B E C O M I N G AFRICAN AMERICAN
I
1
2
3
4
Africa 2
Middle Passage 26
Black People in Colonial North America, 1526-1763 52
Rising Expectations: African Americans a n d the Struggle for Independence,
1763-1783 80
5 African Americans in the New Nation, 1783-1820 104
SLAVERY, A B O L I T I O N , AND T H E Q U E S T FOR FREEDOM: T H E C O M I N G
O F T H E C I V I L WAR, 1 7 9 3 - 1 8 6 1
6
7
8
9
10
136
Life in the Cotton Kingdom, 1793-1861 138
Free Black People in Antebellum America, 1820-1861 164
Opposition to Slavery, 1800-1833 192
LetYour Motto Be Resistance, 1833-1850 212
"And Black People Were at the Heart of It": T h e United States Disunites over
Slavery, 1846-1861 234
n
o
r-t
T H E C I V I L W A R , EMANCIPATION, AND BLACK R E C O N S T R U C T I O N :
T H E SECOND AMERICAN REVOLUTION
264
11 Liberation: African Americans and the Civil War, 1861-1865 266
12 T h e Meaning of Freedom: T h e Promise of Reconstruction, 1865-1868 296
13 T h e Meaning of Freedom: T h e Failure of Reconstruction, 1868-1877 322
SEARCHING FOR SAFE SPACES
348
14 White Supremacy Triumphant: African Americans in the South in the Late
Nineteenth Century, 1875-1900 350
15 Black Southerners Challenge White Supremacy, 1867-1917 378
16 Conciliation, Agitation, a n d Migration: African Americans in the Early
Twentieth Century, 1895-1928 410
17 African Americans and the 1920s, 1915-1928 446
T H E GREAT DEPRESSION AND W O R L D W A R II
476
18 Black Protest, T h e Great Depression and the New Deal, 1929-1941 478
19 Black Culture and Society in the 1930s and 1940s, 1930-1949 508
20 T h e World War II Era and Seeds of a Revolution, 1936-1948 536
T H E BLACK REVOLUTION
21
22
23
24
568
T h e Freedom Movement, 1954-1965 570
T h e Struggle Continues, 1965-1980 604
Black Politics, White Backlash, 1980 to Present 638
African Americans at the Dawn of a New Millennium
Hine, Darlene Clark
The African-American odyssey
2010
668
digitalisiert durch:
IDS Basel Bern
in
Preface
xxix
Ö
BECOMING AFRICAN AMERICAN I
Ö
o
1
Africa
2
A Huge and Diverse Land 4
The Birthplace of Humanity 4
Ancient Ovilizations and Old Arguments
Egyptian Civilization 7
Kush, Meroe, and Axum 8
West Africa 9
Ancient Ghana I O
6
V O I C E S ,.; AI Bakri DescribesKurnbi Saleh and Ghana's
Royal Court 12
T h e Empire of Mali, 1230-1468 12
T h e Empire of Songhai, 1464-1591 13
T h e West African Forest Region 14
Kongo and Angola 17
West African Society and Culture 17
VOICES
r+A
Dutch Visitor Describes Benin City
Families and Villages
18
18
PROFILE - w NzingaMbemba (Affonsol) ofKongo
Women 20
Class and Slavery 20
Religion 20
Art and Music 21
Literature: Oral Histories, Poetry, and Tales
Conclusion 22 Recommended Reading 23
Bibliography 23 Retracing the Odyssey 24
Research, &" Interact 24
ig
21
Additional
Review,
2
Middle Passage
26
The European Age of Exploration and Colonization
The Slave Trade in Africa 29
The Origins of the Atlantic Slave Trade 30
Growth of the Atlantic Surve Trade 32
The African-American Ordeal Irom Captnre to
Destination 3 4
28
The Crossing 35
The Slavers 36
A Slave's Story 37
A Captain's Story 37
PROFILE - ^ - Olaudah Equiano
The African-American Impact on Colonial Culture 69
Slavery in the Northern Colonies 70
Slavery in Spanish Florida and French Louisiana 71
African Americans in Spain's Northern Borderlands 7 2
Black Women in Colonial America 73
Black Resistance and Rebellion 74
38
Provisions for the Middle Passage 39
Sanitation, Disease, and Death 39
VOICES ^ TheJournal ofa Dutch Slaver
Resistance and Revolt at Sea
Conclusion 76 Recommended Reading 76
Bibliography 77 Retracing the Odyssey 79
Research, & Interact 79
40
41
PROFILE -~+~- Ayuba Sulieman Diallo ofBondu
Cruelty
Additional
Review,
42
43
African Women on Slave Ships
43
VOICES ^ * ~ Dysentery (or the Bloody Flux)
44
landing and Säle in the West Indies 44
Seasoning 45
The End of the Journey: Masters and Slaves in the
Americas 47
The Ending ofthe Atlantic Slave Trade 48
Rising Expectations: African
Americans and the Struggle for
Independence, 1763-1783 80
The Crisis of the British Empire
83
PROFILE * - * - Crispus Attucks
85
Conclusion 48 Recommended Reading 49 Additional
Bibliography 49 Retracing the Odyssey 50 Review,
Research, & Interact 50
The Dedaration of Independence and African
Americans 86
The Impact of the Enlightenment 86
African Americans in the Revolutionary Debate 87
VOICES ,.k Boston'* Slaves Link Their Freedom to
* American Liberty 88
Black People in Colonial
North America, 1526-1763
Black Enlightenment 89
Phillis Wheatley 89
The Peoples of North America 55
American Indians 55
The Spanish Empire 56
T h e British and Jamestown 56
Africans Arrive in the Chesapeake 57
Black Servitude in the Chesapeake §8
Race and the Origins of Black Slavery 5 8
T h e Emergence of Chattel Slavery 59
PROFILE ^*~- Anthony Johnson
61
VOICES „,
ADescriptioncfimEi^teetnlhCentury
* Virginia PUmtation 64
Slave Life in Eariy America 65
Miscegenation and Creotizatioa 6 6
The Origins of Afrkaii-Anierican Cahure
The Great Awakening 67
VOICES _ Phillis Wheatley on Liberty and Natural
* Rights 90
Benjamin Banneker 90
African Americans in the War for Independence
Black Loyalist.'» 92
Black Patriots 93
The Revolution and Emandpation 95
The Revolutionary Impact 96
The Revolutionary Promise 98
60
Bacon's Rebellion and American Slavery
Plantation Slavery, 1700-1750 61
Tobacco Colonies 61
Low-Country Slavery 62
52
66
Conclusion 99 Recommended Reading 100
Bibliography 101 Retmcing the Odyssey 102
Research, & Interna 102
jo
109
Language, Music, and Folk Literature 6 8
PROFILE - * - Elizabeth Freeman
11 o
V O I C E S ^ A Poem byJupiter Hammen
Additional
Review,
African Americans in the New
Nation, 1783-1820 io4
Forces for Freedom 106
Northern Emancipation 107
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787
91
Antislavery Societies in the North and the Upper
South 111
Manumission and Self-Purchase 112
The Emergence of a Free Black Class in the South 112
Forces for Slavery 113
The U.S. Constitution 113
Cotton 114
The Louisiana Purchase and African Americans in the
Lower Mississippi Valley 114
Conservatism and Racism 115
The Emergence of Free Black Communities 116
The Origins of Independent Black Churches 117
VOICES
, Richard Allen on the Break xvith St. George's
* Church 118
The First Black Schools
VOICES
1
119
AbsalomJones Petitions Congress on Behalf of
Fugitives Facing Reenslavement 120
Black Leaders and Choices
122
Migration 123
Slave Uprisings 123
T h e White Southern Reaction 124
The War of 1812 125
The Missouri Compromise 127
Conclusion 127 Recommended Reading 127 Additional
Bibliography 129 Retracing the Odyssey 130 Review,
Research, & Interact 130
VlSUALIZING THE PAST
• * T H E VOYAGE TO SLAVERY
134
134
SLAVERY, ABOLITION, AND THE
QUEST FOR FREEDOM: THE COMING
OF THE CIVIL WAR, 1793-1861 136
6
Life in the Cotton Kingdom,
1793-1861 138
The Expansion of Slavery
151
PROFILE -~*^ William Ellison
152
Slave Families 152
Children 153
VOICES j.% A Slave Oumer Describes a New Purchase 154
141
Slave Population Growth 142
Ownership of Slaves in the Old South
*59
Conclusion 160 Recommended Reading 160 Additional
Bibliography 161 Retracing the Odyssey 162 Review,
Research, & Interact 162
Free Black People in Antebellum
America, 1820-1861 164
Demographics of Freedom 166
The Jacksonian Era 168
Limited Freedom in the North 169
Black Laws 169
Disfranchisement 171
Segregation 172
Black Communities in the Urban North
T h e Black Family 174
T h e Struggle for Employment 175
T h e Northern Black Elite 175
173
V O I C E S ; , Maria W. Stewart on the Condition cf Black
Workers 176
Black Professionals 177
Artists and Musicians 177
Black Authors 178
140
PROFILE -->— Solomon Northup
T h e Domestic Slave Trade
7
133
I 33
I N T E R P R E T I N G T H E PAST
•41 T H E MIDDLE PASSAGE
VOICES ^ Frederick Douglass on the Readiness of
' Masters to Use the Whip 150
Sexual Exploitation 154
Diet 155
Clothing 156
Health 157
The Socialization of Slaves 157
Religion 158
The Character of Slavery and Slaves
121
PROFILE -*— James Forten
Slave Labor in Agriculture 143
Tobacco 143
Rice 144
Sugar 145
Cotton 145
Other Crops 147
House Servants and Skilled Slaves 148
Urban and Industrial Slavery 148
Punishment 150
PROFILE - ^
143
Stephen Smith and William Whipper,
Partners in Business and Reform 180
African-American Institutions
Black Churches 179
Schools 181
VOICES
177
The Response of the Antislavery Movement 216
The American Ami-Slavery Society 217
Black and Women's Antislavery Societies 217
The Constitution of the Pittsburgh African
' Education Society 182
f%
Voluntary Associations 183
Free African Americans in the Upper South 183
Free African Americans in the Deep South 185
Free African Americans in the Far West 187
Conclusion 187 Recommended Reading 188 Additional
Bibliography 189 Retracing the Odyssey 190 Review,
Research, & Interact 190
8
Opposition to Slavery,
1800-1833 192
A Country in Turmoil 194
Political Paranoia 195
The Second Great Awakening 196
The Benevolent Empire 196
Abolitionism Begins in America !97
From Gabriel to Denmark Vesey 198
The American Colonization Society 199
Black Nationalism and Colonization 199
Black Opposition to Colonization 201
Black Abolitionist Women 201
The Baltimore AUiance 2 0 2
PROFILE
VOICES
Maria W. Stewart
203
A Black Woman Speaks Out on the Right to
* Education 204
/v
David Wsdker's Appeal
Nat Turner 205
204
VOICES , , William Watkim Opposes Cokmization 206
PROFILE ~*~ David Walker
206
Conclusion 206 Recommended Reading 208 Additional
Bibliography 209 Retracing the Odyssey 210 Review,
Research, & Interact 210
9
Let Your Motto Be Resistance,
1833-1850 2 1 2
A Rising Tide ofRacism and Violence 214
Antiblack and Antiabolitionist Riots 215
Texas and the War against Mexico 215
PROFILE ~*~ Henry Highland Gamet
The Black Convention Movement
PROFILE --+- Sojourner Truth
219
220
Black Community Institutions 2 20
Black Churches in the Antislavery Cause
Black Newspapers 221
Moral Suasion 222
VOICES
218
221
x Frederick Douglass Describes an Awkward
* Situation 222
The American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society and the
Liberty Party 223
A More Aggressive Abolitionism 224
The Amistad and the Creole 224
The Underground Railroad 225
CanadaWest 226
Black Militancy 226
Frederick Douglass 227
Revival of Black Nationalism 229
VOICES ,
Martin Ä. Delany Describes His Vision ofa
' Black Nation 228
Conclusion 230 Recommended Reading 230
Bibliography 231 Retracing the Odyssey 232
Research, & Interact 232
Additional
Review,
10
"And Black People Were at the
Heart of It": The United States
Disunites over Slavery,
1846-1861 234
The Lure of the West 236
Free Labor versus Slave Labor 236
The Wümot Proviso 237
California and the Compromiseof 1850
Fugitive Slave Laws 238
Fugitive Slaves 240
William and Ellen Graft 241
Shadrach
237
241
PROFILE ,. Mary Ellen Pteamnt
242
The Battle at Christiana 243
VOICES , : African Americans Respand to the Fugitive
' Slave Law 240
PROFILE
Thomas Sims, a Fugitive Slave
243
Anthony Burns 243
Margaret Garner 244
The Rochester Convention, 1853 244
Nativism and the Know-Nothings 245
Unde Totn's Cabin 245
The Kansas-Nebraska Act 246
Preston Brooks Attacks Charles Sumner 247
The Dred Scott Decision 248
Questions for the Court 248
Reaction to the Dred Scott Decision 249
White Northemers and Black Americans 249
The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 250
Abraham Lincoln and Black People 250
PROFILE -*— Martin R. Delany
251
Union Policies toward Confederate Slaves 269
"Contraband" 269
Lincoln's Initial Position 270
Lincoln Moves toward Emancipation 271
Lincoln Delays Emancipation 271
Black People Reject Colonization 272
The Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation 272
Northern Reaction to Emancipation 273
Political Opposition to Emancipation 273
The Emancipation Proclamation 273
Limits of the Proclamation 273
Effects of the Proclamation on the South 274
Black Men Fight for the Union 275
T h e First South Carolina Volunteers 276
John Brown and the Raid on Harpers Ferry 251
Planning the Raid 252
The Raid 252
T h e Reaction 253
The Election of Abraham Lincoln 254
Black People Respond to Lincoln's Election 254
Disunion 255
PROFILE ^*— Elizabeth Keckley
Conclusion 256 Recommended Reading 257
Bibliography 257 Retracing the Odyssey 258
Research, & Interact 258
V O I C E S ^ Lewis Douglass Describes the Fighting at
' Battery Wagner 282
VlSUALIZING THE PAST
• * SPEAKING O U T AGAINST SLAVERY
260
260
I N T E R P R E T I N G T H E PAST
• * SLAVE REBELLIONS
Additional
Review,
262
262
T H E C I V I L WAR, EMANCIPATION,
AND BLACK RECONSTRUCTION:
T H E SECOND AMERICAN
REVOLUTION 264
11
Liberation: African Americans
a n d the Civil War, 1861-1865 266
Lincoln's Ahns 268
Black Men Volunteer and Are Rejected
269
277
T h e Second South Carolina Volunteers 278
T h e 54th Massachusetts Regiment 278
Black Soldiers Confront Discrimination 279
Black Men in Combat 280
T h e Assault on Battery Wagner 280
Olustee 281
T h e Crater 282
The Confederate Reaction to Black Soldiers 282
T h e Abuse and Murder of Black Troops 282
T h e Fort Pillow Massacre 283
V O I C E S ^ A Black Nurseon the Horrors of War and the
* Sacrifice ofBlack Soldiers 284
Black Men in the Union Navy 284
liberators, Spies, and Guides 284
Violent Opposition to Black People 285
T h e New York City Draft Riot 285
PROFILE
Harrtet
Tubman
286
Union Troops and Slaves 287
Refugees 287
Black People and the Conf ederacy 287
T h e Impressment of Black People 288
Confederates Enslave Free Black People 288
Black Confederates 288
Personal Servants 289
Black Men Fighting for the South 28g
Black Opposition to the Confederacy 290
T h e Confederate Debate o n Black Troops 290
Conclusion 292 Recommended Reading 292
Bibliography 293 Retracing the Odyssey 294
Research, & Internet 294
Additional
Review,
13
12
The Meaning of Freedom: The
Promise of Reconstruction,
1865-1868 296
The Meaning of Freedom: The
Failure of Reconstruction,
1868-1877 322
The End of Slavery 298
Differing Reactions of Former Slaves
Reuniting Black Families 299
Land 300
Special Field Order #15 300
The Port Royal Experiment 300
The Freedmen's Bureau 301
Constitutional Conventions 325
Elections 325
Black Political Leaders 325
The Issues 327
Education and Social Weifare 327
Civil Rights 327
299
PROFILE -•*- The Gibbs Brothers
VOICES w A Freedmen's Bureau Comnussioner Teils
' Freed People What Freedom Means 302
Southern Homestead Act 302
Sharecropping 302
The Black Church 303
Education 305
Black Teachers 306
Black Colleges 307
Response of White Southerners
PROFILE -~+- Charlotte E. Ray
The West
308
331
332
VOICES ^ An Appeal for Help against the Klan
334
The Fifteenth Amendment 334
The Enforcement Acts 334
The North and Reconstruction 335
The Freedmen's Bank 336
VOICES. ^ A Northern Black Woman on Teaching
JFreeamen 310
VOICES ,., Black Leaders Support the Passage «f a Civil
C
Rights Act 336
310
PROFILE " * ~ Aaron A. Bradley 3«»
Black Conventions 512
The Radical Republicans 312
Radical Proposais 312
The Freedmen's Bureau Bill and Öie Civil Rights Bill
Johnson 's Vetoes 314
The Fourteenth Amendment 314
Radical Reconstruction 315
Universal Manhood Sufirage 315
Black Politics 315
Sit-ins and Strikes 316
The Reaction of White Southerners 316
329
PROFILE ~+- The Rollin Sisters
307
Violence 308
The Crusade for Political and Civil Rights 309
Presidential Reconstruction under Andrew
Johnson 309
Black Codes
Economic Issues 329
Land 329
Business and Industry 329
Black PoUticians: An Evaluation
Republican Factionalism 330
Opposition 330
The Ku Klux Klan 330
328
313
Conclusion 317 Recommended Reading 51& Additional
Bibliography 319 Retraäng the Odyssey 320 Review,
Research, & interact 320
The CivO Rights Act of 1875 337
The End of Reconstruction 337
Violent Redemption 337
The Shotgun Policy 338
The Hamburg Massacre 338
The "Compromise" of 1877 339
Concluskm 340 Recommended Reading 341 Additional
Bibliography 341 Retracing the Odyssey 343 Review,
Research, &1 Internet 343
VlSUALIZING THE PAST
344
4t HIGHE« EDUCATION FOK AFRICAN AMERICANS
BEGINS
344
INTERPRETING THE PAST
4t REALITIES OF FREEDOM
346
346
VOICES i s Cash and Debtfor (he Black Cotton Farmer 370
SEARCHING FOR SAFE SPACES
348
African Americans and Southern Courts
Segregated Justice 372
The Convict Lease System 373
14
White Supremacy Triumphant:
African Americans in the South
in the Late Nineteenth Century,
1875-1900 350
Politics 353
Black Congressmen 353
Democrats and Farmer Discontent 354
The Colored Farmers' Alliance 355
The Populist Party 355
Disfranchisement 356
Evading the Fifteenth Amendment 356
Mississippi 357
South Carolina 357
T h e Grandfather Clause 358
The "Force Bill" 358
Segregation 358
Jim Crow 358
Segregation on the Railroads 359
Plessy v. Ferguson 359
VOICES -f% Majority and Dissenting Opinions on Plessy v.
' Ferguson 360
PROFILE -+~ ida Wells Barnett
Migration 366
The Liberian Exodus 366
The Exodusters 366
Migration within the South
Black Farm Families 368
Sharecroppers 368
Renters 369
Crop Liens 369
Peonage 369
Black Landowners 369
367
372
Additional
Review,
15
Black Southerners Challenge
White Supremacy, 1867-1912 378
Social Darwinism 380
Education and Schools 381
Segregated Schools 382
The Hampton Model 382
Washington and the Tuskegee Model
Critics of the Tuskegee Model 384
VOICES
383
Thomas E. Miller and the Mission ofthe Black
* LandGrant College 384
H
Church and Religion 385
The Church as Solace and Escape 386
The Holiness Movement and the Pentecostal
Church 387
Roman Catholics a n d Episcopalians 387
388
Red versus Black: The Buffalo Soldiers 389
Discrimination in the Army 390
T h e Buffalo Soldiers in Combat 390
Civilian Hostility to Black Soldiers 391
BrownsvUle 392
African Americans in the Navy 392
The Black Cowboys 392
The Spanish-American War 393
Black Officers 394
364
365
370
371
Conclusion 373 Recommended Reading 374
Bibliography 375 Retracing the Odyssey 376
Research, & Interact 376
PROFILE ~*~ Henry McNeal Turner
Streetcar Segregation 360
Segregation Proliferates 361
Racial Etiquette 361
Violence 362
Washington County, Texas 362
The Phoenix Riot 362
The Wilmington Riot 362
The New Orleans Riot 363
Lynching 363
Rape
White Resentment of Black Success
PROFILE ^ ~ - Johnson C. Whittaker
V O I C E S fe Black Men in Batüe in Cuba
394
The Philippine Insurrection 394
A Splendid Lüde War 395
After the War 395
Would Black Men Fight Brown Men? 396
Black Businesspeople and Entrepreneurs 396
African Americans and Labor 397
Unions 397
PROFILE - * - Maggie Lena Walker
Strikes
399
398
Black Professionals
Medicine 400
399
PROFILE ~ * ~ Jane Edna Hunter and the Phillis
Wheatley Association
423
PROFILE ^-*w- A Man and His Horse: Dr. William
Key and BeautifulJim Key 401
The Law 402
Music 402
Ragtime 402
Jazz 402
The Blues 403
Sports 403
Jack Johnson 404
Baseball 404
Basketball and Other Sports
College Athletics 405
424
PROFILE '--*- Lewis Latimer, Black Inventar
425
Fraternities and Sororities 425
Presidential Politics 426
Frustrated by the Republicans 426
Woodrow Wilson 426
Black Men and the Military in World War I 426
The Punitive Expedition to Mexico 426
405
PROFILE •—•*— George Washington Carver and
Ernest Everettjust
427
Conclusion 405 Recommended Reading 406
Bibliography 407 Retracing the Odyssey 408
Research, äf Interact 409
Additional
Review,
16
Conciliation, Agitation, and
Migration: African Americans in
the Early Twentieth Century,
1895-1928 410
Race and the Progressive Movement 413
Booker T. Washington's Approach 413
Washington's Influence 414
The Tuskegee Machine 415
Opposition to Washington 415
W. E. B.DuBois 416
VOICES j ^ W. E. B. Du Bois on Bring Black in
* America 416
The Souls of Black Fold 417
The Talented Tenth 417
The Niagara Movement 418
TheNAACP 418
Using the System 418
Du Bois and The Crisis 419
Washington versus the NAACP
The Black Elite 424
The American Negro Academy
The Upper Class 424
World War I 428
Black Troops and Officers 428
Discrimination and Its Effects 429
Du Bois's Disappointment 430
Race Riots 430
Atlanta, 1906 431
Springfield, 1908 432
EastSt. Louis, 1917 432
Houston, 1917 433
Chicago, 1919 434
Elaine, 1919 434
Tulsa, 1921 434
Rosewood, 1923 435
The Great Migration 435
Why Migrate? 435
Destinations 437
Migration from the Caribbean 437
Northern Communities 437
VOICES i A Migrant to the North Writes Home
Chicago 438
Harlem 440
Families 440
Conclusion 441 Recommended Reading 442
Bibliography 443 Retracing the Odyssey 445
Research, & Interact 445
Additional
Review,
17
41 g
PROFILE - - * - Mary Church Terrett
438
420
The Urban League 421
Black Women and the Q u b Movement 421
T h e N A C W - L i f t i n g a s W e a i m b ' ' 422
Phillis Wheatley Clubs 422
Anna Julia Cooper and Black Feminism 422
Women 's Suffrage 423
African Americans and the 1920s,
1915-1928 446
Strikes and the Red Scare 449
Varieties of Racism 449
Scientific Racism 449
The Birth ofa Nation 449
The Ku Klux Klan 450
Protest, Pride, and Pan-Africanism: Black
Organizations in the 1920s 451
TheNAACP 451
VOICES
The Negro National Anthem: "LiftEvery Voice
* and Sing" 452
/v
"Up You Mighty Race": Marcus Garvey and the UNIA 452
PROFILE -~*—James Weldon Johnson
453
VOICES ^ Marcus Garvey Appeals for
' a New African Nation 456
Bessie Smith
VOICES
A Black Sharecropper Details Abuse in the
' Administration ofAgricultural Relief 494
Ä
Organized Labor and Black America
VOICES
Additional
Review,
499
Debating Communist Leadership 500
The National Negro Congress 501
The Tuskegee Study 502
V O I C E S -^ Hoboingin Alabama
502
Conclusion 503 Recommended Reading 503 Additional
Bibliography 504 Retracing the Odyssey 506 Review,
Research, & Interact 506
472
472
INTERPRETING THE PAST
497
f> A Philip Randolph Inspires a YoungBlack
' Activist 498
PROFILE ^*-^ Angelo Herndon
VlSUALIZING THE PAST
495
The Communist Party and African Americans 498
T h e International Labor Defense and the "Scottsboro
Boys" 499
466
Conclusion 469 Recommended Reading 470
Bibliography 470 Retracing the Odyssey 471
Research, & Interact 471
492
PROFILE —*^ Mary McLeod Bethune
Sports 467
Rübe Foster 467
College Sports 468
4t G O I N G BACK TO AFRICA
PROFILE ^"0— Robert C. Weaver
Black Social Scientists a n d the New Deal 493
African Americans and the Second New Deal 493
Pan-Africanism 456
Labor 457
T h e Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters 458
A Philip Randolph 458
The Harlem Renaissance 459
Before Harlem 460
Writers and Artists 461
White People and the Harlem Renaissance 463
Harlem and the Jazz Age 464
Song, Dance, and Stage 465
PROFILE -+^
T h e Failureof Relief 484
Black Protest during the Great Depression 485
T h e NAACP and Civil Rights Struggles 485
Du Bois Ignites a Controversy 485
Challenging Racial Discrimination in the Courts 486
Black Women and Community Organizing 487
African Americans and the New Deal 489
Roosevelt and the First New Deal, 1933-1935 489
Black Officials in the New Deal 491
474
4t THE RETURN OF SUBJUGATION: 'JUMPINGJIM CROW"
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
AND WORLD WAR II 474
18
Black Protests, The Great
Depression and the New Deal,
1929-1941 476
The Catacrysm, 1929-1933 480
Härder Times for Black America 481
Black Businesses in the Depression: Collapse and
Survival 482
474
19
Meanings of Freedom Culture
and Society in the 1930s and
1940s, 1930-1949 5o8
Black Culture in a Midwestern City 511
The Black Culture Industry and American Racism
The Music Culture from Swing to Bebop 511
PROFILE - w
CftorKe Parker, 1920-1955
511
514
Populär Culture for the Masses: Comic Strips, Radio,
and Movies 515
The Comics 515
Radio and Race 515
Race, Representation, a n d the Movies 516
The Black Chicago Renaissance 518
PROFILE ~*~ Langston Hughes
520
Gospel in Chicago: Thomas Dorsey
521
VOICES j*» Margaret Walker on Black Culture 522
Chicago in Dance and Song: Katherine Dunham and
Billie Holiday 523
Black Visual Art 524
VOICES
Billie Holiday, 1915-1959 and "Strange
' Fruit" 525
is
Black Literature 526
Richard Wright's Native Son 526
James Baldwin Challenges Wright 527
Ralph Ellison and Invisible Man 528
African Americans in Sports 528
Jesse Owens and Joe Louis 528
Breaking the Color Barrier in Baseball 528
Black Religious Culture 529
The Nation of Islam 530
Father Divine and the Peace Mission Movement
Conclusion 531 Recommended Reading 531
Bibliography 532 Retracing the Odyssey 534
Research, & Interact 535
Black Workers: From Farm to Factory 551
The FEPC during the War 552
Anatomy of a Race Riot: Detroit, 1943 553
The Gl Bill of Rights and Black Veterans 554
Old and New Protest Groups on the Home Front 554
PROFILE - * - Bayard Rustin (1910-1987)
555
The Transition to Peace 556
The Cold War and International Politics 556
African Americans in World Affairs: W. E. B. Du Bois
and Ralph Bunche 557
Anticommunism at Home 557
Paul Robeson 558
Henry Wallace and the 1948 Presidential
Election 558
Desegregating the Armed Forces 559
530
Additional
Review,
Conclusion 560 Recommended Reading 560
Bibliography 561 Retracing the Odyssey 563
Research, äf Interact 563
VlSUALIZING T H E PAST
Additional
Review,
564
4t AFRICAN-AMERICAN SOLDIERS IN WORLD WAR II
20
INTERPRETING THE PAST
564
566
4t T H E GREAT DEPRESSION AND WORLD WAR II
x.66
The World War II Era and Seeds
o f a Revolution, 1936-1948 536
THE BLACK REVOLUTION 568
On the Eve of War, 1936-1941 539
African Americans and the Emerging World
Crisis 539
A. Philip Randolph and the March on Washington
Movement 540
Executive Order 8802 542
Race and the U.S. Armed Forces 542
21
The Freedom Movement,
1954-1965
PROFILE - * - Steven Robinson and the Montford
Point Marines
543
The 1950s: Prosperity and Prejudice 573
The Road to BÄOHW 573
Constance Baker Motley and Black Lawyers in the
South 573
Brown and the Coming Revolution 575
Brown II 577
Massive White Resistance 577
The Lynching of Emmett Till 578
Institutional Racism in the American Military 544
The Costs of Military Discrimination 544
Soldiers and Civilians Protest Military
Discrimination 545
Black Women in the Struggle to Desegregate the
Military 546
The Beginning of Military Desegregation 547
VOICES Ä Wiüiam H. Hostie Resigns in Prohsst 548
The Tuskegee Airmen 548
The Transformation of Black Sokiiere
549
VOICES ^ Separate bat Equal Tiahnng for Black Army
• Nursest 550
PROFILE - ^
Mahd K. Staupers (1899-1989)
Black People on the Home Front
551
570
551
VOICES
Letter ofthe Montgomery Womens Political
' Council toMayorW.A.Gayle
578
?i
New Forms of Protest: The Montgomery Bus
Boycott 579
The Roots of Revolution 579
Rosa Parks 580
Montgomery Improvement Association 580
Martin Luther King, Jr. 580
The Inner-City Rebellions 613
Watts 613
Newark 614
Detroit 614
T h e Kemer Commission 614
Difficulties in Creating the Great Society 615
Johnson and the War in Vietnam 616
Black Americans and the Vietnam War 616
Project 100,000 617
Johnson: Vietnam Destroys the Great Society 617
PROFILE -K- Rosa Loiuse McCauley Parks
(1913-2005)
581
Walking for Freedom 582
Friends in the North 582
Victory 583
No Easy Road to Freedom: 1957-1960 583
Martin Luther King and the SCLC 583
Civil Rights Act of 1957 583
Little Rock, Arkansas 584
Black Youth Stand Up by Sitting Down 584
Sit-ins: Greensboro, Nashvüle, Atlanta 584
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee 586
Freedom Rides 586
PROFILE -'•*--• Robert Parris Moses
VOICES , si They CaOedEach Other aBloods" 618
i
PROFILE
587
A Sight to be Seen: The Movement at High Tide 588
The Election of 1960 588
The Kennedy Administration and the Civil Rights
Movement 588
Voter Registration Projects 589
The Albany Movement 589
VOICES , a BerniceJohnson Reagan on How to Raise a
1
Freedom Song 590
The Birmingham Confrontation 590
A Hard Victory 591
The March on Washington 591
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 593
Mississippi Freedom Summer 593
T h e Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party 594
Selma and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 595
PROFILE -*+-• Farmie Lau Homer (1917-1977)
Conclusion 598 Recommended Reading 599
Bibliography 599 Retracing the Odyssey 601
Research, & Interact 602
596
Additional
Review,
22
Muhammad Ali
King: Searching for a New Strategy
King on the Vietnam War 620
King's Murder 620
The Black Arts Movement and Black
Consciousness 621
619
620
PROFILE - - • - Lorraine Hansberry (1930-1965)
623
Poetry and Theater 624
Music 624
The Second Phase of the Black Student
Movement 625
T h e Orangeburg Massacre 625
Black Studies 626
The Election of 1968 627
The Nixon Presidency 627
T h e "Moynihan Report" and FAP 628
Busing 628
Nixon and the War 629
Nixon's Downfall 629
The Rise of Black Elected Officials 630
T h e Gary Convention a n d the Black Political
Agenda 630
Black People Gain Local Offices 631
Economic Downturn 631
Black Americans and the Carter Presidency 631
Black Appointees 632
Carter's Domestic Policies 632
The Struggle Continues,
1965-1980 6o4
Conclusion 633 Recommended Reading 633 Additional
Bibliography 633 Retracing the Odyssey 636 Review,
Research, & Interact 636
The Fading Dream of Racial Integration: White Backlash
and Black Nationalism 606
Malcolm X 607
Malcolm X's New Departure 608
Stokely Carmichael and Black Power 608
The National Council of Churches 609
23
VOICES ,, The Black Panther Party PUttform 610
The Black Panther Party 611
Police Repression and the FBFs COINTELPRO
Prisoners* Rights 6 1 2
6i 1
Black Politics, White Backlash,
1980 to Present 638
Ronald Reagan and the Conservative Reaction
Dismantiing the Great Society 641
Black Conservatives 642
T h e Thomas-Hill Controversy 642
641
Debating the "Old" and the "New" Civil Rights
Affirmative Action 644
643
VOICES ^ Black Women in Defense ofThemselves
644
The Backlash 645
Black Political Activism in the Age of Conservative
Reaction 647
The King Holiday 647
TransAfrica and the Anti-apartheid Movement 647
Jesse Jackson and the Rainbow Coalition 648
Policing the Black Community 650
Human Rights in America 651
The Clinton Presidency 651
"It's The Economy, Stupid!" 652
Clinton Signs the Weifare Reform Act 653
Republicans Challenge Clinton 653
Black Politics in the New Millennium: The Contested
2000 Presidential Election 654
Gore v. Bush 654
Republican Triumph 655
George W. Bush's Black Cabinet 655
Education Reform: No Child Left Behind 655
Reparations 656
HIV/AIDS in America and Africa 656
September 11, 2001 656
War 657
The 2004 Presidential Election 657
President Bush's Second Term 658
The Iraq War 658
Hurricane Katrina and the Destruction of Black New
Orleans
658
P R O F I L E •-**-- Barack Obama
659
Barack Obama, President of the United Sattes 660
Obama versus McCain 660
2008 Election Results 662
President Barack Obama's First 100 Days 662
PROFILE ~+~ Michelle LaVaughn Robinson
Obama 663
Conclusion 664 Recommended Reading 664 Additional
Bibliography 665 Retracing the Odyssey 666 Review,
Research, 6? Internet 666
24
African Americans at the Dawn
of a New Millennium 668
Progn»andPoverty:lDcoine,rJhicalkin,«dHesAh 671
High Achieving African Americans 671
African Americans* Growing Economic Security 672
T b e P e r s s t e n c e o f Black Poverty 673
Racial Incarceration 6 7 3
Education One-Half Century after Brown 674
Challenging Blown 674
The Health Gap 675
African Americans at the Center of Art and Culture 676
The H i p H o p Nation 677
Origins of a New Music: A Generation Defines Itself 678
Rap Music Goes Mainstream 678
PROFILE - * - Bob and Ziggy Marley and Black
Internationalism
679
Gangsta Rap 680
African-American Intellectuals 680
Afrocentricity 681
African-American Studies Matures 682
Black Religion at the Dawn of the Millennium 683
Black Christians on the Front Line 683
Tensions in the Black Church 684
Black Muslims 685
Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam 685
Millennium Marches 686
Complicating Black Identity in the Twenty-First
Century 687
Immigration and African Americans 688
Black Feminism 689
VOICES
/%
E. Lyon Harris
690
I
Gay and Lesbian African Americans
691
Conclusion 691 Recommended Reading 692
Bibliography 692 Retracing the Odyssey 694
Research, & Interact 694
Additional
Review,
Epilogue:
"A Nation witkin a Nation "
696
VOICES fr The Election cf Barack Obama
697
Marcus Rediker, Barack Obama and the Legacy of
Slavery 697
Dariene Clark Hine, Mystic Chords of Memory 698
Henry Louis Gates Jr., A Pragmatic Precedent 700
Representative John Lewis, The Warriors of Peace 702
The HoooraWeWilhamJ. Clinton, Forever on ajow-ney 703
Ekwueme Michael Therwell, Barock Obama: Child ofthe
Movement 704
John Bracey, Barock Obama and me^BdovedCommumty" 706
Sonia Sanchez, It's Bern a Long Time Coming 707
Martha Biondi, Was FJecting a BUuk President the Lltimate
Goal ofthe Civil Rights Movement? 708
ComelWest, The Age of Obama 708
Juan Williams, "Change is Possible* 709
Donna Brazile, A Promixe of Change 71 o
Appendix A-i
Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts G-i
Credit« G t
Index I 1