab
7(9)
Gb
Ab
Gb
7(9)
Ab
Gb
7(9)
In 1910, Debussy composed his first book of Preludes for piano. La Cathedrale
Engloutie (The Sunken Cathedral), the tenth movement, incorporates similar pedal point
53
Briscoe, 221.
13
usage. Beginning at measure 28, Debussy composed a 14-measure pedal point on C.
Above the foundation, triadic chords shift diatonically within the key of C major and
briefly C mixolydian (mm. 33–37) with the addition of Bb (Ex. 5). At measure 72 until
Example 5. Pedal Point – Debussy, La Cathedrale Engloutie, mm. 28–41
C
F
Bb
Dm
Dm
Dm
C
C
F
Em
Gm
Am
F
Gm
Bb
Bb
Dm
Dm
Gm
G
F Em Dm Dm Am Em
F
C
Am
Am
F
F
C
the end of the movement, Debussy returned to the pedal point on C, but instead of it
being a series of long-tones, the bass figure gained motion with an arpeggio-like figure
written in eighth notes (Ex. 6), similar to Defaye’s pedal figure (Ex. 4). Musicologist
Frank Henry Shera described this technique as a “decorated” pedal point.54
54
Shera, Frank Henry. Debussy and Ravel. London: Oxford University Press, 1927, 19.
14
Example 6. Pedal Point – Debussy, La Cathedrale Engloutie, mm. 72–77
C
F
Dm
Dm
C
G
F Em Dm
C
Am
Dm
Am
Em
Bb
Dm
F
Parallel Chord Succession
Claude Debussy rejected the established notion of melody driven by harmony, as
introduced by French music theorist Jean-Philippe Rameau in the 18th century, and
insisted that “harmony is born from melody.”55 15th century Fauxbourdon, meaning
“false bass” in French, corresponds to Debussy’s harmonic hypothesis and provides an
early, basic model for parallel chord succession.56 This older style of three-voice
harmonization, much like a first inversion triad, consists of two vocalists singing a
respective perfect 4th and major/minor 6th interval below the melody in the top voice.57
The chord moves with the melody, therefore creating parallel motion in all parts except
Example 7. Fauxbourdon – Binchois, Da Pacem Domine, line 358
55
Park, 46.
Bukofzer, Manfred. “Popular Polyphony in the Middle Ages,” The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 1
(January 1940), 46.
57
Ibid., 44.
58
Ibid., 46.
56
15
for the few instances when the lowest voice matches the melody an octave below on
certain cadence points. Debussy did not limit his “parallelism” to major and minor triads;
he often favored seventh and ninth chords in varying qualities such as dominant,
diminished, or augmented.59
Jean-Michel Defaye applied similar parallel chord successions to Á La Maniére
de Debussy. At measure 29 starting on the second beat, the piano accompaniment
begins a succession of four major ninth chords in parallel motion (Ex. 8). Along with the
melodic descension, the top-most note of the accompaniment matches the trombone on
the four applicable down beats, similar to Fauxbourdon. Defaye included another set of
Example 8. Parallel Succession – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 29–30
(9)
Gb
Eb
(9)
Db
(9)
(9)
Bb
Example 9. Parallel Succession – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, m. 40
E
D
B
G#
parallel chords in measure 40. Beginning on the first beat, four triads descend in
quarter notes with the top-most note in unison with the melody (Ex. 9). Musicologist
59
Park, 49.
16
Leonid Sabaneev expounded on Debussy’s avoidance of constant harmonic resolution,
saying the late French composer often preferred harmony to shift “parallel with the
melody.”60 At measures 50–56, the final and most expansive example of parallel chord
succession in Á La Maniére de Debussy contains a series of dominant ninth chords.
Example 10. Parallel Succession – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 50–56
C7(9) Bb7(9) C7(9)
D7(9) C7(9) D7(9)
E7(9)
E7(9) D7(9) E7(9)
D7(9)
F#7(9) E7(9)
F#7(9)
Ab7(9)
With the trombone following each chord on the fifth degree, the accompaniment
ascends and descends in parallel whole-tone motion over six different dominant ninth
60
Sabaneev, 18.
17
chords in root position: Bb, C, D, E, F#, Ab. Furthermore, Claude Debussy commonly
employed “parallelism” in root position rather than inversions.61 Defaye’s final parallel
chord succession ends on measure 56 with an Ab dominant ninth chord (Ex. 10).
Debussy provided an example of this technique in La Fille Aux Cheveux de Lin
(Girl with the Flaxen Hair), the eighth movement in Debussy’s first book of Preludes for
piano. Concerning his unconventional harmonic practices, Claude Debussy “treated
chords as units that could be arranged in successions apparently at variance with
conventional standards and yet of undeniable beauty.”62 At measures 33–35, parallel
second-inversion triads accompany the melody and shift in scalar motion through a
diatonic chord succession in Gb major (Ex. 11).
Example 11. Parallel Succession – Debussy, Girl with the Flaxen Hair, mm. 33–35
Gb: IV
V IV
iii ii
I
vii°
I ii
I vii°
I
ii
Within the same collection of twelve piano preludes, Debussy included a
succession of parallel chords in La Cathedrale Engloutie, the tenth movement.63 As
compared to the previous example, the latter movement does not abide by diatonic
61
Park, 48.
Mueller, 3.
63
Shera, 17.
62
18
planing (mixture of major and minor triads and sevenths). Beginning on the final chord
of measure 62, Debussy composed ten consecutive dominant seventh chords in parallel
Example 12. Parallel Succession – Debussy, La Cathedrale Engloutie, mm. 62–67
D#
C#
7
B
7
7
A
C#
7
7
G#
D#
7
7
G#
C#
7
7
7
G#
motion (Ex. 12). While knowingly dismissing the formal practice of harmonic
progression, Debussy focused himself solely on the pure aesthetic of sound, explaining
“one can travel where one wishes and leave by any door.”64
Extended Tertian Chord Tones
While the term “color” is ambiguous when applied to music, Impressionistic
artists concerned themselves with color over design and an overall vague approach to
definition of shape. From sight to sound, this same “fuzzy,” unfocused technique
resulted from the addition of extended tertian chord tones, which did not resolve in a
designated manner.65 Claude Debussy added unresolved extensions to his harmonic
repertoire and “liberated dissonant sonorities.”66 The inclusion of 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th
64
Lockspeiser, 206.
Byrnside, Debussy’s Second Style, 86.
66
Mueller, 26.
65
19
chord tones creates a “sensuous opulence of sound” and “wonderful resonance.”67
Ascending major or minor 3rd intervals (tertian) build various chords such as a major
triad (C, E, G), major seventh chord (C, E, G, B), major ninth chord (C, E, G, B, D), etc.
In 1939, music critic Alec Hargreaves Ashworth discussed Debussy’s predilection
for chords “derived from the pure harmonic system of overtones.”68 The overtone series
creates 16 partials based on the established fundamental. As seen in Example 13, the
partials higher than the 6th produce the same extended tertian chord tones found in
Debussy’s music: 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th scale degrees.69 Composer Ben Johnston, in
an article stating his own compositional influences, described Debussy as a pivotal
composer whose influence from the overtone series generated an emphasis on higher
partials and brilliant harmonic colors.70
Example 13. 16 Partials of the Overtone Series71
A:
7th
9th
11th
13th
Jean-Michel Defaye actively imitated his predecessor’s “artistic transformation of
acoustic phenomena” in both the trombone and piano.72 During the extended first
measure, the accompaniment commences the solo with a saturated use of extended
tertian chord tones, utilizing three broken Ab dominant seventh chords with a mixture of
unresolved 9th, 11th and 13th extensions. The first and second broken dominant seventh
67
Palmer, 21.
Ashworth, 121.
69
Don, Gary W. “Brilliant Colors Provocatively Mixed: Overtone Structures in the Music of Debussy,”
Music Theory Spectrum, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Spring 2001), 62.
70
Johnston, Ben. “A. S. U. C. Keynote Address,” Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 26, No. 1 (Winter
1988), 236.
71
Don, 63.
72
Sabaneev, 18.
68
20
chords lack a major third (leading tone) due to the eleventh. Claude Debussy often
omitted the leading tone on his own dominant ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords.73
Between the first and second broken chords, Defaye included a descending series of
major and minor seventh chords below a melodic phrase that foreshadows the initial
melodic section of the trombone part (mm. 2–19). Throughout much of the piece, the
piano accompanies with similar broken chords that include the same unresolved
extensions.
Example 14. Extensions – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, m. 1
Db: V
V
7 (9, 11) omit 3rd
IV
7 (9, 11) omit 3rd
7
V
7
iii
7
ii
7
ii
7
vi
IV
7
7
iii
7
ii
7 (9, 13)
Besides the inclusion of extended tertian chord tones in the piano
accompaniment, Defaye composed the melody to exaggerate the “super-tertian”
practice on cadences and long tones.74 On measures 7–8, the trombone plays the 9th
and 11th before settling on the 13th over a half cadence on two consecutive Ab dominant
seventh chords with differing extensions. At an authentic cadence on measure 18, the
73
Day-O’Connell, Jeremy. “Debussy, Pentatonicism, and the Tonal Tradition,” Music Theory Spectrum,
Vol. 31, No. 2 (Fall 2009), 240.
74
Mueller, 23.
21
melodic phrase ends on a 9th above a rolled Db chord with an added 9th and 13th. The
trombone, at measure 76, embellishes the piano’s extended chord tones by playing the
11th over an Ab dominant seventh chord with an added 9th and 11th. Over an Ab
dominant seventh chord with an added 9th and 13th on measure 82, the trombone
sustains the 13th without resolution after a melodic ascension from the 7th and 9th. At
measures 78–79, the unaccompanied soloist performs a tertian phrase that outlines an
Eb minor seventh chord with an added 9th and 11th (Eb, Gb, Bb, Db, F, Ab).
Table 1. Extensions in trombone part – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy
Claude Debussy liberated himself from the absolute “fixation on dominant and
subdominant relationships” and embraced other tonal possibilities.75 During a lively
discussion on harmony with his former student, Ernest Guiraud stated, “I am not saying
that what you do isn’t beautiful, but it’s theoretically absurd.”76 Despite such criticism,
Debussy insisted, “There is no theory. You merely have to listen. Pleasure is my law.”77
75
Briscoe, 161.
Lockspeiser, 206.
77
Ibid., 207.
76
22
MELODIC COMPARISON
Debussy’s innovative use of harmony depreciated the importance of his melodic
practice.78 Examination of his inclusion of parallel chord successions and extended
tertian chord tones overshadows Debussy’s true intention as a composer, to which he
stated, “all my music aspires to be only melody.”79 During the 19th century, composers
mainly built their melodies from major and minor scales. Regardless of small-interval
scalar motion or large-interval arpeggiation, the fabric wove from the same thread.
Claude Debussy reacted to this “saturation” by adding other scales to his compositional
palette.80 Seeking “melodic emancipation,” the discontented composer retrogressed to
the beginnings of melodic conception: folk-song and plainsong.81 Although his choice of
scalar materials included church mode, pentatonic, and whole-tone scales, Debussy did
not abandon major and minor scales:82
“I no longer believe in the omnipotence of the eternal do re mi… It is not
necessary to exclude that but rather to give it some company.”83
Medieval Church Modes
During the 11th century, the Roman Catholic Church established its plainsong
chants on a system of eight scalar modes, each consisted of “five whole tones and two
semitones” in varying combinations.84 These ecclesiastical modes were built from
natural notes on the staff or equivalent to white keys on the piano (Ex. 15). In his
melodic conception, Claude Debussy commonly avoided major and minor scales by
78
Park, 32.
Briscoe, 64.
80
Ibid., 70.
81
Palmer, 21.
82
Park, 26.
83
Briscoe, 79.
84
Mountford, J. F. “Greek Music and Its Relation to Modern Times,” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol.
40, No. 1 (1920), 13.
79
23
Example 15. The Medieval Church Modes85
using the odd-numbered church modes: Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian.86
Closely related to the natural minor scale, the Dorian mode contains a major sixth
degree, while the Phrygian mode includes a lowered second degree.87 Similar to the
major scale, the Lydian mode augments the fourth degree, and the Mixolydian mode
lowers the seventh degree.88
Certain melodic sections in Á La Maniére de Debussy can be categorized into
the first and seventh church modes (Ex. 15): Dorian and Mixolydian, respectively. After
the initial 19 measures, the melodic material shifts from mostly Db pentatonic to F
Dorian. At measure 20, the piano accompaniment introduces the key center of F Dorian
with broken arpeggios consisting of F minor, G minor, and Ab major triads over an F
pedal point, as previously discussed. The trombone begins on the pick-up to measure
85
Grout, Donald Jay and Claude V. Palisca. A History of Western Music, Fifth Edition. W. W. Norton &
Company. New York. 1996, 55.
86
Shera, 10.
87
Stubbings, G. W. “The Ecclesiastical Modes,” The Musical Times, Vol. 77, No. 1115 (January 1936),
43.
88
Ibid.
24
22 and continues the melody based on the F Dorian scale until measure 25 (Ex. 16).
On the last beat of measure 25, the melody transposes to C Dorian until measure 28
(Ex. 16). The modal material continues at measure 35 where a new melodic theme
Example 16. Church Modes – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 20–28
F Dorian
C Dorian
centers on E Mixolydian (Ex. 17). At measure 41, the piano suddenly shifts into C
Mixolydian with a new theme, and the trombone recites the piano’s statement starting at
measure 44 (Ex. 17). Concluding Defaye’s use of church modes, the melody shifts to
Ab Mixolydian at mm. 56–63 before the recapitulation of the first theme (Ex. 18).
Example 17. Church Modes – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 35–49
E Mixolydian
C Mixolydian
25
Example 18. Church Modes – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 56–63
Ab Mixolydian
Pentatonic
In his book The Music of Most Ancient Nations (1864), musicologist Carl Engel
first published the term “pentatonic” to describe a five-note scale produced by the “black
keys of the piano-forte”89 and commonly used by Chinese monks who “never raise[d] or
lower[ed] their voice a semitone.”90 When compared to a standard major scale, the
pentatonic scale contains five of the seven notes, “overlaying diatonic scale degrees 1,
2, 3, 5, and 6.”91
Example 19. Pentatonic Scale compared to Major Scale92
The initial melodic theme of Á La Maniére de Debussy centers on the Db
pentatonic scale. Although this particular scale does not remain throughout the entire
piece, it remains an active agent in Defaye’s creation of line and an alternative to the
89
Day-O’Connell, “Debussy, Pentatonicism, and the Tonal Tradition,” 226.
Ibid., 225.
91
Kopp, David. “Pentatonic Organization in Two Piano Pieces of Debussy,” Journal of Music Theory, Vol.
41, No. 2 (Fall 1997), 263.
92
Day-O’Connell, Jeremy. Pentatonicism from the Eighteenth Century to Debussy. Rochester, NY:
University of Rochester Press, 2007, 4.
90
26
major or minor scale. Beginning at the end of measure 1, the trombone introduces the
melody with two pentatonic notes (5 & 6) under separate fermatas. The pentatonic
melody continues until the end of measure 5 when it shifts to the Db major scale. This
Example 20. Pentatonic – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 1–5
Db Pentatonic:
5
3
2 3 5
5 6
5
6
353 23
2 121 616
5 6
56 5
theme reiterates twice in Á La Maniére de Debussy: mm. 8–12 and mm. 70–73. A
subtle instance of Db major pentatonic recurs at mm. 15–19 where the melody uses
only scale degrees 2, 5, and 6 to end the first section of the piece.
During the late 19th century, Claude Debussy gained inspiration from the
pentatonic melodies of Russian and Oriental folk music, which led him to explore the
melodic applications of the pentatonic scale.93 Although his earliest melodies drew from
church modes, Debussy introduced his fondness of melodic pentatonicism in the
orchestral suite Printemps (1887).94 During the initial five measures of the first
movement, the principal flute and piano introduce a unison pentatonic theme in F#.
Example 21. Pentatonic – Debussy, Printemps, mm. 1–5
F# Pentatonic: 3
93
94
2
1235
6
3
Palmer, 21.
Briscoe, 81.
27
2
123
In 1888, Debussy composed the piano piece Arabesque No. 1. Most of the first
melodic theme (mm. 6–7) is constructed from an E pentatonic scale. The same occurs
in mm. 8–9. Although the pentatonic theme is interrupted by a resolution to the 7th scale
degree, mm. 6–9 contain 29 melodic notes, 27 of which correspond to E pentatonic.
Example 22. Pentatonic – Debussy, Arabesque No. 1, mm. 6–9
E Pentatonic:
5
1 26 156 352
313 -
126156352 313 -
6
6
Example 23. Pentatonic – Debussy, Girl with the Flaxen Hair, mm. 1–7
Gb Pentatonic:
2
5
5 3 13
316
13
2 5 3
5 316 131 16
1
-6 5
6 1
6
Girl with the Flaxen Hair includes another example of melodic pentatonicism.
With one exception, the first 30 notes of the melody place into the Gb pentatonic scale.
28
Whole-Tone
The whole-tone scale is solely built from whole steps, creating an intervallically
symmetrical collection of six notes. Since this scale lacks a functional tonal center,
music theorists situate any given note into one of two whole-tone scales. Whole-Tone I
contains C, D, E, F#, G#, Bb; Whole-Tone II contains Db, Eb, F, G, A, B.95 Debussy
incorporated the whole-tone scale into his melodic composition “mostly in short passing
bursts.”96 Instead of saturating the melody with it, the late French composer alternated
whole-tone with other scalar material.97
In Á La Maniére de Debussy, Jean-Michel Defaye included a melodic phrase of
15 consecutive pitches in Whole-Tone II at mm. 50–56. This whole-tone passage
creates a vague tonality until the melody resolves at measure 56 into the new key
center of Db major beginning on the V chord. Similarly, Claude Debussy used the
whole-tone scale as a “tonal eraser, letting him move in and out” of definite key
centers.98
Example 24. Whole-Tone – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 50–56
Whole-Tone II: G
F
G
A
A G A
B
B
A B
C# B
C#
Eb
The melodic inclusion of this symmetrical scale appeared early in Debussy’s
compositional career with Beau Soir, written in 1883 for voice and piano. While much of
95
Bass, Richard. “Models of Octatonic and Whole-Tone Interaction: George Crumb and His
Predecessors,” Journal of Music Theory, Vol. 38, No. 2 (Fall 1994), 159.
96
Smith, Richard Langham and Caroline Potter. French Music Since Berlioz. Aldershot: Ashgate
Publishing Limited, 2006, 211.
97
Ibid.
98
Ibid., 212.
29
the song centers on E major, the melody briefly shifts into Whole-Tone I on the last beat
of m. 9. The final note of this melodic phrase ends at the beginning of m. 11.
Example 25. Whole-Tone – Debussy, Beau Soir, mm. 9–11
Whole-Tone I: G# F#
F#
E
D C
D
E
E
Debussy’s Suite Bergamasque, a collection of piano pieces written in 1890,
provides another sudden moment of whole-tone in the melody. The suite’s third
movement, Clair de Lune, is arguably one of Debussy’s most well-known piano works.
At measure 30, the melody includes a raised 4th (G) with scale degrees 1, 2, and 3,
implying the whole-tone scale in the brief instance. Immediately thereafter, the melodic
material returns to the Db major scale.
Example 26. Whole-Tone – Debussy, Clair de Lune, mm. 29–30
Whole-Tone II:
Db
Eb
F
Db
F
G
F Db Db
Through the 18th and much of the 19th centuries, the “major-minor system”
dominated melodic construction.99 Debussy reacted by adding various scales used in
plainsong and folk-song “to overthrow the tyranny of the major-minor key systems,
which proclaimed whole-hearted allegiance to a definite tonal anchorage.”100
99
Briscoe, 70.
Palmer, 20.
100
30
RHYTHMIC COMPARISON
Debussy’s treatment of rhythm followed one of his own mottos: “nothing
definite.”101 In the summer of 1881, early in his compositional development, Claude
Debussy traveled to Russia as a pianist for Madame von Meck, a wealthy Russian
businesswoman and patron of the arts.102 During this trip, he often listened to the
“fantastic improvisatory art” of Russian gypsy musicians, who had “freer musical
conceptions” to their sense of rhythm.103 Such influence inspired him to compose music
that sounded improvised, yet fully composed.104 Musical improvisation possesses an
impression of uninhibited rhythms, whereas those of written music give the listener a
sense of definite structure, repetition, and predictability. Debussy utilized horizontal
polyrhythms and tempo fluctuation to give his music a quality of freedom and
naturalness.105
Horizontal Polyrhythms
After his summer trip to Russia in 1881, Claude Debussy returned to his
compositional studies at the Conservatoire. Professor of Composition Ernest Guiraud
further influenced Debussy’s interest in rhythmic flexibility with his application of
horizontal polyrhythms: a combination of duplets, triplets, and quadruplets into the same
phrase to capture more natural speech inflections for the lyrics of a melodic fragment.106
In 1876, Ernest Guiraud placed differing subdivisions in the melody of Cavatine de
Marthe from his operetta Piccolino (Ex. 27).107
101
Sabaneev, 14.
Lockspeiser, 42.
103
Hill, Edward Burlingame. Modern French Music. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924, 192.
104
Mueller, 32.
105
Palmer, 19.
106
Briscoe, 113.
107
Ibid.
102
31
Example 27. Rhythmic Outline – Guiraud, Cavatine de Marthe, mm. 55–58108
In Á La Maniére de Debussy, Jean-Michel Defaye included a varying
combination of subdivisions into particular melodic fragments. In mm. 12–13, the
trombone solo contains horizontal polyrhythms by mixing eighth, triplet, and sixteenth
rhythms (Ex. 28). The same occurs in mm. 71–75 when the same melodic theme
returns (Ex. 29).
Example 28. Horizontal Polyrhythms – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 12–13
Example 29. Horizontal Polyrhythms – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy, mm. 71–75
The use of horizontal polyrhythm became an important element in Debussy’s
rhythmic practice.109 The opening melody of Debussy’s Clair de Lune exhibits an
unrestrained rhythmic sense that alternates between triplet and duplet subdivisions.
108
109
Ibid.
Ibid., 109.
32
Although the tempo remains steady, the so-called improvised style of structured
composition gives an impression of spontaneity and uninhibitedness.110
Example 30. Horizontal Polyrhythms – Debussy, Clair de Lune, mm. 1–4
Tempo Fluctuation
Aside from varying subdivisions over a consistent tempo, Debussy’s
compositions include numerous shifts in rhythmic pace. In 1967, musicologist Robert
Park described the late French composer’s style as having a “pliable quality” and
“freedom of tempo.”111 In 1929, Russian musicologist Leonid Sabaneev described the
late French composer’s perpetual fluctuation of tempo as “changing fantastically and
capriciously like columns of smoke blown by the wind.”112
Claude Debussy’s Arabesque No. 1 depicts a clear view of constantly shifting
tempi. Throughout the piece, particular tempo markings instruct the performer to
accelerate, decelerate, resume steady tempo, or shift into a free, rubato interpretation of
the written music. During moments of deceleration in Arabesque No. 1, the term
110
Palmer, 19.
Park, 68.
112
Sabaneev, 14.
111
33
ritardando is present; instances of acceleration include three different terms: stringendo,
poco mosso, and risoluto.
Table 2. Tempo Fluctuation – Debussy, Arabesque No. 1
Jean-Michel Defaye used a multitude of tempo instructions in Á La Maniére de
Debussy to create a constantly varying rhythmic texture. The piece contains some of
the same tempo-affecting instructions as Arabesque No. 1, but Defaye included
additional terms for deceleration (rallentando, meno mosso, and lento) and acceleration
(plus allant and animez). While the terms are not always identical, the imitation remains
characteristic of Debussy’s tempo fluctuation. Beyond the included markings in Table 2,
Defaye instructed the trombonist to play the initial melody in a “souple et tranquille”
style, meaning “flexible and quiet.” Such a simple command reminds the performer of
the needed elasticity found in Debussy’s music. Considering its 84-measure length,
Defaye’s composition includes tempo variances on 28 of those. The longest stretch of
34
Table 3. Tempo Fluctuation – Defaye, Á La Maniére de Debussy
uncompromised tempo is merely nine measures (mm. 20–29) since the rallentando in
measure 30 disrupts the steadiness. Such diversity of movement gives the listener an
impression of improvisation throughout Á La Maniére de Debussy, while it is a
completely structured, composed piece of music.
35
CONCLUSIONS
Importance to Trombone Solo Repertoire
Jean-Michele Defaye has become a recognized composer to trombonists with his
numerous additions to the trombone solo repertoire, most notably Deux Danses (1953).
His Á La Maniére de collection offers a glimpse into the styles of prominent composers
who overlooked the trombone as a solo instrument. While several transcriptions and
arrangements of Claude Debussy’s music exist in the trombone solo repertoire, the late
French composer only used trombones for larger works such as Pelléas et Mélisande
(1895) and Images (1912).113 Although Debussy included three trombones in various
orchestral pieces, he did not consider the instrument for his solo compositions, instead
preferring piano, strings, woodwinds, and voice.
Jacques Mauger, Professor of Trombone at the Conservatoire à Rayonnement
Régional de Paris, collaborated with Jean-Michel Defaye to create Á La Maniére de
Debussy as a unique piece for the trombone solo repertoire. During the same year of
its conception, Defaye composed Jazz, No End for two trombones and jazz band,
featuring Jacques Mauger and David Taylor (classical and jazz trombonist from New
York) as soloists for its premiere at the 2001 International Trombone Festival at Belmont
University in Nashville, Tennessee on May 24, 2001.114 In reference to Á La Maniére
de Debussy, Mauger stated, “It is very important for us trombone players that we can
practice and perform pieces from a composer of a different century” who did not
compose solo works specifically for trombone; he also encourages trombonists to
113
114
Herbert, Trevor. The Trombone. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006, 179.
Flanigan, 5.
36
consider the historical context of Debussy’s music.115 Jean-Michel Defaye based the
trombone solo on “the style and the colors of Debussy’s music,” not on particular
compositions.116 Jacques Mauger expounded by saying, “Debussy’s music is rich and
poetic; colors and nuances are diverse and very stylistic. Vibrato, sweetness, and
extreme dynamics are characteristic of Debussy’s music. [His] music is very difficult to
perform [on trombone].”117 Finally, he reminisced about his trying to “add lyrics on this
beautiful melody,” further evidence of his fondness for the piece.118
Some critics might view Á La Maniére de Debussy as a classroom exercise on
imitative composition, but Defaye gifted the trombone solo repertoire with an original
work by Debussy, so to speak. The seemingly authentic rendering of Debussy’s music
challenges the trombonist to reach new standards of lyricism and musicality through the
imagination of Jean-Michel Defaye.
115
Mauger, Jacques. Electronic Interview, 28 March, 2011. Translation: Etienne Stoupy.
Ibid.
117
Ibid.
118
Ibid.
116
37
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Flanigan, Sean Gerald. From Deux Danses to Fluctuations: Compositional
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Interviews
Mauger, Jacques. Electronic Interview by Aaron Rader, 28 March, 2011. Translation:
Etienne Stoupy.
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