ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT IN A PUERTO RICAN NPO
“Paper submitted to the 12th International Conference of the International Society for
Third Sector Research, Ersta Sköndal University College, Stockholm, Sweden, June 28 July 1, 2016”
Factors impacting employees’ organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican nonprofit organization: a psychological contract perspective
Author: Luz E. Quiñones-González1
Mailing address: HC 37 Box 4288 - Guánica, Puerto Rico 00653
Telephone: 1-787-685-6822
Email: [email protected]
1
Assistant Professor of Human Resources Management / Organizational Behavior at the
University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus – College of Business Administration in
Mayagüez, Puerto Rico.
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
Abstract
Owing to the demand to improve performance by diverse stakeholders, an understanding of how to raise, and the factors that undermine, non-profit organization
volunteers and employees’ commitment toward the organization. The conceptual
framework for this study was psychological contract theory (PCT). This study
assessed the factors that impact stipend volunteers’ organizational commitment.
Fieldwork was conducted at a non-profit located in western Puerto Rico, as a single case study. The qualitative research consisted of unstructured in-depth interviews of key persons and revision of official documents of the non-profit, combined with self-administered questionnaires as a quantitative instrument. The research contributes to the study of PCT applied to the third sector, by identifying
factors that adversely affect stipend volunteers’ organizational commitment and
increase perceptions of psychological contract breach or violation. Recommended actions are provided for improving the performance of non-profits by diminishing the factors that may impact volunteers’ commitment or their psychological
contract.
Keywords: Psychological Contract, Organizational Commitment, Third Sector,
Puerto Rico, Stipend Volunteers
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
Introduction
Non-profit organizations (NPOs) have increased their role in today’s society because of the contribution they provide to alleviate social problems of people. As posited by scholars (i.e., Tsai & Lin, 2014), alongside governments and
businesses, NPOs fulfill many social responsibilities primarily through the efforts
of a large number of volunteers. Human resource management plays an increasingly significant role in enhancing the effectiveness of NPOs (Ridder et al., 2012;
Tsai & Lin, 2014). Owing to the demand to improve performance required by
diverse stakeholders, it is necessary not only to understand how to raise NPO volunteers employees’ commitment toward the organization, but also to understand
the factors that may undermine that commitment.
Psychological contract theory (PCT) is one of the existing conceptual perspectives applied to explain employees’ workplace attitudes and behavior (Quiñones-Gonzalez, 2013). As stated by McDermott et al. (2013), the content of
psychological contracts, in conjunction with the degree to which they are fulfilled,
impacts many employment outcomes, including organizational commitment (OC;
Quiñones-Gonzalez, 2013, 2016; Zhao et al. 2007). PCT has only quite recently
been applied to the study of volunteers (Stirling et al., 2011). In the realm of paid
employees, there are scarce empirical studies applying PCT as it relates to OC in
NPOs (i.e., McDermott et al., 2013). There is a scarcity of research dealing with
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
factors that cause perceived psychological contract breach (PCB) or violation
(PCV) on NPO volunteer employees, which also affect their OC. Only a handful
of papers with related, yet not identical, variables has been identified in the literature (i.e., Tsai & Lin, 2014). The main concern of literature regarding psychological contract is given to the reaction of employees to different sorts of organizational changes, but concern about factors that undermine NPOs employees’ commitment toward the organization is nearly non-existent.
This study assessed human resources management in the third sector,
within the theoretical framework of the psychological contract. It specifically
identified and examined the factors that impact volunteer employees’ OC. To
identify the factors that impact NPOs volunteer employees’ psychological contract and OC, fieldwork was conducted in a NPO located in western Puerto Rico,
in the form of a single case study. The data collection was performed through indepth interviews to representatives of the Board of Directors and top management, as well as with employees who are volunteers with stipends funded by a US
federal program. These interviews helped to gather insights into factors that may
weaken employees’ psychological contract and that may cause perceptions of
PCB or PCV. Relevant documents were also analyzed to understand the organizational structure, performance, and operational policies associated with human
resources management. A self-administered questionnaire to participants measured the OC of stipend volunteers and their perception of PCB and PCV.
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
This research contributes to the field of study on PCT applied to the third
sector, by identifying factors that adversely affect NPO employees’ OC. It also
provides recommended actions for improving the performance of NPOs by diminishing the factors that may affect stipend volunteers’ OC or their psychological
contract, if a breach or violation to that contract is perceived.
The content of this article is organized as follows. First, it presents a brief
revision to the PCT literature and the effect of PCB or PCV on employees' OC.
Second, it offers information on the stipend volunteers, the national service and
the AmeriCorps, which is part of the Corporation for National and Community
Service (CNCS), one of the US agencies that provide federal funds for stipend
volunteers engaged with NPOs. Third, the case study of a Puerto Rican NPO is
presented with the data collected, and the identification and analysis of factors
that may diminish volunteer employees’ OC. Fourth, it provides recommended
actions to increase volunteers’ OC and to contribute to the organization’s improvement of its performance and offered services. Lastly, concluding remarks
and suggested future research are shared, which include the contribution of the
present study to the field of third sector research, adding value as a result of the
application of PCT.
Psychological Contract and Organizational Commitment
Contracts, whether written or oral, are exchange agreements that bind the
transacting parties and regulate their activities and are enforced, or at least recog-
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
nized, in law (Farnsworth, 1982). In any employment relationship, there are three
main types of contracts: formal (a written agreement between two parties that
clearly specify the obligations of both sides), implied (an agreement between two
parties based on previous interactions with one another), and psychological (an
individual’s subjective beliefs and perceptions regarding the terms and conditions
of a perceived agreement that individual has established with another party
(Rousseau, 1989). All contracts have a psychological component, which is inherently perceptual and deals with implicit details and perceived obligations beyond
those that can be explicitly described in formal legal terms (Pavlou & Gefen,
2005), which result from all contracts being inherently incomplete (MacNeil,
1980).
The present research is based on the theoretical contribution of Rousseau’s
(1989) psychological contract, which marked a fundamental shift in the meaning
and functioning of contracts. Employees perceive a violation to such contracts
when the organization adapts to environmental challenges through significant
changes or internal organizational factors. Rousseau defined psychological contract as “an individual belief, shaped by the organization, regarding terms of an
exchange agreement between individuals and their organization” (p. 9). This belief arises from the perception that a promise has been made, such as of employment or career opportunities, and a consideration offered in exchange for it, such
as accepting a position or foregoing other job offers (Rousseau & Tijoriwala,
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
1998). Based on this definition, the present study adopted an idiosyncratic perspective of the psychological contract. As employees are the most important asset
to a company, in the same way, volunteers are an important asset for NPOs.
Thus, the application of PCT to volunteers and NPOs is feasible and even necessary. As explained by Vantiborgh et al. (2011), “while volunteers do not expect
financial gains and volunteer organizations lack the incentives available to forprofit organizations, . . . volunteers do expect certain inducements in return for
their effort, implying an exchange relationship between both parties” (p. 642).
By definition, psychological contracts exist on an individual level and are
based solely upon an employee’s perceptions (Morrison & Robinson, 1997) and
begin to form very early in the employee–employer relationship (Baker, 1985); as
such, these beliefs may diverge from what is in writing and from interpretations
by other parties (Rousseau & Tijoriwala, 1998). Rousseau (1995) posited that a
key feature of a psychological contract is that the individual voluntarily assents to
make and accept certain promises as he or she understands them. It is what the
individual believes he or she has agreed to, but not what that person intends, that
makes the contract.
The general terms researchers have focused on in the study of psychological contracts are the ends of a contractual continuum; ‘transactional’ and ‘relational’ (Rousseau, 1989, 1995). Transactional terms are exemplified by a “fair
day’s work for a fair day’s pay,” focusing on short-term monetizable exchanges.
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
Relational contracts focus on open-ended relationships involving considerable
investments by both employees (company-specific skills, long-term career development) and employers (extensive training), with a long-term, highly subjective,
and dynamic nature of the relationship between both parties. Regarding volunteer
employees, who in this case receive stipends, there is a preeminent need of the
author of this study to introduce a construct that represents a better fit for describing volunteers psychological contract; a midpoint of this continuum between
transactional and relational contracts. Based on observation and on experience
working with and studying volunteer service, there are elements of both types of
contracts on volunteers with stipend. First, there is a notion of transactional contract since their service contract, as determined by the federal agency, foundation,
or any other philanthropic institutions that provide the funds, establish the length
of service and wage of the participants. On the other hand, the identification with
the cause, mission, and vision of the organization is a fertile soil for the development of a relational contract. According to Clary et al. (1998), many volunteer
motivations fit the relational contract concept because they are linked to social
identity and emotions such as group belonging and doing something worthwhile.
When remuneration is limited, ‘perceiving support from the organization in the
form of recognition, being valued, and feeling the organization cares about one’s
well-being become even more important’ (Stirling et al, 2011, p. 323). Hence, a
new concept to study this convergence of volunteers’ contract nature is introduced
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
here as “transcendental contract,” which encompasses characteristics of both
transactional and relational contracts. This is a remarkable point for further research regarding the nature of stipend volunteers’ psychological contract.
When employees perceive that their psychological contract has been altered, they may experience a breach or a violation of that psychological contract.
Although the literature uses the terms PCB and PCV interchangeably, this study
distinguishes them because even though both constructs are closely related, they
are measured differently (Quiñones-Gonzalez, 2013, 2015). A contract breach is
the perception of a discrepancy between what was promised and what was actually experienced, while a contract violation is the intense affective experience that
frequently follows that perception, and describes the affective and emotional experience of disappointment, frustration, anger, and resentment that could result
from the employee’s perception of contract breach and the perceived reasons for
that breach (Morrison & Robinson, 1997). Both PCB and PCV will we assessed
by using previously validated questionnaires and by analyzing the in-depth interviews.
OC is an important variable in understanding the work behavior of employees in organizations (Mowday et al., 1979). As stated by Bang et al. (2013),
committed and enthusiastic volunteers are a valuable asset to NPOs. OC refers to
a psychological link between an employee and the organization that makes it less
likely that the employee will voluntarily leave the organization (Allen & Meyer,
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
1996). OC comprises three factors; the desire to remain an employee, the willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization, and the acceptance of the organization’s values (Allen & Meyer, 1990), and is tied to the concept of psychological contract (Rousseau, 1989). Meyer and Allen (1997) further stated that OC
reflects three broad themes; an affective orientation to the organization (affective
commitment), a recognition of costs associated with leaving the organization
(continuance commitment), and a moral obligation to remain with the organization (normative commitment), and each is influenced by different factors, including PCB and PCV. OC is a more stable attitude than job satisfaction and may be
more effective in measuring employees’ attitudes toward their work environment
(Boes, 2006), because a violation may signal to an employee that the organization
does not care for his or her well-being, and the employee might perceive lessened
organizational support (Boes, 2006, c).
The recent literature on psychological contract has made some attempt to
apply the theoretical framework to NPOs and volunteer employees (Stirling et al.,
2011; Tsai & Lin, 2014; Vantiborgh, 2015; Vantiborgh et al, 2011). Other researches combine those variables with OC (i.e., McDermott et al., 2013), and
some others share new perspectives of how to address the psychological contract
concept in a way that best fits the work and nature of volunteers (i.e., Nichols,
2013).
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
This article is focused on factors that impact the OC of volunteer employees with stipend who work for a NPO, and possible perceived PCBs or PCVs.
Specifically, through a single case study, this article analyzes a NPO that provides
services to children, youth, and families belonging to municipalities located in
western Puerto Rico. Through the interviews, questionnaires, and evaluation of
official documents, factors affecting volunteers’ OC will be identified to enhance
the understanding of those who lead NPOs regarding volunteer management,
providing an opportunity to reduce undesirable attitudes and behaviors. Based on
the findings, recommendations are provided to help organizations to improve their
volunteers’ commitment and consequently, institutional performance.
Stipend Volunteers: A look at “AmeriCorps” and “AmeriCorps–Puerto Rico”
This study makes references to volunteer employees as synonymous with
stipend-paid volunteers, or simply, stipend volunteers. According to Vos et al.
(2011), a distinctive feature of volunteer work is that volunteer workers do not
receive any form of monetary pay for the services they provide. Albeit, volunteers can be given a limited amount of money to reimburse their expenses. This
study refers to that limited amount of money as “stipend,” which is the case of
volunteer employees paid with federal funds. Stipend volunteers receive some
financial compensation below fair market value and engage in formal work service activities to help people to whom they have no personal connection (Hunter
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
& Ross, 2013). In some instances, researchers refer to the stipend volunteers as
being in the ‘grey zone’ between the volunteer work and the professional work, if
their remuneration is undeclared (i.e., Vos et al., 2011). This is not the case of the
stipend volunteers who are subject of the present study. Other researchers called
stipend “a euphemism for low-paid work,” enforced by some governmental policies to attack high unemployment rates (Hunter & Ross, 2013, p. 744).
According to Frumkin and Miller (2008), the USA has a long and rich history of citizens engaging in volunteerism and rendering service to their community. Based on what Eberly’s lengthy description implied, national service can be
almost anything undertaken to better a country and its people. In the broadest
context, national service within the U.S. encompasses three distinct areas: the
CNCS, the Peace Corps, and the military (Brennan & Upshaw, 2012). Legislation
throughout the years established the basis that enforces the national service.
Frumkin and Miller (2008, p. 436) summarize its legal background as follows:
With roots in Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Civilian Conservation Corps in the
1930s and 1940s, an institutionalized service movement has developed
and grown over time. In the 1960s, the Economic Opportunity Act expanded domestic national service with the creation of Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), the National Teacher Corps, and the Neighborhood Youth Corps. More recently, the National and Community Service
Trust Act of 1993 furthered the national service movement by creating the
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
[CNCS], a public agency that provides Americans of all ages and backgrounds with opportunities to serve their communities. The Act also established AmeriCorps, a large-scale national service program that places
young people in full-time, community service positions across the country.
The CNCS also provides national service educational awards to persons
participating in such service. According to the CNCS official website,
In his 2002 State of the Union address, President George W. Bush announced the creation of the USA Freedom Corps. Chaired by the president, USA Freedom Corps was a coordinating council that worked to
strengthen our culture of service and helped find opportunities for every
American to serve. On April 21, 2009, President Barack Obama signed
the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act at an elementary school in
Washington, DC. The Serve America Act reauthorizes and expands national service programs administered by the [CNCS].
(http://www.nationalservice.gov/about/legislation)
There is vast data on the services offered by national service programs.
As summarized by Brennan and Upshaw (2012), service within the AmeriCorps
program focuses on addressing educational, environmental, public safety, and disaster relief needs of communities, as well as increasing the capacity of NPOs by
helping them to mobilize volunteers, expand services, and raise funds. The
AmeriCorps State and National program provides grants to a broad network of
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
public and NPOs that sponsor AmeriCorps service programs around the country.
Through these financial grants, public and NPOs recruit, train, and oversee AmeriCorps members. Over 15,000 public and NPOs, operating in all 50 states and
every U.S. territory, receive grants funding a specific number of AmeriCorps
State and National workers. The grants fund between 50 and 76% of the total cost
for supporting an AmeriCorps State and National worker.
Data obtained from AmeriCorps official website reveals that their program
engages more than 75,000 Americans in intensive service each year at
nonprofits, schools, public agencies, and community and faith-based
groups across the country. Since the program’s founding in 1994, more
than 900,000 AmeriCorps members have contributed more than 1.2 billion
hours in service across America while tackling pressing problems and mobilizing millions of volunteers for the organizations they serve.
(http://www.nationalservice.gov/programs/americorps)
AmeriCorps also provide service opportunities to seniors and retired volunteers through their newly created Senior Corps. Additionally, according to the
CNCS, there are several service opportunities to volunteers nationwide. This
spectrum of service opportunities for volunteers supports the relevance of the
third sector and its commitment to alleviate social problems that are not approached by the either unwilling or unable first and second sectors of society.
That relevance and impact are further described by Frumkin and Miller’s (2008)
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
four visions of US national service, which is perceived as citizenship, personal
growth, social capital, and public work. The authors attempted to make policymakers and practitioners more aware of what service programs like AmeriCorps
are intended to accomplish.
Owing to the political status as territory and the overwhelming economic
dependence on USA, Puerto Rico qualifies for federal funds, including those provided by the CNCS and for service programs such as AmeriCorps, VISTA, Senior
Corps, and many others. Information regarding federal funds available for Puerto
Rico, as quoted directly from the CNCS site, shows that:
More than 1,700 people of all ages and backgrounds are helping to meet
local needs, strengthen communities, and increase civic engagement
through national service in Puerto Rico. Serving at more than 160 locations throughout the state, these citizens tutor and mentor children, support
veterans and military families, provide health services, restore the environment, respond to disasters, increase economic opportunity, and recruit
and manage volunteers.
Figures for 2014-2015 show that the CNCS attempted to commit “more
than $8,700,000 to support Puerto Rico communities through national service initiatives.” For the same period, AmeriCorps reports that they planned to offer
more than 320 individuals the opportunity to provide intensive, resultsdriven service to meet education, environmental, health, economic, and
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
other pressing needs in communities across Puerto Rico. Most AmeriCorps grant funding goes to the Puerto Rico's Commission for Volunteerism and Community Service, which in turn awards grants to nonprofit
groups to respond to local needs. Most of the remainder of the grant funding is distributed by CNCS directly to multi-state and national organizations through a competitive grants process.
Likewise, around 1,400 seniors in Puerto Rico contribute in one of three
Senior Corps programs. Historic data from CNCS (http://www.nationalservice
.gov/impact-our-nation/state-profiles/pr), reveals that “since 1994, more than
5,400 Puerto Rico residents have served more than 11 million hours”. These figures make Puerto Rico a case for analysis regarding stipend-volunteering in
NPOs.
The Case of a Puerto Rican Non-profit Organization
A well-known NPO, hereafter known with the pseudonym of “Rescue,
Inc.” to maintain its anonymity, is located in a municipality of the western area of
the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico. As stated in its bylaws, the institutional mission is to encourage, develop, and create quality of life for convicts, ex-convicts,
addicts and their families, relatives, and the community in general. One of its
main objectives is to facilitate a productive integration of the participant to his/her
family and his/her community. This includes assistance in the participant’s socialization skills, coordination of vocational training or academic preparation, and
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
help in job placement, among other purposes. It provides services to children,
youth, and families, specifically, serving youth at risk, imprisoners’ families, and
prevention aids, such as tutoring.
Rescue, Inc. is registered as a not-for-profit, tax-exempt organization, with
501(c)(3) status according to US Internal Revenue Code, which rules over Puerto
Rico as well, owing to the political relationship between the two nations. This
tax-exempt status impacts NPOs in two contrasting ways. First, they make federal funds accessible for 501(c)(3) organizations, and second, their strict requirements may constrain the freedom of service provision, which is linked to organizations’ mission and values. The high cost of being granted federal funds is the
limitation of volunteers’ time and talents, and their service opportunities to fulfill
urgent community needs. Given the relevant support of this NPO to the community, it requires in-depth assessment. There is a clear need to improve volunteers’
management and to conduct more research on organizational behavior in the third
sector, specifically on how to deal with OC of volunteers.
Rescue, Inc. is facing financial challenges, which is also a reflection of
Puerto Rico economic and fiscal crisis. It lacks the human resources for doing
both the administrative and direct service works. The need of specialized human
resources is a predominant problem to manage volunteers, to develop adequate
HR practices, to follow-up on the requirements of local, state, and federal law
provisions, and the development of a strategic vision, among other critical issues.
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
The organization has faced administrative challenges during the past months, that
are worthy of being addressed as part of the analysis of the interviews to volunteers and other key persons of this case study. Effects of those events may shed
light to factors affecting OC of stipend volunteers, and will be addressed as part
of the discussion.
Data and Methods
To analyze the factors that affect employees’ OC in NPOs, a single case
study design was selected. A mixed method of data collection was utilized, consisting of a quantitative phase and a qualitative phase, using questionnaires, indepth interviews, and analysis of organization relevant documents. Interviews
were conducted between March and April 2016. Each interview lasted between
45 minutes and one-and-a-half hours, in a private setting outside the working
place and after working hours.
Participants of this study were current members of Rescue, Inc. (pseudonym), a NPO of western Puerto Rico. Total participants were six: one board
member, the executive director, and four volunteer employees (stipend volunteers). They were chosen by availability and decided to participate voluntarily.
Their email addresses were provided by the organization. The researcher contacted each personally and asked them to participate in interviews. Those who consented were provided with the contact information and directions to reach the location of the interviews. Each one received the informed consent form, the ques-
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
tionnaire, which also included socio-demographic questions, and participated in
the interview. Sample selection in a qualitative study is based on intentional criteria, not on probabilistic criteria. Hence, it looks for a better approximation and
understanding of a specific reality, not on causal and generalizable explanations.
The case study is based on in-depth interviews combined with control narrative questions, and a validated questionnaire to measure the variables of OC,
perceived PCB, and perceived PCV. Instruments were used with permission
granted by their authors. All used a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). PCB was measured using Robinson and
Morrison’s (2000) 5-item instrument. PCV was measured using Robinson and
Morrison’s 4-item instrument. OC was assessed using Meyer et al.’s (1993) 18item scale (revised version) that measures the three components of OC: affective,
continuing, and normative commitment, with 6 items for each. Owing to the selection of a qualitative design of a case study, the sample size was small. The
surveys were analyzed and the descriptive statistics were performed. No statistical generalization was drawn based on such a small sample. However, to
strengthen the validity of the responses, an evaluation of organizational documents was performed. It helped to shed light to its mission, vision, services, and
stakeholders, among other relevant information. Interviewees’ answers were
cross-validated by studying the organizational factors, recent events, and review
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
of official documents as well as interviews to managerial staff and board members.
The participants represent board members, top management, and stipend
volunteers. The majority of the interviewees (66.7%) were female. In terms of
age the sample was nearly equally represented of people from 21 years old up to
61 years old or older. Likewise, the civil status of the sample was perfectly distributed on single, married, and divorced. Fifty percent of the respondents have a
bachelor’s degree, and the rest has at least an Associate’s degree. Stipend volunteers neither manage nor supervise other employees. All the interviewed volunteers have been with the organization between one and two years.
Table I depicts the means of the variables that will facilitate the understanding of OC and PCT applied to this case study.
On a Likert scale, from 1 to 7, results show that the OC of the interviewees is high, with a mean of 5.42 out of 7, which represents that they strongly agree
with the statements associated with OC. According to the analysis of the quantitative measures, participants’ responses reveal low levels of perceived PCB and
perceived PCV, even though PCB is somewhat higher than PCV. Interviewees’
responses reveal high levels of OC in all of its three components, as shown on
Table II.
Analyzed data suggests that all interviewees have a strong commitment
toward the organization: an affective orientation to the organization, a recognition
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
of costs associated with leaving the organization, and a moral obligation to remain
with the organization. Of all the three components, affective, continuance, and
normative, the highest value is on the affective commitment, with a mean of 6.17,
followed by normative commitment, with a mean of 5.47. The type of service
appointment, which is a temporary employment contract associated to a transactional psychological contract, might explain a not equally strong commitment in
the continuance component (mean = 4.59). Based on presented values, results of
the quantitative instrument are compatible with other empirical research that
demonstrate that when there is low perceived PCB or PCV, there is a high level of
OC. Nevertheless, considering the dynamic nature of qualitative research through
interviews, recent events and other internal factors may reveal some impacts on
stipend volunteers’ OC which are not revealed on the questionnaire responses.
As stated, this case study emphasized a qualitative design. However, it is
interesting to see that the relationship among the analyzed variables, as revealed
on the results of the quantitative measurement instrument, are consistent with a
vast empirical research regarding the inverse, or negative, correlation between
PCB and PCV with OC. Despite the small sample, which is not statistical generalizable, it revealed a trend similar to numerous empirical studies measuring those
variables (Boes, 2006; Pearcy, 1997; Quiñones-Gonzalez, 2013; Robinson &
Morrison, 1995). Table III depicts the negative correlation coefficients between
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
these variables. Spearman, a nonparametric measure of statistical dependence
between two variables, was used to determine these correlations.
According to the statistical analysis, there is a direct or positive relationship (rho = .894) between PCB and PCV, which is a significant correlation at the
.05 level (2-tailed.). Again, this value confirms the empirical research results on
the correlation found between these variables. Nevertheless, these quantitative
results are not statistically generalizable and do not reflect other factors gathered
from personal in-depth interviews, which are the central focus of analysis of this
study. Analysis of the conversations with participants may lead to a distinct interpretation of the reality experienced by the stipend volunteers in the NPO. Even
though the quantitative instrument indicates high OC and low levels of perceived
PCB and PCV, interviews revealed other factors that may diminish stipend volunteers’ OC, which are not easily measured through a standard questionnaire.
Factors Impacting Stipend Volunteers’ Organizational Commitment
Rescue, Inc. has a noble mission and has positively impacted many members of the communities they serve. On the bright side of the organization, as
perceived by the interviewees, they provide a pleasant and comfortable working
place; “It is a healthy environment . . . People pay attention to others’ needs and
are collaborative.” “I am encouraged by the trust they granted to me and my job.”
Everyone treats others with respect and fellowship. Some describe the relationship “as a family.” Shared values are determinant for this NPO. Schein (2004),
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
defined values as an “individual’s own assumptions about what is right or wrong,
what will work or not work”. Helmig et al. (2015) cited a variety of management
research concerning the relevance of values as a prerequisite for the survival of
organizations. As a faith-based organization, Rescue, Inc. put their values in action when interacting with every person, and they are a strong invisible essence of
the organization. People feel welcome and glad to be part of them. Generally
speaking, employees identified with the organizational mission and are aware of
their contribution to society through their varied services. Their answers reveal a
well-accepted climate, which is defined in the classic work of Litwin and Stringer
(1968) as a “set or cluster of expectancies and incentives and represents a property of environments that is perceived directly or indirectly by the individuals in the
environment” (p. 23). Organizational climate is a widely assessed concept, and
has been recently applied to NPOs as well (i.e., Nencini et al., 2016). This positive and friendly organizational climate is a much appreciated factor that stimulates volunteers’ OC.
The scope of this study was to identify the factors that negatively impact
stipend volunteers’ OC. Data were categorized according to the responses obtained from the in-depth interviews with each participant. Subsequently, factors
that affect OC were identified and clustered into five main categories; aspects related to the organizational structure, communication, recognition, strategic vision,
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
and conflict management. Each factor will be explained according to the experience shared by the interviewed volunteers.
Organizational structure. Organizational structure refers to a formal arrangement that links the various parts of an organization to one another
(Schermerhorn, 2012), and establishes the decision-making hierarchy. Those
links are depicted in an organizational chart that encompasses division of work
(specialization), supervisory relationship, span of control, communication channels, and managerial levels among other features. The relevance of organizational
structure has been an object of study in the NPO sector (i.e., Klüver, 2012;
Muñoz-Marquez, 2016). When asking how they describe the organizational
structure, in terms of managerial levels, the responses where consistent with the
official documents, such as the organizational chart, which describes it as flat,
with a few hierarchical levels. Regarding the decision-making hierarchy, whether
authority is centralized or decentralized, a consensus of answers revealed that the
organization is bureaucratic, with a centralized decision-making power. Studer
and von Schnurbein (2013) evidenced that bureaucracy negatively influences
commitment and affects volunteers’ intentions to remain. On this aspect of organizational structure, responses include the following:

“It is not functioning adequately… the decision-making power is centralized…”
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Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO

“It is flat. The power is centralized in one or two persons… it is bureaucratic.”

“I understand that the power is centralized.”

“I must admit that it is somewhat bureaucratic, in terms of centralization
of power.”
Even though centralized authority is typical of small organizations, it is
most commonly found in organizations that face relatively stable and predictable
environments (Ebert & Griffin, 2015). Centralized authority is associated with
tall organizational structure–multiple layers of management. Interestingly, with
its flat structure, Rescue, Inc. operates with centralized authority. As observed in
the interviews, this is a relevant factor causing discomfort among the respondents.
A common claim was that the decision-making power is centralized in one person, who is already overloaded with too many tasks, roles, and responsibilities.
Community-based organizations, and those NPOs serving communities work in
alliances, joining efforts with employees, volunteers, community members, government agencies, and other stakeholders to reach their goals of taking advantage
of any service opportunity, by responding in an assertive way. Centralized power
and bureaucratic structures hinder the effectiveness of NPOs response to community needs.
Within the context or organizational structure, other control narrative
questions were asked to help connect and triangulate their responses. Such ques-
25
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
tions include whether the organization has an organizational chart, whether the
stipend volunteers receive a job description specifying their tasks and responsibilities when hired, whether they have a clear understanding of their duties,
whether they receive orders from more than one supervisor (to identify violation
to the management principle of unit of command), and whether there is an employee manual, among other questions. All except new-comers were aware of the
existence of the organizational chart, and almost all agreed it needed to be revised
and updated. All respondents received a job description when hired and had a
clear understanding of their duties. Regarding the existence of an employee manual, responses were unclear and inconsistent. Volunteers paid with federal funds
considered the standards and volunteer tasks formulated on the agency grant documents their employee manual. Internal documents revealed a more general varied set of responsibilities for those positions that had a written description. After
analyzing official documents and interviewing top management, it seems that the
organization does not have a complete employee manual.
Despite the vivid debate between the advocates and retractors of the design and implementation of organizational structure in NPOs, it is a necessary tool
in all kinds of organizations. Taking into account the basic definition of “organization” as groups of two or more people who share common goals and meet at
regular times (Vandeveer & Menefee, 2010), NPOs also have group norms, and
some degree of structure to help them function and reach their goals, not only on
26
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
public policy and advocacy (Muñoz-Marquez, 2016), but also on a daily basis in
the pursuit of their service provisions. As discussed, some particular organizational structures and decision-making hierarchies may diminish stipend volunteers’ OC.
Communication. Scholars define communication as the transference and
the understanding of meaning (Robbins & Judge, 2011). This process of sending
and receiving messages is inherent to all living organisms. Human beings, as part
of organizations, need to communicate with others, to understand and to be understood. Effective communication strategies are linked to productivity gains, efficiency improvement, cost reductions, and improved morale, and decreased turnover (Vandeveer & Menefee, 2010).
Formal communication within organizations includes communication with
superiors (upward), with subordinates (downward), with peers (lateral), and with
clients, suppliers, government representative, community members, and other external stakeholders (outside). Research on how communication strategies affect
volunteers (i.e., Studer & von Schnurbein, 2013) provide evidence that they enable volunteers to be optimally matched with organizations. Analyzed data suggests some difficulties with communication within the organization. First, upward communication is filtered and presented in a much summarized way that
misses significant details that the Board or others in top management should
know. This lack of detail may cause uninformed decision-making, accompanied
27
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
with undesirable consequences. Additionally, the work overload of people in authority “makes difficult for employees to access them when looking for help or
clarification of instructions, and that causes frustration and demotivation.” Second, downward communication is described as unclear by some of the respondents. Communication gaps cause unclear orders that are misunderstood by employees. As expressed by one of the interviewees:
Young, new comer volunteers need clearer, more specific and formal directives. We all need more precise instructions in terms of the expectations, and an explanation of why they perhaps ask us to do things apparently beyond of what is indicated on our job description… but I understand it will contribute to the desired outcomes as an organization.
Another issue presented was the way an interviewee perceived that the top
manager sometimes approached employees.
Perhaps due to too much stress, a full work agenda, and limited time to
cope with daily operational situations, top manager gives the impression to
be in fast pace and to say things a bit chocking… We too have a heavy
workload, and if we perceive such treatment, it lowers our morale.
In the third place, regarding lateral communication, respondents did not
show much issue with coworkers, apart from the issue identified as the ‘critical
incident.’ Some of the respondents shared that a few people caused damage to the
organizational climate, provoking discouragement to other coworkers through in-
28
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
formal communication (grapevine), which was misleading and ill-intentioned.
That situation was part of the ‘critical incident,’ which will be discussed on the
conflict management factor. Lastly, since this study focused on organizational
factors that impact stipend volunteers’ commitment, it did not address issues related to outside communication. As explained, barriers to communication are another source of discouragement and reduction of OC.
Recognition. As mentioned earlier, committed and enthusiastic volunteers are a valuable asset to NPOs (Bang et al., 2013). Gerstein et al. (2004) stated that compensation, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, is inherent in volunteerism.
Recognition is a well-known extrinsic compensation, and is a powerful way to
motivate people. Robbins (2003) defined employee recognition programs as personal attention expressing interest, approval, and appreciation for a job well done.
Given that stipend volunteers receive a low-pay for doing their jobs, the monetary
incentive is not the determining factor that motivates them to remain in the organization and to increase their OC. Other factors such as recognition of volunteers’
contributions are needed for effective volunteer management.
According to a 2002 Volunteer Management Capacity Study conducted by
the CNCS, the Urban Institute, and the UPS Foundation (cited in Eisner et al.,
2009) the five main reasons volunteers do not return include: not matching volunteers’ skills with assignments, failing to recognize volunteers’ contributions, not
measuring the value of volunteers, failing to train and invest in volunteers and
29
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
staff, and failing to provide strong leadership. More than one of these reasons is
portrayed in some of the answers provided by the participants of the present
study. Concerning failing to recognize volunteers’ contributions, Eisner et al.
(2009) stated that nonprofits need to recognize volunteers both through an organizational culture that values them and through specific appreciation ceremonies
and events. Based on answers provided by key informants, the latter is practiced
and is part of the activities encouraged by the federal agency that provides the stipend for the volunteers. Based on observation and volunteers’ responses, the organizational culture of valuing them still needs to be strengthened.
Responses associated with why volunteers leave are:
One factor that affects my commitment is that the organization assigns me
tasks that are not aligned with my original job assignment, or out of my
knowledge… or to do a task that is not compatible with my profession or
that I understand that is not the type of work I should do. [not matching
volunteers’ skills with assignments].
We have a volunteer appreciation week. . . . I thought it was a special
week, but it wasn’t. Due to the recent “special events” it was not perceived as recognition, but as more work. This may discourage people instead of motivate them.
Also, “People who used to work here left hurt. What I have heard is they
did not feel valued; they were not considered when there were available positions.
30
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
. . . Their talents and professional background were not valued by the organization” (failing to recognize volunteers’ contributions, specifically through the organizational culture). “I think that the administration should be more consistent
in many aspects, and use all the resources in a wiser way.” “I would like to have
a stronger person who challenges me more to reach higher goals.” “Sometimes
the busy schedule, absence, and inaccessibility of managerial staff are frustrating.” “Although the Board functions on the macro level, sometimes it is not necessarily so in other important aspects when you go to the details.”
The Board of Directors needs to improve some process. . . . This is one of
the best Board of Directors ever . . . but we still have a long way to go. . . .
It would be great if they get more involved with policy, regulations, procedures, and so on.”
“I understand that the supervision should improve. We need more people
on supervisory positions.” (failing to provide strong leadership). Collected data
suggests that respondents have interpreted the issue of recognition as a critical
factor that may diminish their commitment. The following statements summarize
the interviewees’ perception regarding recognition:

Recognition should be more meaningful and frequent for volunteers.

Stipend volunteers’ effort and work should be more appreciated and valued.
31
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO

There is a desire to have more expectation to remain with the organization
if future job openings are available, to have a more stable job.

Volunteers are willing to contribute more with their academic background,
experience, and talents, if they are allowed to do so.

A combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation might be significant
enough to encourage them to be more involved with the organization.

An unexpected change of task assignment to stipend volunteers beyond
their expected performance specified when hired is a critical factor that
reduces their OC and adversely affects their psychological contract with
the organization.
In summary, responses related to recognition show some shortcomings
and areas of improvement. Stipend volunteers considered that recognition needs
to be awarded on a more frequent basis and in a more meaningful way for them.
If this issue is not properly addressed, it may negatively affect stipend volunteers’
OC.
Strategic planning. Strategic planning is the process of helping an organization maintain an effective alignment with its environment (Ebert & Griffin,
2015). It deals with the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of crossfunctional decisions that enable an organization to achieve its objectives (David,
2011). Every organization has its vision of what it wants to become. Similarly,
every organization has it mission, or its reason for existence. In the context of the
32
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
analyzed NPO, since its very beginning, as shown in its statutes and certification
of incorporation, Rescue, Inc. has a clear mission statement. However, none of
the interviewees gave the complete answer. All the respondents offered their own
version of the mission statement and all agreed that they feel identified with it.
Some of the respondents paraphrased it; or mentioned the services offered by either the organization or the project they are working on; others talked about their
target service population (clients, beneficiaries); or made reference to risk factors
and protection factors; and others emphasized the geographical area where the
organization serves. Theoretically, all of them shared a piece of the complete answer, since an effective mission statement includes components such as those
mentioned by the respondents: customers, services, market, philosophy, and selfconcept among others (David, 2011).
An organization’s mission statement, as summarized by David (2011), is
an enduring statement of purpose that distinguish one business from others; it
identifies the scope of operations; it is a constant reminder to its employees of
why the organizations exists and what the founders envisioned when they put all
at risk to breathe life into their dreams. Given the relevance of a clear mission
statement that describes the reason for existence and gives purpose and direction
to an organization, it is interesting that the assessed NPO has not provided the
means, or consistently encouraged their employees and stipend volunteers to learn
the organization’s mission by heart, to understand it, to internalize its purpose and
33
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
meaning, yet they all feel identified with it. A mission statement is often the most
visible and public part of the strategic-management process, thus, it is important
that it includes the previously mentioned components and that be broad in scope
and inspiring (David, 2011). A basic way to involve stakeholders with the organizational goals is to make the mission accessible, visible and a living word for all
who work and are involved with the organization. It’s a good practice that all
employees memorize the mission statement and foment a sense of belonging, a
stronger commitment toward the organization.
The mission statement is not the only issue that must be faced by Rescue,
Inc. Strategy is another important concept in organization management. Strategies are the means, or courses of action to achieve organizational goals. It is important to have strategic vision, which provides a general idea of where the organization wants to be in the future. According to the interviewees, they perceived a
lack of strategic vision, an absence of sense of direction for the future. According
to answers provided by some of the participants, representatives from the directive level and volunteers, “the personnel are doing the functions they have to
do . . . there are strategic actions that we need to take but we are not accomplishing them.” “Sometimes I feel that they are improvising, week by week. . . . They
need to establish long-term plans . . . strategic plans.” “The organization gives the
impression of being focused on accomplishing the minimum requirements of the
federal agencies, and that’s all.” In the interviews, I perceived the uncertainty and
34
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
frustration caused by a lack of strategic planning; both for the organization and
for the participants at a personal level, as they approach the end of their temporary
appointment. The perception of uncertainty and lack of direction, closely related
to the lack of economic and human resources, as manifested by the participants
are important factors that may reduce their OC.
Conflict management. Defined as the use of resolution and stimulation
techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict (Robbins, 2003), conflict management is an essential competence every employee and leader should possess
and cultivate, since it is determinant of the success or failure of the organization.
Conflict is not always bad, and can sometimes lead to more creativity and better
ideas (Vandeveer & Menefee, 2010), if handled properly. A recent event experienced by most of the interviewees has marked the history of Rescue, Inc. It took
place a couple of months before the data were collected, and will be referred to as
the critical incident. All participants made reference to that incident and all of
them showed concern, worry, and a sensation that many things went wrong in the
whole process. Owing to the confidentiality agreement, the details will not be
revealed, but participants’ impressions and reactions will be shared in general
terms. The critical incident was twofold: First, the organization’s actions were
unwelcome by the volunteers and second, a few employees’ misconduct represented cost and damages to the organizational image.
35
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
After analyzing interviewees’ answers and evidence of the current status
of the consequences of those actions, a common point of view reveals that the situation was not handled in the best way. A totally new conflict was faced by the
organization, which demanded a non-programmed decision, plus the inexperience
of all involved managing such conflict provoked unpleasant outcomes. “In twenty years we have never faced a situation like this one.”
In general terms, nearly all the interviewees agreed that the situation was
mishandled, and the lack of clear and more open communication aggravated the
consequences. Regarding the way they would have managed the conflict, responses varied, depending on whether they referred to organization’s actions that
were unwelcome by the volunteers or to employees’ misconduct. Responses referred to the former include:
The use of honest and open individual dialogue with the persons involved
. . . the establishment of clear line of trust between supervisors and employees. In that way, employees (volunteers) would feel more comfortable to express their opinion or unwillingness to follow any directive that
they consider to be out of their responsibility, without being perceived as
insubordinate.
“The situation was managed wrong, administratively, and it brought its
consequences. I would have used clearer communication, explained specific task
deadlines, taking into account other factors before assigning tasks and special
36
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
working days.” “I would have listened to the complaints of volunteers and taken
time to explain the reasons for asking for help with an urgent need that required
the support of all.”
Responses referred to a few employees’ misconduct include: “The way the
situation was managed was unexpected but I understand it was the right way to
deal with it. I would have acted with more direct supervision.” “Trust toward
those employees was broken. . . . I think the organization acted in a right way. I
would have handled the situation in the same way.” The tension and discomfort
were present during the interviews every time the participants brought the topic of
the critical incident into the conversation. The majority of the respondents emphasized organization’ actions over employees misconduct as the main cause of
the damaged organizational climate in recent times. Those who mentioned employees’ misconduct as the action causing the tension in the workplace coincided
that the management acted adequately, but those who diminished the effect of that
issue concurred that in either actions, management did not act in the best way.
OC is affected by factors within the organization such as the management of conflict, and it is interpreted differently according to the idiosyncrasy of the psychological contract of individual sharing the same workplace.
Recommendations to the Non-profit Organization
Organizational commitment of stipend volunteers is affected by several
factors. Based on the analyzed data, some recommendations to Rescue, Inc. are
37
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
presented. First, decentralization of decision-making power is an urgent issue that
requires immediate action by top management. In today’s dynamic and unstable
world, both for-profit and nonprofit organizations are more able to adapt to the
environment in a decentralized structure. Small organizations normally have a
flat organizational structure, and should have the decision-making power distributed in other managerial levels apart from top management. This practice allows
a more agile organization, empowered to respond much better to the demands of
the environment and their stakeholders, including the clients and beneficiaries.
Further, organizational chart is the graphic image of the organization’s formal
structure. It should be clear, and show the real authority channels, division of
work through departmentalization, supervisory levels, and the number of subordinates every managers have, among other relevant components. This design must
be chosen according to the organization’s purpose, and should reflect its best way
to function, to integrate the different activities in an effective system. If a departmentalization is chosen by functions, it will provide an easier way to administer the organization, especially if it is a small one. Otherwise, if the departmentalization is chosen by services provided (programs/projects), it will need more specialized managerial staff and it will duplicate efforts, since it requires supervisors
and support staff for each program. Based on the information provided, there are
not enough financial means to recruit and retain the human resources needed.
This could be addressed by identifying funds at local or state levels or by identify-
38
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
ing specialized volunteers to do specialized tasks. Additionally, there should be
consistency on job titles in all official documents to avoid misunderstanding and
confusion. An organizational analysis is recommended to decide which organizational structure and design is suitable for this organization. A job analysis is also
recommended to clarify the job titles, duties, and responsibilities that comply both
with the sponsors’ standards and with the organization’s needs. This analysis will
allow for updated and clearer job descriptions and job specifications. The alliance
with other external institutions and government agencies do not constitute an internal organizational relationship that needs to be depicted on an organizational
chart. The organization could illustrate those relationships in different ways other
than as part of their organizational chart.
Secondly, communication is a key element for organizational effectiveness. Formal communication in every direction, that is, upward, downward, and
laterally, should improve with intentional actions that promote trust and openness
among employees, supervisor, managers, and Board members. When management shares information on potential or planned changes that might affect employees or their working conditions, it has the effect of reducing the perceived
PCB or PCV; because it is viewed as the organization cares for them (i.e., Quiñones-Gonzalez, 2013). Properly informed employees might be better employees.
Thirdly, recognition should be awarded in more frequent intervals, in more meaningful ways, and in a variety of forms. Motivational theory states that recognition
39
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
can be powerful, positive reinforcement (Vandeveer & Menefee, 2010). An external consultant could assist the organization with the implementation of recognition programs. Apart from the annual award ceremony, experts suggest a gamete
of recognition activities that promote greater motivation and OC. Examples include a sincere “thank you” or thank you note, a letter from the supervisor or the
manager in appreciation of an assignment well done, a volunteer of the month,
and a combination of individual and group recognitions according to their accomplishments. Fourthly, strategic planning must be a tool to guide the organization
to a brighter and more stable future. Strategic vision is manifested in a clear mission and vision understood and known by all in the organization. If it needs to be
revised, a positive, yet more time-consuming practice is to allow all stakeholders
to brainstorm and participate in the process of redefining the organization’s mission and vision. Employment involvement in organizational processes and in
some decision-making is highly recommended and has proved to have a positive
outcome. This surely provides a sense of belonging and a stronger OC. The organization needs to create a new and effective strategic plan for the next five to
ten years and act accordingly. It should include an in-depth evaluation of internal
strengths and weaknesses as well as external opportunities and threats. As a living working document, it should be revised and updated to adapt to changes in the
internal and external environment. Again, an external consultant can provide the
40
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
expert assistance in the formulation, implementation, and evaluation of a strategic
plan.
Lastly, conflicts are natural in any kind of human interaction, including
the workplace. It could be conflicts related to interpersonal relationships, labor
(employer–employee) relations, disciplinary actions, and even legal issues faced
by organizations. The way to handle them is both an art and a science. Conflict
management requires strong interpersonal skills, as well as effective communication skills, and should be done with assertiveness and cooperativeness. Those issues associated with interpersonal relationships and employer–employee relations
are lessened by the development and implementation of procedure manuals and
employee manuals with clearly stated acceptable behaviors and disciplinary actions for those who break the established rules. Written statements of employees’
behaviors that are encouraged as acceptable, as well as specific disciplinary actions to be fairly applied to those who behave in a way that is unacceptable and in
detriment of the organization’s values and policies are a powerful tool to maintain
order and promote the desired organizational environment. In some more delicate
issues associated with conflict management, other skills need to be developed and
bargaining strategies should be applied in the negotiation process and in a possible third-party intervention In a context of external auditing or legal action, every
step should be taken with transparency, openness, and cooperativeness. Accountability toward every stakeholder is determinant for the survival of organizations.
41
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
Based on what was found and perceived in the organization, and probably
as the result of a future in-depth organizational analysis and training needs assessment, it is recommended to establish and implement a consistent and longterm Human Resources Training and Development Plan. Training on topics like
effective organizational communication, conflict management, interpersonal relationships, teamwork, managerial skills, and strategic management are imperative
to be provided to the personnel, including the stipend volunteers. Experience confirms that recruitment is the key for the improvement of the stipend volunteers’
OC as well as to organizational performance. Recruitment and selection, individual and group performance appraisal, and implementation of recognition programs should be performed by specialized Human Resources staff. In summary,
organizational structure and a ‘managerialist’ style, without disconnecting the organization from its social mission and service vision, are necessary and beneficial
for the success of any kind of organization, including NPOs.
Future research
Psychological contract theory is the foundation of this research study. A
replication of this sort of study is useful to strengthen the postulates presented and
explained and to provide insight into organizations’ management that helps them
to take action to improve that commitment. It will expand to the identification of
other factors that impact stipend volunteers’ OC. Interestingly, the relationship
between OC and PCB or PCV of stipend volunteers in NPOs might differ from
42
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
the relationship of these variables in the context of employees of other types of
organizations. It might be explained by the unique psychological contract of volunteers, which are neither fully transactional nor relational. As a relevant source
of future research, it is recommended to explore the construct introduced in this
research study, ‘transcendental contract’, as a hybrid approach that falls out of
strictly transactional or strictly relational ones. The transcendental nature of stipend volunteers’ psychological contract is a topic worth future conceptualization
and exploration.
Conclusion
Studies on stipend volunteers’ organizational commitment, under the psychological contract theory are scarce and require more empirical investigation.
The present study shed light on some organizational factors that diminish stipend
volunteers’ OC, and affect organizational performance. Based on the analyzed
data, five categories were identified and explained, which are: organizational
structure, communication, recognition, strategic planning, and conflict management. Recommendations were made to help the organization and similar NPOs
deal with the effect of these factors and to provide means to increase the stipend
volunteers’ OC. The nature of this study and its results provide insights into
NPOs regarding the way to deal with diminishing OC of its personnel. As stated
by Yin (1994), analytic generalization is distinct from statistical generalization, in
that it does not draw inferences from data to a population. Instead, analytic gen-
43
Organizational commitment in a Puerto Rican NPO
eralization compares the results of a case study to a previously developed theory.
This study provides analytic generalization to previously developed theory (Psychological Contract). Thus, it contributes to the application and interpretation of
PCT in another context and with another type of employee. The relevance of understanding psychological contract of volunteer employees is essential for every
manager dealing with them, regardless the type or organization of service offered.
To be aware of the effects of perception of PCB or PCV on volunteers’ OC will
guide management to find ways to minimize those effects and contribute to a better workplace environment and climate. Committed employees will serve with
positive attitudes and better understanding of organizational mission and vision,
which translates to improved organizational performance on service provision.
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Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Prof. Ana E. Martin and the College of
Business Administration of the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez for funding the presentation of this research, at ISTR 12th International Conference in
Stockholm 2016. The author also appreciates the valuable insight of Dr. David
Santiago, useful comments of Dr. Rosario Ortiz, Dr. Luz Gracia, and Dr. Steve
Watts on earlier versions of the article, the contribution of the participants of the
case study, and the support of her family, especially Iris N. Quiñones.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest
The author declares that she has no conflict of interest.
Table I
Means of analyzed variables
Variable
n
Mean
SD
Organizational commitment
6
5.42
0.67
Psychological contract breach
5
2.49
1.39
Psychological contract violation
6
1.25
0.32
Table II
Means of the three components of Organizational Commitment
OC component
n
Mean
SD
Affective commitment
6
6.17
1.09
Continuance commitment
6
4.59
0.92
Normative commitment
6
5.47
1.06
Total Organizational Commitment
6
5.42
0.67
Table III
Spearman correlation coefficients between variables of the quantitative measurement
instrument
Psychological Contract Psychological Contract
Breach
Violation
Organizational Commitment
-0.500
-0.638
Note. Significant levels: *p-value < .05, two-tailed. **p-value < .01, two-tailed.
N.S. = No statistical significance.