The Geological Society of America
Special Paper 520
2016
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
James K. Adamson
Northwater International, 104 Woodbridge Lane, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514, USA
Gérald Jean-Baptiste
Foratech Environnement, Varreux 1, Route Nationale 1, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
W. Javan Miner
Northwater International, 960 Clocktower Drive, Suite F, Springfield, Illinois 62704, USA
ABSTRACT
Groundwater resources in Haiti are considered abundant, with greater than 2
billion cubic meters per year (2 × 109 m3/yr) of renewable resources and 56 billion
cubic meters of reserves. However, groundwater is not available everywhere and
many aquifers are often low yielding, discontinuous, or are at risk from saltwater
intrusion, overexploitation, reduced recharge, and contamination. Economic development, population growth, and climate change are factors that will increase stress on
groundwater resources. Sector leadership, capacity building mechanisms, integrated water policy, and a clear regulatory framework are urgently needed to manage,
regulate, and protect Haiti’s groundwater resources to achieve long-term security.
Accomplishing this requires technical support and practical references that summarize the groundwater resources and their vulnerabilities, complexities, and opportunities. This chapter includes a summary of knowledge, information, and experience
to aid the development and management of Haiti’s groundwater resources, as well
as provides an overview of its complex hydrogeology. Five broad hydrogeological
environments are differentiated: (1) Unconsolidated alluvium accounts for 26% of
Haiti’s land area—it includes a large portion of the country’s groundwater reserves
and is the most exploited for irrigation, industry, and potable water; (2) interior sedimentary units account for 32% of Haiti’s land area and include up to 25% of the
country’s groundwater reserves—springs from carbonate aquifers are significant
sources of water supply throughout the country; (3) reef carbonate accounts for 6%
of Haiti’s land area, with locally available coastal karst aquifer systems serving some
of the most rural, driest, and impoverished areas of Haiti; (4) semiconsolidated units
account for 21% of Haiti’s land area—their low groundwater potential limits rural
and urban water use throughout the country; and (5) igneous bedrock accounts for
15% of Haiti’s land area—its discontinuous groundwater reserves are an important
source of water in rural and mountainous areas.
Adamson, J.K., Jean-Baptiste, G., and Miner, W.J., 2016, Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti, in Wessel, G.R., and Greenberg, J.K., eds., Geoscience for
the Public Good and Global Development: Toward a Sustainable Future: Geological Society of America Special Paper 520, p. 1–22, doi:10.1130/2016.2520(14).
For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. © 2016 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
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Adamson et al.
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is one of Haiti’s most important resources,
supplying at least 90% of the country’s potable water demand
via springs and wells (WHO and UNICEF JMP, 2012). Haiti
is estimated to have up to 2.76 billion cubic meters per year
(2.76 × 109 m3/yr) of renewable groundwater resources and
over 56 billion cubic meters (m3) of groundwater reserves
(Döll and Fiedler, 2008; United Nations, 1991; MDE, 2001).
However, Haiti’s water availability has been reported to be the
lowest of any country in the world (Sullivan, 2002). At least
34% of the population overall, and over 50% of the rural population, lack access to improved sources of water (WHO and
UNICEF JMP, 2012).
Groundwater resources are available within a range of
hydrogeological environments throughout the country. Some
of Haiti’s primary aquifers are overexploited, while others are
undiscovered or underutilized; it is estimated that less than 45%
of the country’s renewable groundwater resources are consumed
(World Bank, 2014; Margat and van der Gun, 2013). This can
potentially increase to an unsustainable 126% by 2050 in a
scenario that considers future population growth and achievement of economic metrics similar to the Dominican Republic.
Haiti’s groundwater resources are inadequately understood and
poorly managed with regard to their critical role in establishing long-term water and food security. This chapter responds to
the need for a summary and understanding of Haiti’s groundwater resources to improve public health, support economic
development, and to achieve the United Nations’ Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) for water access (United Nations,
2014). It also aims to promote sector leadership, actionable
water policy, and monitoring to achieve the long-term water
security necessary for Haiti to develop as a sovereign nation.
This chapter incorporates published literature and unpublished
or private data, well logs, and consultant reports. Experience,
primary knowledge, and observations from the authors are integrated throughout the paper; the three authors have a combined
45 years of experience studying and developing groundwater
resources in Haiti.
STUDY AREA
Physical Setting and Climate
Haiti encompasses 27,750 km2, encompassing the western one third of Hispaniola, the rest of which is taken up by the
Dominican Republic. Hispaniola is the largest island in the Caribbean, bounded to the north by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by
the Caribbean Sea, and separated from Cuba by the Windward
Passage and from Puerto Rico by the Mona Passage. Haiti is
composed of five islands; mainland Haiti is part of the island of
Hispaniola, and there are four satellite islands: la Gonâve, la Tortue, les Cayemites, and la Vache (Fig. 1). Five major east-west–
trending anticlinal mountain ranges cover nearly 70% of Haiti,
with the highest point of Pic la Selle reaching an elevation of 2680
m. Flat and low-lying plains and plateaus support a majority of
Haiti’s population and economic activity but comprise only 30%
of the country. The geologic structure of the anticlinal mountain ranges and their associated synclinal plains and plateaus are
important in controlling the flow and availability of groundwater.
Haiti has a lower-latitude subtropical climate influenced by
its position in the Caribbean and mountainous topography. The
average annual temperature is 24 °C, and temperatures can range
from 12 °C to 37 °C, depending on the season and elevation
(CIAT, 2013). Mean historical precipitation is 1430 mm/yr (representing the period from 1960 to 1990; World Bank, 2015). Precipitation varies spatially throughout the country, ranging from
350 to over 3000 mm/yr (MDE, 2012; GRET, 1990). Figure 2A
displays the general distribution of annual precipitation in Haiti
with shading and Figure 2B displays the relative distribution of
groundwater recharge, which is influenced by precipitation, rock/
soil permeability, land slope, and land cover. The geographic
variation in precipitation is caused primarily by the orographic
effect, whereby the mountain ranges intersect easterly trade
winds, and the air masses expel moisture as they rise. A large
portion of Haiti’s annual precipitation occurs during well-defined
rainy seasons that are seasonally variable throughout the country
(Table A1). The total annual rainfall of Haiti can be interpreted as
surprisingly abundant; however, the effectiveness of maintaining
soil moisture is essentially nullified by prevailing high temperatures, dry season droughts, and deforestation (Taylor, 1949d; see
footnote 1). Haiti is subject to severe droughts and large floods,
the magnitude of which are intensified by deforestation and
denudation of soils throughout the country. Haiti is also located
in the Atlantic hurricane corridor and experiences hurricanes and
tropical storms that produce extreme winds and excessive rainfall
(Mora et al., 2010).
Geology
The nature, presence, and flow of groundwater are influenced by Haiti’s geology. The water-bearing capacity within
specific geologic formations depends on the mineral composition, rock structure, and the geologic processes that initially
formed and further modified the formations (Barlow, 2003). The
regional geology of Haiti has been characterized by Woodring et
al. (1924), Butterlin (1960), and BRGM (1988). A geologic map
was produced in 1989 and is currently the most detailed countryscale geologic map (CERCG, 1989). Florentin and Maurrasse
(1981, 1982), Lewis and Draper (1990), and Mann et al. (1991,
1995) have led characterization of Caribbean geology, structure,
and evolution relating to Haiti.
Haiti’s geology is complex due to its tectonic, volcanic, and
stratigraphic history. The island of Hispaniola consists of 11
1
Based on experience and knowledge of authors, or derived from private and
privileged data made available to support this publication, contributors are identified in the acknowledgment section.
Figure 1. Hydrogeological environments in Haiti. Data sets are modified from CERCG (1989) and UNDP (1990).
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
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Adamson et al.
Figure 2. (A) Annual precipitation distribution of Haiti modified from GRET (1990). Shading illustrates the spatial variation of precipitation,
which can range from 350 to over 3000 mm. (B) Visualization of groundwater recharge distribution in Haiti based on methods outlined by
Kennessey (1930), Farina and Gaspari (1990), and Barazzuoli et al. (1989). The analysis incorporates annual precipitation, land slope, geologic permeability, and vegetation cover.
island-arc terranes and one oceanic plateau terrane that have been
accreted together to form the island, with each terrane importing
its unique characteristics (Mann et al., 1991). Significant periods
of uplift, island-arc plutonism, volcanism, and metamorphism
accompanied the convergence of terranes during Cretaceous
and Paleogene time. Haiti experienced a major period of strikeslip faulting during the Paleogene and continues to experience
transpression and uplift to the present day (Lewis and Draper,
1990; Mann et al., 1995).
Sedimentary (60%), volcanic (10%), and volcanosedimentary (5%) geology, ranging from the Early Cretaceous
to Pleistocene in age, covers a majority of Haiti’s land surface;
the remainder is blanketed with recent, unconsolidated deposits.
Pleistocene, Neogene, and Paleogene limestone and carbonate
rock are the dominant surficial rock types in Haiti. Table A2 outlines the age structure of Haiti’s surficial geology and associated
hydrogeological environments.
GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
Groundwater is available within pore spaces, fractures, weathered zones, cavities, and other openings within the many geologic
formations found throughout the country. The local availability of
groundwater is dependent on the water-bearing properties of the
subsurface geology and its ability to receive recharge.
A general map that illustrates hydrogeological environments of Haiti is shown in Figure 1, which is modified based
on the 1:250,000 scale geological map of Haiti (CERCG, 1989)
and the 1:250,000 scale hydrogeological map produced by the
United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 1990). Figure 1
includes modifications based on additional studies and investigations (Adamson and Dykstra, 2007, 2009; FAO, 1969; Spruijt,
1984; Adamson, 2014b; Coletti et al., 2014). There are five broad
categories of hydrogeological environments differentiated in this
paper, and these are outlined in Table 1 and Figure 1. Each category presents unique characteristics and challenges to consider
when developing and managing groundwater supplies throughout the country.
The interior sedimentary and unconsolidated alluvium environments are the largest in spatial extent and most populated—a
majority of Port-au-Prince and Cap-Haitien metropolitan areas
are within these environments (Table 1). Semiconsolidated, igneous, and reef carbonate environments encompass smaller spatial
extents and have lower population densities; however, they are
important because they include high-poverty rural areas where
water supply and infrastructure are often less available.
Table 2 outlines a general water budget for Haiti based on
data from the World Bank, the United Nations, and a globalscale model of groundwater recharge by Döll and Fiedler (2008).
Haiti’s renewable groundwater resources are estimated to be up
to 2.76 billion m3/yr, or 99.5 mm/yr (Döll and Fiedler, 2008);
other estimates of Haiti’s groundwater recharge are as low as
2.1 billion m3/yr, or 77 mm/yr (United Nations, 1991). Groundwater recharge to aquifers is difficult to quantify due to temporal and spatial variability (Scanlon et al., 2002); this is especially
the case in Haiti because the geology and precipitation distribution are variable, and the effects of deforestation and soil loss
alter the water budget as conditions continue to worsen. Figure
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
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TABLE 1. LAND AREAS AND POPULATION OF HYDROGEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS
Average population
density*
Hydrogeological
Area
Area
Estimated population*
environment
(km2)
(%)
(people/km2)
(×106)
Unconsolidated alluvium
7215
26
330
2.4
Interior sedimentary
8880
32
400
3.6
Reef carbonate
1729
6
260
0.5
Semiconsolidated
5828
21
325
1.9
Igneous
4330
15
380
1.6
Note: Geology coverage was modified from CERCG (1989) and inclusive of 1:100,000 scale mapping of unconsolidated alluvial deposits
performed by the authors.
*Population density data derived from United Nations (2010).
2B presents countrywide groundwater recharge distribution
based on methods originally outlined by Kennessey (1930) and
expanded upon by Barazzuoli et al. (1989), Farina and Gaspari
(1990), and Grillone et al. (2013). The analysis was developed
as a visualization tool by the authors to assist in regional groundwater assessment throughout the country. It is estimated that
5.4%–6.9% of Haiti’s precipitation recharges groundwater; this
recharge was much higher during the early 1900s, when forested
lands encompassed 60% of Haiti (William, 2011). While deforestation reduces the loss of water from transpiration, it increases
surface runoff and soil loss, leading to reduced groundwater infiltration. Presently, forest cover accounts for only 1.5% of Haiti
(Singh and Cohen, 2014). For comparison purposes, Döll and
Fiedler (2008) estimated the Dominican Republic’s groundwater
recharge to be in the range of 8.6% of annual precipitation, or
121 mm/yr. The Dominican Republic has forest cover of 40.8%
for the period of 2000–2014 (World Bank, 2014).
Greater than 90% of Haiti’s potable water supply originates
from groundwater; the remainder is derived from surface-water
sources. This groundwater abstraction is from springs and wells
that are accessed directly by populations or that supply small to
large water systems. Wells and springs also supply a majority of the
water for tanker trucks that service homes and businesses throughout the country in the absence of reliable water infrastructure.
Countrywide groundwater abstraction is difficult to quantify
due to the lack of monitoring and record keeping. Estimates based
on various sources and datasets suggest that annual groundwater
abstraction for domestic, industry, and irrigation use ranges from
600 million to 1 billion m3/yr (MTA, 1983a, 1983b; Barthelemy,
1991; Knowles et al., 1999; CTE-RMPP et al., 2012; Margat
TABLE 2. HAITI WATER BUDGET ESTIMATES
Total
Parameter
(×106 m3/yr)
Annual water budget estimates
Precipitation (1430 mm/yr)
39,711
Evapotranspiration
26,711
Runoff
10,237
Groundwater recharge (77–99.5 mm/yr)
2138–2763
Note: Data compiled from United Nations (1991), the World Bank
(2014), and Döll and Fiedler (2008).
and van der Gun, 2013; see footnote 1; Ruth Angerville, Direction Nationale de l’Eau Potable et de l’Assainissement en Haïti
[DINEPA], 2014, personal commun.). Many high-capacity wells
and large springs throughout the country are not utilized or are
underutilized; thus, actual abstraction could be much less than
what existing infrastructure may suggest. A majority of the larger
regional groundwater withdrawals occur in the unconsolidated
alluvium and interior sedimentary environments.
Springs and Wells
Most of the knowledge regarding the aquifers in Haiti has
been developed through the characterization of springs and
the drilling and testing of wells. Unpublished or private-well
and water-quality data and reports were made available that
include nearly 2000 wells and springs. Over 3000 additional
well locations have been documented throughout the country by
the authors and contributors; however, data from many of these
wells are incomplete. Much of this information is the product
of long-term coordination with drilling organizations and privileged involvement on public and private projects throughout the
country; the data are applied throughout this paper to support the
characterization of the various hydrogeological environments.
The distribution, flow characteristics, and water quality of
the springs enable aquifers to be generally understood in the
absence of well data (Weight, 2008). Springs occur throughout
Haiti, often emanating from solution cavities in limestone or
at contacts of a porous rock with a less porous or impervious
rock (Woodring et al., 1924). Springs also seep from fractures
and faults that provide a conduit for water from deeper, confined aquifers to reach the surface. Coastal springs are common
where aquifers are discharging to the sea and water tables are
close to the surface. In addition to the many freshwater springs,
thermal, sulfur, and mineral springs also occur throughout Haiti
(Woodring et al., 1924).
There are nearly 1000 mapped springs in Haiti that flow at
rates greater than 0.5 L/s (Table 3; UNDP, 1990). Thousands of
additional springs throughout the country exist that flow less than
0.5 L/s, are intermittent, or are brackish. A review of spring data
suggests that springs discharge over 800 million m3 of freshwater
per year, and much of this is not consumed.
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Adamson et al.
TABLE 3. FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF MAPPED SPRINGS IN HAITI
Flow rate
Estimated cumulative flow
(L/s)
Estimated quantity of freshwater springs
(m3/d)
0.5–0.9
>450
30,000
1–10
>300
125,000
11–100
>150
661,000
101–1000
>40
1,640,000
1000+
>3
205,000
Note: Adapted from data from United Nations Development Program (1990) and geographic information system data provided by the
Centre National de l’Information Géo-Spatiale.
A majority of Haiti’s springs originate from karst and fractured limestone aquifers of the interior sedimentary environment. Haiti’s administrative departments, such as Ouest, Nippes,
Sud, Grand-Anse, and Nord, have a high density of springs due
to the prevalence of carbonate geology, topographic relief, and
favorable recharge (Figs. 1 and 2B). The departments with lower
spring density have large portions of igneous (Nord-Est) or semiconsolidated environments. The unconsolidated alluvium environment does not produce many springs due to moderate relief
and topography; however, confined aquifer zones can produce
seepage and flowing artesian wells in some areas. Many small,
low-yield, warm, and often nonpotable alluvial springs exist in
steep terrain with alluvial valley fills.
Freshwater springs are important water sources for rural
communities, towns, and cities throughout Haiti. Many population centers are situated based on access to springs as a water
supply. Port-au-Prince is near a series of large springs that collectively supply nearly 130,000 m3/d of water from the Massif
La Selle carbonate aquifer of the interior sedimentary environment (CTE-RMPP et al., 2012); these are post-2010 earthquake
estimates. Cap-Haitien, Jacmel, Jeremie, Miragoane, Saint Marc,
Hinche, Port-de-Paix, and Petit Goave are a few of the other
major cities that rely on springs to support their water supply
(Ruth Angerville, DINEPA, 2014, personal commun.). CapHaitien and Port-au-Prince augment their supply with wells.
Not inclusive of the major metropolitan centers, several hundred springs throughout the country have infrastructure that captures water and distributes it to a public water system with one
or more water access points. These smaller water systems, supplied by wells or springs with more than one location of access,
are referred to as Systèmes d’Approvisionnement en Eau Potable
(SAEPs), and they serve ~1 million people throughout Haiti.
The 2010 earthquake negatively affected flow at some springs
and damaged some wells throughout the Leogane, Grand Goave,
and Petit Goave areas. Many of the impacted springs have recovered at some level; however, there are exceptions. The Magandou
spring near Grand Goave decreased in flow following the earthquake, has continued to reduce since, and is presently dry for
large portions of the year. This has created a serious problem for
the area as it supplies a water system for several villages. Sous
Gran Remise near Titanyen reportedly experienced a significant
increase in flow after the earthquake. Water started flowing from
the hillsides immediately above the spring, prompting an eager
post-earthquake project to capture the additional flow and distribute to nearby communities. The spring soon returned to its
previous condition, rendering another poorly informed water
investment in Haiti.
Private, municipal, and community water wells throughout
Haiti provide potable, nonpotable, and irrigation water supply
from all categories of aquifers and hydrogeological environments. Large percentages of the wells are within the unconsolidated alluvium and interior sedimentary environments. Information about existing water wells is difficult to obtain, as there are
limited systems to track and database water wells.
Many of the wells in Haiti are community wells located in
rural and urban public areas, along roads that are relatively easy
to access. Such wells are often equipped with hand pumps and
have been installed by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
or through multilateral funded programs. Some wells are managed and maintained by organized communities, NGOs, or a
local community stakeholder. However, many such wells lack a
financially sustainable management and maintenance program
and are often in disrepair (Aliprantis, 2011). Haiti Outreach, an
NGO specializing in community water-supply development, estimates that approximately half of public wells in the Centre and
Nord departments without a management program are inoperable, whereas 96% of 206 wells (or 198 wells) with a management program are operational (K. Neil Van Dine, Haiti Outreach,
2014, personal commun.).
Large municipalities and irrigation districts, such as Port-auPrince, Gonaives, Les Cayes, Leogane, and Cap-Haitien, have
multiple high-yield wells with submersible or semisubmersible
electric pumping systems, a majority of which are completed in
aquifers of the unconsolidated alluvium environment. The Portau-Prince municipal well network has a capacity of 63,000 m3/d,
and proposed well additions may increase that to 116,700 m3/d
(CTE-RMPP et al., 2012). The Cap-Haitien system includes four
wells that supply over 8000 m3/d, and the Gonaives system of
five wells supplies over 13,000 m3/d (Ruth Angerville, DINEPA,
2014, personal commun.). Not inclusive of the major metropolitan areas in Haiti, there are estimated to be at least 60 SAEPs
with electrical well-pumping systems (DINEPA, 2014). Private
wells also exist throughout the country that serve businesses,
industry, agriculture, residences, schools, and churches.
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
HYDROGEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS
There are five broad categories of hydrogeological environments in Haiti (Fig. 1; Table 1). The environments are categorized
in a manner similar to other regional hydrogeological publications
(MacDonald et al., 2008). Plate 1 includes several photographs
that represent the hydrogeological environments. Throughout
this section, well yields are quantified in a manner consistent
with terminology previously defined for characterizing groundwater resources in Haiti (Knowles et al., 1999). These quantitative yield terms are as follows: very large (>50 L/s), large (>25–
50 L/s), moderate (>10–25 L/s), small (>4–10 L/s), very small
(>1–4 L/s), meager (>0.25–1 L/s), and unsuitable (<0.25 L/s).
Hand-pump wells typically require a yield of at least 0.25 L/s,
which establishes the cutoff between a suitable or unsuitable
yield. Many of the wells in Haiti are drilled to support hand
pumps or smaller yields; a large majority are not designed, constructed, or sited in a manner to maximize yields. This factor
should be considered throughout this section, especially in terms
of documented well yields.
Unconsolidated Alluvium Hydrogeological Environment
Spatial Extent and Overview
The unconsolidated alluvium hydrogeological environment
covers ~26% of Haiti’s land area and includes major population
centers, industrial hubs, and agricultural areas (Fig. 1; Table 1).
It is one of the most expansive and the most exploited groundwater environments in the country, and it is also the most studied
and best understood (Taylor and Lemoine, 1949a, 1949b, 1949c,
1949d, 1949e, 1950; Waite, 1960; Logan, 1962; Barthelemy,
1991; Knowles et al., 1999). Unconsolidated aquifers in this
environment contain between 75% and 84% of Haiti’s groundwater reserves (Knowles et. al., 1999; MDE, 2001). Haiti’s largest alluvial aquifers are listed in Table 4. The environment is most
prevalent in low-lying plains and valleys, where Quaternary-age
deposits, consisting of gravels, sands, silt, and clay, have been
deposited by river, floodplain, or marine processes. The aquifers
are generally shallow, easily drilled, provide good groundwater
potential, and have desirable water quality. This hydrogeological
environment, however, can be vulnerable to groundwater depletion, contamination, and impacts of changes in climate and land
use. The need for sound groundwater policy and management is
critical for these aquifers.
Groundwater Characteristics
The unconsolidated alluvium aquifers consist of multiple
water-bearing layers of sand and gravels, each typically ranging
in thickness from 0.5 to 12 m and separated by less-permeable
confining beds. Multiple production zones are often necessary to
achieve larger well yields (Taylor and Lemoine, 1949a, 1949b,
1950; Knowles et al., 1999). Larger alluvial aquifers in Haiti can
be greater than 80 m thick and are potentially over 300 m in areas
of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac and Plaine de Leogane (Taylor and
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Lemoine, 1949a, 1949b; Northwater International, 2012). Inactive Haitian American Sugar Company wells in the Plaine du
Cul-de-Sac produce water from up to six separate layers of sand
and gravel (Taylor and Lemoine, 1949a).
Nearly 400 well records from around the country are summarized in Table A3 and partially support the characterization
of the unconsolidated alluvium environment. Well depths average 41 m, and the deepest known well is 190 m in the Plaine du
Cul-de-Sac (Taylor and Lemoine, 1949a). The Plaine des Cayes
aquifer is a deep confined system, and up to 250 m of drilling can
be necessary to reach the water production zones in the northern
portion of the aquifer. The southern coastal portion of the Plaine
des Cayes aquifer near Torbeck is known to produce free-flowing
artesian wells from gravel beds between 30 and 80 m in depth
(K. Neil Van Dine, Haiti Outreach, 2013, personal commun.). In
many of the alluvial aquifers in Haiti, the potentiometric surface,
or the level to which water in a confined aquifer rises in a well,
is shallower than the depth of production zones, as the water is
confined beneath less permeable silt and clay layers. Static water
levels average 20 m depth and range from free-flowing artesian to
65.5 m throughout the country. Many alluvial systems have water
tables that fluctuate seasonally; the Plaine de Leogane aquifer
can experience 3 m of seasonal variation (see footnote 1). Plate
1A shows alluvium that is representative of the permeable and
porous layers that store and yield groundwater.
Yields from wells vary considerably throughout the country,
ranging from unsuitable to very large (Table 5). Of the records
reviewed, yields ranged from 0.1 to 150 L/s and averaged 2.9 L/s.
The highest yields are reported in the Plaine de Gonaives, Plaine
du Cul-de-Sac, and Plaine du Nord; some data from these aquifers are summarized in Table A3. As a general rule, groundwater
potential is considered good throughout a majority of the environment; however, aquifer variability is a common characteristic.
For example, two irrigation wells in Quartier Morin (Plaine du
Nord), in very close proximity and constructed identically, produced yields of 15 and 95 L/s (Waite, 1960).
Water quality is primarily a calcium bicarbonate type.
In some coastal areas, sodium chloride or sodium bicarbonate
hydrochemistry is expected. Alluvial aquifers not impacted by
saltwater intrusion typically produce water that is hard to very
hard, with total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations less than
800 mg/L and pH ranging from 7 to 9. Water quality between
water-bearing zones can also be variable. For example, in the
Plaine du Cul-de-Sac aquifer, conductivity in separate production zones ranged from 280 µs/cm to over 1000 µs/cm (V3 Companies, 2012). Shallower production zones are more vulnerable
to biologic and environmental contamination, while the deeper
units are better protected but may produce water that is harder
and with higher TDS concentrations.
Additional Considerations
Water tables of alluvial aquifers in populated areas have
been steadily decreasing due to overexploitation; this is the
case in the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac aquifer, where conductivity
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Adamson et al.
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
Plate 1 (opposite page). (A) Alluvial outcrop near Cabaret in the Plaine
de l’Arcahaie represents a locality with good groundwater potential
within the unconsolidated alluvium hydrogeological environment.
Rounded white limestone clasts originate from interior sedimentary
limestone that flanks many of Haiti’s mountain ranges. (B) Fractured
limestone beds of Eocene age in the northwest peninsula. Outcrop
represents a locality of good groundwater potential within the interior
sedimentary hydrogeological environment. (C) Mudstone and siltstone
marl of Upper Miocene age near Thomonde in the Plateau Centrale
outcrop represents locality of poor groundwater potential common
within the semiconsolidated hydrogeological environment. Note the
oyster bed in the central portion of the outcrop; leveling rod is 3 m
for scale. (D) Recently uplifted coralliferous karst limestone exposed
near Bombardopolis in the northwest peninsula represents the reef
carbonate hydrogeological environment. The limestone is typically
white to tan color, the weathered surfaces are often gray and pitted.
(E) Moderately weathered basalts of post Oligocene age near the village of Oranges in the Chaine des Matheux mountain range. Outcrop
represents a locality of poor to moderate groundwater potential in the
igneous hydrogeological environment. Rock hammer is 33 cm for
scale. (F) An anticline fold and adjacent fault controlled valley are
examples of the complex tectonic and structural features that affect
the availability and flow of groundwater in Haiti. Photo shows folded
Oligocene-age limestone with thin beds of siltstone and sandstone in
the Chaine des Matheux.
Hydrogeological
environment
9
TABLE 4. MAJOR AQUIFERS IN THE UNCONSOLIDATED ALLUVIUM
ENVIRONMENT
Name
Key population centers
Plaine du Cul-de-Sac
Port-au-Prince metropolitan area
Plaine du Nord & Massacre
Cap-Haitien, Limbe, Caracol, Fort
Transboundary*
Liberte, Ouanaminthe
†
Artibonite Intermountain
Plaine de l’Artibonite
Mirebalais
Vallee de l’Artibonite
Plaine de Gonaives
Gonaives
Plaine de Jacmel
Jacmel metropolitan area
Plaine des Cayes
Les Cayes, Torbeck
Plaine de Aquin
Aquin
Plaine de Leogane
Leogane, Gressier
Les Trois Rivieres
Port-de-Paix
*The Massacre Transboundary aquifer refers to the internationally
designated coastal alluvial aquifer that lies within both Haiti and the
Dominican Republic.
†
The Artibonite Intermountain aquifer refers to the internationally designated
groundwater systems that share boundaries between Haiti and the Dominican
Republic along the Artibonite basin. This includes unconfined alluvial
groundwater in addition to groundwater within semiconsolidated and interior
sedimentary environments.
TABLE 5. SUMMARY OF HYDROGEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS
Yields of
Groundwater successful wells*
Groundwater development
Groundwater targets
potential
(L/s)
applications
and considerations
Thick layers of sand and gravel
Unconsolidated
alluvium
Moderate to
high
0.1 to 150
(x– = 2.9)
Potable water, regional
agriculture, and industry
Lesser-exploited aquifers
Avoid development of coastal aquifers without
management to control saltwater intrusion
Beds of sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, and hard
fractured marls and claystones
Semiconsolidated
Reef carbonate
Low
Low to
moderate
0.1 to 25
– = 0.8)
(x
0.1 to 22
– = 2.7)
(x
Rural areas, small communities,
local agriculture, and industry
Areas with uniform geological structure and minimal
folding are more favorable; anticlines are good drilling
areas for deeper targets
Fracture and karst zones within coralliferous limestone
and sufficient recharge areas
Rural areas, small communities,
local agriculture, and industry
Avoid development of coastal aquifers without
management to control saltwater intrusion
Fracture and karst zones within massive and bedded
limestone carbonates
Interior
sedimentary
Moderate to
high
0.1 to 50
– = 1.8)
(x
Potable water, regional
agriculture, and industry
Porous or fractured sandstones and conglomerates
Avoid nonfractured and unweathered bedrock and beds
of chalk, shale, and argillite
Igneous
Low to
moderate
0.1 to 5
– = 0.6)
(x
Rural areas, small communities,
local agriculture, and industry
Fracture and weathered zones, faults, joints, and
intercalated beds between lavas
– are based on data sets reviewed in this chapter. Many of the wells in Haiti are drilled to support hand pumps or smaller
*Average yields (x)
yields; a large majority are not designed, constructed, or sited in a manner to maximize yields.
10
Adamson et al.
of groundwater is also increasing (see footnote 1). In the lower
Plaine de l’Artibonite, brackish water is found as far inland as
15 km from the coast (UNDP, 1990). This could be attributed to
the marine origin of the sediments or the low pressure head of
the aquifer, resulting, in part, from irrigation wells. The Plaine
du Nord and Massacre Transboundary aquifers in the Nord and
Nord-Est departments are also experiencing saltwater intrusion
(see footnote 1). The groundwater in some coastal areas can be
brackish and potentially unsuitable for potable, agricultural, or
industrial use without treatment.
Some areas simply do not produce suitable quantity or quality of groundwater. For example, the large alluvial plain in the
northwest peninsula that extends from Jean Rabel to Port-de-Paix
has poor groundwater potential. The alluvium can be greater than
100 m thick, but it is composed of fine-grained silt and clay with
low permeability that does not yield suitable quantities of water
(Taylor and Lemoine, 1949c; Bruce Robinson, ODRINO-UEBH,
2014, personal commun.; see footnote 1). In areas where permeable zones are sufficient to yield water, it is often brackish and
unsuitable for potable or even irrigation use (Taylor and Lemoine, 1949c; V3 Companies, 2007; Bruce Robinson, ODRINOUEBH, 2014, personal commun.). Similar situations are known
to exist in areas of the Plateau Centrale and the Plaine de l’Arbre
in the northwest peninsula (HARZA, 1980; see footnote 1). In
such plains and valleys of poor groundwater potential, the geology of the contributing watersheds often consists of fine-grained,
semiconsolidated bedrock, wherein the more consolidated geologic materials necessary to develop continuous beds of sand and
gravel alluvium are limited or unavailable.
Interior Sedimentary Hydrogeological Environment
Spatial Extent and Overview
The interior sedimentary hydrogeological environment covers ~32% of Haiti’s land area and includes over 3.5 million people (Fig. 1; Table 1). It is the most expansive and the second most
utilized groundwater environment in Haiti; its carbonate aquifers
are estimated to store up to 25% of the country’s groundwater
reserves (MDE, 2001). Named after the mountain ranges where
the rocks are exposed, aquifers within the interior sedimentary
environment are most prevalent in mountainous areas, along valley edges, and within plateaus of higher elevations. Groundwater is considered discontinuous, and its potential can range from
abundant to scarce. This variability is due to the presence or
absence of fracture and karst networks, the porosity of the rock,
the geological structure, and the recharge areas.
A majority of Haiti’s springs are fed from the interior sedimentary aquifers, and the mountainous settings make gravity
distribution common. Unimproved free-flowing natural springs
are primary water supplies for rural populations and small villages, while many larger springs are captured and delivered
to concentrated population centers. Table 6 shows major cities within each of the major interior sedimentary aquifers and
their associated use for water supply. Wells, mostly equipped
with hand pumps, are abundant throughout the environment and
serve significant populations in rural areas, villages, and towns.
Most of the wells that have been installed in carbonate aquifers
are private or community hand-pump wells; records of those
wells are limited.
The water-bearing geology is predominately Paleogene- to
Cretaceous-age sedimentary carbonate rock that includes karst and
fractured limestone that is massive to thin bedded (BME, 1993;
Woodring et al., 1924). Plate 1B illustrates a rock outcrop of fractured limestone that is considered to have good groundwater potential. Detrital sandstones, conglomerates, and marl are also prevalent in some areas and may support groundwater systems. Lower
groundwater potential occurs in unweathered or nonfractured carbonate bedrock and in shale, argillite, and chalk formations that
exhibit unfavorable porosity and permeability. The geology of the
interior sedimentary environment is complex due to varying depositional environments and extended history of uplift, folding, faulting,
and weathering; such factors make the hydrogeology and groundwater flow difficult to characterize (Fig. 3).
Groundwater Characteristics
Throughout most of the inhabited areas within this environment, the presence of groundwater can be investigated by drilling
boreholes that range from 30 to 200 m depth. However, drilling
depths up to 600 m could be necessary in high ridge and mountainous areas to reach regional zones of saturation (Taylor and Lemoine, 1949e; V3 Companies and Haiti Outreach, 2009). Drilling
depths are dependent on topography, landscape position, and the
thickness of confining rock or soils that may overlie the aquifers.
A small data set of over 150 well records from around the
country is summarized in Table A3 and partially supports the
characterization of the interior sedimentary environment. Well
TABLE 6. MAJOR INTERIOR SEDIMENTARY AQUIFER
SYSTEMS
Notable population
Major uses of spring
Name
centers
flow (m3/d)
Port-au-Prince
130,000*
Massif La Selle
metropolitan area
Jacmel
4500†
Miragoane
2900†
Massif de la Hotte
Petite Goave
3060†
Jeremie
1300† (6000)§
Chaine des Matheux
St. Marc
9600†
Cap-Haitien
1100†
Massif du Nord
Port-de-Paix
18,000†
Hinche, Ennery, St.
Montagnes Noires
Michel de l'Attalaye,
N.D.#
Dessaillines
Montagnes Nord-Ouest Jean-Rabel, Lacoma
N.D.#
*CTE-RMPP et al. (2012).
†
Ruth Angerville, Direction Nationale de l’Eau Potable et de
l’Assainissement en Haïti (DINEPA) (2014, personal commun.).
§
Water system upgrades plan to capture additional spring flow for
the Jeremie water system (Ruth Angerville, DINEPA, 2014,
personal commun.).
#
N.D.—not determined.
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
11
Figure 3. Generalized cross sections that illustrate the hydrogeological environments of Haiti; vertical scales are greatly exaggerated: (A) south to
north section through the eastern portion of Haiti, (B) section through the northwest peninsula, and (C) section through the southwest peninsula.
Figure is modified from FAO (1969) and Moliere and Boisson (1993).
12
Adamson et al.
depths range from 40 to 154 m and average 52 m; static water
levels were not consistently documented in the records, but they
range from free-flowing artesian to 137.2 m deep, averaging 28 m.
Flowing artesian conditions are a possibility in lower-lying areas
and valleys, where the aquifer is recharged from higher elevations and overlain by less-permeable rock or soils.
Well yields are variable, ranging from unsuitable to large
(Table 5). Of the records reviewed, yields ranged from 0.1 to
46 L/s and averaged 1.8 L/s. The potential for meager to moderate yields is good throughout the environment, and achieving higher-yielding wells requires targeting karst and fracture
zones and other favorable hydrogeological conditions. Groundwater yields from fractures in the bedrock are often greatest in
the upper portions of the aquifer, even though the bedrock can
exceed 1000 m thickness in some areas (Woodring et al., 1924;
BME, 1993; Butterlin, 1960). If the general magnitude of desired
yields is not produced from the upper portions of the saturated
zone, an alternate drilling location is often advised rather than
deeper aquifer penetration. The potential for successful or higher
yield wells can be significantly improved with hydrogeological
and geophysical studies. This was demonstrated in the Montagnes Nord-Ouest. An exploratory borehole targeted a fracture
system identified during the study that resulted in a yield of
46 L/s (V3 Companies, 2007).
Water quality is primarily a calcium bicarbonate type, influenced by the carbonate lithology, solution kinetics, and flow
patterns of the groundwater. The water quality is generally considered good, with TDS concentrations below 800 mg/L, and
typically ranging between 150 and 500 mg/L. Based on a waterquality data set of 42 springs and wells throughout the country,
the hardness of the groundwater ranged from 114 to 607 mg/L,
averaging “very hard” at 275 mg/L. Groundwater pH was typically higher in wells than in springs, and high concentrations
of calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate ions are common (V3
Companies and Northwater International, 2015; see footnote 1).
Iron, lead, nitrate, zinc, and coliform bacteria are the most common parameters that may approach or exceed drinking-water
guidelines for human health in this environment.
Additional Considerations
The carbonate aquifers are vulnerable to contamination
primarily due to human and animal waste and the nature of the
shallow and permeable rock in many areas. The aquifers often
lack the natural protection of overlying low-permeability confining layers. Groundwater should always be tested for biological
contamination, especially where the water table is shallow. Environmental contamination is currently limited due to the lack of
industrial activity and agriculture throughout most of these areas.
These aquifers should be considered vulnerable to urbanization,
infrastructure development, industrial growth, and the advancement of larger-scale agriculture and livestock operations.
Of the records reviewed, 13% of drilling attempts in the
interior sedimentary environment failed to produce groundwater.
Areas that lack sufficient weathering or fracturing of the rock
often contribute to failed wells. Failed well attempts also result
from improper drilling techniques, poor landscape position, inadequate recharge conditions, or the presence of unfavorable argillite, shales, chalks, and soft marls that are common throughout
the environment.
Potential regional aquifers can lie deep beneath soft carbonate chalk and marl beds of low permeability. This situation occurs
in areas near Jacmel, Jeremie, and on la Gonâve, where beds
overlying the regional aquifer can be hundreds of meters thick
and are often dry, sometimes producing meager yields from small
fractures or sand beds (Spruijt, 1984; Adamson, 2014a). Elsewhere, high ridge landforms and mountainous areas may require
significant drilling depths of up to 600 m to reach regional zones
of saturation (Taylor and Lemoine, 1949e; Northwater International, 2012). Locally recharged, shallower, perched aquifers are
often available in those areas, but they can be very difficult to find
as they are of limited size, discontinuous, and confined to specific beds, cavities, and fracture networks (Taylor and Lemoine,
1949e). This type of situation has been experienced in all of the
major aquifers, including the areas of Fort Jacques, the Pine Forest region, la Valee Jacmel, Lotorre (la Gonâve), and Beaumont
(Taylor and Lemoine, 1949e; V3 Companies and Haiti Outreach,
2009; see footnote 1).
Reef Carbonate Hydrogeological Environment
Spatial Extent and Overview
The reef carbonate hydrogeological environment covers
~6% of Haiti’s land area (Fig. 1; Table 1). Within this environment, ~500,000 people reside in mostly rural areas that are
underlain by coralliferous limestone. This is the least-expansive
and the least-utilized groundwater environment in the country,
and it is poorly characterized due to the remoteness and limited
drilling history influenced by low population densities. The reef
carbonate environment has its own category in this work because
it contains high-risk areas and deserves special consideration.
The three primary areas of reef carbonate include the
Bombardopolis Plateau of the northwest peninsula, the western portion of the island of la Gonâve, and the island of la
Tortue (Fig. 1). This geology extends to other smaller areas of
the country, such as the south coast between Jacmel and Aquin
and portions of the islands of la Vache and Cayemites in the
southwest peninsula.
The reef carbonate environment aquifers produce small
springs and support wells that serve as primary water supplies
for expansive areas. Successful wells usually produce meager to
small yields and are equipped with hand pumps or small submersible pumping systems. Contact springs provide basic water
supply for many of the populated centers of the Bombardopolis
Plateau and the island of la Tortue, including the villages of Môle
Saint Nicolas, Platon Mare Rouge, and Baie-de-Henne (DINEPA,
2014). Some of these springs are captured and delivered to population centers with gravity-fed supply lines (DINEPA, 2014). On
western la Gonâve, very few inland springs exist (Spruijt, 1984;
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
Troester and Turvey, 2004; Northwater International, 2013), and
springs flowing from coastline caverns and inland caves provide
access to the water table at or near sea elevation. Many of the
springs are brackish due to mixing with seawater and are unsuitable for potable use (Spruijt, 1984; Troester and Turvey, 2004).
The geology consists of recently uplifted plateaus and
coastal terraces of Pleistocene-age coralliferous carbonate limestone that is underlain by Miocene- or Eocene-age sedimentary
rock (Plate 1C; Troester and Turvey, 2004; Northwater International, 2013). These areas have arid and semiarid coastal climates
and reach elevations of ~500 m. The limestone supports small,
locally available, unconfined karst aquifer systems that produce
unsuitable to moderate well yields, and these are critical to meet
the needs of the rural populations and small villages. Groundwater is generally discontinuous and, as a result, freshwater can
range from locally abundant to scarce. The variability is attributed to recharge and the presence or absence of complex fracture and cavity networks beneath the zone of saturation. Most of
what is understood about the reef carbonate aquifers is based on
a few studies and data sources (Troester and Turvey, 2004; V3
Companies, 2013a; Praga-Haiti, 2013; see footnote 1). The drilling conditions are challenging due to the hard nature of the rock
and the extremely high porosity and permeability. Reef aquifers
are especially vulnerable to aquifer depletion, saltwater intrusion,
climate change, and contamination.
Groundwater Characteristics
The reef carbonates are typically exposed at the surface and
are not believed to exceed 300 m thickness in the region (Lewis
and Draper, 1990). On average, the thickness of the carbonates
ranges between 40 and 150 m, and the presence of groundwater
is typically in the lower sections or situated near sea elevation.
In west la Gonâve, logs from 13 boreholes indicate reef carbonate thickness of 85–120 m, underlain by “chalk” or “clay”
(K. Neil Van Dine, Haiti Outreach, 2011, personal commun.).
In the Bombardopolis Plateau, a series of boreholes near Platon
Mare Rouge recorded reef carbonate thickness of 95–110 m,
under which Miocene-age claystones or marls were encountered
(see footnote 1).
Data from over 90 well records from la Gonâve, the Bombardopolis Plateau, and the southwest peninsula are summarized
in Table A3 and partially support the characterization of the reef
carbonate environment. Well depths ranged from 7 to 150 m
and averaged 40 m. The depths are largely dependent on the
land elevation above sea level, the thickness of the carbonates,
or the depths to or through less-permeable chalk beds that affect
groundwater flow. Static water levels ranged from 6 to 98 m
depth and averaged 25.8 m. In coastal areas, it is common that
the water table will be near or slightly above sea level. In upland
and inland areas, the water table, if present, is typically found
in the lower sections of the carbonate deposits. Water tables can
also fluctuate; for example, the water table at Nan Jezi on west
la Gonâve fluctuated nearly 9 m between dry and rainy seasons
in 2011 (Elices St. Louis, Haiti Outreach, 2011, personal com-
13
mun.). In some situations, deeper groundwater can be under pressure within confined carbonate beds, and so the potentiometric
surface can be shallower than the depth to the production zone.
Well yields range from unsuitable to moderate (Table 5). Of
the well records reviewed, yields ranged from 0.1 to 22 L/s and
averaged 2.7 L/s. One well drilled by Water for Life in the Bwa
Dom valley near Aquin reported a yield of 94.6 L/s, which likely
produces water from both the reef carbonate and an underlying
interior sedimentary aquifer (Water for Life, 2014).
Aquifers may be intruded by seawater, either naturally or
due to well pumping. Concentrations of chloride, sodium, magnesium, and sulfate increase toward the coast and can sometimes
occur at notable distances inland, even without pumping influences (Troester and Turvey, 2004). Troester and Turvey (2004)
reported concentrations of TDS ranging from 293 to 5000 mg/L
from eight wells on west la Gonâve, and Spruijt (1984) reported
conductivity data for 92 coastal springs on la Gonâve that ranged
from 810 to 25,000 µs/cm.
The aquifers unaffected by seawater mixing typically produce very hard water of the calcium carbonate type. Laboratory analysis of groundwater from five wells on west la Gonâve
resulted in pH values ranging from 7.66 to 7.98, TDS from 300 to
756 mg/L, and hardness (as CaCO3) from 224 to 301 mg/L (V3
Companies, 2013a). Iron concentrations can be elevated in these
aquifer systems, with concentrations up to 1.1 mg/L; three of the
five west la Gonâve wells exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 0.3 mg/L (V3 Companies, 2013a;
WHO, 2011). Although coliform bacteria were not detected in the
la Gonâve well-data set (V3 Companies, 2013a), the karst nature
of this environment makes it vulnerable to biological and environmental contamination, especially where shallow water tables
are common near the coast. This vulnerability was observed on
la Gonâve during the cholera outbreak of 2011; villages in the
reef carbonate areas experienced disproportionately higher rates
of infection (see footnote 1).
Additional Considerations
There have been many unsuccessful drilling attempts to
discover groundwater of suitable quantity and quality in the reef
carbonates, with failure rates averaging 28% (K. Neil Van Dine,
Haiti Outreach, 2011, personal commun.; Praga-Haiti, 2013;
Water for Life, 2014). Well drilling in the Bombardopolis Plateau
and west la Gonâve is especially challenging, with success rates
of only 42% (K. Neil Van Dine, Haiti Outreach, 2011, personal
commun.; Praga-Haiti, 2013).
Recharge is a major issue due to arid climates, and the small
spatial extent of the coastal terraces and recently uplifted plateaus and islands. In the northwest peninsula near Jean-Rabel,
a dissected coastal ridge does not support an aquifer due to
insufficient recharge, and groundwater is only seasonally available (Stuart Dykstra, V3 Companies, 2007, personal commun.).
Platon Mare Rouge in the Bombardopolis Plateau experiences
limited recharge due to its position along a drainage divide and
proximity to the aquifer boundary; this may explain why many
14
Adamson et al.
drilling attempts have been unsuccessful (see footnote 1). On
la Gonâve, an east-west–trending hydrologic drainage divide
splits the island, and drilling success tends to increase with
distance away from this divide (Adamson and Dykstra, 2009).
In the south of Haiti, a narrow coastal corridor of reef carbonate spans from Jacmel to Cotes de Fer, and much of this area
produces brackish groundwater due to its connectivity to the
ocean and insufficient recharge, which limits the development
of freshwater aquifers. In situations where the lower aquifer
boundary is significantly higher than sea level, a situation may
exist that promotes rapid seaward drainage of groundwater,
making it more challenging to find a saturated zone in the carbonates (Northwater International, 2013).
Greater groundwater potential at inland locations may exist
near to or slightly above sea elevation due to the high permeability of the rock formations and the hydraulic control of the ocean
(Northwater International, 2013). This observation is most likely
to occur where the reef carbonates extend beneath sea elevation,
which appears to be the case in the lower plain on the far west of
la Gonâve in the area of Bodin (Northwater International, 2013).
Also, on la Gonâve, most successful inland wells reported reef
carbonate extending beneath sea elevation with water tables near
or slightly above sea elevation (V3 Companies, 2013a). Delineating this condition around the western side of the island could
greatly support groundwater development efforts.
Semiconsolidated Hydrogeological Environment
Spatial Extent and Overview
The semiconsolidated hydrogeological environment covers
~18% of Haiti’s land area, with an estimated population over
1.8 million (Fig. 1; Table 1). The environment is located in foothills, coastal plains, and interior plateaus primarily of the Plateau Centrale, Plaine de l’Arcahaie, Nord-Ouest Department,
Valee de l’Artibonite, and the area of Port-au-Prince (Fig. 1).
Groundwater consumption occurs on a small and local scale
from hand-pump wells and small springs. Poor groundwater
potential is common in the semiconsolidated environment due
to the low porosity and permeability of the geological formations. Although groundwater resources from this environment
are scarce and discontinuous, they provide important water supplies for rural populations throughout the country where they
are locally available.
The geology consists of fine-grained, poorly consolidated
sedimentary rock that includes Miocene-age marls, gypsiferous
claystone, mudstone, shales, and siltstone that have low permeability and poor groundwater potential (Taylor and Lemoine,
1949d; Woodring et al., 1924). Plate 1D illustrates a representative outcrop of semiconsolidated deposits considered to have
poor groundwater potential. Discontinuous beds of sandstone,
conglomerate, limestone, and hard marl of local extent have
higher groundwater potential and are the formations that store
and yield groundwater. Flysch and turbidite sequences, which
fine upward from permeable sandstone, can often produce local
sources of groundwater. The tectonic processes of uplift and
mountain building are evidenced in this environment, and the
rocks around the country are commonly sharply folded with
small anticlinal and synclinal structures (Fig. 3), which restrict
groundwater flow and permeability (Taylor and Lemoine,
1949d; Woodring et al., 1924). Groundwater can be vulnerable
to depletion and water quality degradation due to low recharge
rates. The potential exists to discover deeper interior sedimentary carbonate aquifers that underlie this environment in some
areas (Fig. 3).
Populations situated within the semiconsolidated environment often secure water from wells and springs from nearby,
more favorable hydrogeological environments. The Centre
Department capital, Hinche, is situated atop semiconsolidated
deposits believed to be at least 300 m thick with low groundwater
potential; thus, Hinche supplies its water from interior carbonate springs ~10 km from the city (Northwater International and
Wasser Group, 2012). Some larger aquifer systems are present
within the semiconsolidated environment. Sandstone formations
support aquifers in the northern portion of the Plateau Centrale,
the area south of Mirebalais in the Valee de l’Artibonite, and the
Valee d’les Trois Rivieres in the northwest peninsula between
Gros Morne and Port-de-Paix.
Groundwater potential is poor in the northwest coastal
plain between Port-de-Paix and Jean Rabel (Bruce Robinson, ODRINO-UEBH, 2014, personal commun.), and in the
Plaine de l’Arbre (HARZA, 1980). The Plaine de l’Arcahaie
is also known to have low potential between Montrouis and
Titanyen (Taylor and Lemoine, 1949d; see footnote 1). Dry
wells or brackish groundwater is a common result in these
areas of the country.
Groundwater Characteristics
The thickness of the semiconsolidated deposits may exceed
1000 m in some areas and groundwater potential is limited.
Reconnaissance mapping in the Plateau Centrale suggested that
drilling depths of at least 240 m would be necessary to investigate
the presence of production zones within Late and Middle Miocene geologic units (Adamson and Paddock, 2009). Electromagnetic geophysical investigations performed in the Plateau Centrale and northwest peninsula estimated thicknesses up to 800 m
with low groundwater potential (see footnote 1).
A data set of over 200 well records from throughout the
country was reviewed to characterize the environment; some
data are summarized in Table A3. Well depths ranged from 15
to 228.7 m, averaging 62.2 m. Groundwater is confined, and
the potentiometric surface is typically shallower than the depths
of the production zones. Static water levels ranged from freeflowing artesian to 81 m and averaged 30.1 m.
Well yields range from unsuitable to small (Table 5), with
one occurrence of a moderate yield. Of the records reviewed,
yields ranged from 0.1 to 25.2 L/s and averaged 0.8 L/s. The largest yield documented was from an exploratory well that produced
25.2 L/s from deep Early Miocene limestones in the eastern
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
portion of the Plain de l’Arbre (HARZA, 1980). The next largest
yields were 6.3 and 3.6 L/s, produced from a well in Ti Pac near
Miragoane in the southwest peninsula and the Pignon municipal
well at Terre Blanche in the Plateau Centrale, respectively. These
two wells are believed to produce groundwater from Early Miocene beds. Achieving meager yields capable of supporting a hand
pump is considered an outstanding success in this environment.
Water quality ranges from brackish to fresh and is composed
of calcium or sodium cations and bicarbonate or chloride anions.
The hydrochemistry signatures are indicative of the recharge
and groundwater sustainability of the discontinuous groundwater systems. Groundwater with calcium and bicarbonate ions
may indicate higher recharge and connectivity to underlying
interior sedimentary aquifers and may lessen risk of depletion.
Sodium cations and/or chloride anions may indicate a more limited groundwater system, possibly vulnerable to depletion and
water-quality problems. Many of the production zones within the
Middle and Late Miocene formations have accumulated water
over prolonged geological time and may not receive sustainable
recharge. Wells reported to have gone “dry” may often fall into
this category.
In the Plateau Centrale, 10% of 91 hand pump wells inventoried during a 2013–2014 water-point survey noted brackish
water, and the wells were used only for nonpotable water needs
(Brian Jensen, Haiti Outreach, 2014, personal commun.). Of 14
wells sampled in the Valle de l’Artibonite in 2008, the TDS concentrations averaged 402 mg/L, with a range of 370–535 mg/L
(see footnote 1). The area of Thomassique in the Plateau Centrale is known to produce brackish groundwater from Middle and
Late Miocene formations with TDS concentrations reaching up
to 3000 mg/L and averaging 1580 mg/L (K. Neil Van Dine, Haiti
Outreach, 2011, personal commun.).
Brackish groundwater is common in the Plaine de l’Arcahaie.
Nine wells tested in July 2014 reported average TDS concentrations of 1470 mg/L, with a range of 601–4750 mg/L (see footnote 1). Analysis of water quality from two wells near Montrouis in August 2011 reported TDS concentrations of 2700 and
3410 mg/L; the water was also very hard and high in sodium,
chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and magnesium (see footnote 1).
Groundwater throughout this environment often benefits from
the natural protection provided by overlying, impermeable confining layers, and, as a result, surficial contamination is often less
of an issue as it is with the other environments.
Additional Considerations
A high percentage of unsuccessful boreholes has occurred in
Late and Middle Miocene formations throughout Haiti (Anoux
Faveus, Haiti Outreach, 2014, personal commun.; Water for Life,
2014; HARZA, 1980). Blue clay is the common terminology
used by drillers for these formations, and it is standard practice to
stop drilling if this blue clay is encountered because the groundwater potential is extremely poor.
Groundwater potential may increase with deeper drilling
depths as the probability improves to intersect permeable beds
15
or the deeper Early Miocene formations. Some failed drilling
attempts may result from insufficient drilling depths, as drilling in Haiti rarely extends beyond 80 m, which is insufficient in
many areas. The highest groundwater potential occurs along the
perimeter of plateaus, valleys, and plains near mountain ranges,
where sandstone, conglomerate, and limestone beds are more
common in the Miocene formations.
The Early Miocene formations have higher groundwater
potential, as they include more prevalent beds of sandstone,
conglomerate, and carbonate. The production zones are often
thicker, have larger recharge areas, have better quality water, and
produce greater yields. Opportunities may exist in many areas
to drill through the less desirable formations to investigate this
target. Another opportunity worth noting throughout Haiti is the
potential to drill through the semiconsolidated environment and
into the underlying interior sedimentary environment. Estimating
these depths can be challenging, and the drilling depths could be
significant; however, the results could be tremendous.
Igneous Hydrogeological Environment
Spatial Extent and Overview
The igneous hydrogeological environment encompasses
~15% of Haiti’s land area and includes over 1.5 million people
(Fig. 1; Table 1). After the reef carbonate environment, it is the
least-utilized and least-expansive hydrogeological environment
in the country. The environment is primarily situated in mountainous areas, such as the Massif La Selle, Massif de la Hotte,
Montagnes Terre Neuve, Montagnes Nord-Ouest, Montagnes
Noires, and the Massif du Nord (Fig. 1). Exposures of the igneous rocks typically exhibit poor to moderate groundwater potential due to the hard crystalline nature of the rock, limited recharge
areas, and the rock’s tendency to weather into clays. The limited and discontinuous groundwater resources that are available
within fractured, weathered, and intercalated zones are important
water supplies for some of the most rural and remote populations
in the country. There is limited information available to support
a general characterization of this environment, as there are few
studies and a limited number of wells and springs.
The intrusive and extrusive igneous geology includes andesite, dacite, granodiorite, diorite, tonalite, rhyodacite, basalts, tuff,
and ultramafic rocks that are primarily of Cretaceous age, representing some of the oldest surficial bedrock in Haiti. Intercalated and volcanogenic sedimentary rock is also included in this
environment, as many of these areas are not categorized at the
1:250,000 scale and are closely associated with mapped igneous
geology. Younger Pleistocene and Tertiary lavas and pyroclastic
debris exist in the Chaine des Matheux, Les Montagnes Noires,
and Montagnes Trou d’Eau (BME, 1993; Woodring et al., 1924)
and are often intercalated with sedimentary beds. Fractured and
weathered zones within the igneous rock have the highest groundwater potential and can support locally abundant groundwater
resources. In the intercalated sequences, groundwater potential is
highest in the sedimentary interbeds and the boundaries between
16
Adamson et al.
the igneous and sedimentary layers, which sometimes exhibit
fracturing that contributes to increased porosity and permeability. Faulting, jointing, and folding (synclines and anticlines) are
important structural features that influence groundwater flow and
potential in these environments. Plate 1E illustrates a basalt outcrop with moderate weathering and fracturing, representing poor
to moderate potential.
Groundwater Characteristics
The igneous environment is the least-studied hydrogeological environment. A data set of over 100 well records throughout
the country is summarized in Table A3 and partially supports this
characterization. Many of the well records available are from
basalt valleys located in the southwest peninsula (Water for Life,
2014). Well depths of records reviewed ranged from 12 to 155 m
and average 40 m. Static water levels ranged from near the
ground surface to 80.8 m deep, averaging 16.2 m. Well yields
range from unsuitable to small in this environment (Table 5).
Of the well records reviewed, yields ranged from 0.1 to 5.1 L/s
and averaged 0.6 L/s. Water quality is generally considered fresh
and commonly achieves drinking water guidelines for physical
parameters. Lead, iron, manganese, and arsenic are the primary
constituents of concern to consider evaluating in water supply
wells due to the geochemistry of the source rock. Lead is the
most common constituent that can approach or exceed the WHO
guideline of 0.010 mg/L (WHO and UNICEF, 2012). Table A3
summarizes water chemistry data from five wells in Perches and
Terrier Rouge of the Nord-Est Department.
Additional Considerations
Groundwater potential is variable; this is illustrated in the
Fond des Blancs area in the Sud Department, where several boreholes drilled up to 150 m into weathered zones produced unsuitable to meager yields, with one of five boreholes sustaining a
constant supply of groundwater with a yield of ~0.5 L/s. Only
several hundred meters from this area, within similar geology,
fractures encountered during drilling beneath the weathered clay
zone produced yields up to 3 L/s (see footnote 1). A well-drilling
program in Perches in the Nord-Est had several unsuccessful
attempts due to very hard igneous rock with no fracture porosity.
The most successful boreholes were in weathered and fracture
zones often underlying a weathered clay horizon (Anoux Faveus,
Haiti Outreach, 2014, personal commun.).
CONSIDERATIONS FOR GROUNDWATER
MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY
As illustrated throughout this paper, Haiti has diverse and
important groundwater resources. This section introduces some
important considerations relative to protecting and managing
groundwater resources and achieving long-term water security
(Table 7).
Climate Change
Climate change impacts may have profound side effects on
Haiti’s groundwater resources. Increased temperature, decreased
rainfall, rising sea levels, and increased cyclone strength will
impact the coastal aquifers greatest. By the end of the twentyfirst century, Haiti’s average annual temperatures may rise 1.4–
3.2 °C, annual precipitation may decrease by 10%–15%, and sea
levels may rise by 0.18–0.42 m (Solomon et al., 2007). These
conditions will exacerbate saltwater intrusion, increase demands
on groundwater, and reduce groundwater recharge.
Haiti’s urban population increased by 260% from 1982 to
2003, showing rapid growth of large cities, which are primarily in
coastal areas (CIAT, 2013). Many of these population centers are
supported by the unconsolidated alluvium hydrogeological environment and include the most utilized and overexploited aquifers
in the country.
Climate change adaptation strategies like those proposed
by CIAT (2013) will need to consider these risks and develop
water-management policies that: (1) monitor water use and
water quality in coastal aquifers to manage saltwater intrusion;
(2) direct land-use changes in critical groundwater recharge
areas; (3) develop groundwater budgets on individual aquifer and
TABLE 7. GROUNDWATER DEVELOPMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Unconsolidated
Interior
Reef
Development considerations
sedimentary
sedimentary carbonate Semiconsolidated Igneous
Saltwater intrusion in coastal areas
H
M
H
M
L
Land subsidence
H
M
L
H
L
Biological contamination
H
M
H
L
M
Agricultural and livestock contamination
H
M
H
L
M
Environmental contamination
H
M
M
L
L
Groundwater overexploitation
H
M
H
H
M
Reduced recharge due to land use and climate changes
M
H
L
M
M
Increasing of dissolved solids in groundwater not resulting from
M
L
M
H
M
seawater influences
Impacts to springs from well withdrawals, land-use changes, and
M
H
M
M
M
climate change
Contamination due to lack of standards and enforcement for drilling,
H
H
M
M
M
well completion, and well-head management
Note: L—low risk; M—moderate risk; H—high risk.
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
watershed systems that consider climate change impacts; and
(4) develop redundancy in supply as major regional aquifers
become depleted or impaired.
Groundwater Overexploitation
Groundwater overexploitation occurs when withdrawals
place excessive stress on aquifers, potentially resulting in temporary or permanent depletion, the effects of which negatively
impact the economy, human health, or the environment. The
global rate of groundwater depletion is estimated at 145 km3/yr
(Konikow, 2011), which is an unintended and unwanted consequence of the desire for economic development and improvements in human health worldwide. Besides the disruption of
groundwater equilibrium and threat of temporarily or permanently depleting critical water supplies, overexploitation of aquifers may lead to dry wells, water-quality degradation, reduced
flows from springs and streams, saltwater intrusion, reduced soil
moisture, and land subsidence. Such side effects can seriously
disrupt industrial and agricultural economies and reduce economic investment confidence; the potential effects also threaten
human health and the environment. Haiti does not have a countrywide problem with groundwater depletion currently, but several key aquifers are showing signs of overexploitation, including the Plaine de Gonaives, Plaine du Cul-de-Sac, and Plaine du
Nord–Massacre Transboundary aquifers. Overexploitation and
depletion of groundwater will become a major country-wide
issue should Haiti develop an economy similar to the Dominican
Republic. Per capita water use could potentially double.
Saltwater intrusion has occurred in some areas of the Plaine
du Cul-de-Sac, Plaine de Gonaives, and Massacre Transboundary aquifers, likely due to irrigation pumping withdrawals (MDE,
2001). Land subsidence is a potential threat in Haiti as the finegrained beds are dewatered and compressed due to decreased
hydrostatic pressure. Significant land subsidence has occurred
around the world, with some cases accumulating up to 10 m of
subsidence (UNESCO, 1984). Land subsidence along the Texas
Gulf Coast (USA) has accumulated several meters in response to
over 100 m of groundwater-level drawdown (TWB, 1982); this
has resulted in the Houston area being more vulnerable to flooding and hurricane storm surges. Some coastal zones in Haiti, such
as the Artibonite and Plaine du Cul-de-Sac, have similar geological conditions to the Texas Gulf Coast. Such land modifications
threaten the stability of buildings and infrastructure, modify
drainages, and significantly increase flood risks. Coastal areas
especially become much more vulnerable to storm surges and
sea-level rise.
Comprehensive aquifer studies and reliable monitoring programs are needed to adequately define acceptable rates of groundwater withdrawals for individual aquifer systems. It is important
not to arbitrarily manage aquifer systems in Haiti based on a
water-budget balance alone, but rather to systematically define
solutions unique to each aquifer that balance the impacts with
the benefits of groundwater use. This requires investigations to
17
better understand the individual aquifer characteristics and properties, flow-system dynamics and processes, and the potential
side effects of groundwater withdrawals. A thorough and comprehensive recharge analysis is necessary to accurately assess
Haiti’s renewable groundwater resources and define groundwater
management strategies that consider changes in climate and land
use. Additionally, alternative water supplies and aquifers should
be evaluated for many of the highly populated and agricultural
areas where current groundwater supplies are overexploited; for
example, use of interior sedimentary aquifers may help to relieve
stress on coastal alluvial aquifers.
Land-Use Change Impacts
Land-use changes that result from deforestation, overcultivation, and rapid population growth have decreased the quantity
and quality of groundwater resources in Haiti.
As previously discussed, forest cover in Haiti has decreased
catastrophically. The loss of forest cover and overcultivation
of land at a massive scale have denuded the soils necessary to
retain rainfall and recharge groundwater; this has most significantly altered the interior sedimentary and unconsolidated alluvium hydrogeological environments. Many springs and streams
throughout the country have transitioned from perennial to
ephemeral systems, which has led to increased water scarcity
and reduced arable lands. A carbonate spring near Port-au-Prince
recorded a 92% decrease in flow between 1934 and 1988 (131 to
10.9 L/s), which was attributed to land-use changes in the basin
(MDE, 2001). This is one of many examples throughout Haiti.
Deforestation and overcultivation of land also contribute to floods
of higher magnitude, and increased groundwater demand as irrigation becomes more critical to mitigate the loss of water storage
in soils. Rapid population growth and urbanization are steadily
increasing the proportion of impervious surface and reducing
groundwater recharge, while concurrently increasing the risks
for environmental and chemical contamination. This population
growth also increases the demand for arable land, further degrading the environment and the hydrological processes necessary to
support sustainable groundwater supply.
These land-use trends indicate the need for comprehensive land-use management planning and policy, which should
include: (1) studies to delineate important recharge areas and
policy to manage development and cultivation; (2) land protection prioritization, reforestation, and agroforestry in important
recharge areas; (3) soil and biomass conservation techniques in
agricultural and cultivated areas; (4) agricultural development
planning in areas with inadequate resources available; and (5)
policies and action to reduce reliance on charcoal as the primary
fuel source in rural areas.
Groundwater Contamination
An increased magnitude of contamination from chemicals,
human waste, animal waste, and agrochemicals presents a major
18
Adamson et al.
concern for the long-term sustainability and viability of Haiti’s
water resources as the country develops. The most vulnerable
groundwater to contamination is found within the unconsolidated
alluvium, interior sedimentary, and reef carbonate hydrogeological environments; coastal and populated areas are especially at
risk. Biological contamination has been documented as the most
prevalent diffuse pollution source throughout the country, resulting from a widespread lack of sanitation practices. In 1999, an
estimated 73% of human waste (56% of urban waste and 82%
of rural waste) was untreated in Haiti (MDE, 2001). The cholera
outbreak in 2010 and 2011 exposed the susceptibility of Haiti’s
water resources to contamination due to the lack of sanitation
practices extending countrywide. Biological contamination will
worsen as Haiti’s population continues to increase and the lack of
sanitation practices continues.
Environmental and chemical contamination of aquifers is
mostly at the local scale due to the limited extent of industrial
activity and linear infrastructure (roads, railways, pipelines, etc.).
Local contamination is often related to leaking storage tanks, malfunctions or accidents at facilities, and improper disposal of hazardous wastes. Reestablishment of the once-prosperous agricultural industry could place groundwater resources at greater risk of
more diffuse pollution as agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, are applied to the land. The development
of commercial livestock operations may also threaten groundwater resources, if not properly planned and managed. Both local
and diffuse groundwater contamination risks will increase as
Haiti develops. Potential sources of contamination will need to
be properly permitted and regulated in the context of protecting
and managing the country’s water resources.
Well drilling and construction practices do not commonly
follow standards or specifications designed to protect and manage groundwater resources. There are no licensing or certification requirements for well contractors, and approval processes
are not enforced. Well abandonment is extremely rare and not
enforced. Wells can be drilled anywhere by anyone throughout
the country, and there are no mechanisms to track or inventory
their locations or details. This issue also makes it difficult to
manage or even track groundwater withdrawals and can lead
to groundwater overexploitation and underestimation of withdrawals in critical aquifers. Based on our experience, a majority
of wells in Haiti are improperly constructed. The lack of standards, policy, and enforcement has significantly increased the
vulnerability of aquifers to contamination, as abandoned wells
and improperly constructed wells can serve as direct conduits
for contaminants. There is often no evidence of where abandoned wells are located; thus, hidden aquifer contamination
pathways exist through the country.
To facilitate the integration of science into actionable policy
and planning to help protect groundwater from contamination,
several actions should be considered. These are: (1) delineate
important zones of recharge and groundwater contamination
susceptibility throughout the country; (2) implement and enforce
policy and standards for latrine and septic system construction
and inspection; (3) delineate zones where industries reliant on
hazardous chemicals or generating hazardous waste should be
located; (4) implement and enforce policy and standards for construction and inspection of fuel and other underground storage
tanks; (5) implement and enforce policy and standards for design,
construction, and abandonment of water wells; and (6) delineate
areas safe for disposal of municipal waste.
CONCLUSION
The importance of groundwater in supporting Haiti’s development and sovereignty cannot be overstated. The country generally has sufficient groundwater resources in many areas to support its population and the development of a prosperous economy.
Haiti’s groundwater is a limited resource that is recharged over
years, decades, and hundreds, thousands, or even millions of
years and is vulnerable to depletion, contamination, and the
impacts of climate change. Scientific characterization, tracking
of wells, and monitoring of the individual aquifers throughout
Haiti are critical to understand the stresses on aquifers and help
inform and evaluate management strategies, policy, and regulation at the local and national level.
The broad categories of hydrogeological environments outlined in this chapter are unique in many ways, but they are all
similar in that they require science and policy for protection and
long-term sustainability. We hope to help guide future science,
monitoring, sustainable groundwater development, and actionable policy toward achieving the long-term health and prosperity
of the people of Haiti.
APPENDIX. SUPPLEMENTAL TABLES REFERENCED
IN CHAPTER
This brief appendix includes tables with supplemental data and
information compiled during the research that is considered important
in the context of Haiti’s water resources.
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
19
TABLE A1. RAINY SEASONS IN HAITI
Administrative departments
Nord
Nord-Ouest
Nord-Est
Centre
Artibonite
Nord-Ouest
Ouest
Grand-Anse
Typical rainy seasons
April to June;
September to December
April to October
April to June;
August to October
April to May;
Sud-Est
August to October
Sud
April to October
Note: Modified from CIAT (2013) and Mathieu et al. (2002).
TABLE A2. AGE STRUCTURE OF SURFICIAL GEOLOGY IN HAITI
Period
Quaternary
Epoch
Hydrogeological environments
Holocene–Pleistocene
Unconsolidated alluvium, reef carbonate
Pliocene
Late Miocene
Neogene
Reef carbonate, semiconsolidated, interior sedimentary, igneous
Middle Miocene
Early Miocene
Oligocene
Paleogene
Eocene
Interior sedimentary
Paleocene
Cretaceous
Late and Early Cretaceous
Igneous, interior sedimentary
Note: Data derived from CERCG (1989), 1:250,000 scale geological map of Haiti.
Approximate area
(km2)
Percent
7174
27
331
1
2175
8
1320
5
986
4
882
3
5592
21
2221
8
6279
23
20
Adamson et al.
TABLE A3. SUPPLEMENTAL GROUNDWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Hydrogeological environment
Unconsolidated alluvium
Interior sedimentary
Reef carbonate
Semiconsolidated
Igneous
Characteristics
19 Port-au-Prince municipal wells in the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac*
Depths: 50–120 m
– = 49)
Pumping rates: 28–77 L/s (x
Conductivity: 280–>1000 µs/cm
23 inactive Haitian American Sugar Company wells in the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac†
Depths: 40–190 m
– = 55.6)
Yields: 11.5–130.5 L/s (x
Wells screen up to six different production zones of sand and gravels
43 high-capacity irrigation wells in the Plaine de Gonaives§
– = 70)
Depths: 42–123 m (x
Yields: 25–150 L/s (x– = 63)
5 Gonaives municipal wells in the Plaine de Gonaives#
Pumping rates of five wells average 21 L/s; only two wells operate as of 2014 and produce a combined 16 L/s
4 Les Cayes municipal wells in the Plaine des Cayes#, **
Pumping rates: 40–76 L/s and supply up to 3780 m3/d
Additional wells are planned to achieve 13,000 m3/d
5 community wells in Laval, Plaine des Cayes††
– = 39)
Depths: 30–80.5 m (x
Static water depth: 9.8–41.15 m (x– = 22.26)
– = 1.7)
Yields: 0.32–3.8 L/s (x
– = 415)
Conductivity: 277–568 µs/cm (x
242 wells drilled by Water for Life throughout SW peninsula (1980–2014)§§
– = 30)
Depths: 6–91.5 m (x
– = 19.44)
Static water depth: free-flowing to 64 m (x
–
Yields: 0.1–37.8 (x = 1.75)
4 Cap-Haitien municipal wells in the Plaine du Nord#
Average yield of 39 L/s
17 irrigation wells in the Plaine du Nord and Massacre Transboundary Aquifers**, ##
Yields: 6–>100 L/s
11 exploratory boreholes/wells drilled in 1979–1980***
– = 47.26)
Depths: 30.5–65.5 m (x
Yields: Insufficient–14.7 L/s
5 of 11 boreholes found no water or produced brackish water
173 wells throughout Haiti §§, **
– = 52)
Depths: 40–154 m (x
– = 28)
Static water depths: free flowing to 137.2 m (x
– = 1.8)
Yields: 0.1–46 L/s (x
Conductivity: 280–>1000 µs/cm
42 wells and springs throughout Haiti**
– = 275)
Hardness: 114–607 mg/L (x
13 boreholes west la Gonâve†††, §§§
4 of 13 boreholes were successful wells
– = 73.8)
Depths: 60–82 m (x
– = 60)
Static water depths: 45.9–70.8 m (x
Yields: 1.2–4 L/s
pH: 7.66–7.98; total dissolved solids (TDS): 300–756 mg/L; hardness: 224–301 mg/L; iron: undetected to 1.1 mg/L
29 wells Bombardopolis Plateau###, **
– = 50.2)
Depths: 7–150 m (x
– = 33)
Static water depths: 6–98 m (x
60 wells drilled by Water for Life throughout SW peninsula (1980–2014)§§
– = 42)
Depths: 9.8–100.6 m (x
– = 24.7)
Static water depth: 0–70.1 m (x
– = 3.9)
Yields: 0.1–22 L/s (x
202 well records throughout Haiti (inclusive of records below)**
Depths: 15–228.7 m (x– = 62.2)
– = 30.1)
Static water depths: free-flowing to 81 m (x
– = 0.8)
Yields: 0.1–25.2 L/s (x
55 wells drilled by Water for Life throughout SW peninsula (1980–2014)§§
– = 54.4)
Depths: 15–96 m (x
– = 31.5)
Static water depths: 0.9–81 m (x
Yields: 0.1–6.3 L/s (x– = 0.58)
10 exploratory boreholes/wells drilled in 1979–1980 in the Plaine de l’Arbre***
– = 213)
Depths: 143.3–228.7 m (x
Yields: 0.6–25.2 L/s
7 of 10 boreholes found no water or produced brackish water
One borehole reached 268 m depth and produced no yield
143 wells drilled by Water for Life throughout SW peninsula (1980–2014)§§
– = 42)
Depths: 12–155 m (x
Static water depths: 0–80.8 m (x– = 15.5)
– 0.6)
Yields: 0.1–3.8 L/s (x=
5 wells in Perches and Terrier Rouge areas of Nord-Est Department**, ****
Depths: 52–70 m
Static water depths: 10–60 m
Yields: 0.5–5.1 L/s
TDS: 240–443 mg/L; pH: 6.95–7.8; hardness: 128–232 mg/L
*V3 Companies (2012).
†
Taylor and Lemoine (1949a).
§
MTA (1983a, 1983b).
#
Ruth Angerville, Direction Nationale de l’Eau Potable et de l’Assainissement en Haïti
(DINEPA), (2014, personal commun.).
**Foratech Environnement et al. (2014; see footnote 1).
††
Stuart Dykstra, V3 Companies (2013, personal commun.).
§§
Water for Life (2014).
##
Waite (1960).
***HARZA (1980).
†††
V3 Companies (2013a).
§§§
K. Neil Van Dine, Haiti Outreach (2011, personal commun.).
###
Praga-Haiti (2013).
****Anoux Faveus, Haiti Outreach (2014, personal commun.).
Summary of groundwater resources in Haiti
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This chapter is the product of personal initiative and effort of the
authors and contributors. Northwater International and Foratech Environnement, S.A. (formerly Haiti Water Supply, S.A.)
contributed resources to develop this chapter, and made private
and unpublished records, reports, and data available for review.
Thanks go to Luke Easterbrook-Clarke for developing scientific
illustrations, and to V3 Companies for their partnership and making reports and data available for review. We acknowledge Stuart
Dykstra for sharing some of his valuable experience, and for his
thorough review of the manuscript. David C. Andreasen of the
Maryland Geological Survey and James A. Clark and Jeffrey K.
Greenberg of Wheaton College were significant contributors to
the evolution and development of this chapter. Kenneth Maxey
also provided valuable editing throughout the process. Special
thanks go to Ruth Angerville at the Direction Nationale de l’Eau
Potable et de l’Assainissement (DINEPA) and Boby Piard at the
Centre National de l’Information Géo-Spatiale (CNIGS) for contributing key water supply and geographic information system
data. We are grateful to K. Neil Van Dine, Dale Snyder, Anoux
Faveus, and Brian Jenson of Haiti Outreach, and Bruce Robinson of the Organization for Integrated Rural Development in
Northwest Haiti and the Union of Evangelical Baptist Churches
of Haiti (ODRINO-UEBH) for sharing knowledge, unpublished
data, and information from decades of well-drilling experience
in Haiti. Haiti Outreach deserves special recognition for their
support over the years and blazing a path for us to advance our
knowledge and understanding of Haiti’s groundwater resources.
Water for Life is an inspiration for collecting and maintaining
excellent and organized well records since the early 1980s, and
we are grateful to Leon Miller and Edy Gehy for making these
records available to us. Finally, we thank A.M. MacDonald, J.
Davies, and R.C. Calow of the British Geological Survey for
inspiring the presentation and outline of this summary.
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