PLANNING RESOURCES
for teachers in small high schools
Second in a Series of Four
Summer 2003
Adapting
Classroom Practice
Teaching for Equity
Integrating Curriculum
Summer 2003
Dear High School Educator:
As school leaders strive to improve teaching and learning, many are confronted by a lack of
information. They want to improve their classroom practice, but frequently don’t know what
good curricular and pedagogical resources are available. To support you in reexamining your
classroom practices within a small school context, the Small Schools Project has taken the first
step of researching programs, interviewing teachers and visiting schools around the country in
order to collect promising teaching and learning resources.
This collection represents a wide range of resources that can serve as the basis for conversations
about school culture, new directions for classroom practice, and your professional development
plan. This report, the second in a series of four, addresses adapting classroom practice, teaching
for equity, and integrating curriculum.* The resources come recommended by small school
practitioners from around the country and have been reviewed by a panel of experts.
Each section offers a variety of possible directions to pursue. You’ll find web-based resources,
school profiles, sample classroom activities, professional development options, and recommended
readings. This collection will be most useful to you during times of planning and reflection,
rather than during the daily rush. The resources included here will not teach you how to
implement programs in any of these areas, but will define or describe a methodology, helping you
to decide what might work in your unique school setting.
Each resource is summarized in a box at the top of the page and contains a web site address
where you can find more information. The resources are defined by five categories:
TOOL symbolizes something you can use to further your work, such as a
curriculum, pedagogy, planning guide, framework, or resource.
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT outlines an available source for
professional development that supports a tool also included in the collection.
PROFILE describes an existing school culture or practice.
FIELD NOTE refers to a reproduced lesson plan, sample class handout, or
program structure that was developed for an existing school.
READINGS include articles, reports, and books that are recommended by
practitioners in the field as informative, provocative and useful.
Tell us about your experiences using Planning Resources by emailing the Project at
[email protected]. These resources, as well as the Spring 2003 collection, are
available on the Small Schools Project website at http://www.smallschoolsproject.org.
Sincerely,
The Small Schools Project
*The collection is ever growing! Please suggest additional resources in these areas as well as
topics for future reports by returning the questionnaire at the end of this report.
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
An Introduction
By getting small, high schools are trying to become more personalized and equitable. To
accomplish this, teachers plan to implement several strategies, such as advisories and senior
projects, but may be unsure how personalization and equity will look in the classroom. What will
be different about teaching in a small school setting than teaching in a traditional, large school?
How does a teacher adapt her curriculum and instructional strategies from a comprehensive
school context to a small, more innovative school setting?
We posed these questions to teachers around the county who have made such a transition. Four
themes emerged from their reflections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Teachers work more closely with their peers, developing a professional community.
Classrooms become more personalized.
Classes are often longer (block) periods.
Classes are heterogeneous, no longer grouping students by ability.
Although these four themes are addressed individually in this section, they are clearly
interconnected. Heterogeneous classes require teachers to meet the needs of diverse learners by
creating a more personalized class environment. Longer class periods allow teachers to get to
know their students better and incorporate projects, which allow for more individual instruction
time. By working more closely with other teachers, and at times combining disciplines, teachers
can create longer class periods as well as discuss the work and progress of individual students.
An effective professional community creates new expectations and ways of interacting among
teachers, administrators, and other school staff. Opportunities for quality professional
development include study groups, grade-level and cross-grade-level collaboration, peer teacher
observation, and ongoing feedback through coaching and modeling instructional strategies. Tools
to support these practices are introduced in this section. Several of the resources will require
training or modeling by an experienced practitioner to fully understand its application; support
organizations have been identified wherever possible.
The best classrooms often will not have a teacher standing in front of the students delivering a
lecture, but students noisily working together on projects or actively participating in class
discussion. Learner-centered instruction offers depth over breadth, makes collaboration between
students part of the learning environment, and is inquiry-based, such that students construct
meaning. This section, offers tools for creating learner-centered environments in the context of
longer class periods and heterogeneous classes, reflecting the way many teachers in small schools
work.
The following resources will help you and your colleagues continue to move beyond structure
and design issues toward the heart of the small schools reform effort—improving classroom
practice. They reflect several teachers’ responses to the question of how teachers can adapt their
classroom practice to be effective in their new small school.
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PROFESSIONAL COMMUNITY
1
Critical Friends Groups
5
National School Reform Faculty Protocols
Tuning Protocol
Consultancy
Collaborative Assessment Conference
11
11
14
19
Whole Faculty Study Groups
Use Time for Faculty Study
Whole Faculty Study Groups in Everett, Washington
23
23
32
Lesson Study
35
Curriculum Inquiry Cycle
40
Curriculum Planning
43
Teaching for Understanding
49
Three Easy Pieces
52
CLASSROOM PERSONALIZATION
57
Student Learning Plan
60
Democratic Classrooms
62
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
LONGER CLASS PERIODS
Organizing a Block Period
68
Lesson Plan Comparison
70
Coaching Habits of Mind
76
HETEROGENEOUS CLASSES
READINGS
65
79
Definitions
82
Implementing Heterogeneous Classes
Tracking Self Assessment
Pedagogical Principles of Heterogeneity
College Admissions Questions
Readings on De-Tracking
84
84
86
88
90
Differentiated Instruction
91
Inclusive Classroom: Meeting the Needs of Gifted Students
96
The Heterogeneous Classroom, IMP
106
Cooperative Learning
110
Group Activity Checklist
112
114
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Professional Community
An Introduction
Teachers we interviewed felt that an important component of working in a
small school was participating in a professional community, whose aspects
include:
ß
ß
ß
ß
Planning and/or teaching curriculum with colleagues
Discussing and solving classroom dilemmas with colleagues
Engaging in ongoing assessment of teaching practice
Mentoring and supporting new teachers
However, the following anecdotes may not reveal the inherent challenges in
creating or maintaining a more democratic governance structure, which
teachers said could be frustrating and complicated.
Teachers who have moved from large, traditional schools to small,
innovative schools believe that their mentality around working with their
colleagues has shifted. One teacher reported that faculty meetings at the large
school were often considered a waste of time. Responsibility was so diffused
that no one was accountable and students, parents, or others were blamed for
problems. In small schools, the staff can’t shift the blame so easily.
Because the trust can be so much stronger in small schools, teachers reported
that the interaction with their colleagues is very different. Cliff Chuang, math
department chair at Boston’s Academy of the Pacific Rim says, “People are
more open, come into your classroom, and offer or ask for help.” In a larger
setting, teachers can end up working in isolation, having to deal with a string
of interruptions. In a small setting, “you have more flexibility to plan around
events, like field trips, because you know what other teachers are doing.”
There is also a feeling of ownership for the school, “so any issue is your
issue and you want to be proactive in solving it.”
At the International School in Bellevue, Washington, part of participating
in a professional community means creating the schedule each year. Teachers
tell the principal who they would like to share planning time with (usually by
subject area or by grade level) and what class lengths work best with their
curriculum. For example, the music teachers want to meet with beginning
students every day for a shorter, fifty minute, class period in order to give
them the basics; a longer, ninety minute period, is appropriate for more
advanced students who can actually rehearse music.
The three French teachers discuss their curriculum and teaching practice
during their shared planning period. One year, they developed individual
four-week units, covering the same vocabulary but with different themes, and
rotated among their classes to teach them. This gave the teachers an
opportunity to perfect each unit while providing the students some variety.
Though the French teachers did not have common time to plan with other
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
subject area teachers that year, the International School is small enough that
they could find out what their peers were doing, and then build upon it. For
example, one French teacher introduced a poetry unit knowing that the
students had already learned poetry basics in their English class.
One French teacher reflected that working in a small school, “takes you off
of survival mode. Having longer periods and a smaller school somehow
allows you to feel less harried and feel happier than before. Not that I have
more time! But, I am more in control. I’m not reactive, but proactive and
creative, sharing ideas with my peers.”
Teachers at Parker Charter Essential School in rural Massachusetts rarely
design a course in isolation and are often building on someone else’s work.
Each summer, teachers meet for three weeks to decide on the broader
curriculum and design smaller units. Some grade level teachers plan
curriculum together while others plan separately, presenting their work to
their colleagues for feedback and discussion. Each year’s coursework centers
around a school-wide “Essential Question” as well as on specific concepts
and content in the academic Domains (Arts & Humanities, which includes a
Spanish team; Math, Science & Technology; and Wellness).
The professional team structure affects curriculum and instructional
strategies because teachers are conscious about creating consistency from
one class to the next. For example, the Challenge of the Week (see
Integrating Curriculum section) in seventh and eighth grades becomes a
“problem of the week” in eleventh and twelfth grades. While the complexity
increases, students know that both activities denote a problem to be solved
over the course of a week. Teachers also create consistency by using a
common method for writing up math/science labs and common exam
formats.
Diane Kruse, a math teacher at Parker Charter, believes it is critical that
teachers open up their practice. “The whole point of small schools is to build
a connection to kids and to colleagues.” She has deep conversations with her
peers about problems, questions, and dilemmas that they see in their classes
and together they figure out how to address them. These teachers are willing
to put their work on the line, and though they have no formal peer review
process, they work collegially and provide feedback on each other’s teaching
practice.
Kruse’s best tip is to carpool with a colleague or teaching partner. She
completed a lot of work and solved several dilemmas during the daily
commute. She also built trust and friendship with her carpool pals, which is
an important component to building a professional community. Teachers at
MATCH in Boston talk with their department peers and with teachers in the
same grade level during weekly meetings, which are built into the schedule.
Subject area groups develop a set of benchmarks together each year, around
which each teacher frames her curriculum. One teacher reports that, “The
group is small enough for everyone to be heard, things are agreed upon and
everyone’s pedagogy matches.” Bill Klann from Vanguard High School in
New York agrees that creating time in the schedule to talk is important,
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
“Even if teachers don’t have experience (working in a small school), talking
with their peers will spark creativity.”
When Cambridge Rindge & Latin High School made the switch to small
schools, teachers’ practice stopped being anonymous immediately. Teachers
found that some people were craving common planning time, while others
spent a lot of energy trying to avoid the contact. Joan Soble observed that
part of the challenge was how the school “moved to a structure that would
support collaboration before we valued collaboration. Now it’s seen as the
‘C’ word in many ways and we need teachers to recognize that we could
create something together that we couldn’t create individually. I think there
has to be that ‘ah-ha’ moment where people say ‘I never thought so-and-so
would say that brilliant thing that I’ve now incorporated into my mission
statement/school, event/lesson plan.’”
New Teachers
Many small schools establish a mentoring process for new teachers, which
plays a role in introducing newcomers to the unique school setting, as well as
helping them transition from a comprehensive school.
New teachers at High Tech High feel pressure to meet all of the school’s
high standards, including integrating curriculum, using technology,
displaying student work in the halls, and entertaining visitors. One veteran’s
advice is to start slow. “If you want to lecture or use textbooks, go ahead, but
do it well. The vision is still out there to do all the other stuff, but get your
feet wet and be relaxed before going into projects and other new practices.”
He adds that it always looks worse when someone is trying out a new
teaching strategy. “The students can appear out of control when they’re
doing projects and some may not be doing anything—though they probably
weren’t in the traditional classroom setting either.” High Tech High took on
too much in its first year and jettisoned some of the original ideas. Now,
teachers focus on doing a few things well: project-based learning and
working together in small, interdisciplinary teams that are responsible for a
group of students.
The International School gives each new teacher a partner in the same
subject area, ideally one who is teaching the same class. They develop the
curriculum together and revise their instructional practice during common
daily (or weekly) planning time. Teachers’ classrooms are physically
connected as well, with a shared office in between.
A first year teacher at the Urban Academy in New York doesn’t teach a full
load of courses. She is assigned a mentor who supports her in curriculum
building and course planning. Together, they look at what materials she
might want to use, the timing of it, and course goals. The new teacher has a
few weeks to observe the mentor teacher in the classroom, as well as teachers
in other disciplines. When the newcomer begins teaching, the mentor
observes her class and provides feedback during weekly meetings. One
veteran teacher also observed that, “it would be useful for teachers to
function as students and have them be taught with (an inquiry method) over
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
time. Then they would have experience tackling a problem the way students
do, including the initial disorientation.”
“The fact that we’re constantly trying to evaluate what we do and how we
teach makes Urban Academy an intellectual exciting place to work. There is
a sense of problem solving that is central to everything we do. We put
teaching at the center, and when you do that, you really put students at the
center.”
Academy of the Pacific Rim
http://pacrim.org
International School
http://belnet.bellevue.k12.wa.us/international.html
Parker Charter Essential School
http://www.parker.org/rtc
Media and Technology Charter High School (MATCH)
http://www.matchschool.org
Vanguard High School
http://www.vanguardnyc.com
Cambridge Rindge & Latin
http://www.cps.ci.cambridge.ma.us/crls
High Tech High
http://hightechhigh.org
Urban Academy
http://www.urbanacademy.org
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Critical Friends Groups
Good school friends have always supported each other in the process of
professional growth. This article describes a professional development
practice created by the National School Reform Faculty, called Critical
Friends Groups (CFG). Teachers examine student work and discuss texts
related to student learning and teacher practice. (These techniques can also
be applied in the classroom, teaching students to give feedback to peers in
writing groups, for example.)
CFGs are most effective when first modeled by an experienced practitioner.
For more information on CFG workshops in the northwest, visit the CES
Northwest Center website at http://www.cesnorthwest.org.
What Does a Critical Friends Group Do?
Horace, September 1996 (Vol. 13, No.1)
http://ces.edgateway.net/cs/cespr/view/ces_res/40
A Critical Friends Group (CFG) brings together four to ten teachers within a
school over at least two years, to help each other look seriously at their own
classroom practice and make changes in it. After a solid grounding in group
process skills, members focus on designing learning goals for students which
can be stated specifically enough that others can observe them in operation.
They work out strategies to move students toward these goals and collect
evidence on how those strategies are working out. In a structured setting of
mutual support and honest critical feedback from trusted peers, they then
work to adapt and revise their goals and strategies and to modify conditions
within the school so as to better support student learning. A portfolio of each
member's work documents evidence of their progress.
How Friends Can Be Critical As Schools Make Essential Changes
Excerpts from an article by Kathleen Cushman
Horace, May 1998 (Vol. 14, No. 5)
http://www.essentialschools.org/cs/resources/view/ces_res/43
Critical Friends Groups
Many Essential school teachers have used avenues other than the university
to learn the habit of gathering and analyzing data with an eye to improving
their schools. Some train, for example, to coach colleagues in "critical friends
groups" either through the National School Reform Faculty at the Annenberg
Institute for School Reform, based at Brown University, or in institutes
offered by regional Coalition Centers. [The CES Northwest Center, housed at
the University of Puget Sound in Tacoma, offers CFG training.]
A critical friends group (CFG) coach typically facilitates monthly meetings
with six to eight colleagues who have agreed to look closely at one another's
practice and at student work. The group tries to articulate what constitutes
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
good teaching and learning, calling on both outside sources and their own
experience. Members visit each other's classes, give feedback on each other's
teaching strategies or curricula, and gather evidence of what works best for
student learning. Some compile portfolios to demonstrate and reflect on that
evidence; others meet with groups from different schools to share insights
and dilemmas.
Teachers in a CFG at Philadelphia's Taylor Elementary School, for instance,
have been working for years to enrich the array of assessments with which
they keep track of student progress in reading. Using "running records" and a
variety of other methods, and teaching in multi-age groups, they have a vivid
sense of what each child from this largely Latino, extremely transient
neighborhood knows and can do.
So when Federal regulations insisted that they report out student reading
scores in some standardized form to qualify for Title I funds, these teachers
worried about subjecting their students to a testing experience they believed
demeaned the painstaking progress they had already made. They laid out the
dilemma and brought it to a recent institute of similar teams focusing on
using data to improve schools.
"Do we really have to force a child who reads at a grade one level to spend
two weeks staring at a grade four text," Damaris Cortez asked the group,
"even if that undermines all the Essential School principles we believe in?
Our whole school sent us here to ask you that!"
After two hours of carefully structured discussion, they got their answer from
the two other school teams around the table-but it came in the form of a new
question.
"What counts as evidence?" one respondent asked. "Can you turn this
requirement around, so that the evidence you are already gathering translates
into a grade level equivalent?" Maybe Taylor's teachers had more latitude
than they believed, the group suggested, encouraging them to take advantage
of the high-quality data about student performance they already had in their
possession. It was a prime example of the usefulness of the critical friend
relationship between schools.
"People who work within the school community understand their context
better than anyone else," says Steve Jubb, who directs the Bay Area Coalition
of Essential Schools. "So as critical friends we do not offer advice; rather we
ask questions that promote further inquiry on the part of those in the school
community. Critical friends recognize what's positive in the work and help
imagine its potential."
Learning to Inquire Together
Within a school setting, one of the hardest ways for teachers to carry out that
delicate task is by sitting in on each other's classes, taking thoughtful note of
what they see and offering their observations to their colleagues. Many
Essential school critical friends groups take a whole year of building
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
understanding in other ways before they have the trust to open their doors to
each other.
They may practice using the "protocols" that Essential school people and
others have developed as a means of looking collaboratively at student work
or teacher practice [see page 28]. These carefully structured formats for
response, facilitated by someone trained in such discussions, aim to create a
sense of emotional safety for the presenter, at the same time encouraging the
new perspectives and probing critiques of their peers. Typically they require
the presenter to remain silent at some point, while the respondents talk
among themselves about what they have seen.
Feedback's 3 Flavors: Warm, Cool, Hard
Horace, May 1998 (Vol. 14, No. 5)
Essential school teachers have adopted terms suggested by former CES
researcher Joseph McDonald in providing feedback to each other during
the structured response sessions called "protocols." They often group
responses, for example, in these ways:
"Warm" feedback consists of supportive, appreciative statements about
the work presented.
"Cool" or more distanced feedback offers different ways to think about
the work presented, raises questions.
"Hard" feedback challenges and extends the presenter's thinking, raises
concerns.
"Something happens to me while I am playing fly on the wall," says Kathy
Juarez, a teacher at Piner High School in Santa Rosa, California who has
used such protocols for many years. "I have the rare opportunity to hear
people talking seriously about my questions – and I know I will get to think
out loud about some of the issues they raise."
Or they may build a yearlong conversation around readings that inform their
practice. If they choose texts around a key theme, such as equity, this can
provide a framework for later discussions based on classroom experience and
the work of students.
Over time, these shared activities foster a sense of common purpose at the
same time that they honor differences in their members' styles of teaching
and learning, CFG participants say.
Because such sessions intend to enlighten, not to evaluate, at their best they
take on the air of professional seminars-like a group of doctors, lawyers, or
architects puzzling over a case together, or like an independent graduate
seminar in which teachers could explore their deepest concerns and interests.
As group members push toward a deeper reading of the evidence before
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
them, their learning extends beyond addressing the question of the hour, to
sharpen the inquiry skills of every participant.
When the time does come to observe each other's classrooms, the habits of
inquiry developed through such activities can sustain teachers through the
trepidation they often feel. They can focus the visit on a specific question
posed by the teacher being observed (such as "How are my students using
evidence in this class?" or "Am I meeting students at the different challenge
levels they require?"). And they can structure the feedback in a way that both
supports their efforts and provokes new ideas.
Among Friends: Norms for Inquiry and Analysis
Horace, May 1998 (Vol. 14, No. 5)
It isn't easy to be both critical and friendly while working
collaboratively to make schools better. The Bay Area Coalition of
Equitable Schools has developed these norms to help its members as
they jointly inquire about and analyze their work:
ß
Describe only what you see. Do not try to describe what you
don't see; express what you don't see in the form of questions.
ß
Resist the urge to work on "solutions" until you are
comfortable with what the data says and doesn't say.
ß
Surface the perspectives and experiences you bring to the
analysis. Effective teams use these as strengths.
ß
Seek to understand differences of perception before trying to
resolve them. Early consensus can inhibit depth and breadth of
analysis. Hear from everybody.
ß
Ask questions when you don't understand. Find the answers
together.
Surface assumptions and use the data to challenge them. Look actively
for both challenges and supports to what you believe is true.
What Difference It Makes
How does one measure the impact of such critical friendships on student
learning? Do test scores rise or graduation rates improve when teachers begin
to act like a professional community?
They do, according to both large-scale quantitative studies of school
restructuring and more focused, qualitative analyses of the links between
better teaching and student achievement.
A huge statistical survey of student achievement in restructuring high
schools, published in 1993 by University of Michigan professor Valerie Lee
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
and Julia Smith of the University of Rochester, showed that a more personal,
"communal" organizational style as opposed to a more traditional,
bureaucratic one contributes to student achievement gains across the
spectrum of socioeconomic and other differences.
And Milbrey McLaughlin's Stanford research concludes that networks of all
kinds – among schools or among teachers exploring new ways – contribute
to deeper student learning. Especially important to successful teaching, she
notes, is "a supportive professional community that discusses new teaching
materials and strategies and that supports the risk-taking and struggle
entailed in transforming practice."
The critical friend approach bears particular promise in the current highstakes accountability climate, and not just because it fosters among school
people a sense of mutual responsibility for improving teaching and learning.
If teachers spend time looking closely at how their practice affects student
learning, they might also start to turn an impossible array of externally imposed standards into more powerful, personal measures that they generate
from their own work and carry in their heads every day.
The sense of mission that results across a school will directly help its
students to achieve at higher levels, other research indicates. In their studies
of Catholic schools and of small schools in the Chicago area and elsewhere,
Anthony Bryk and his colleagues found that any strong shared ethos in a
school makes students take their work more seriously and do better at it.
Critical friendships also can take place on a larger canvas. A cluster of
independent schools involved in the Coalition has met for years to help each
other in their work, and now is launching a CES Center. A group of Essential
school librarians conducts a virtual critical friends group over the Internet,
coached by Mark Gordon in Santa Cruz, California. On-line discussion
groups thrive among members of CFGs who have met at regional and
national institutes and follow up by exchanging everything from reading lists
to lesson plans.
Taking the Next Step
The power of such experiences to make change on a larger scale is striking.
Where once only a few teachers at Houston's Westbury High School took
part in the regional Center's critical friends training, now fully a third of the
faculty has chosen to join such collegial groups. And while once their
professional development came largely from outside, now it almost always
takes advantage of expertise within the school.
But supporting this kind of horizontal learning requires new, non-hierarchical
structures that few schools or districts yet display, points out Theodore R.
Sizer, the Coalition's Chairman.
“The research shows us that it works,” he says. “So why do teachers still
have to fight for the time to work together in these ways? Why do schools
and policymakers still operate on the assumption that outsiders know best?”
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
The system must no longer work that way, he argues. Only when teachers
together explore the most fundamental aspects of their work and its results,
so as to make changes that support student learning, will they move beyond
mere technical fixes to a professional culture of continuous inquiry and
improvement. They will begin changing how they understand, not just what
they do. And as they take charge of their own professional growth, they are
supporting each other in the process as good school friends have always
done.
Norms for Sharing Work
Horace, May 1998 (Vol. 14, No. 5)
To create trust among those sharing their work for critique, many teachers
begin by agreeing on clear norms of behavior within the group, which
they post for reference during the discussion that follows. One group's
norms read:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
10
Give honest feedback, both supportive and more distanced.
Allow sufficient time to get to know the work.
Be specific; tie your feedback to the work; refer to its place in the
portfolio.
Presenter and participants may safely express their confusion,
stress, or needs; be sensitive to them.
Keep comments within the room. If you don't say it to the
presenter, don't say it.
Start with a question; check for understanding.
Use probing questions, not leading questions; don't jump to
solutions.
Monitor your airtime so others have equal chance to speak. Take
time to listen.
Be flexible, balancing spontaneity with equal access to speak.
Debrief what was helpful or not in the feedback process.
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
National School Reform Faculty (NSRF) Protocols
Harmony School Education Center
http://www.nsrfharmony.org/protocols.html
A “protocol” is a strict format that provides focus and structure to teachers’
conversations about their classroom practice. The following three protocols
provide a formalized way to get feedback on work in progress, to examine
student work as a means to refine curriculum, and to discuss a dilemma.
These are a sample of the many protocols available from NSRF, the
Coalition of Essential Schools, and Looking at Student Work
(http://www.lasw.org/methods.html).
An experienced facilitator can model how protocols are an effective and
efficient method for discussing complex issues. Workshops and coaching are
available through the CES Northwest Center (http://cesnorthwest.org) at the
University of Puget Sound.
Tuning Protocol: Overview
The following description is excerpted, with slight adaptations, from
Looking Together at Student Work by Tina Blythe, David Allen, and Barbara
S. Powell (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999)
The tuning protocol was originally developed as a means for the five high
schools in the Coalition of Essential School's Exhibitions Project to receive
feedback and fine-tune their developing student assessment systems,
including exhibitions, portfolios, and design projects. Recognizing the
complexities involved in developing new forms of assessment, the project
staff developed a facilitated process to support educators in sharing their
students' work and, with colleagues, reflecting upon the lessons that are
embedded there. This collaborative reflection helps educators to design and
refine their assessment systems, as well as to support higher quality student
performance. Since its trial run in 1992, the Tuning Protocol has been widely
used and adapted for professional development purpose in and among
schools across the country.
To take part in the Tuning Protocol, educators bring samples of their
students' work on paper and, whenever possible, on video, as well as some of
the materials they have created to support student performance, such as
assignment descriptions and scoring rubrics. In a circle of about six to ten
"critical friends" (usually other educators), a facilitator guides the group
through the process and keeps time. The presenting educator, or team of
educators, describes the context for the student work (the task or project) uninterrupted by questions or comments from participants.
Often the presenter begins with a focusing question or area about which she
would especially welcome feedback, for example, "Are you seeing evidence
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
of persuasive writing in the students’ work?" Participants have time to
examine the student work and ask clarifying questions. Then, with the
presenter listening but silent, participants offer warm and cool feedback both supportive and challenging. Presenters often frame their feedback as a
question, for example, "How might the project be different if students chose
their research topics?"
After this feedback is offered, the presenter has the opportunity, again
uninterrupted, to reflect on the feedback and address any comments or
questions she chooses. Time is reserved for debriefing the experience. Both
presenting and participating educators have found the tuning experience to be
a powerful stimulus for encouraging reflection on their practice.
Tuning Protocol
Developed by Joseph McDonald and David Allen
1. Introduction — 5 minutes
ß Facilitator briefly introduces protocol goals, guidelines, and schedule
ß Participants briefly introduce themselves (if necessary)
2.
Presentation — 15 minutes
The presenter has an opportunity to share the context for the student
work:
ß Information about the students and/or the class — what the students
tend to be like, where they are in school, where they are in the year
ß Assignment or prompt that generated the student work
ß Student learning goals or standards that inform the work
ß Samples of student work — photocopies of work, video clips, etc. —
with student names removed
ß Evaluation format — scoring rubric and/or assessment criteria, etc.
ß Focusing question for feedback
ß Participants are silent; no questions are entertained at this time.
3.
Clarifying Questions — 5 minutes
ß Participants have an opportunity to ask “clarifying” questions in
order to get information that may have been omitted in the
presentation that they feel would help them to understand the context
for the student work. Clarifying questions are matters of “fact.”
ß The facilitator should be sure to limit the questions to those that are
“clarifying,” judging which questions more properly belong in the
warm/cool feedback section.
4.
Examination of Student Work Samples — 15 minutes
ß Participants look closely at the work, taking notes on where it seems
to be in tune with the stated goals, and where there might be a
problem. Participants focus particularly on the presenter’s focusing
question.
ß Presenter is silent; participants do this work silently.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
5.
Pause to reflect on warm and cool feedback — 2-3 minutes
ß Participants take a couple of minutes to reflect on what they would
like to contribute to the feedback session.
ß Presenter is silent; participants do this work silently.
6.
Warm and Cool Feedback — 15 minutes
ß Participants share feedback with each other while the presenter is
silent. The feedback generally begins with a few minutes of warm
feedback, moves on to a few minutes of cool feedback (sometimes
phrased in the form of reflective questions), and then moves back
and forth between warm and cool feedback.
ß Warm feedback may include comments about how the work
presented seems to meet the desired goals; cool feedback may
include possible “disconnects,” gaps, or problems. Often
participants offer ideas or suggestions for strengthening the work
presented.
ß The facilitator may need to remind participants of the presenter's
focusing question, which should be posted for all to see.
ß Presenter is silent and takes notes.
7.
Reflection — 5 minutes
ß Presenter speaks to those comments/questions he or she chooses
while participants are silent.
ß This is not a time to defend oneself, but is instead a time for the
presenter to reflect aloud on those ideas or questions that seemed
particularly interesting.
ß Facilitator may intervene to focus, clarify, etc.
8.
Debrief — 5 minutes
Facilitator-led discussion of this tuning experience.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Consultancy: Overview
The following descriptions of the Consultancy, how to frame Consultancy
dilemmas and questions, and directions for preparing to present a dilemma
were written by Gene Thompson-Grove, Founding Co-Director of the
National School Reform Faculty (NSRF)
A Consultancy is a structured process for helping an individual or a team
think more expansively about a particular, concrete dilemma. Outside
perspective is critical to this protocol working effectively; therefore, some of
the participants in the group must be people who do not share the presenter’s
specific dilemma at that time. When putting together a Consultancy group, be
sure to include people with differing perspectives.
The Consultancy Protocol was developed by Gene Thompson-Grove as part
of the Coalition of Essential Schools’ National Re:Learning Faculty
Program, and further adapted and revised as part of work of the National
School Reform Faculty Project (NSRF).
Framing Consultancy Dilemmas and Consultancy Questions
A dilemma is a puzzle, an issue that raises questions, an idea that seems to
have conceptual gaps, something about process or product that you just can’t
figure out. Sometimes it will include samples of student or adult work that
illustrate the dilemma, but often it is a dilemma that crosses over many parts
of the educational process.
1. Think about your dilemma.
Dilemmas deal with issues with which you are struggling or that you are
unsure about. Some criteria for a dilemma might include:
ß Is it something that is bothering you enough that your thoughts
regularly return to the dilemma?
ß Is it an issue/dilemma that is not already on its way to being
resolved?
ß Is it an issue/dilemma that does not depend on getting other people to
change (in other words, can you affect the dilemma by changing
your practice)?
ß Is it something that is important to you, and is it something you are
actually willing to work on?
2. Do some reflective writing about your dilemma.
Some questions that might help are:
ß Why is this a dilemma for you? Why is this dilemma important to
you?
ß If you could take a snapshot of this dilemma, what would you/we
see?
ß What have you done already to try to remedy or manage the
dilemma?
ß What have been the results of those attempts?
ß Who do you hope changes? Who do you hope will take action to
resolve this dilemma? If your answer is not you, you need to change
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
ß
ß
your focus. You will want to present a dilemma that is about your
practice, actions, behaviors, beliefs, and assumptions, and not
someone else’s.
What do you assume to be true about this dilemma, and how have
these assumptions influenced your thinking about the dilemma?
What is your focus question? A focus question summarizes your
dilemma and helps focus the feedback (see the next step).
3. Frame a focus question for your Consultancy group:
Put your dilemma into question format.
ß Try to pose a question around the dilemma that seems to you to get
to the heart of the matter.
ß Remember that the question you pose will guide the Consultancy
group in their discussion of the dilemma.
4. Critique your focus question.
ß Is this question important to my practice?
ß Is this question important to student learning?
ß Is this question important to others in my profession?
Some Generic Examples of Dilemmas
ß
The teaching staff seems to love the idea of involving the students in
meaningful learning that connects the students to real issues and an
audience beyond school, but nothing seems to be happening in reality.
Question: What can I do to capitalize on teachers’ interest and to help them
translate theory into practice?
ß
The community is participating in visioning work, but the work doesn’t
seem to relate to the actual life of the school—it is just too utopian.
Question: How do I mesh dreams and reality?
ß
Teachers love doing projects with the students, but the projects never
seem to connect to one another or have very coherent educational goals
or focus; they are just fun.
Question: How do I work with teachers so they move to deep learning about
important concepts while still staying connected to hands-on learning?
ß
We keep getting grants to do specific projects with students and the
community, but when the money is gone, the work doesn’t continue.
Question: How does sustainability actually work? What needs to change for
it to work?
ß
No matter how hard I try to be inclusive and ask for everyone’s ideas,
about half of the people don’t want to do anything new - they think
things were just fine before.
Question: How do I work with the people who don’t want to change without
alienating them?
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Preparing to Present a Dilemma in a Consultancy Protocol
Come to the session with a description of a dilemma related to your practice.
Write your dilemma with as much contextual description as you feel you
need for understanding. One page is generally sufficient; even a half page is
often enough. If you prefer not to write it out, you can make notes for
yourself and do an oral presentation, but please do some preparation ahead of
time.
End your description with a specific question. Frame your question
thoughtfully. What do you REALLY want to know? What is your real
dilemma? This question will help your Consultancy group focus its
feedback. Questions that can be answered with a “yes” or “no” generally
provide less feedback for the person with the dilemma, so avoid those kinds
of questions. (See the previous pages for a process for framing Consultancy
dilemmas and questions.)
Dilemmas deal with issues with which you are struggling—something that is
problematic or has not been as effective as you would like it to be—anything
related to your work. Consultancies give presenters an opportunity to tap the
expertise in a group, and if past experiences offer any indication, you will be
able to rely on the people in your Consultancy group to provide respectful,
thoughtful, experienced-based responses to your dilemma.
A couple of caveats—we have found that Consultancies don’t go well when
people bring dilemmas that they are well on the way to figuring out
themselves, or when they bring a dilemma that involves only getting other
people to change. To get the most out of this experience, bring something
that is still puzzling you about your practice. It is riskier to do, but we
guarantee that you will learn more.
Consultancy Protocol
Developed by Gene Thompson-Grove,
Founding Co-Director of the National School Reform Faculty Project
Purpose: A Consultancy is a structured process for helping an individual or
a team think more expansively about a particular, concrete
dilemma.
Time:
Approximately 50 minutes
Roles:
Presenter (whose work is being discussed by the group)
Facilitator (who sometimes participates, depending on group size)
Steps:
1. The presenter gives an overview of the dilemma with which s/he is
struggling, and frames a question for the Consultancy group to
consider. The framing of this question, as well as the quality of the
16
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
presenter’s reflection on the dilemma being discussed, are key features
of this protocol. If the presenter has brought student work, educator
work, or other “artifacts,” there is a pause here to silently examine the
work/documents. The focus of the group’s conversation is on the
dilemma. (5-10 minutes)
2. The Consultancy group asks clarifying questions of the presenter—that
is, questions that have brief, factual answers. (5 minutes)
3. The group asks probing questions of the presenter. These questions
should be worded so that they help the presenter clarify and expand
his/her thinking about the dilemma presented to the Consultancy
group. The goal here is for the presenter to learn more about the
question s/he framed or to do some analysis of the dilemma presented.
The presenter may respond to the group’s questions, but there is no
discussion by the Consultancy group of the presenter’s responses. At
the end of the ten minutes, the facilitator asks the presenter to re-state
his/her question for the group. (10 minutes)
4. The group talks with each other about the dilemma presented.
(15 minutes)
Possible questions to frame the discussion:
What did we hear?
What didn’t we hear that they think might be relevant?
What assumptions seem to be operating?
What questions does the dilemma raise for us?
What do we think about the dilemma?
What might we do or try if faced with a similar dilemma? What have we
done in similar situations?
Members of the group sometimes suggest solutions to the dilemma. Most
often, however, they work to define the issues more thoroughly and
objectively. The presenter doesn’t speak during this discussion, but instead
listens and takes notes.
5. The presenter reflects on what s/he heard and on what s/he is now
thinking, sharing with the group anything that particularly resonated
for him or her during any part of the Consultancy. (5 minutes)
6. The facilitator leads a brief conversation about the group’s observation
of the Consultancy process. (5 minutes)
Some Tips
Step 1: The success of the Consultancy often depends on the quality of the
presenter’s reflection in Step 1 as well as on the quality and authenticity of
the question framed for the Consultancy group. However, it is not uncommon
for the presenter, at the end of a Consultancy, to say, “Now I know what my
real question is.” That is fine, too. It is sometimes helpful for the presenter to
17
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
prepare ahead of time a brief (one-two page) written description of the
dilemma and the issues related to it for the Consultancy group to read as part
of Step 1.
Step 2: Clarifying questions are for the person asking them. They ask the
presenter “who, what, where, when, and how.” These are not “why”
questions. They can be answered quickly and succinctly, often with a phrase
or two.
Step 3: Probing questions are for the person answering them. They ask the
presenter “why” (among other things), and are open-ended. They take longer
to answer, and often require deep thought on the part of the presenter before
s/he speaks.
Step 4: When the group talks while the presenter listens, it is helpful for the
presenter to pull his/her chair back slightly away from the group. This
protocol asks the Consultancy group to talk about the presenter in the third
person, almost as if s/he is not there. As awkward as this may feel at first, it
often opens up a rich conversation, and it gives the presenter an opportunity
to listen and take notes, without having to respond to the group in any way.
Remember that it is the group’s job to offer an analysis of the dilemma or
question presented. It is not necessary to solve the dilemma or to offer a
definitive answer.
It is important for the presenter to listen in a non-defensive manner. Listen
for new ideas, perspectives, and approaches. Listen to the group’s analysis of
your question/issues. Listen for assumptions—both your own and the
group’s—implicit in the conversation. Don’t listen for judgment of you by
the group. This is not supposed to be about you, but about a question you
have raised. Remember that you asked the group to help you with this
dilemma.
Step 5: The point of this time period is not for the presenter to give a “blow
by blow” response to the group’s conversation, nor is it to defend or further
explain. Rather, this is a time for the presenter to talk about what were, for
him/her, the most significant comments, ideas and questions s/he heard. The
presenter can also share any new thoughts or questions s/he had while
listening to the Consultancy group.
Step 6: Debriefing the process is key. Don’t short-change this step.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Collaborative Assessment Conference: Overview
The following description is excerpted, with slight adaptations, from
Looking Together at Student Work by Tina Blythe, David Allen, and Barbara
S. Powell (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999)
A piece of student work has the potential to reveal not only the student’s
mastery of the curriculum’s goals, but also a wealth of information about the
student him/herself: his/her intellectual interests, his/her strengths, and
his/her struggles. The Collaborative Assessment Conference was designed to
give teachers a systematic way to mine this richness. It provides a structure
by which teachers come together to look at a piece of work, first to determine
what it reveals about the student and the issues s/he cares about, and then to
consider how the student’s issues and concerns relate to the teacher’s goals
for the student. The last part of the conversation – the discussion of
classroom practice – grows out of these initial considerations.
The structure for the conference evolved from three key ideas:
ß
First, students use school assignments, especially open-ended ones, to
tackle important problems in which they are personally interested.
Sometimes these problems are the same ones that the teacher has
assigned them to work on, sometimes not.
ß
Second, we can only begin to see and understand the serious work that
students undertake if we suspend judgment long enough to look carefully
and closely at what is actually in the work rather than what we hope to
see in it.
ß
Third, we need the perspective of others—especially those who are not
intimate with our goals for our students—to help us to see aspects of the
student and the work that would otherwise escape us, and we need others
to help us generate ideas about how to use this information to shape our
daily practice.
Since 1988, when Steve Seidel and his colleagues at Project Zero developed
this process, the Collaborative Assessment Conference has been used in a
variety of ways: to give teachers the opportunity to hone their ability to look
closely at and interpret students’ work; to explore the strengths and needs of
a particular child; to reflect on the work collected in student portfolios; to
foster conversations among faculty about the kind of work students are doing
and how faculty can best support that work.
In the Collaborative Assessment Conference, the presenting teacher brings a
piece of student work to share with a group of five to ten colleagues (usually
other teachers and administrators). The process begins with the presenting
teacher showing (or distributing copies of) the piece to the group.
Throughout the first part of the conference, the presenting teacher says
nothing, giving no information about the student, the assignment, or the
context in which the student worked.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Through a series of questions asked by the facilitator, the group works to
understand the piece by describing it in detail and looking for clues that
would suggest the problems or issues or aspects of the work with which the
student was most engaged. They do this without judgments about the quality
of work or how it suits their personal tastes. The facilitator helps this process
by asking participants to point out the evidence on which they based the
judgments that inevitably slip out. For example, if someone comments that
the work seems very creative, the facilitator might ask him or her to describe
the aspect of the work that led him or her to say that.
In the second part of the conference, the focus broadens. Having
concentrated intensively on the piece itself, the group, in conversation with
the presenting teacher, now considers the conditions under which the work
was created as well as broader issues of teaching and learning. First, the
presenting teacher provides any information that s/he thinks is relevant about
the context of the work. This might include describing the assignment,
responding to the discussion, answering questions (though s/he does not have
to respond to all the questions raised in the first part of the conference),
describing other work by the child, and/or commenting on how his/her own
reading or observation of the work compares to that of the group.
Next, the facilitator asks the whole group (presenting teacher included) to
reflect on the ideas generated by the discussion of the piece. These might be
reflections about specific next steps for the child in question, ideas about
what the participants might do in their own classes or thoughts about the
teaching and learning process in general. Finally, the whole group reflects on
the conference itself.
The following steps are a working agenda for a Collaborative Assessment
Conference. The time allotted for each step of the conference is not fixed,
since the time needed for each step will vary in accordance with the work
being considered. At each stage, the facilitator should use his or her
judgment in deciding when to move the group on to the next step. Typically,
Collaborative Assessment Conferences take from forty-five minutes to an
hour and fifteen minutes.
The Collaborative Assessment Conference Protocol
Developed by Steve Seidel and colleagues at Harvard Project Zero
1. Getting Started
ß The group chooses a facilitator who will make sure the group stays
focused on the particular issue addressed in each step.
ß The presenting teacher puts the selected work in a place where
everyone can see it or provides copies for the other participants.
S/he says nothing about the work, the context in which it was
created, or the student, until Step 5.
ß The participants observe or read the work in silence, perhaps making
brief notes about aspects of it that they particularly notice.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
2. Describing the Work
ß The facilitator asks the group, “What do you see?”
ß Group members provide answers without making judgments about
the quality of the work or their personal preferences.
ß If a judgment emerges, the facilitator asks for the evidence on which
the judgment is based.
3. Asking Questions About the Work
ß The facilitator asks the group, “What questions does this work raise
for you?”
ß Group members state any questions they have about the work, the
child, the assignment, the circumstances under which the work was
carried out, and so on.
ß The presenting teacher may choose to make notes about these
questions, but s/he is does not respond to them now--nor is s/he
obligated to respond to them in Step 5 during the time when the
presenting teacher speaks.
4. Speculating About What the Student Is Working On
ß The facilitator asks the group, “What do you think the child is
working on?”
ß Participants, based on their reading or observation of the work, make
suggestions about the problems or issues that the student might have
been focused on in carrying out the assignment.
5. Hearing from the Presenting Teacher
ß The facilitator invites the presenting teacher to speak.
ß The presenting teacher provides his or her perspective on the
student’s work, describing what s/he sees in it, responding (if s/he
chooses) to one or more of the questions raised, and adding any other
information that s/he feels is important to share with the group.
ß The presenting teacher also comments on anything surprising or
unexpected that s/he heard during the describing, questioning and
speculating phases.
6. Discussing Implications for Teaching and Learning
The facilitator invites everyone (the participants and the presenting
teacher) to share any thoughts they have about their own teaching,
children’s learning, or ways to support this particular child in future
instruction.
7. Reflecting on the Collaborative Assessment Conference
The group reflects on the experiences of or reactions to the
conference as a whole or to particular parts of it.
8. Thanks to the presenting teacher!
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Looking at Student Work
http://www.lasw.org
Teachers look at student work together for a variety of reasons, including
professional development, increasing accountability, setting standards,
and reflecting on student learning and development.
Challenging the Norms of Teaching
Looking at student work challenges accepted "norms" of the teaching
profession.
ß
Rather than looking at all students work (if only to assign grades
or scores), teachers look at small samples—as small as one child's
drawing—for significant periods of time.
ß
Rather than working in isolation from each other, teachers
engaged in looking at student work collaborate with colleagues.
ß
Rather than practicing instruction and assessment in the virtual
privacy of the classroom, teachers bring their work and their
students' work to their colleagues for inquiry and reflection.
ß
Rather than keeping the work of students inside schools,
protocols for looking at student work offer opportunities to
involve parents and community members in discussing student
work, student learning, standards, etc.
The Looking at Student Work website provides resources and research
related to everything from choosing an appropriate work sample to
processes for guiding teachers in discussing it.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Use Time for Faculty Study:
Getting the Whole Faculty Involved Focuses a School
Carlene U. Murphy
Journal of Staff Development, Spring 1999 (Vol. 20, No. 2)
http://www.nsdc.org/library/jsd/murphy202.html
When every faculty member at a school is working in a study group that
focuses on data-based student needs, the school is likely practicing the
Whole Faculty Study Groups (WFSGs) approach to professional
development. WFSG’s are less commonly used than Critical Friends Groups,
but present another option for building your professional community.
Developed and named by Carlene Murphy, a 45-year professional educator,
WFSG’s encourage faculty to determine the work each group is to perform
and the protocols that define the way they work. Study groups provide
authentic, democratic, and constructive learning experiences around
classroom practice. The following article, written by Ms. Murphy, outlines
the 15 Process Guidelines of WFSGs.
At Jackson Elementary School in Greeley, Colo., normal dismissal time is
3:25. But on Mondays, the students leave at 1:45, and the teachers stay until
5 for staff development activities.
For at least an hour during that time, all teachers and teaching aides attend
study group meetings. These small groups—no more than six people—work
on improving student writing in all content areas, which the whole faculty
agreed should be a major focus for this year’s groups. Teachers put their
heads together to examine classroom practice, and explore ways to improve
it. They look at research, create and practice teaching activities, and examine
student work together.
Jackson is one of more than 150 schools using the Whole-Faculty Study
Group process. In these schools, all certified staff belong to small groups that
meet regularly to focus on student needs. This is a whole school change
model that uses professional development as its central feature.
These schools say study groups are well worth the time devoted to them.
They help teachers focus on teaching, coordinate and collaborate with
colleagues, pass on experience, and develop a group understanding of the
school and its ongoing mission.
Whole-faculty study groups
All of the Whole-Faculty Study Group schools use the same data-based
decision model (Murphy and Lick, 1998) to make decisions about how to
organize study groups and what they will do. What their students need
determines what teachers do in a particular study group. If students at an
elementary school are not performing at the desired level in math, for
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
example, that school’s study groups could examine the math curriculum and
how it is taught.
The program provides a decision-making cycle and process guidelines,
which provide a format for organizing those discussions and ongoing support
for study groups. All teachers assume leadership roles, usually on a rotating
basis, and work together to teach all children in the school. This work can
take many forms, but the guiding principles are always the same: Teachers
need to continuously study and investigate teaching, and apply what they
learn. When the study group process is focused on appropriate content, it
changes what teachers and students do in classrooms.
Research conducted by Rosenholtz (1989), McLaughlin (1993), Little (1993)
and Louis, Marks and Kruse (1996) tell us that how teachers interact when
they are not in their classrooms is critical to the future of school restructuring
and the effects of restructuring on students. Louis, Marks, and Kruse also
confirm that the school's organization and the other faculty members and
administrators who compose the school staff create a larger context that
influences teachers' professional satisfaction.
The process guidelines
The Whole-Faculty Study Group process is defined and governed by the
following guidelines:
1. Keep the size of the group to no more than six.
The larger the study group, the more difficult it is to find meeting times when
all members can be present. Also, the larger the study group, the more likely
the group will splinter into two groups. With smaller study groups, each
member will participate more and take greater responsibility.
2. Don't restrict the composition of the study group.
The homogeneity or heterogeneity of the study group is not a critical
element. Study group members may have similar responsibilities (first grade
teachers, mathematics teachers, or elementary principals) or very different
responsibilities (across grade levels, across subject areas, or across schools or
districts).
A study group is most often composed of those who want to pursue or
investigate a specific student need that has been identified through an
analysis of student data. Every study group member must be willing to give
other members whatever is needed to be successful and effective in
classrooms. Members don’t necessarily have to like each other or have any
social contact outside of the study group.
3. Establish and keep a regular schedule.
Weekly meetings, for about an hour, keep the momentum at a steady pace
and give study group members ongoing learning and support systems.
Faculties have been very creative in finding the time for study groups to meet
(Murphy, 1997). Individuals should remain in the same study group for an
entire school year, and that group should establish a regular meeting time.
Groups have found that it’s usually better to meet more frequently for shorter
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
periods of time than to meet infrequently for a longer block of time. More
than two weeks between meetings is too long to sustain momentum and to
get regular feedback on classroom practice. An hour is the minimal meeting
time and seems adequate to accomplish the intent of a given meeting.
4. Establish group norms at the study group’s first meeting.
Study group members should collectively agree on the behaviors that will
facilitate the work of the group. Members may agree to begin and end on
time, to take responsibility for one's own learning, to be an active participant,
to respect each others' opinions and to bring to the meeting whatever is
needed for the group to do the agreed-upon work. Study groups are
encouraged to review the norms frequently.
5. Agree on an action plan for the study group.
It’s important that a study group develop its own action plan. If there are 10
study groups in the school, then there should be 10 action plans. The student
needs may have been identified by a larger body, but how a study group will
go about its investigation is for that group to decide. All of the action plans
for all of the study groups in a school are made public, usually on clipboards
in the faculty room.
Here’s a blueprint for an action plan along with examples for each element:
ß
The general category of student needs: reading.
ß
Specific student needs that the study group will address within that
category: increase amounts of independent reading in all areas.
ß
The actions the group will take when the group meets to address the
student needs: prepare annotated bibliographies, design strategies for
book reports that cater to multiple intelligences, devise a reward
system.
ß
Evidence that the intended results have been achieved: scores on
vocabulary tests, circulation reports from the school media center
and public library.
ß
What resources will be used: book lists, computer software, the
Internet, student textbooks, media specialist, student work.
The action plan should be revisited at regular intervals and adjusted to be
consistent with current actions. This takes on a higher level of importance
when the group formally evaluates its progress toward intended results. If the
intended results for study group members and students aren’t appropriate or
adequate, the evaluation will indicate that the group missed its targets.
6. Focus on curriculum and instruction. [NOT school policies]
What study groups actually do determines the worth of the process. The need
for more challenging curriculum content for students means teachers will
also have to learn more challenging curriculum content, and how to teach it
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
(Loucks-Horsley, 1998). The content of any staff development approach
should have promise for positive effects on student learning.
Study groups support the implementation of curricular and instructional
innovations, integrate and give coherence to a school's instructional practices
and programs, target a schoolwide instructional need, and monitor the impact
of instructional changes on students. To accomplish these four functions,
group members can’t get sidetracked by administrative issues or issues that
have a low instructional impact.
Professional study groups take the following as their content:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Academic knowledge and understanding;
Curriculum materials;
Instructional strategies;
Curriculum designs;
Use of technologies;
Managing students and learning environments through effective
instruction; and
Assessment practices.
The intended results may be accomplished through training, reading books
and articles, viewing video tapes, demonstrating strategies to each other,
visiting classrooms and schools, designing materials, working with computer
software, and developing lessons that will be taught in classrooms. The one
question that will keep the study group instructionally focused is: Does the
content require the study group to examine student work?
7. List all learning resources, both material and human.
A study group designs its curriculum of study to include a comprehensive list
of resources. Initially, groups should spend some time brainstorming learning
resources that are easily accessible and those that are harder to obtain. Such
lists might include:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Textbooks and materials that students use;
Student work;
Teachers' manuals;
Trainers;
Resource people;
Workshops;
District/university courses;
Books;
Professional journals;
Video and audio tapes;
Computers and software; and
Professional conferences.
Collection boxes for each study group are put in a central location and
teachers deposit whatever they have or find to support other groups. This
encourages teachers to share resources they have in their classrooms.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
8. Complete a log after each study group meeting.
A log is a brief, written summary of what happened at a study group meeting
and gives the study group a history. The group can go back and confirm why
it decided on a particular action. The members can see their progress in how
they relate to one another in their thinking and in their actions.
Members take turns completing the log. After a study group meeting, all
members get copies. So does the principal. The log is also posted in a central
location, along with logs from all the other study groups.
The study group log includes:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Date, time, location, and leader of the meeting;
Group members present and absent;
Classroom applications (the teachers share what they are doing in
their classrooms as a result of what they are doing in the study
group);
Brief summary of today's discussions and activities;
At the next meeting, "we need to bring/prepare . . . "; and
Concerns/recommendations.
9. Encourage members to keep a Personal Reflection Log.
Personal reflection is important and private. How often and when individuals
choose to chart their personal reactions is up to them. Such a log might
include:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Date
"Today, we accomplished . . .";
"We didn't get to . . .";
"For the next meeting, I need to . . .";
"I am learning . . .";
"I am disappointed that . . ."; and
"My students are benefiting from . . ."
10. Establish a pattern of rotating leadership.
Each member serves as the study group leader on a rotating basis. The
leadership rotation may occur weekly, biweekly, or monthly. Once a group
forms around a student need, group members decide what the rotation will
be. The rotation schedule is noted in the log from the first study group
meeting.
The leader for a given meeting is responsible for:
ß
ß
ß
Confirming logistics, such as time and location, with all members;
Completing the study group log after each meeting; and
Communicating, as appropriate, with persons who aren’t study group
members.
Leadership is shared to avoid having one member become more responsible
than other members for the group’s success. All members are equally
responsible for obtaining resources and keeping the study group moving
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
toward its intended results and desired ends. Individual group members look
to themselves and each other, not to a single person, for direction. This sense
of joint responsibility for the group’s work builds interdependence and
synergy within the group. When every group member feels equally
responsible for the group’s success, there is a higher level of commitment.
There is no one leader to blame for the group’s failure to accomplish its
goals; all must share the burden of any failure and the joy of
accomplishment.
The most positive feature of rotation is the assumption that anyone from the
study group can represent the group at any point in time, expanding the
effective capacity for leadership at the school.
11. Give all study group members equal status.
Groups are more productive if individuals don’t feel intimidated, hesitant, or
anxious about differences in job titles or certifications, experience, and
degree levels among group members. No one is deferred to because of rank
or other factors. Contributions from each member are encouraged and
respected. The study group functions under the belief that all members have
something valuable to contribute to the study group, and provides an
opportunity for all to share fully their ideas and experiences.
12. Plan for transitions.
A transition is when there is a break in the flow of the group’s work. This
may be when a study reaches closure on what the group intended to do, when
a schoolwide need has to be addressed by all groups, or at the end of a school
year.
At the end of a school year, the study groups have several options. If a study
group has long-term work planned, it assesses its progress at the end of each
semester, revisits its action plan, makes appropriate adjustments, and
continues. If a study group completes its action plan and wants to stay
together, a transition would be the time to celebrate its success, return to the
list of student needs and agree on the student need that will be the group’s
new focus. When study groups reach closure on their planned work and
group members want to reconfigure, new groups are formed around
specifically identified student needs.
In any process, transitions can be difficult. These times especially require the
support and strong sponsorship from school and district administrators. The
question at transition times is not: "Do we continue having study groups?"
Instead the question is: "What changes should be made in what the groups do
and how they’re organized?"
13. Include training and other forms of staff development in the study
group's agenda.
Study groups don’t eliminate the need for teachers to participate in other
training and development opportunities. The groups are the centerpiece,
much like the hub of a wheel. Individuals in study groups often need the
expertise of trainers in areas where specific skill development is needed
(Joyce & Showers, 1995). One or more individuals in a study group may
28
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
attend workshops, take courses, and go to conferences. Many study groups
invite trainers to study group meetings. The study group provides a safe
environment for teachers to practice skills, design lessons together using
those skills, observe each other, and feel support in figuring out why some
lessons go well while others do not. The value of ongoing technical training
and support of effective classroom practices can't be overemphasized.
14. Evaluate the effectiveness of the study group.
When considering how to evaluate the efforts of study groups, attention is
given to the impact the study group’s work is having on students. Secondary
to student impact is the impact of the study group process on the school’s
culture, including the school’s underlying assumptions, beliefs, and
behaviors. How, for example, have study groups affected the school's norms
of collegiality? Murphy and Lick (1998) give examples of several formats for
assessing the progress of study groups.
15. Establish a variety of communication networks and systems.
For study groups to have an effect, over time, on the whole school and all
students, information must be shared among the study groups at a school.
Parents, district office administrators, board of education members, and the
community at large also should also be kept informed of the work of the
study groups.
Structures for keeping communication open are part of the design. Study
group action plans and logs are posted in a public place. Short reviews are
given at faculty meetings. Newsletters that give brief descriptions of the
work in progress are circulated. “Swap shops” and “showcases” are
organized so teachers can compare their work. Groups share speakers and
materials. Bulletin boards are dedicated to sharing and videos of specific
accomplishments are made. Portfolios of the work of groups are put on
public display.
Most importantly, parents and students are kept informed about what study
groups are learning and doing. A common practice is for teachers to tell their
students what they did in the study groups immediately after the study groups
meet. For school communities to support the late arrival of students, the early
release of students, and professional development days, everyone affected
should understand what the teachers are doing and how students will benefit.
Conclusion
Teachers have more to do than they can do. The number of initiatives that
constantly bombard schools overwhelm teachers. Teachers do not need
another thing to do. What teachers do seem to need is a vehicle to do what
they must in an atmosphere of understanding and helpfulness.
Study groups, as described here, are not another instructional initiative. They
help teachers accomplish what they’re already expected to do, what they’ve
been doing alone. With this structure, teachers share the work. Study groups
are the teachers' foxholes, where diverse members are willing to set and
accept common goals and to work in a genuinely cooperative and mutually
29
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
dependent manner with each other. When this happens, students are the
benefactors.
References:
ATLAS Communities (1998). Charting the course: Building ATLAS communities.
Boston: Educational Development Center.
Joyce, B. & Showers, B. (1995). Student achievement through staff development.
New York: Longman.
Little, J. (1993, Summer). Teachers' professional development in a climate of
educational reform. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 129-151.
Loucks-Horsley, S. (1998). Ideas that work: Mathematics professional development.
The Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education.
Washington, DC.
Louis, K.S., Kruse, S.D. & Marks, H.M. (1996). Teachers' Professional Community
in Restructuring Schools. American Educational Research Journal, 33 (1), 757-798.
McLaughlin, M.W. (1993). What matters most in teachers' workplace context? U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
Washington, DC.
Murphy, C. (1995). Whole-faculty study groups: Doing the seemingly undoable.
Journal of Staff Development, 16 (3), 37-44.
Murphy, C. (1997). Finding time for faculties to study together. Journal of Staff
Development, 18 (3), 29-32.
Murphy, C. & Lick, D. (1998). Whole-faculty study groups: A powerful way to
change schools and enhance learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Rosenholtz, S. (1989). Teacher's workplace: The social organization of schools.
New York: Longman.
Carlene U. Murphy is a private consultant for the whole-faculty study
group process and is a staff development specialist for ATLAS Communities.
This article is based on material in Whole-faculty study groups: A powerful
way to change schools and enhance learning, which she co-wrote with Dale
Lick. Murphy is a past president of NSDC and the 1990 recipient of NSDC's
Contributions to Staff Development Award. She can be reached at 961 Heard
Ave., Augusta, GA 30904, (706) 736-0756, fax (706) 737-4019, e-mail:
[email protected].
Reprinted with permission of the National Staff Development Council, 2003.
All rights reserved.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
This graph compares key characteristics of Whole Faculty Study groups,
Independent or Stand Alone Study Groups, and Committees.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Whole-Faculty Study Groups in Everett, Washington
When School Reform Lasts, Summer 2002 (Vol. 4, No. 1)
http://www2.edc.org/Mosaic/Mosaic6/Mosaic6_StudyGroups.htm
This article describes Everett High School’s experience using Whole-Faculty
Study Groups to solve curricular dilemmas. Key to their success was the
faculty’s support of the process. The article also provides helpful strategies
for finding time to implement WFSGs.
When Pat Sullivan started teaching at Everett High School 15 years ago, the
veteran teachers at his school didn't bother to learn his name until he'd been
there for a few years. "They wanted to see if I'd survive before they took time
to get to know me," he recalls. Today, as principal of Everett High in Everett,
Washington, Sullivan is leading a school reform effort built on the premise
that strong relationships among teachers are critical to improved student
learning. "We're creating a rich environment for young teachers to feel
supported and nurtured," he says. "There's an emphasis here on professional
growth." Young teachers at Everett stand on equal footing with the most
senior staff on everything from getting the chance to teach AP courses to
student teacher assignments to getting a seat on the management council.
Sullivan's work to transform the culture of teaching extends beyond Everett
High School to include several other schools (K–12) in the district. For six
years, these schools have worked together with the ATLAS Communities1
reform model to build teacher collaboration across traditional boundaries like
grade level, subject matter, and even school buildings. Bringing elementary,
middle, and high schools together is an example of what ATLAS refers to as
its "pathway" approach, and it's a big part of what drew Everett to ATLAS in
the first place. "We looked at several comprehensive school reform models,"
he says, "and most seemed to have either an elementary or middle school
orientation; ATLAS provided an opportunity to do something systemically,
K–12. That made a lot of sense to us. There was a lot of community support
for the model–frankly, parents were surprised that we weren't working this
way already. Most parents expect that teachers meet regularly K–12 to
discuss student learning. Not only weren't we doing that, we weren't even
meeting building–wide to discuss these things."
Today teachers from across the Everett pathway meet weekly in faculty study
groups to tackle a variety of topics in teaching and learning. The study
groups have taken different forms as they've evolved over five years, but they
are all driven by student and teacher needs and interests. For instance, when
new statewide performance standards in social studies were published,
faculty at the high school discovered some significant deficiencies in their
1
ATLAS is a comprehensive school reform design that works with an entire K-12
system as a seamless entity. The school wide professional development approach in
ATLAS schools is Whole-Faculty Study Groups.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
geography and economics instruction. "In the past we would have said, 'Oh,
the history teachers need to add some classes in geography and economics,'"
says Sullivan. Instead, a group of teachers across subject matters formed a
study group to look at ways the whole school could support the social studies
department in bringing students up to speed in these areas. Explains Sullivan,
"They looked at what the math teachers could do to prepare students for
work in economics. What the science teachers could do with geography.
Even the physical education teachers looked at ways to incorporate the use of
charts and tables in their health lessons to reinforce what their students were
learning in social studies."
In another example, the high school decided to convene a group to work on
some problems discovered in the school's mathematics instruction. "When
we broke out our math data, we discovered that our students were not doing
well with story problems," Sullivan says. "We thought, 'Hey, here's a good
topic for a study group—how can we help our students improve in this area?'
So we pulled together a group to look more closely at the data and do some
research on strategies for teaching story problems." As a result, the math
department decided to begin each class with group work on story problems,
across the grades. Results soon followed: While traditionally the school has
finished last among the four high schools in the district in local mathematics
assessments, this year it finished first.
Finding Time to Implement WFSGs
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te10lk44.htm
Finding the time to implement Whole-Faculty Study Groups may be a
problem. Murphy (1997) notes that schools have come up with the
following creative ideas for finding time:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Using teaching assistants to release teachers for study group
meetings.
Beginning classes 30 minutes later one day a week and having
teachers come in 30 minutes earlier to provide one hour of studygroup time.
Scheduling students for special classes (such as art, music, and
physical education) at the same time to allow their homeroom
teachers to meet.
Combining classes during the week so teachers cover for each
other; one teacher could cover two classes for an hour while the
other teacher has time for the study group.
Using designated professional development time for study
groups. For example, if two days of professional development are
scheduled for the year, teachers instead can meet after school in
one-hour study groups once a week for several weeks and not
report to school on professional development days.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Sometimes the study groups are less academic in focus, and instead take on
broader cultural topics that teachers may confront. Several years ago, a local
tribe of Native Americans wanted to resume whale hunting as part of their
tribal custom, triggering anger among the non–native residents because the
area's whales are protected under the Endangered Species Act. "It caused a
bit of a furor locally," explains Sullivan, "so we established a K–12 study
group to help all of us better understand why the Native Americans wanted to
do this." The group shared what they had learned about the tribal custom
with their colleagues across the pathway, easing some of the tension around
the issue in the schools.
Impact on Student Achievement
Amidst his work to enhance teacher learning, Sullivan doesn't forget that the
ultimate goal of the ATLAS reform model is improved student learning. This
has become more urgent, as the state of Washington has recently mandated
that every student will be required to pass state assessments by 2006 in order
to graduate. While apprehensive about how these high–stakes tests will affect
his students, Sullivan is also upbeat about his school's ability to prepare
students for these measures. He cites the new science program as one
example: "We used to have so many options in the science program that
many of our students were not learning the basics, what they needed to know
for the new assessments and for college work. So we've streamlined the
department's offerings and instituted new requirements. This year for the first
time, all students are required to take ninth grade physical science and tenth
grade biology. In the past, the biology course was reserved for our top
students—it was designed as a college prep class, with very high
expectations for regular attendance, nightly homework, class participation,
and lab work. This fall we have three teachers teaching biology all day to all
of our 400 sophomores. The teachers are bringing that same set of high
expectations into every class. Of the 400 students that took that class, 93
percent passed." Concludes Sullivan, "The assumption used to be that most
of our students simply would not be able to complete a course this rigorous.
Now the assumption is that they can and they must."
Copyright 2002 Education Development Center, Inc. Reprinted by permission of
Education Development Center, Inc.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Lesson Study
Teachers College Columbia University
http://www.teacherscollege.edu/lessonstudy/index.html
Many professional organizations promote teacher collaboration, but
supporters of lesson study say it goes beyond collaboration to co-planning
and observing actual lessons with a focus on student thinking. The real
"lesson" of lesson study is not product, but process. This model of ongoing,
teacher-led professional development has been applied most successfully and
widely in Japan. It has recently been adapted and initiated by teachers at
many sites across the U.S.
What is Lesson Study?
Lesson study* is a professional development process that Japanese teachers
engage in to systematically examine their practice, with the goal of becoming
more effective. This examination centers on teachers working collaboratively
on a small number of "study lessons". Working on these study lessons
involves planning, teaching, observing, and critiquing the lessons. To provide
focus and direction to this work, the teachers select an overarching goal and
related research question that they want to explore. This research question
then serves to guide their work on all the study lessons.
While working on a study lesson, teachers jointly draw up a detailed plan for
the lesson, which one of the teachers uses to teach the lesson in a real
classroom (as other group members observe the lesson). The group then
comes together to discuss their observations of the lesson. Often, the group
revises the lesson, and another teacher implements it in a second classroom,
while group members again look on. The group will come together again to
discuss the observed instruction. Finally, the teachers produce a report of
what their study lessons have taught them, particularly with respect to their
research question.
*“Derived from the Japanese word jugyokenkyuu, the term ‘lesson study’
was coined by Makoto Yoshida...it can also be translated in reverse as
‘research lesson’ [coined by Catherine Lewis], which indicates the level of
scrutiny applied to individual lessons.” –RBS Currents, Spring/ Summer
2002
Sample Lesson Plan
Although Japanese teachers use various formats for lesson study, all provide
the same key information. The following is a two-page excerpt of a longer
study lesson plan. The full document is available, along with a more detailed
explanation of lesson plans, on the Teachers College website,
http://www.teacherscollege.edu/lessonstudy/tools.html.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
36
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Links to Lesson Study Resources & U.S. Implementation Sites
(Education Development Center http://www2.edc.org/lessonstudy/)
Lesson Study Research Group – Teachers College, Columbia University
http://www.teacherscollege.edu/lessonstudy/
The Lesson Study Research Group website provides information, resources,
and networking opportunities to U.S. educators who are interested in learning
more about lesson study. This site provides readings, presentations, tools for
lesson study, and work samples. It also provides links to many other lesson
study related sites.
Lesson Study in Japan, U.S. Science Education
http://www.lessonresearch.net/
This site comes out of an NSF-funded research project from the Mills
College Education Department that is focused on studying 4 models for
spreading coherent, inquiry-based elementary science instruction. One of the
models being examined is lesson study. In addition to the research
information, this site provides videos and other publications related to lesson
study, as well as a resource list of other organizations involved in lesson
study.
The Teaching Gap Website
http://www.lessonlab.com/teaching-gap/index.htm
The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World's Teachers for Improving
Education in the Classroom, by James W. Stigler and James Hiebert,
compares math teaching practices in Japan and Germany with those in the
United States. The authors essentially introduced the U.S. education
community to lesson study as their proposal for how to improve education in
the American classroom.
Research for Better Schools
http://www.rbs.org/lesson_study/index.shtml
Under the Research and Resources section of the RBS website, you can find
an overview of lesson study and a description of lesson study's connection to
the TIMSS report. There are also links to additional resources on lesson
study.
Bellevue, Washington
http://www.bsd405.org/lessonstudy.html
Bellevue, Washington has implemented a district-wide lesson study program
in all subject areas. Check out this site to find out how they are doing it and
what teachers and administrators have to say about their lesson study
experience.
Math Star, New Mexico State University
http://mathstar.nmsu.edu/lesson_study/
New Mexico State University is supporting teams of mathematics teachers
across the state of New Mexico. Check out this site to see videos and sample
lesson plans.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Loras College, Dubuque, Iowa
http://web.loras.edu/lessonstudy/index.html
Loras College is supporting elementary school mathematics teachers in
Eastern Iowa conducting lesson study in school-based teams. Check out this
site for extensive lists of lesson study and mathematics-related websites.
Readings on Lesson Study
Lewis, Catherine (2002). Lesson Study: A Handbook of Teacher-Led
Instructional Change. http://www.rbs.org/catalog/pubs/pd55.shtml
Hiebert, James and Stigler, James (1999). The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas
from the World’s Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom.
"Lesson study is a very powerful way to bring teachers together to
structure and organize their thinking about classroom practices. However,
we must not lose sight of the fact that lesson study in and of itself is an
empty shell that will be filled according to the knowledge and skills
brought to bear by the group of teachers conducting this activity."
- Clea Fernandez, 1999
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Curriculum Inquiry Cycle
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory
www.nwrel.org/scpd/ci/about.html
The success of your school’s conversion effort depends on the ability of
teachers to continually renew curriculum and instruction, the core of
educational practice. This core must reflect not only state and national
standards, but also teachers’ profound understandings of knowledge and how
it develops. The following three resources offer a few options for examining
your current practice and planning future curriculum.
These tools simply provide a starting point. Ideally, your curriculum team
will further develop questions and guidelines that drive your practice and
address areas not included here, such as the relationship between curriculum
and assessment.
In order to help teachers fulfill their new role of curriculum developer as well
as curriculum implementer, NWREL staff have developed a process known
as the Curriculum Inquiry Cycle. The ongoing cycle of curriculum renewal is
based on the premise that professional development should assist teachers to
get in touch with their implicit theories or beliefs about teaching and learning
to form coherent, rational theories based on evidence.
Curriculum inquiry improves the core of educational practice, since it
involves teachers in determining the critical experiences necessary to engage
students in meeting challenging standards. This is more than an instructional
innovation. Through inquiry, teachers plan learning environments that
provide and build on essential conditions for student learning. This process
helps teachers develop and articulate local standards which guide their
teaching in the context of broad state and national reform priorities. It
addresses such fundamental questions as: What knowledge is crucial? What
do we understand about this knowledge? What strategies are most powerful
for fostering student learning? What critical experiences must occur to
achieve standards? What forms of collaboration are necessary to provide
coherence and meaning in teaching and learning? How do we study our
classrooms and communicate our understandings to others?
Educators participating in this ongoing cycle of curriculum renewal examine
current curriculum practice in the school or district; clarify local needs,
content and performance standards to determine how to balance competing
demands; plan critical classroom experiences to achieve desired student
goals; and conduct classroom research on the selected practices in action,
assessing progress and making needed changes.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
A major goal of this NWREL project is to assist teachers and schools to
create self-sustaining processes for improving curriculum and instruction.
The curriculum inquiry cycle diagram can be used to guide reflection on
current teaching practices. Use the critical questions that are outlined below
as prompts.
Examining Current Practice
What does my teaching look like? Why do I work this way? What does this
tell me about how I think about curriculum? Is my current practice making a
difference in student learning?
Making Decisions
Are my practices consistent with what is known about how people learn? Are
content and performance standards reflected in my teaching practice? Am I
aware of alternative models of teaching?
Creating an Optimal Learning Environment
What are the dynamics of an optimal learning environment? What learning
experiences are essential? What assessments are appropriate?
Expanding Teacher Knowledge through Classroom Research
What dilemmas, questions or concerns about teaching and learning do I want
to explore? How can I collaborate more with colleagues? How will I share
my research?
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Assumptions Underlying the Curriculum Inquiry Cycle
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Teachers are knowledgeable professionals.
Planning curriculum is the professional responsibility of teachers.
Curriculum inquiry is a vehicle for professional growth.
Curriculum inquiry leads to improved learning and teaching.
Teachers learn by building on current practice.
Teachers need to share professional expertise.
Curriculum planning is a team effort.
Curriculum Inquiry strengthens close connections among curriculum,
instruction and assessment.
Curriculum planning is a recursive process.
The classroom is the fundamental unit of school change.
Administrative support is essential for effective curricular and
instructional change.
“Teachers come to the task of developing curriculum… laden with the
baggage of their district’s history—its politics, its culture, and its
organizational structure. To develop new curriculum, they must often
challenge all that, setting into place an entirely new culture or inquiry
and professional growth. Where they begin, and how explicit they make
their assumptions and their process, can dramatically affect whether
anything ultimately changes in their schools and districts.”
- Kathleen Cushman
“Developing Curriculum in Essential Schools,” Horace,
March 1996 (Vol. 12, No. 4).
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Curriculum Planning
Fremont Union High School District
http://www.fhs.fuhsd.org/acad_library/staff_devl/techacad/session1.html
Design & content by Kathleen Ferenz
Adapted from Understanding by Design by Wiggins & McTighe, (1998).
This backwards-planning tool was adapted from Grant Wiggins & Jay
McTighe’s book Understanding by Design. Several Washington teachers and
schools used the concepts from this book to design small schools. Created by
a teacher in California, it applies the UBD principles to curriculum planning.
A collaborative effort
Curriculum development works best when teachers plan together.
Curriculum is not just a document to create, but a chance for collaborative
dialogue about teaching and learning. Use these steps as you plan your
curriculum.
Design tips:
ß Design work is done in phases, preferably with colleagues
ß Each stage includes checks of alignment against standards and identified
understandings
ß Each phase involves a more complex look at the initial work in the three
stages of design
Planning Backwards
How can I design for understanding?
Stage 1 - Identify Desired Results
What do you want students to understand, know, and be able to do?
What is worthy of understanding?
What are the standards that apply?
What are the overarching questions that will frame the unit?
What core knowledge and skills are necessary for understanding?
In this stage, consider goals and identify the understandings for a unit of
study.
Stage 2 - Determine Acceptable Evidence
How will you know students are getting it?
What assessment evidence will you collect?
How will you measure student understanding and proficiency?
Think about assessment as an ongoing activity that informs you and students
about their progress towards understanding.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Stage 3 - Design Learning Experiences and Instruction
What are you teaching and why?
What materials and resources are best suited to accomplish these goals?
Is the overall design coherent and effective?
Plan ALL learning experiences and instruction to make understanding
possible.
STAGE 1
1. What is really important to understand?
Remember when you set learning priorities…
It’s worth being familiar with if it…
ß Is really interesting and adds value to
the study.
ß Can be a hook to a big idea.
ß Is thematic to what is being studied.
ß Links to other ideas or disciplines.
It is important to know and do if it…
ß Is key to understanding the subject.
ß Links to essential understandings.
ß Is part of an adult work role.
ß Needs to be assessed.
It is an essential understanding if it…
ß Goes beyond facts and skills.
ß Moves to the heart of the discipline.
ß Has value beyond classroom learning.
ß Is that nugget of learning you will take away.
For further reference: http://www.ubdexchange.org/resources/newsarticles/backward.html
2. What is an essential understanding?
Essential understandings represent our personal knowledge at the deepest
level.... complex and central to our lives... We want to learn more about a
topic or idea in this unit because we are seeking to make meaning that will
inform our personal quest for meaning. Understandings should be framed as
generalizations or propositions.
Use the following guidelines as you craft essential understandings.
They could:
ß Describe understandings that are at the heart of learning
ß Avoid repeating vague generalities and truisms
ß Be related to the unit topic yet transcend disciplines
ß Stimulate an idea that students will always remember
ß Be an idea that recurs across disciplines
ß Raise ethical questions
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
ß
Invite ongoing reflection
For further reference: http://www.ubdexchange.org/resources/newsarticles/bigidea.html
3. What makes a good question?
Essential questions and topic questions focus and guide the learning. They
are the sort of questions that are nonjudgmental, but answering them requires
high-level cognitive work. Great questions direct the search for
understanding. Everything in the curriculum is studied for the purpose of
answering it. Here are some characteristics:
ß
ß
ß
ß
OPEN-ENDED. Questions that are open-ended but focus inquiry on a
specific topic.
NONJUDGEMENTAL. Answering these questions requires high-level
cognitive work. They do not have a right or wrong answer. These
questions encourage thinking because to answer them requires students
to ask other questions.
EMOTIVE FORCE and INTELLECTUAL BITE. Questions can
invigorate the study of localized issues and traditional disciplines. They
are linked to the topic of study and provoke students’ thinking about it in
new ways.
SUCCINCT. Questions that contain a handful of words but demand a lot
of thinking are more memorable.
Tips for creating questions:
ß Begin to write questions that you believe will cause the students to think
about the topic, but not dictate the direction or outcome of their thinking.
ß Consider the six queries that newspaper articles answer: who, what,
when, where, how, and why.
ß Test questions using the word good. Using the word good causes
students to evaluate and reflect. For example, “What is music?” becomes
“What is good music?”
ß Generate questions by writing several questions without paying too much
attention to how perfectly they fulfill the criteria. Refine the list.
4. What are some examples of questions?
Essential Questions guide teaching and stimulate inquiry toward the desired
topical understandings, and beyond to the topic toward essential
understanding.
Topic Questions guide teaching and stimulate inquiry toward the desired
topical understandings of the core content knowledge of a unit.
Unit on insects
EQ: How does an organism’s structure enable it to survive in harsh or
changing environments? How do organisms survive in harsh or changing
environments?
TQ: How does the structure and behavior of insects enable them to survive?
How do insects survive when their environment changes?
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Unit on money and introductory economics
EQ: How does something acquire value? What changes the worth of
something?
TQ: Why do we need money? How is the value of a baseball card
determined?
Unit on a state or region
EQ: How do the topography, climate, and natural resources of a region
influence how people live and work? Why is _______located there?
TQ: How do the topography, climate, and natural resources of California’s
coastline influence the lifestyle and work of its inhabitants? Why is
Sacramento, the state capital, located where it is?
Unit on mysteries
EQ: What makes a great story? How do effective writers hook and hold their
readers?
TQ: What is unique about the mystery genre? How do great mystery writers
hook and hold their readers?
5. What knowledge and skills will be learned?
Describe the core content knowledge and skills to get at all the
understandings of the subject being studied. These are the specific topics of
study in a unit and are aligned to the identified essential understanding and
the standards that apply.
Use the following guidelines as you craft core content knowledge and skills.
They could:
ß Prioritize key ideas and topics at the core of the discipline
ß Describe an engaging inquiry about the topics
ß Be something that experts investigate or do
ß Link to big ideas embedded in facts, skills, and activities
ß Be important for students to know and be assessed
6. How do skills compare to understandings?
The distinction between skill and understanding is not straightforward.
Concepts and understandings are often implicit in skill development. The
example below shows that strategic ideas need to be taught along with
discrete skills.
Skill
Reading text and decoding
Understanding
The author’s meaning in a story is
rarely explicit; one must read
between the lines.
Creating scoring opportunities in
soccer
A player needs to create space,
spreading the defense as broadly
and deeply as possible.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
STAGE 2
1. Which assessment types are best?
2. What is evidence of understanding?
The student who really understands can…
ß
EXPLAIN. Provide complex, insightful and credible reasons. Avoid
common misunderstandings or simplistic views. Reveal a personal,
thoughtful and coherent grasp of the subject.
ß
INTERPRET. Effectively and sensitively interpret texts, language and
situations. Offer a meaningful account of complex situations and people.
ß
APPLY. Employ knowledge effectively in diverse, authentic and
realistically messy contexts. Extend or apply what she knows in a novel
and effective way. Self-adjust as she performs.
ß
SEE IN PERSPECTIVE. Critique and justify a position to see it as a
point of view, test theories. Know the history of an idea. Infer
assumptions. Know the limits as well as the power of an idea. See
through bias or ideology. Wisely employ both criticism and belief.
ß
DEMONSTRATE EMPATHY. Feel and appreciate another’s situation
or view. Work to understand even an odd text, idea, or person. See how
others misunderstand. Listen when others don’t.
ß
REVEAL SELF-KNOWLEDGE. Recognize own prejudice and style.
Engage in effective metacognition. Question own convictions. Selfassess. Accept feedback without defensiveness.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
3. What is an authentic performance task?
Performance Tasks and Projects are challenges that mirror those faced by
adults. Tasks and projects can be both short-term and long-term. Like
prompts, they are complex, require productions or performance and have
more than one right answer or solution path.
They differ from prompts in these ways:
ß
ß
They require the student to address a specific purpose for an
identified audience.
The setting is real or simulated. They involve the kind of constraints,
incentives, and opportunities to personalize the task an adult might
encounter.
Academic prompts are complex content-focused questions that require the
student to think critically, not just recall knowledge. Prompts tend to be more
open. There is generally more than one right answer and/or solution.
This assessment category includes questions and problems that:
ß
ß
ß
Require the student to make connections among concepts and
subjects
Have more than one best strategy for answering
Call for an explanation or defense of the and/or methods used
STAGE 3
What are you teaching and why?
Design and align every activity to the identified understanding, standards,
and assessment that apply. Teaching for understanding involves the strategic
use of questioning daily to stimulate students to think and rethink about the
big ideas. Use questions to probe and challenge ideas rather than those that
require the right answer.
WHERE are you headed with your day-to-day lessons? What does teaching
for understanding look like?
Which day-to-day activities will make academic success more likely?
Hook students with engaging work that makes them eager to explore the key
ideas. What questions will probe big ideas?
Explore the subject in depth, equip students with required knowledge and
skill to perform successfully on final tasks.
Rethink with students the big ideas. Support students as they rehearse and
revise their work. What questions do students have?
Evaluate ongoing progress of students and reflect and revise your lessons.
For further reference: http://www.ubdexchange.org/resources.html
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Teaching for Understanding:
Questions to ask Yourself and Your Students
Chris Unger
http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/understanding/unger.htm
This article can be used as a reflection tool and as a curriculum planning tool.
It discusses what teachers can do to develop students’ ability to “understand
deeply,” drawn on concepts from Martha Stone Wiske’s book, Teaching for
Understanding: Linking Research with Practice.
Before reading the article, consider and discuss with your colleagues what it
means to “understand.” The article begins to provide some ideas about how
to teach for understanding, including the use of throughlines or “central
questions of inquiry.”
Questions represent one way to organize a class, with the course content
reflecting the answers. In this article, these questions are called throughlines,
which are similar to "essential questions." One example of how this looks at
a school comes from Central Park East Secondary School in New York City
where the entire curriculum is focused on getting students to ask and answer
questions like: "From whose viewpoint are we seeing or reading or hearing?
How do we know what we know? How are things, events, and people
connected to each other?” (Kathleen Cushman, Horace. Vol. 5, No. 5. June
1989).
At the same school, a history class focusing on immigration asks, “‘Whose
country is this, anyway?’ That question shapes the materials and activities
that will guide student research into smaller, unit-level questions, like ‘What
factors motivated people to uproot themselves and come to this country?’ or
‘Are there ethnic differences in these factors?’
“By exploring the political, economic, and social forces that shaped
American immigration from its beginning—and by asking at every point the
guiding ‘school-wide’ questions—students gain a critical understanding of
the content of U.S. history, rather than memorizing a set of facts or someone
else's interpretation of what those facts mean” (Cushman, Horace. Vol. 5,
No. 5. June 1989).
Seven years ago, Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Education
set out to answer three questions:
1. What does it mean to understand?
2. How do we teach for understanding?
3. How do we assess understanding?
We sought these answers because research showed that students were not
understanding what they were "learning." Sometimes students remembered a
lot of facts or algorithms, but they could not think and act critically and
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
creatively in a discipline. Why? And what could teachers do about-students'
inability?
With the help of more than fifty teachers in the Boston area, and now
hundreds of teachers from Seattle to Boston to Bogota, we found out what
teachers could do to develop students' ability to understand deeply:
ß
Design your curriculum around generative topics, topics that have great
connections to students' interests and experience, and that are central to
the discipline.
ß
Clearly articulate and share with your students your goals of
understanding, what you most want your students to understand from
their experience with you.
ß
Engage your students in performances of understanding, performances
that cause students to do a great deal of thinking when using, applying,
and enriching what they know in challenging, disciplinary work.
ß
Practice ongoing assessment, learning-centered assessment throughout
instruction that actively involves you and your students in constant
reflection about what is being learned, how it is being learned, and why it
is being learned.
Simple? Our experience in working with hundreds of teachers over time
answers "No." In short, the teaching-for-understanding framework is a mirror
to look at and reflect on one's own practice. At the heart of it is one question
that is not a simple one: Is my curriculum, instruction, and assessment
designed and practiced in a way that truly results in student understanding?
From that one question, others follow:
ß
Am I engaging my students in performances that help them to truly build
their own understanding?
ß
Am I sure about the few things I really want my students to understand?
ß
Have I clearly shared those goals with my students, so that they can
actively participate in achieving them?
ß
Am I engaging them in inquiry about a topic that they truly care about,
that I care about, and that ultimately is at the heart of the discipline I
teach?
ß
Am I practicing learning-centered assessment, involving my students in
their own assessments based on criteria that are clearly articulated?
The teaching-for-understanding framework recommends you ask yourself
these questions. It will help you answer them for yourself and discuss your
answers with friends. We know it is difficult to find the time and
administrative support to spend time assessing your teaching in this way. But
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
when teachers are given the opportunity to ask and reflect on these questions,
they feel that their teaching is more deliberate, focused, and reflective.
Rather than feeling that they are attempting to cover a hundred things, they
feel that they are teaching what is most important. Rather than handing
knowledge down, teachers are helping students build up their own
understanding. The result: Students understand. They are able to go beyond
accumulating knowledge to applying it in novel and meaningful contexts.
We have found it useful for teachers to develop and post questions that make
clear to students what they are learning and why. We call these questions
throughlines. They tend simply to be great questions that often are at the
heart of disciplinary inquiry and beg for an ever more articulate and deep
response.
How can you use these throughlines?
If you can identify the four to eight central questions that you feel would
ultimately benefit your students in their learning—engaging them, engaging
you, and proving immensely generative in their presence—then you can use
those central questions to guide or map the journey of your teaching and their
learning throughout the year. The point is not to arrive quickly at one, single
answer, but to develop richer and more sophisticated answers over time
through several experiences of learning and reflection.
Chris Unger was the Professional Development Director at Project Zero,
Harvard Graduate School of Education. He now resides in Seattle,
Washington, where he works for the Seattle School District.
“In a large school it is easy to have kids (in a class) and in the end not feel
responsible for whether or not they have achieved certain outcomes by
senior year… When you’re in a small school and kids are not making it,
or they are making it with less than what you had hoped, you really only
have yourself to look at. It really makes it more urgent, the need to define
what it is we want kids to know and do. You can’t differentiate unless
you know what it is you want all kids to learn.”
Students “really have to be clear about what their central understandings
are, and what the outcomes are, and whether or not the outcomes are
actually being fed by what is being taught.”
- Gene Thompson-Grove and Deborah Downes
Cambridge Rindge & Latin High School
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Three Easy Pieces
The New Urban High School: A Practitioner’s Guide
Big Picture Company and U.S. Department of Education
Teachers who adapted their classroom practice to small school settings found
that they became more student-centered and project-based. These fun
exercises can support your curriculum planning by helping you and your
colleagues explore the kinds of activities you might want to incorporate into
your classes to encourage significant learning, personal interest, and
community exploration.
The following activities focus on educators as learners and designers. The
assumption here is that the best professional development occurs as teachers
work together in design teams to create programs that respond to their own
interests and meet the local needs.
These three exercises are designed to help educators:
ß
ß
ß
Consider the attributes of significant learning
See the potential of interest-based curriculum
Experience community exploration as a means for engaging students
in rigorous intellectual activity
The third exercise exposes participants to important elements of communitybased inquiry: engagement through interest, real-life purpose, connection
with the community, problem solving, presentation, and audience. As they
experience these elements, they consider the value of a similar action-andreflection approach for their students.
1. Reflection on Significant Learning
This is a one-hour reflection and discussion exercise
Journal Warm-up (10 minutes)
Write a brief journal entry describing two significant learning experiences
from your high school days: one in school, and one outside school.
Discuss (30 minutes)
ß Break into groups of four to six persons.
ß Introduce yourselves briefly, as appropriate.
ß Share your significant learning experiences with the group.
Group task: during each description, listen for attributes of each learning
experience.
ß Who was there?
ß Where did the experience take place?
ß What made these experiences significant?
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Group questions, after everyone has shared:
ß What characterizes the learning experiences in school?
ß Out of school?
ß Are there any significant differences?
ß What can we say about the characteristics of a significant learning
experience?
ß What are the implications for our teaching?
Report (20 minutes)
Each group reports its findings.
2. Developing Projects from Interests and Hobbies
Discuss (30 minutes)
In groups of four to six, each participant describes an interest or hobby. In
each case, discuss: what skills are developed and employed in pursuit of this
interest?
Plan (20 minutes)
Group task: develop a plan for a project-based curriculum unit that would
incorporate the hobbies of each member of the group.
Prepare (10 minutes)
Using newsprint and any other means available, prepare a presentation of
your project-based unit to the larger group.
Criteria:
ß Each member of the group must participate in the presentation
ß Presentation time limit: one minute for each group
Present (15 minutes)
Observe the criteria for participation; appoint a timekeeper. Enjoy!
Reflect and Discuss (15 minutes)
Do a quick journal writing, share in small groups, and report out.
ß What happened in this exercise?
ß What moments stand out?
ß What surprised you?
ß What, if anything, did you learn?
ß What are the implications of this activity for your work with
students?
Key points for discovery
1. Powerful teaching and learning can occur when teachers pursue their
interests.
2. In interest-based projects, it is always possible to find connections to the
academic and technical disciplines.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
3. Exploring the Community: The “Mall Walk”
This half-day exercise offers a quick, hands-on exposure to many aspects of
project-based learning: observation, inquiry, collecting and analyzing data,
writing and reflection, team building, networking, exhibition, and multimedia
studies. It also offers a look at an “all aspects of the industry” approach to
inquiry – in this case, “all aspects of the mall.” It is a simulation, yet real,
representing the kind of longer-term study that can be done on a whole
neighborhood or community.
Materials
Polaroid camera and film
Assorted paper (white and colored)
Scissors
Glue sticks and scotch tape
Magic markers, pencils, and colored pencils
Directions
In this activity you will be working with a team of four to six persons as
investigative researchers, gathering information about a nearby mall. Each
team will choose a different focus, ultimately allowing the group as a whole
to put together a composite picture of the character, resources, and needs of
the mall.
Team Inventory
Introduce yourselves, as appropriate.
Tell what skills you bring to the project.
Write a list of the team’s composite skills.
Choose (as a team)
Choose an aspect of mall life for exploration for the list below:
ß Architecture
ß Communications
ß Culture
ß Demography
ß Entertainment
ß Food
ß Government
ß Health
ß Housing
ß Retail and Business
ß Street life
ß Transportation
Plan
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
54
Develop a guiding question for your team inquiry.
How will you investigate your aspect?
Where will you go?
What will you look for?
To whom will you talk?
How will you record information?
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
ß
ß
ß
What group roles have you defined?
How will you present your data?
What are your team’s criteria for success in this project? (Develop at
least three)
Reflect
Keep a journal in which you reflect on your own learning in this exercise. As
a first entry, write your current thoughts about this exercise.
ß What do you think will happen?
ß What do you hope to learn from the exercise?
Investigate
ß Go to the mall!
ß Conduct inquiry as planned.
ß Perform tasks as assigned by the team.
ß Be alert to surprises, new questions, and new directions.
Synthesize and Prepare
Back at the home site, share findings within your team. Prepare a
presentation of these findings. Presentation boards should include the
following information at a minimum:
ß A map showing the location of specific sites visited
ß Five photographs of relevant scenes, and one photograph of the team
ß A report of an interview with at least one person
ß A quote (from a person, a sign, or printed material) that captures
some essential feature of the mall related to your theme
ß An artifact that represents some essential feature of the mall related
to your theme
ß A resume listing the skills the team employed in conducting this
inquiry
ß Optional: sketches, drawings, observations, ideas for new shops or
services, future visions
Present
Make your presentations to the large group.
Presentation criteria:
ß Each member must participate in some way in the presentation.
ß The presentation should last no more than three minutes.
Debrief
Take five minutes to think back over the whole experience and write a
journal entry.
ß What single moment stands out in your mind?
ß What happened and who was there?
ß Why does this moment come to mind? What is its significance?
Discuss these journal entries with your team. Compare moments.
ß What do these moments have in common?
ß What surprises?
ß What obstacles?
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ß
ß
ß
ß
What have you learned from doing this exercise?
What did the presentation add to the experience?
What is your most significant learning?
How will you apply this learning to your work with students?
Report out the reflections of your team.
Sample Schedule (8:30 a.m. – 12:30 p.m.)
8:30-8:50
Break into teams
Assess team strengths
Choose a focus theme
Devise research strategy
Establish three criteria for excellence
8:50-10:30
Investigate the mall
10:30-11:00
Prepare a presentation
11:00-12:00
Give and observe observations
12:00-12:30
Reflect and discuss
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Classroom Personalization
An Introduction
Teachers in small schools talk about increasing personalization through
learner-centered classes. While it requires a lot of work and time, they say
the benefit of building trusting relationships with students and maintaining
regular contact with their families is invaluable. One strategy that capitalizes
on a personalized learning environment is carefully crafting student work
groups, which is addressed further in the section on heterogeneous classes.
For many teachers who’ve made the transition, the biggest change from
teaching in a large, traditional school to teaching in a small school was
increased student personalization. “Adapting [one’s teaching practice] is
about making the class student-centered and letting go of your plan.” Ann
Colligan, a science teacher from Parker Charter Essential School in rural
Massachusetts, said, “Tell teachers to be ready to throw everything out the
window,” meaning the notion of who’s directing the class. “Teachers who
suffer are the ones who have one model in mind of how a class works and
cannot let go.”
When asked about the issue of covering subject material, Colligan said,
“coverage doesn’t work anyway” in a traditional school setting. In a learnercentered classroom, coverage means depth of learning, reaching more
students, increased subject integration, and higher achievement for all
students. At Parker Charter, learner-centered classes also mean, “convincing
kids that they can ask questions and then giving them enough time to answer
them. Everything changes when students know they can challenge the
teachers… Ultimately, these [changes] are what makes scores go up.”
Student assessment is personalized as well. Instead of letter grades, students
at Parker Charter receive narrative feedback along with an indication of
whether they are Just Beginning, Approaching, Meeting, or Exceeding the
standard. Meeting or Exceeding a standard on the first try is extremely rare
and students typically have to revise their work at least once. In seventh and
eighth grade, students have a “revision week” where they pull out all their
old assignments, take time to closely read the feedback, and revise the work
accordingly. As they get older, students are expected to revise their work out
of class time.
When Mark Aguirre joined the staff at High Tech High (HTH) in San
Diego, he realized that “those unspoken rules” he had to follow at the large
school where he used to teach were no longer in place. At HTH, “I could do
what was best for kids. My [teaching] partner and I could re-arrange
schedules, have longer blocks, be more flexible, meet with a student together
or separately. I began to realize that all the rules were false.” The primary
curricular change was that the centerpiece of each trimester was now a
project. Everything that Aguirre did in class was designed to help students be
successful at the culminating project. “I could throw away teaching strategies
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I brought with me from my old school that were geared toward the test, and
focus on just those skills that I thought were important for the students. I
could now use those cool little lessons that used to get shoved aside. [At first]
it feels risky to teach that way because it goes against all those things that I
was taught. But now it feels wonderful.”
Cliff Chuang, math department chair at Boston’s Academy of the Pacific
Rim, says the key issue for creating a more personalized classroom is
reducing a teacher’s student load. Instructional practice may not be able to
change if a teacher is still responsible for teaching large numbers of students.
Chuang observed that in a large school setting teachers “let it go when a
student zones out because they don’t have many options.” In a small school,
teachers have more time to work individually with students, can be more
intentional about combining students for group work, and can coordinate
their teaching with students’ other classes. In a larger setting, teachers can
end up working in isolation, having to deal with a string of interruptions. In a
small setting, “you have more flexibility to plan around events, like field
trips, because you know what other teachers are doing.”
In his experience at a large school, Chuang said most teachers deemed it
impossible to have students complete big projects, “which could suck a
month off a teacher’s life.” Teachers adopted survival strategies, which made
them less effective instructors, and the students lost out. “What you do for
one student, must be done for all students, so you opt not to do it at all.”
Because a small school affords teachers the ability to assess student work “in
an ongoing way, a mentality shift is required to realize that you can do more
individual, ongoing assessment.”
Bill Klann of Vanguard High School in New York agrees that smaller class
sizes and a smaller student load for each teacher are important for real
classroom change to occur. Klann has two classes, each with twenty students
who he has known for the entire school year. With only forty students, he can
assign long papers because he has the time to read them and provide detailed
feedback. Klann feels that “knowing students changes the classroom goal
from how well students know the course material to how well students are
doing in school and in life overall.” Personalization changes teacher-student
interactions because “we are trying to create great people.”
Knowing students so well also changes teachers’ instructional strategy. “You
can’t just sit and lecture anymore when you truly know the students,” says
Klann. Building authentic, personal relationships means changing your
classroom practice. Teachers at MATCH in Boston believe that their classes
are more productive because of their regular contact with parents.
“Relationship building comes before class planning and grading.” The
principal calls parents every month and teachers call parents several times
per semester, with both good and poor news. Teachers are also “much more
explicit with kids about how they are doing [than in traditional schools] and
give a lot more feedback.” MATCH students receive report cards eight times
a year; students and parents know what they are going to say long before
they arrive.
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At the International School in Bellevue, teachers get to know students by
having them in classes year after year, regular advisory periods, and
discussing their progress with other teachers. Without this human connection,
teachers lose students’ “affective hook.” That is to say, all students learn
better when they know that teachers care about them and what they are
learning. Enid Becker, an Art and French teacher adds, “It is very important
for my students to know that I care about them as individuals—human beings
who have good days and bad days.”
Parker Charter Essential School
http://www.parker.org/rtc
High Tech High
http://www.hightechhigh.org
Academy of the Pacific Rim
http://pacrim.org
Vanguard High School
http://www.vanguardnyc.com
Media and Technology Charter High School (MATCH)
http://www.matchschool.org
International School
http://belnet.bellevue.k12.wa.us/international.html
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Student Learning Plan
The Big Picture Company
http://www.bigpicture.org/WebSite2002NEW/LearningPlans.htm
The Big Picture Company, a non-profit organization that works to generate
and sustain innovative schools, used its design of The Met Center in
Providence, Rhode Island as a model for the development of similar schools
across the country, including two schools in Federal Way, Washington. The
program centers on workplace internships and independent projects tailored
to each student’s interests. While your school may look quite different,
student Learning Plans are an integral part of any personalized educational
program. The following sample is just one example of how it might work.
The motto, “One student at a time” means acknowledging that each student
has different strengths, passions, needs and learning styles. Therefore, each
student at a Big Picture School has an individual Learning Plan that is
tailored to fit him or her. Each student’s interests and the five Learning
Goals serve as frameworks for students and their Learning Plan Teams to
design authentic and challenging learning experiences that help each student
succeed. (See Sample Learning Plan following.)
The Learning Plan is at the center of an educational program that meets
individual academic and personal needs, while helping each student pursue
his or her passions in the real world.
Each student’s Learning Plan Team, made up of the student, the teacher, the
parent(s) or guardian(s), and the internship mentor, works with him or her to
design a personalized Learning Plan that outlines the long and short-term
goals for project planning, skills development, and knowledge building. The
Learning Plan is updated quarterly and as the student progresses, discovers
new interests, plans new projects, and develops new goals for his or her
learning.
As a working document, the Learning Plan is at the center of a flexible
educational program that meets the student’s academic and personal needs.
As students regularly review and update their Learning Plans, they are taking
control of their own learning. Projects, skills and knowledge are connected
and have meaning for the student. The written Plan allows students to see
their progress and recognize gaps.
Students present their Learning Plans as part of their quarterly exhibitions
and are assessed on how they met each of their goals.
“No two students are alike in interests, talents, skills, or life experiences.
Rather than expecting all students to pursue the same body of knowledge
at the same time and rate, each of our students has a personalized
curriculum that is developed by the people who know the student’s
interests and learning needs best.”
- The Big Picture Company
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Democratic Classrooms
State University of New York College at Cortland
http://www.cortland.edu/c4n5rs/wheel/6.htm
Students respond best to someone who tries to understand their needs,
identifies their strengths, and helps to create a collaborative atmosphere. A
democratic environment encourages students to help establish their own
rules, take responsibility for their own behavior, and motivates them to learn.
Though it’s a complex process, the following tips introduce ideas for creating
caring, democratic classrooms.
CREATING A DEMOCRATIC CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT:
Using the class meeting to engage students in shared decision-making and in
taking responsibility for making the classroom the best it can be.
Key Ideas
1. Creating a democratic classroom environment means involving students,
on a regular basis and in developmentally appropriate ways, in shared
decision-making that increases their responsibility for helping to make
the classroom a good place to be and learn.
2. A democratic classroom contributes to character because it:
ß
Provides an ongoing forum where students' thoughts are valued
and where any need of the group can be addressed.
ß
Creates a support structure that calls forth students' best moral
selves by strengthening community and holding them
accountable to practice respect and responsibility.
ß
Mobilizes the peer culture on the side of virtue, because students
are working with the teacher in a continuing partnership to create
the moral culture of the classroom.
ß
The chief means of creating a democratic classroom environment
is the class meeting, a face-to-face circle meeting emphasizing
interactive discussion and problem solving.
Teaching Strategies
1. Meetings go better when there are clear rules for talking and listening
and consequences of breaking them, and when students help to set the
agenda.
2. Meetings can deal with problems (put-downs, homework problems) or
help to plan upcoming events (the day, a field trip, a cooperative activity,
the next unit).
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
3. Problem-solving class meetings have the best chance of helping students
go beyond "saying the right words" to actually improving their moral
behavior when:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
The teacher poses the problem in the collective voice: "How can
we, working together, solve this problem?"
After a solution is reached, asks: "What should we do if someone
doesn't keep our class agreement?"
Writes up the agreement and consequence(s) as a Class
Agreement or Contract
Has everyone sign it to show personal commitment.
Posts it in a visible spot for easy reference.
Plans with the class when to have a follow-up meeting to assess
how the new plan is working; then follows through.
Creating a Class Charter
Dr. Judith Gray, a veteran science teacher, professor at Antioch
University-Seattle’s center for education, and school coach, spends the
first couple weeks with a new class getting to know each student,
creating a safe environment, and discussing student and teacher roles. In
one exercise, she and the students complete worksheets containing four
boxes:
My job is…
My job is not…
Your job is…
Your job is not…
After discussing the lists people generate, the students create a class
charter, sometimes referred to as a constitution. One of Gray’s ninth
grade class charters included, among other things:
We agree that our jobs as students are to…
ß Come to class on time prepared and willing to work
ß Get along with others, help out and be cooperative
ß Do all labs and assignments with our best effort
But not to…
ß Be disrespectful or rude
ß Fall behind in our work
ß Kill the live animals
Our teacher’s job is to…
ß Have an open mind – be understanding and listen to us
ß Be clear with instructions and directions
ß Adapt to students’ diverse learning styles
But not to…
ß Waste our time or teach us unrelated material
ß Play favorites or worry about certain students
ß Be mean, rude or disrespectful in any way
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Readings on Democratic Classrooms:
Apple, Michael W. and Beane, James A. (1995). Democratic Schools
highlights educators in four U.S. communities who have committed
themselves to preparing students for the democratic way of life.
Beyer, Landon E., Editor (1996). Creating Democratic Classrooms: The
Struggle to Integrate Theory and Practice includes narratives from seven
teachers who weigh the possibilities for making classrooms more responsive
to the need for social justice, critical consciousness, and democratic values.
Glasser, William (1998). Choice Theory in the Classroom is a practical and
illuminating guide for motivating students and capturing the excitement that
they typically display in sports, but rarely in the classroom.
Gossen, Diane C. (1996). Restitution: Restructuring School Discipline helps
students learn more effective behaviors for fulfilling their basic
psychological needs and make the right choices.
Kohn, Alfie (1996). Beyond Discipline: From Compliance to Community
contrasts the idea of discipline, in which things are done to students to
control their behavior, with an approach in which we work with students to
create caring communities where decisions are made together.
McDermott, Cynthia J. (1998). Beyond the Silence: Listening for Democracy
presents short chapters where teachers, teacher educators, students and
counselors reflect on what it means to teach for democracy, including Alfie
Kohn, Peter McLaren, Shelley Berman, Hilton Smith, and others.
The Institute for Democracy in Education at Ohio University provides
teachers who are committed to democratic education with resources, a forum
for sharing ideas, a support network of people holding similar values, and
with opportunities for professional development. They also publish an annual
journal, Democracy and Education. http://www.ohiou.edu/ide/
The Heritage Institute:
Continuing Education for K-12 Teachers
http://www.hol.edu
Further study and discussion will be necessary to truly understand how to
implement democratic classrooms. Some universities offer continuing
education courses on creating democratic classrooms. In Seattle, The
Heritage Institute at Antioch University offers a course in which
participants “discuss, challenge and adopt new and used theoretical
approaches to student self-management.”
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Longer Class Periods
An Introduction
Some small schools will choose to implement longer class periods, which
may be daunting for teachers who have never worked in such an
environment. The following reflections look at what’s different about
teaching for longer periods.
Teachers’ practice must change for longer classes to be successful, not
merely more of the same old stuff. Those we interviewed said they:
ß
ß
ß
Include variety and surprise in every class
Provide opportunities for students to speak, write, and share ideas with
the teacher and with each other
Allow more time for project-based and problem-based learning
For several teachers, the shift from a large school to a small school meant
changing from a traditional fifty-minute periods to longer periods, or blocks,
of one to two hours.
Bill Klann of Vanguard High School in New York believes that block
classes are “one way to utilize small schools to their fullest.” But he cautions
that this structure must be combined with staff development to help teachers
understand how to utilize the longer class period. Unless the classroom work
changes, it’s just more of the same old stuff.
Klann learned to teach for a small school setting when he taught at a college.
He discovered that he wanted a two-hour block with students after seeing the
way college courses were set up. “The way you envision curriculum becomes
more of a flow, rather than disparate classes, between group work, individual
work, oral work, and reading, because no one can sustain attention for too
long on any one activity.” Klann can include activities in his class that
weren’t possible before because they require time, such as multi-stage
writing assignments and an hour for peer feedback on student work. In
addition, having more time with the same students means increased
personalization, as he has a smaller student load overall.
Enid Becker, a French and Art teacher at the International School in
Bellevue, Washington, admits that the fifty-minute period, five days per
week put her in a “grind through the book” mindset. Block periods (of an
hour and 45 minutes) made her realize that she could use her old curricular
materials but couldn’t just stick with the old instructional strategy because
she needed to include variety.
“I include variety and surprise in every class,” which doesn’t necessarily
mean fun and games. Every class begins with a Question of the Day and she
uses the same question for all levels of students. In French, she uses cultural
topics, current events, and linguistic questions. This way, younger students
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learn grammatical structures and cultural facts without even noticing it,
which helps when them when they get to the later grades.
Next, the class reviews homework either all together or with a partner. Later,
students might do a reading and, rather than discuss it as a class, Becker has
them write questions about it to discuss with a partner. Students always have
opportunities to speak, write, and share ideas with her and with each other.
The French cultural component becomes an inherent part of what students
are learning, not add-on as with the stereotypical “Taco Tuesday.”
Block classes allow students to spend more time on a question or topic.
Whereas a fifty-minute class period necessitates doing bits of things or
splitting the class time into two subjects, longer class periods allow students
to develop cognitive ability by exploring one thing in a variety of ways.
Becker also allows for more discussion time with the block period. “It’s less
scary for students to participate because they know each other better.” Being
able to play with the language in longer periods of time also seems to make
the students feel more confident and engaged. “I don’t have to worry about
the class taking longer to get through a problem or activity and the time spent
is more valuable because they understand the material better.”
Block periods allow more time for project-based and problem-based
learning. Two hours can get quite exhausting, so Becker adds video
activities, problem solving, in-class writes, role plays, debates, question
writing, readings, partner activities, dictation, and vocabulary guessing
games, to name a few activities. “I like games a lot, and that doesn’t mean
the activity isn’t rigorous; they make class more fun and dynamic.”
Having students for longer periods of time also allows Becker to be more
flexible with how that time is spent. Students may need more or less time
with a subject. When students needed a break from stressful grammar
structures around Valentines’ Day last year, Becker decided to take a break
from the unit, introducing romance vocabulary instead by having students
write and perform mini-plays.
Journaling is one activity that Christopher Drajem, a Humanities teacher at
Seattle’s Center School, can do with students in a longer period. Students
spend the first ten minutes of each class writing in their journal, and then
have the option to share their work. The exercise helps establish a sense of
community in the class because students enjoy hearing what’s on other
people’s minds or, at times, hearing how others answered a specific writing
prompt. The class always responds to people’s writing respectfully, with a
round of applause.
“A teacher couldn’t sacrifice that kind of time in fifty-minute block.” And,
the students enjoy the daily ritual, reporting that the practice has improved
their writing skills. Students also feel that the journaling “eases them into
class.” Drajem collects the journals every few weeks to check that students
have been keeping up. The entries provide a way to check in with a student
when there’s a red flag, either raised in journal entry or through the student’s
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behavior. Drajem also tells students that they can write, “please don’t read”
at the top of the page and he’ll respect their privacy.
After a year of working at ECHOES, one of Enumclaw’s new small high
schools, Diane Franchini is still learning to prepare multiple activities for a
longer class period. The activities can be either consecutive or concurrent,
with students switching activities partway through class. She tried to
implement this kind of variety and active learning before, but now it’s
absolutely necessary. “The students have become more demanding. When
they experience things in a different way, they want more of it. [The
students] have become more aggressive and assertive about their education
and have developed a real ownership in the school.” But, Franchini also
notes that teachers need to work with students to develop their negotiation
skills because, “Once they assert, [they think] that’s the way it will be.”
Students have become consumers of their education and want teachers to
serve them in the best way possible.
Vanguard High School
http://www.vanguardnyc.com
International School
http://belnet.bellevue.k12.wa.us/international.html
The Center School
http://www.seattleschools.org/schools/thecenterschool
Enumclaw Cooperative Hands-On Experiential School (ECHOES)
http://www.enumclaw.wednet.edu
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Organizing a Block Period Lesson
Enid Becker
International School, Bellevue, WA
http://belnet.bellevue.k12.wa.us/international.html
Enid Becker, a French and art teacher, made the transition from teaching a
traditional fifty-minute period to a longer, block period. Here, she shares
some of her strategies for making the most of the additional time.
There is no recipe for how to structure longer class periods. This resource
provides a glimpse into one teacher’s classroom and would best be used as
the basis for conversation with your curriculum team.
“I try to be sure that the elements of VARIETY and SURPRISE are present
in all my lessons.
“I generally choose a first activity that plays off of the warm-up but does it in
a different fashion. For example, if the warm up was a written activity, my
first activity might be an oral one. When I plan, I think warm-up and four
activities for the block. (We generally take a five-minute break halfway
through the period.) These four activities will usually be on two different
topics within the domain of study.
“For example, in today’s second-year French class, we did a trivia warm-up
and then discussed the weekend (practicing the past tense). Next, we
corrected the homework, a close activity practicing the imperfect verb tense
(questions, clarification – still past tense). Then I asked the students to try to
recall the new vocabulary (seen once before). Next, I put the new vocabulary
on the overhead and asked for a student to point out the vocabulary words
(this got them moving around). We went over the vocabulary working on
pronunciation. Then, they did a pair oral activity followed by an individual,
written activity. The period ended with a close activity which was a song in
French that used a lot of imperfect tense.”
Class Starters:
A trivia question to get students thinking, to slip in something you are
passionate about but that is not an official part of the lesson, to get them into
the mood of a language, math, science, etc. class.
Reflective writing on previous day’s information with a prompt: a
straightforward question or an imaginary scenario. You could also have them
write questions.
A series of questions to answer or problems to solve in writing or have pairs
explain something to each other.
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Teacher reads an extract of something pertinent to the subject and students
react to it in writing or orally. For example, a history class might read part of
a speech or a bill before congress; a physics class might read a section of
Einstein’s Dreams; recite opening lines from a series of well known books to
an English class and have them guess the books; read a description of a piece
of art or a descriptive piece of literature and have your art class draw what is
being read.
Add variety to a class:
Games – I like these a lot! I believe that learning can be both fun and
rigorous. Many students learn well with games. I find they work well as
review activities too.
Enliven an ordinary activity – Have the student who answers a question then
choose the next student to answer. In French, I like to have students A ask a
question of student B who answers and then chooses who will be the next
student A. This is fun for them.
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Lesson Plan Comparison
Bethany Spinler, science teacher and member of the Seattle Public
Schools Graduation Research and Design Committee
The Center School
http://www.seattleschools.org/schools/thecenterschool
The following two science lesson plans demonstrate how the same content
can be addressed in a teacher-centered, fifty-minute class period and a
longer, block period with an inquiry-based, learner-centered pedagogy.
While the issue of pedagogy is distinct from that of class length, several
small school teachers told us that block periods provide the necessary time
for group work and inquiry-based curriculum. Below, Bethany Spinler
reflects on the different teaching practices demonstrated by each lesson plan.
The main difference between the following lesson plans is the delivery of the
content and the expectation for student involvement. In the teacher-centered
lesson, the teacher delivers the content via notes and lecture and the students
passively accept the information. Students then apply the acquired
information the next day in the form of a lab, but they follow teacher directed
instructions. Even though labs are considered hands-on, the activity is quite
passive, as students are not constructing meaning for themselves.
The block period lesson allows for students to construct meaning. The
problem I have seen in a lot of schools is teachers using hands-on activities
to break up a long period that are not intellectually challenging. It requires a
lot of time to plan each learning activity that allows teachers to not only
move through the breadth of curriculum required by the EALRs, but to allow
students time and opportunity to construct meaning for themselves.
In the block lesson, the teacher asks questions and guides students, but does
not tell them how to do something or how to understand a concept. It requires
much work by the teacher to ensure that students will have adequate
opportunities to construct correct meaning. The longer lesson involves
independent brainstorming, group collaboration with research, presentation
of research and probing questions, hands-on and minds-on lab investigation,
and formal written communication of everything the student has constructed
for themselves.
The teacher must know the correct questions to ask each student in order to
develop each student's thinking. This allows for differentiation, as some
students will need to be pushed to get to the standard while others can be
pushed far past the standard. Analysis questions are offered to students at
different levels for standard and for honors level. The teacher also attempts to
make the lesson relevant to students by showing why they might need to
separate a mixture and by asking them to relate the prediction behavior to
things they experience outside of the school. The more relevant a lesson is,
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coupled with the more active students must to be to learn it, the better they
will understand it.
A block period allows a teacher the time to probe students and for students to
discover concepts on their own. Notice, the teacher does not give them the
“percent error” formula and have them plug in numbers. Instead, she has
them come up with it on their own. The teacher also has them develop the
rubric and look at samples of student work before she gives them a lab to
write on their own. This classroom is much more student-focused than the
traditional class.
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50-MINUTE, TEACHER-CENTERED LESSON PLAN
Unit Objectives: Classification of Matter
ß Identify the characteristics of matter and substances
ß Define and list several common physical properties of substances
ß Differentiate between physical and chemical changes in matter
ß Apply the law of conservation of mass
ß Explain the difference between an element and a compound
ß Classify a sample of matter as a substance or a mixture
ß Distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous samples of matter
ß Determine appropriate methods for separating mixtures
Day 1
Objectives:
ß Students will become familiar with the physical properties of elements,
compounds, and mixtures.
ß Students will become familiar with separation techniques.
Anticipatory Set:
Show students a mixture of iron, salt, sand, and poppy seeds and have them
brainstorm methods for separating the four components. (5 minutes)
Lesson:
1. Students will take notes on physical and chemical properties,
classification of matter, and separation techniques. (20 minutes)
a. Demonstrations of various properties (iron is magnetic)
2. Students will fill in a flow chart of classification of matter. (5 minutes)
3. Students will begin worksheets on properties of matter concepts and will
answer questions from the text. (15 minutes)
4. Students will be given a lab procedure to follow regarding the separation
of the mixture they began class discussing – salt, sand, seeds, and iron.
Homework is to read this procedure and finish the worksheet questions.
Day 2
Objectives:
Students will gain experience in using physical separation techniques.
Lesson:
1. Discuss worksheets and text questions from homework. (10 minutes)
2. Review lab procedures, explain use of equipment, and make safety
recommendations. (5 minutes)
3. Have students conduct the separation of the mixture according to the lab
procedure. (30 minutes)
4. Students will complete the analysis questions on the lab sheet for
homework.
Assessment:
ß Analysis questions
ß Worksheet and textbook questions
ß Unit exam with multiple choice and short answer questions
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100- MINUTE, INQUIRY-BASED LESSON PLAN
Global Unit Objectives: What's the Matter?
ß Students will be engaged in the process of doing science, solving
problems, thinking critically, and conducting inquiry investigations.
ß Students will discover recurring periodic properties across groups after
making careful observations.
ß Students will discover that patterns exist in nature and will use the
patterns to make predictions.
ß Students will communicate their understanding by preparing a list of
what work needs to be done before they can perform the experiment,
presenting preliminary results to the class for evaluation, drawing a flow
chart of the actual experimental procedure, and writing a formal lab
report.
Prior learning experiences:
Density determination, chromatography, hardness tests, visual observation
skills, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, titration, conductivity and
magnetism.
Day 1: Classification and Separation of Matter Investigation Design
Content Specific Objectives:
ß Design a step-by step procedure for separating a four component mixture
ß Relate lab techniques to physical properties of components of mixtures
ß Identify the characteristics of matter and substances
ß Define physical property and list several common physical properties of
substances
ß Explain the difference between an element and a compound
ß Classify a sample of matter as a substance or a mixture
ß Distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous samples of matter
ß Determine appropriate methods for separating mixtures
Anticipatory Set:
Present Sample Scenario: You were working in your mom's kitchen last
night trying to make her a surprise batch of cookies. A mishap occurred and
you poured the wrong ingredients into the bowl. You could throw everything
away and start all over, but your mom would be upset if she knew you were
so wasteful. Instead you decide to put your knowledge of matter to use to try
to separate out the ingredients in order to start all over. What information
would you need to accurately separate the ingredients? Brainstorm.
(5 minutes)
Lesson:
1. Discuss brainstorm and ask probing questions if properties of substances,
materials and equipment available, and accuracy are not mentioned.
2. (5 minutes)
3. Give students the real problem: I have messed up in the prep room and
mixed salt, sand, poppy seed, and iron together and need to separate
them. (5 minutes)
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4. Present students with the dilemma - since the actual substances are in
the mixture, and we do not have them by themselves, then what can they
do to devise a separation procedure? Can one use other substances? If so,
why? (Students already know about the periodic table of elements, but do
not know about trends or families) Students might not know the answer
and will need to experiment to determine if they can use other
substances. Students work in lab groups. (5 minutes)
5. Provide students with materials they can use to discover a method of
separation. For example, a variety of ionic compounds could be given
that students would determine are soluble in water, samples of elemental
metals would be given that are insoluble and more dense than water, etc.
Teacher does not classify or categorize any of these test substances. Only
the chemical name and formula are given to students.
6. Students will conduct preliminary investigations that will aid in
determining how to do the actual separation. These are student-designed
investigations. Data will be recorded, predictions made and justified.
Teacher will circulate and ask probing questions as needed. (30 minutes)
7. Each group will display data on whiteboards and the class will do a walk
through to compare results. Class discussion on procedures and data of
preliminary investigations will follow. (10minutes)
8. Groups will then use all class data to design their own flow chart for the
actual separation procedure. (10 minutes)
9. Students conduct investigation, recording procedure and data (30
minutes)
Homework:
ß Write a reflection paragraph on how you felt the separation procedure
worked. How could you determine if you were successful? Write a
detailed paragraph on why you could use the preliminary data to predict
the behavior of the actual substances.
ß
Read __pages in text and describe the properties you observed in more
detail. What classification do your substances fit into: metals, ionics,
elements, compounds, mixtures, and why? What other properties do
these groups have that you did not observe? Make a list of questions you
need to ask to understand the nature of these properties. (Why do metals
conduct, Why are ionics soluble?)
Day 2: Evaluation and Communication of Investigation
Content Specific Objectives:
ß Evaluate success of separating and recovering product
ß Utilize procedure for writing a lab report and designing rubrics
ß Apply the law of conservation of mass
ß Derive and calculate percent error
Lesson:
1. Discuss reflection paragraph. Students will share in small groups and
then each group will report to the class for a discussion of ideas.
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2. Discuss law of conversation of mass. Teacher asks questions to whole
class as they refresh their memories on the Law based on experiments
from previous coursework.
3. Discuss quantitative measurements of accuracy. Give students actual
quantities of each substance in the mixture and have them develop a
formula for finding the percent accuracy and percent error. Students will
work in small groups and share with class.
4. Give groups of students sample lab reports and have them follow a
critique procedure to evaluate the quality and clarity of the reports.
Develop a rubric with the students that will be used for all lab reports
written throughout the course.
5. Students individually type lab reports and get peer feedback.
Homework:
Answer analysis questions from energy and matter section of class website.
Day 3: Chemical Properties and Patterns Exploration
Content Specific Objectives:
ß Differentiate between physical and chemical changes in matter
Unit Analysis Questions:
1. What are the physical and chemical patterns you have observed in this
unit?
2. How would you physically separate these two new substances – sugar
and aluminum? Which preliminary data did you extrapolate from and
why?
3. Predict and explain the behaviors of these two new substances in a
chemical reaction.
4. What category do the following substances fall into and why:
a) Iron, lead, magnesium, sodium (elements)
b) Sodium chloride, lithium fluoride (compounds)
c) Sand, salt and seeds (mixtures)
5. What type of procedure can you use to separate each category of
substances? Explain.
[4a nothing; 4b chemical only; 4c physical]
6. What are similarities and differences between elements, compounds, and
mixtures?
7. What experiences do you have in the real world or other academic areas
that allow you to make predictions?
8. Create a table that shows how properties of elements are related.
Assessments
ß Lab reports for content, scientific process, and communication
ß Group evaluation for teamwork, work ethic, and communication
ß Reflection paragraphs and analysis questions in science journal
ß Experimental design for a new mixture with justifications, which shows
application of knowledge and skills
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Coaching Habits of Mind:
Pursuing Essential Questions in the Classroom
Grant Wiggins
Excerpted from Asking the Essential Questions: Curriculum Development
By Kathleen Cushman
Horace, June 1989 (Vol. 5, No. 5).
http://www.essentialschools.org/cs/resources/view/ces_res/137
This resource looks beyond planning an inquiry-based curriculum to the
necessary pedagogy for implementing one. Grant Wiggins (co-author of the
book, Understanding by Design) describes structures, roles, and strategies to
cultivate students’ ability to instigate and sustain inquiry-based group
discussions.
“It's easy to see how a question-centered approach could radically change the
way a teacher designs a particular course. Rather than moving from point A
to point Z, the teacher encourages students to learn key skills through which
content can be revealed. ‘Instead of merely covering material, students
UNcover and REcover important ideas in context,’ says Grant Wiggins. ‘No
essential idea, fact, theory, or application can be learned by doing something
ONCE.’ Wiggins compares such learning to the ways in which ball players
or musicians master their skills--they learn new rules and strategies as they
need them, not in ‘logical’ order; and they make such essential skills habitual
by practicing them again and again.
“If the analogy is carried further, the teacher's role as coach becomes even
clearer--to make herself gradually obsolete as students learn to solve
problems for themselves” (Cushman, 1989).
So, how does this look in a classroom? Grant Wiggins gives a brief
overview:
Coaching Habits of Mind:
Pursuing Essential Questions in the Classroom
What is essential must be experienced as essential. Essential facts and
theories are only understood as the results of one's own work; they are not
self-evident notions learned through words as "knowledge," but the residue
of effective performances--Habits of Mind.
When they are coaching students to engage in collaborative inquiry, teachers
need to insure that essential habits and norms are taught and learned. The
following structures, roles, and strategies can be used to improve the quality
of group discussion, so that students may become increasingly self-regulating
and self-disciplined about their work.
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I have done this by dividing a class into segments: exploring, proposing,
testing, linking, and closure.
EXPLORING
We do this for the first five to ten minutes, in groups of three to four
students. (This assumes that prior work has been assigned and done, leading
to written student questions, or organized around questions posed by the
teacher.)
SCOUTING
This is to explore the "panorama" from afar, in groups--the whole terrain of
the tentative issues and answers. This assumes that both the prior assignment
and its purpose are clear to students.
"Where are we going? What's the point?" To avoid these questions, pose or
have students pose "essential questions" that guide inquiry and discussion. (A
"seminar" assumes that the learning is to come from the members' prior work
and ideas.) Help students collaborate by giving a clear set of directions and
goals for using assignments; warn them in advance how the homework will
be used in class. In class, have students share and clarify their two or three
written questions from the night before, in small groups. Ask each group to
try to answer their questions, and bring one key question to the whole class.
All these key questions are put on the board.
ENTRY POINTS
Propose and consider some first "paths." Use the students' questions about
the reading or exercises, putting each small group's question on the board.
Add a "scouting" summary.
PRELIMINARY "MAPPING."
What are the landmarks? What is our tentative consensus on the key points,
passages, and trouble spots?
HYPOTHESIS PROPOSING AND TESTING
What does the author or experiment mean? This part of the process takes ten
to fifteen minutes, as a whole class or in two large groups.
PROPOSE
Begin with the key issues derived from the first "mapping," and propose
some explanations or interpretations. This work is easily divided up into
"focus" groups of four to six students who wish to work on a particular topic.
They work for fifteen minutes and then report their findings, with a list of
relevant passages, to the class as a whole.
GO TO THE TEXT
Use the text, experiment results, or students’ products frequently and
carefully to test out the arguments presented by each group. Ask frequently,
"What are your reasons? What is your evidence?"
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SUSPEND BELIEF OR DISBELIEF WHEN APPROPRIATE
When one point of view is dominant, consider an alternative. What other
interpretations or points of view might be possible? What is bring
unquestioningly assumed or doubted?
REFINE
Reconsider initial views and hypotheses as warranted.
"BUT WHAT IF . . . ?"
Start the process again.
LINKING AND PERSPECTIVE "SO WHAT?
Spend ten minutes answering this question as a class.
LINKS
Consider the implications of each theory or interpretation for other passages
in the text, other parts of the experiment or product, and so forth.
IF . . . THEN . . .
Consider the implications of a view of the part for the "text" as a whole.
ESSENTIAL QUESTION LINKS
Consider possible links between the current interpretations and the essential
questions that guide the course as a whole.
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
Consider the implications of this author's point of view with regard to other
authors' views.
REALITY TEST
Consider the author's or theorist's view in terms of its plausibility, its
supporting evidence, its practicality, today's base of knowledge, and so forth.
CLOSURE
For the last ten minutes of the class, summarize the main points of agreement
and disagreement in the discussion.
This important skill is the most overlooked strategy in teaching, and should
be first modeled by the teacher, then assigned on a rotating basis to pairs or
trios of students. Stress that the summary should not be a chronological or
ramble ("We talked about this, then that, then this . . . ") but a highlighting of
essential points. For this reason, give each summarizer a chance to reflect,
review notes, and the like before beginning.
Finally, consider what steps ought to be taken next. (With older students,
allow two or three minutes for note taking.)
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Heterogeneous Classes
An Introduction
Research shows that heterogeneous groupings benefit all students. However,
they require a very different teaching strategy from a traditional class setting.
Teachers we interviewed discussed the importance of creating multiple entry
points for students to engage with the material and how long-term projects
can create more time for individual instruction.
Teachers had differing philosophies about student achievement. Some felt
their goal was to challenge each student to reach his personal potential while
others aimed to support all students to accomplish the same curricular
challenges. The following reflections can provide a basis for your own
discussions on the topic.
However you approach heterogeneous classes, teachers were clear that skills,
such as cultivating the necessary trust for group work and facilitating student
learning on an individual basis, require long-term professional development.
Heterogeneous classes are much more common in small schools than in
traditional or large schools. For many teachers, having heterogeneous classes
was the impetus for changing their classroom practice.
Humanities teachers may have more experience finding common themes and
multiple entry points for students to engage with material. Even if students
represent a range of reading and writing abilities, they can all debate
interracial relationship in light of Othello, for example. Math teachers may
have a more difficult time. As on teacher explained, “It can be difficult to detrack math because you can’t have a conversation when some students
understand the concept and others don’t.”
At Parker Charter Essential School, math classes are heterogeneous until
eleventh grade when they start to differentiate. However, even at that point,
not all students take upper level math classes (statistics, trigonometry, and
calculus) in the same order, so there is some heterogeneous grouping.
In all classes, students work on the same problem at the same time, but at
different levels. To an observer, all the students would appear to be doing the
same math activity, but they are not. Diane Kruse explains, “Everyone leaves
with same basic information, but as a math teacher, I had to get accustomed
to the idea that not all students will learn it to the same extent.”
How far a student takes a problem depends on how the teacher facilitates her
learning, and this depends on how much the student is struggling with the
material. For example, Kruse’s students are learning to build geodesic
domes. They have a formula, which some students simply know how to
apply and which others truly understand. Kruse can push the more advanced
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students to manipulate the problem in multiple ways (rather than the basic
one) and demand a greater level of sophistication from the problem data.
“I try to create an optimal challenge range for each student, where she is
engaged but not frustrated and lost,” says Kruse. “The school culture is that
students want to tackle the hard thing. Sometimes I have to pull them back
and say try this easier step first, then go for the harder one. I look at how kids
are working and determine if the task is easy or if they are practically
sweating! The classes are small enough that I really can see where each kid
is, and I triangulate with other teachers.” Students also have a lot of
discretion about deciding their appropriate challenge level.
One way teachers at Parker Charter help students is to cycle through material
over many grades, so students see the same math concepts over and over
throughout the years and have multiple chances to learn them. “It’s also a
small enough institution that I can go to a student’s teacher from last year
and get the story on how the students performed with the previous
curriculum.” Kruse admits that while she believes in teaching an integrated,
heterogeneous class, “I do have some anxiety about whether I’m adequately
preparing students who know they want to make a career out of math or
attend an institution like MIT.”
The approach to heterogeneous grouping at Boston’s Academy of the
Pacific Rim is to help all students accomplish the same challenging
coursework. The emphasis is therefore on providing extra support to students
who struggle, in the form of weekly tutoring sessions built into students’
schedules. For higher achieving students, teachers offer bonus questions and
challenges. Teachers say that classes offer a rigorous, college-prep
curriculum that might translate to an honors class at a more traditional
school. This way, they push everyone to higher levels of achievement.
A math teacher at MATCH in Boston also described her students as having,
“real gaps” in their understanding. “They may be proficient at one concept
but are completely missing another, so I have to figure out how to keep
moving forward with concepts, while shoring up basic skills along the way.”
The class spends one day per week working on those basic math skills, which
is a helpful review for some students and new material for others.
Classes at High Tech High in San Diego use project-based learning to reach
students in heterogeneous classes. Ben Daly recalled that his first year
teaching science at the school consisted mostly of class lectures, stealing
from his old curriculum, and a few labs. But in the heterogeneous class, Daly
found that some students were lost while others were bored. Engaging
students in project-based learning provided a big “ah-ha!” While students
worked on a long-term project, such as building robots for competition, Daly
was free to give individual students attention. He could help a struggling
student learn fractions and challenge a high-achiever with college-level
problems.
Another teacher designed a project that entailed inventing a product, which
required electricity, and pitching the concept to Venture Capitalists. The
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project integrated several courses. It was completed for a Humanities class,
but coincided with the science teacher’s unit on electricity; the Social Studies
teacher helped students with their business plans. (For more information
about integrated curriculum at High Tech High, see the Integrating
Curriculum section of this collection.)
In heterogeneous classes, teachers can recognize the neediest kids. When
Cambridge Rindge & Latin High School, outside Boston, created
heterogeneous classes teachers noticed a huge shift from how they used to
talk about the kids who couldn’t read in the abstract. During their planning
year people repeatedly asked, “what are we going to do about literacy?” But,
at the end of the first implementation year, people were saying, “Oh my
goodness! Now I know who the kids are who are not reading at grade level
and they are all minority and what is going on here? Now we know it so now
we have to name it and do something about it.”
Having various skill levels in the classroom also encourages students to help
each other. Teachers are more deliberate when creating student work groups,
based on academic strength and personality. Bill Klann of Vanguard High
School in New York says that teachers “must make group work part of the
classroom culture. Establishing trust among students will pay off later in
terms of them knowing they’re there to help each other.” Heterogeneous
groupings give students with stronger skills an opportunity to be leaders,
sometimes acting as peer mentors or tutors. Of course, the actual process of
developing the trust among students is long and complex.
Parker Charter Essential School
http://www.parker.org/rtc
Academy of the Pacific Rim
http://pacrim.org
Media and Technology Charter High School (MATCH)
http://www.matchschool.org
High Tech High
http://www.hightechhigh.org
Cambridge Rindge & Latin
http://www.cps.ci.cambridge.ma.us/crls
Vanguard High School
http://www.vanguardnyc.com
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Definitions
A Lexicon of Learning: What Educators Mean When They Say…
http://www.ascd.org/cms/index.cfm?TheViewID=1112
Heterogeneous classes and the topic of tracking can be hot-button issues. In
order to have productive conversations, and use the other resources in this
section, a definition of terms is critical. These come from the Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) website’s Lexicon of
Learning.
Ability Grouping
Assigning students to classes based on their past achievement or presumed
ability to learn (also known as homogeneous grouping). Grouping students
according to their actual progress in a particular school subject is different
from grouping them according to assumptions about their ability to learn the
subject—although the results may be quite similar. And grouping them by
subject is different from tracking, which strictly speaking refers to placing
them in the same groups for all their classes based on their general ability to
learn. Students may also be grouped within classes, but intraclass grouping
permits more flexibility so is less controversial.
Whether students should or should not be grouped by ability is a persistent
issue in education. Advocates say it is unrealistic to expect teachers to
provide for the great range of differences in student backgrounds and
abilities, and that a certain amount of grouping is better for students. Critics
contend, citing research, that when students are grouped by ability, those in
lower tracks are usually taught poorly and don't get exposed to "high-status"
knowledge.
Heterogeneous Grouping
Intentionally mixing students of varying talents and needs in the same
classroom (the opposite of homogeneous grouping). The success of this
method, also called mixed-ability grouping, depends on the teacher's skill in
differentiating instruction so that all students feel challenged and successful.
Advocates say heterogeneous grouping prevents lower-track classes from
becoming dumping grounds and ensures that all students have access to highstatus content. Opponents say it is difficult for teachers to manage, hampers
the brightest children from moving at an accelerated pace, and contributes to
watering down the curriculum.
Homogeneous Grouping
Assigning students to separate classes according to their apparent abilities.
Placing students in groups for all their classes based supposedly on their
general learning ability has been called tracking. For example, college-bound
students might have all of their classes together while vocational students and
special education students would attend other classes. In its most extreme
form, tracking has been declared illegal by the U.S. Supreme Court and is
considered a violation of students' civil rights. Alternatively, students may be
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grouped according to their achievement in particular subjects. For example, a
student might be in an above-average science course but an average English
course. Strictly speaking, this form of ability grouping is not tracking,
although the results may be similar, so opponents sometimes call it tracking
anyway.
Proponents of ability grouping believe it allows students to excel within their
levels. Less capable students are not intimidated by their more capable peers,
and gifted students are not bored by the slower pace considered necessary for
regular students. Critics say tracking is undemocratic, allows unequal access
to higher-level content, and creates low self-esteem. Opponents also say that
students who learn more slowly become subject to lower expectations from
teachers.
Tracking
The practice of dividing students for instruction according to their perceived
abilities. Students are placed on a particular track (college-bound, general,
vocational, and remedial) and given a curriculum that varies according to
their perceived abilities and future positions in life. At the elementary level,
the practice is called grouping. Advocates argue that it makes instruction
more efficient and provides students with instruction adapted to their abilities
and previous knowledge. Critics argue that it deprives students of equal
opportunity, unfairly and inaccurately labels some students, and perpetuates
racial, ethnic, language, and social inequalities.
“Sometimes the terms ‘ability grouping’ and ‘tracking’ are used
interchangeably. However, researcher Adam Gamoran differentiates
between the two. He defines tracking as ‘…broad, programmatic
divisions that separate students for all academic subjects.’ Ability
grouping, he says, refers to ‘divisions among students for particular
subjects, such as special class assignments for math or within-class
groups for reading.’ Looking at the differences between the two,
Lockwood and Cleveland comment that, ‘In theory, ability grouping is a
more transitory or variable condition, varying by content area and subject
to modification over the course of an academic year or, at a minimum,
from year to year.’
“A fifth term has entered the debate is ‘de-tracking,’ sometimes called
‘un-tracking’. While it is not a proper word at all, it is a useful one and
everyone seems to understand it as meaning, ‘the breakdown of
homogeneous groups into heterogeneous groups.’”
- Pamela Wise, Chuck Estin, and Jeff Petty
Small Schools Coaches Collaborative
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Implementing Heterogeneous Classes
Pamela Wise, Chuck Estin, and Jeff Petty
Small Schools Coaches Collaborative
Three members of the Small Schools Coaches Collaborative compiled the
following four resources related to creating heterogeneous classes and
eliminating what is often referred to as a system of “tracking.” The resources
include: a Tracking Self-Assessment tool to help schools look at their own
practices and identify aspects of tracking; pedagogical principles of
heterogeneity; answers to commonly articulated concerns regarding college
admissions; and some additional reading on the subject.
Tracking Self-Assessment
This is not a Yes/No diagnostic tool but a series of prompts for discussion
and hopefully an invitation to ask more questions about why certain systems
are in place. The questions can help schools look at practices they may not
have considered before and identify aspects of tracking.
In a conversion context from a large school to multiple small schools, the
word ‘school’ could be substituted for the word ‘class’ in some of these
questions to identify tracking patterns in student assignment to small schools.
1. Do most classes have a racial and ethnic mix similar to the school as
a whole? For instance, if the school is two-thirds black and one-third
white, are most of the classes the same or are some 90 percent black
and others 90 percent white?
2. Do most classes have roughly equal numbers of boys and girls?
3. Do there seem to be classes where most students’ parents are
professionals and others where most students come from poor or
working-class families?
4. When you attend school programs or extracurricular activities, do the
participating students reflect the racial, ethnic, and class mix found
in the school as a whole?
5. Are the same students in most of their classes together throughout
their school career?
6. Are the same students in most of their classes together throughout
their school day?
7. In places like the cafeteria, do students tend to congregate in like
racial and ethnic groups? (Students in de-tracked schools with
effective pedagogy sometimes note that regular collaboration with
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diverse colleagues in classes breaks down social barriers in settings
like the lunchroom.)
8. If there is ability grouping, do the students move from group to
group over time?
9. Do some classes/students have a lot of homework, whereas others
have little?
10. Do some classes/students typically read and answer questions on
paragraphs instead of whole stories and books?
11. Do some classes encourage in-depth higher thinking skills, while
others focus only on basic skills?
12. Do some classes engage students in discussions and thoughtful
writing assignments while others do mostly multiple-choice
questions?
13. Are there “gateway” courses that, if not completed by a certain point
in a student’s career, preclude access to other critical courses later?
(For example, what are the effects in your school of not completing
algebra in the ninth grade?)
14. Is there an appropriate balance of higher order learning with basic
skills for all students?
15. If there are courses such as AP or honors, are they open to all
students?
16. Are there ways that student progress is frequently monitored and
used to ensure high expectations of outcomes for all students?
17. Do teachers tend to have a different view of the ‘work ethic’ of
students in certain kinds of classes as opposed to other kinds?
Adapted from a list of questions entitled “Is Your Child Being Tracked?” in
Rethinking Schools: An Agenda for Change, edited by David Levine, Robert
Lowe, Bob Peterson, and Rita Tenorio (The New Press, 1995).
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Teaching and Learning Practices for
Heterogeneous Learning Environments
Small Schools Coaches Collaborative
Members of the Small Schools Coaches Collaborative compiled this list of
pedagogical principles and teaching strategies for heterogeneous groupings.
While each item requires a more extensive explanation, and the pedagogies
call for extensive training, this resource can be used as an outline for staff
conversations and professional development planning.
When students are de-tracked, there must be shifts in the way teaching
occurs, to meet the needs of diverse learners in the same classroom. The
word “track” indicates a lack of flexibility. De-tracking is all about bringing
flexibility to the learning process. The focus must be on the students, rather
than on the curriculum. The following principles should guide teaching and
learning:
1. FLEXIBILITY Curricula and grouping structures should be easily
modified according to changing student needs.
2. EQUITY De-tracking must change the two fundamentally distinct
messages that are currently taught to prepare students for their
respective roles in society. Upper-track students are taught
independence while lower-track students are taught compliance.
3. EMPOWERING and HONORING STUDENTS All students should
be in learning environments that make them feel influential,
respected, and appreciated.
4. HIGHER ORDER THINKING In-depth learning and active inquiry
as essential classroom components for all students.
5. STUDENT CHOICE Students should have input in shaping their
learning environment to be meaningful to them.
6. BUILD ON STRENGTHS Rewards should be built in to enhance
student strengths, rather than penalize their weaknesses.
7. FEEDBACK BASED There should be continual feedback to adjust
learning processes to maximize growth of each individual student.
8. MAXIMIZE BENEFITS OF DIVERSITY Design interdependent
heterogeneous grouping learning environments where students learn
from one another’s diverse perspectives and talents.
9. STUDENT LEARNING ABOVE TEACHER CONVENIENCE
Teachers may have to plan better, collaborate more, and teach more
diverse areas to facilitate more effective student learning.
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10. STUDENT CENTERED RESPONSIBILITY Provide ways for
students to take more responsibility for their learning to motivate and
enable students to learn more from one another. This frees teachers
to work with individuals or small groups of students.
11. HETEROGENEOUS GROUPING Shifts the emphasis from
curriculum to students and counteracts the tendency of tracking to
lock students into homogeneous categories.
12. HIGH EXPECTATIONS Each student should be supported to
achieve at her/his highest level.
13. MULTICULTURAL AWARENESS To better design the learning
environment to honor and benefit from cultural differences.
Pedagogical principles of heterogeneous grouping include the following:
1. PROJECT-BASED LEARNING With appropriate guidance to keep
each student optimally challenged, whether working individually or
in groups.
2. LITERATURE CIRCLES Methodologies that help students take
responsibility for engaging in group literature discussions.
3. WRITER’S WORKSHOP Engaging students in writing that
individually challenges them.
4. CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING Many educators believe that
students come to understand abstract concepts best through
exploration, reasoning, and discussion.
5. COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS A teaching strategy
combining teamwork with individual and group accountability,
which allows students to acquire both knowledge and social skills.
6. DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION Providing different
approaches to learning within the same classroom, according to
diverse student needs.
7. MULTI-INTELLIGENCE APPROACHES Teachers who use a
multiple-intelligences approach strive to present subject matter in
ways that allow students to use several intelligences.
8. MULTI-AGE CLASSES Another form of diverse grouping that
drives the learning to focus more on students and less on curriculum.
9. PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT When assessment is
authentic, it isn’t limited to one discriminating modality, such as
standardized testing, but evaluates different facets of understanding
in diverse ways.
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Small Schools’ College Admissions Questions:
Staying Competitive with Heterogeneous Classes
Small Schools Coaches Collaborative
Admissions officers from Reed and Dartmouth Colleges answered the
following questions about how non-traditional classroom practices affect
students’ chances of being admitted to these schools. This resource provides
a helpful reality check and good information for teachers.
1. If a school offered only Honors classes, and no longer provided AP or IB
classes, how would this impact the competitiveness of their students in your
admissions process?
ß
ß
Hardly at all. Many schools do not offer AP or IB courses. We look for
students taking challenging classes and doing well. However this
happens at the high school level is fine with us. As long as we can clearly
see which students are at the top of their classes and which classes are
more challenging, we'd be set and our process wouldn't hurt the
applicants applying from these small schools.
Our basic rule of thumb is that we like to see students take the most
rigorous classes available. Therefore, we cannot penalize a student who
doesn't have access to AP classes for not taking them. I think the key
would be to give colleges a very clear understanding of the work
required by an honors class. If the level of preparation is the same as an
AP or IB class, then the exact label loses importance. The one rider to
this, is that Reed will potentially grant credit for AP or IB exam results
rather than completing the class, so you may want to consider teaching a
curriculum that allows students to register for AP exams if they wish.
2. How competitive would an applicant be who came from a school that
gave only pass/no pass transcripts, but depended upon a narrative transcript
as a supplement to a traditional graded transcript? Going to non-graded
classes is a change that some small schools are contemplating.
ß
ß
88
The less we know about who is truly excelling and who is simply doing
well, the more we would have to rely on standardized means (i.e. the
SAT, ACT). Receiving a narrative based transcript would be similar to
receiving a bunch of teacher recommendations. Since that is already a
part of the application process, having it in place of a traditional
transcript would simply leave us with less information. That said, we
take a careful look at each application and examine it holistically. If we
could discern that a student is an exceptional student from the pass/no
pass transcript and a narrative explanation on the transcript, that would
be fine. We receive applications from students who come from nontraditional schools and we certainly do admit such students. It just means
we need as much information as possible given the lack of grades.
Again, grades at Reed College are merely a convenient and easy label
that allow us to "eyeball" a transcript and get a sense of the student's
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
success. We receive such transcripts from around the country, and I
don't think it would necessarily put the students at a disadvantage if the
narratives are comprehensive and we have a sense of the rigor of classes.
Pacific Crest School here in Portland has narrative/portfolio types of
transcripts, and they may be worth checking to see how they approach
this. One thing you will probably find, however, is a greater reliance on
test scores, as we look to those to confirm a student's strengths and
weaknesses. Although test scores do not determine admission, they are
an easy and standard measure.
3. How would you perceive a student who did not have the traditional four
years of study in the traditionally distributed subject areas of science
(biology, physics and chemistry), but instead had greater depth in one or two
of those disciplines?
ß
ß
This would be ok, so long as we saw that the merits of the depth in a few
areas prepared the student for college as well as the cross section of
many areas.
Again, I think if we know that this is the curriculum in place, it would
not be a problem. However, we would then expect a fairly high level of
proficiency in those concentrations.
4. How would you receive inquiries from schools who want to develop an
ongoing relationship between their advisors and your admissions office, as a
means for helping you to understand more about the quality and rigor of
their educational programs? Again, honoring the time constraints that you
must have in managing your large number of applicants.
ß
ß
ß
We take calls everyday from guidance counselors and maintain
relationships via email and letters as well. It is important for us to
understand the school environment from which a student comes because
we can not make an appropriate assessment of that student without it.
Each application comes with a school profile and we read each and every
one. The reason why your email ended up in my inbox is because we
have the world divided into regions and Washington is part of my region.
Part of my job responsibility is to understand the schools in my region
and the policies that govern the opportunities the students have.
I think this is very important. I think the International Community
School in Kirkland is a good case where the counselor has been very
effective in putting a new school on admission offices radar screens. The
school has a brief but fairly comprehensive outline of the curriculum in
its profile, and the counselor has actively promoted the school.
This contact could come in any number of ways, either through a central
person such as yourself or from individual counselors at the high schools.
Obviously the universities that will receive the bulk of the school college
applications will take priority, but, given that we are all too busy, smaller
more rigorous colleges should not be forgotten.
In every case, with any school, once a student or two enrolls from a certain
school or system, that is when we can really begin to tell how effective the
school's preparation is.
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Readings on De-Tracking:
This list represents resources available from well-known commentators on
both sides of the issues. Though it is by no means comprehensive, an
assiduous searcher who follows these paths will find most other existing
resources.
Allan, Susan Demirsky (1991). Ability-Grouping Research Reviews: What
Do They Say About Grouping and the Gifted?
http://www.donet.com/~eprice/sdallan.htm
Burnett, Gary (1995). Alternatives to Ability Grouping: Still Unanswered
Questions. http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed390947.html
Grosssen, Bonnie (1996). How Should We Group to Achieve Excellence with
Equity? http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~adiep/grp.htm
Holloway, John H (2001). “Research Link / Grouping Students for Increased
Achievement” from Educational Leadership.
http://www.ascd.org/publications/ed_lead/200111/holloway.html
Kohn, Alfie (1998). Only For My Kid: How Privileged Parents Undermine
School Reform. http://www.alfiekohn.org/teaching/ofmk.htm
Loveless, Tom (1998). The Tracking and Ability Grouping Debate.
http://www.edexcellence.net/library/track.html
O’Neil, John (1992). On Tracking and Individual Differences: A
Conversation with Jeannie Oakes.
http://www.ascd.org/readingroom/edlead/9210/oneil.html
Singer, Jessie (2002). “Getting Students Off The Track” from Rethinking
Schools. http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/17_01/Gett171.shtml
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Differentiated Instruction
The Learning Network, February 2003 (Issue 6, Vol. 1)
http://www.smallschoolsproject.org/articles/ssp_news.html
This article profiles one high school’s introduction to differentiated
instruction and some teachers’ first steps at changing their classroom
practice. An in-depth definition of differentiated instruction follows.
Additional tools that are mentioned in the article, such as backwards
planning, Critical Friends Groups and the Tuning Protocol, are addressed
elsewhere in this section.
Clover Park Teachers Look at Differentiated Instruction
To Help All Students Reach High Standards
Teachers at Clover Park High School have begun to implement classroomlevel changes that focus on helping all students reach high standards. The
strategy they are learning about and trying out in their own classrooms is
called differentiated instruction and it involves providing students with
multiple options for taking in information, making sense of ideas, and
expressing what they learn. For the teachers at Clover Park, it also means
recognizing that students come from varied backgrounds, skills, and
knowledge and that they need varied opportunities to acquire mastery of
skills and topics.
Carol Ann Tomlinson writes in the September 2000 Educational Leadership
magazine that differentiated instruction “is a way of thinking about teaching
and learning. It is a philosophy…based on a set of beliefs” such as “students
who are the same age differ in their readiness to learn, their interests, their
styles of learning, their experiences, and their life circumstances.”
According to Carol Ann, teachers can differentiate three aspects of their
curriculum:
1. Content—the skills, concepts, and principles,
2. Process—the activities that help students understand the ideas and
skills that are being taught, and
3. Products—the culminating projects where students demonstrate what
they have learned. (ASCD Winter 2000 Curriculum Update)
Dr. Stephanie Bravmann, a school coach and former education professor at
Seattle University who has taught teachers about differentiated instruction,
adds a fourth aspect – environment – which she says refers to the classroom
or other learning sites and includes providing students with multiple settings,
such as texts, learning centers, learning contracts, and group investigation
with peers having similar abilities.
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The impetus for Clover Park teachers to begin learning about differentiated
instruction came this fall, when the school implemented 9th and 10th grade
houses. One of the consequences was that they didn’t have enough faculty in
each house to teach both regular English and pre-AP English. They decided
to blend the classes so that each English class would include regular, pre-AP,
and inclusion students who didn’t need self-contained classrooms.
After the first couple of weeks, students and teachers in these blended classes
were concerned that the classes weren’t working as intended and Principal
Paul Tytler realized that teachers and administrators alike needed a shared
understanding of differentiation and an ongoing investment in professional
development and the accompanying support mechanisms.
Clover Park’s Instructional Facilitators Katie Taylor and Judi Orr, who
consider themselves “guides” in the English faculty’s exploration, developed
a series of professional development sessions on differentiated instruction for
their colleagues. During the first half-day session, Katie and Judi introduced
the concept of differentiation, discussed the connection between
personalization and differentiation and looked at examples of differentiation
taken from Tomlinson’s books.
During one activity, staff members looked at the different student learning
profiles that were used at the fall high school meeting hosted by the Gates
Foundation. “We learned that as a group, we all liked school, were eager to
learn, and behaved as such. But, many of our students have different attitudes
than we did about school,” says English teacher Casey Curtis. “It forced me
to think about how my students are different from me and to ask myself what
engages them? And, how can I engage them and meet their learning needs
through my lessons?”
During the second half-day professional development session led by Katie
and Judi, teachers brought lessons they had developed to share with their
colleagues using a tuning protocol. The group discussed how the lessons
were differentiated and ways in which greater differentiation could be
provided. Katie and Judi facilitated the discussions and used prompts such as
“What have you done with struggling learners that has been successful?”
During the second session, the group also discussed how assessment could be
a useful tool. “Assessment holds students to the same high standard, but with
differentiation, how you get there can be different,” explains Katie. For
example, if a teacher wants to assess her students’ understanding of grammar
and punctuation, some students may be able to demonstrate what they know
in a paragraph, while others may need several paragraphs. The important
thing is not the length of their assignment, but that each student demonstrates
what she knows about grammar and punctuation.
The third and final professional development session [was] an all-day session
in mid-February, [focusing] on the differences between tracking and
differentiation. “Differentiated instruction is not a form of tracking,” says
Tomlinson. “It is intended to be the exact opposite. Teachers must give every
child access to the curriculum and ensure that every child makes progress.”
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The Clover Park teachers [also spent] the third day embedding differentiation
into lesson and unit planning so that it [was] not perceived as an “add on,”
but an integral part of designing curriculum, assessment and instruction.
Although the efforts to differentiate instruction at Clover Park are just
beginning, Katie says the response from teachers and students has been
positive.
“Teachers now understand that it’s not about creating more work, but instead
looking at students’ different abilities and figuring out how to get everyone
to the same high standard. The students like having choices and being able to
demonstrate in different ways what they know.”
English teacher Casey Curtis says her efforts to differentiate in her classroom
have had a couple of unanticipated outcomes. “I realized that creating offthe-cuff lessons wouldn’t work for every student. Differentiation pushes me
to plan backwards and be very clear about what I want my students to know
and then figure out how to get them there and how they will demonstrate it.”
Casey, who participates in a Critical Friends Group (CFG), says her efforts to
differentiate have also benefited from the support and feedback she receives
from her CFG colleagues.
Readings on Differentiated Instruction
ß
Differentiating Instruction: Finding Manageable Ways to Meet
Individual Needs, by Scott Willis and Larry Mann, ASCD
Curriculum Update, Winter 2000.
ß
How to Differentiate Instruction, Educational Leadership,
September 2000.
ß
How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, by
Carol Ann Tomlinson, ASCD, 1995. http://www.ascd.org
ß
Targeting Learning with Differentiated Instruction, NW Teacher,
Northwest Regional Education Laboratory, Spring 2002
http://www.nwrel.org/msec/images/nwteacher/spring2000/spring200
2.pdf
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Differentiated Instruction – What it is & What it is not
Prepared by Katie Taylor, Clover Park High School, and based on the article “Different Learners,
Different Lessons” by Carol Ann Tomlinson, Scholastic Instructor, September 2002.
What it is
Differentiated Instruction is proactive.
The teacher assumes that different learners have different
needs and plans for this ahead of time.
Differentiated instruction is more qualitative than
quantitative.
Simply adjusting the quantity of an assignment will generally
be less effective than adjusting the nature of the assignment to
match student needs.
Differentiated instruction is rooted in assessment.
A teacher who understands the needs of students sees
assessment as an opportunity to learn more about student
learning and how to modify instruction to meet those needs.
Assessment no longer happens at the end to see “who got it”
but happens throughout the unit to inform the teacher about
students’ developing readiness, comprehension and
application.
What it is NOT
Differentiated instruction is NOT the “individualized
instruction” of the 1970s.
We cannot do something different for each of our 30+ students
in each classroom – it is too exhausting! It does not assume a
separate level for each learner.
Differentiated instruction is NOT chaotic. It isn’t a free
for all of students doing whatever they want. Instead, teachers
manage and monitor many activities simultaneously. The
classroom includes purposeful student movement and talking,
not a disorderly or undisciplined atmosphere.
Differentiated instruction is NOT just another way to
provide homogeneous grouping.
It is not separating the class into thirds – advanced, middle and
struggling. It is not segregating by putting all the “bluebirds”
in one group together all the time. It the use of flexible
grouping, where students may be in many different groups
depending on the task and objective. Sometimes groups are
formed by a common link, but most often they are groups that
mix strengths and weaknesses of all students.
Differentiated instruction provides multiple
approaches to content, process and product.
Differentiated instruction is NOT “tailoring the same
suit of clothes.” It is often more than just asking a few
Teachers offer different approaches to what students learn,
how they learn it and how they demonstrate what they’ve
learned.
students to answer a more complex question in a discussion or
to research and share more advanced information on a topic.
While these are not “bad” strategies, they are often not enough
to really differentiate instruction.
Differentiated instruction is student centered.
Differentiated instruction is NOT teaching to the
lowest common denominator.
Classrooms operate on the premise that learning experiences
are most effective when they are engaging, relevant and
interesting, recognizing that students will not always find the
same avenues to learning equally engaging, relevant or
interesting. Additionally, teachers in a student-centered
classroom understand the need to help students take
increasing responsibility for their own growth.
Though the temptation is to slow down to not leave the
struggling learners behind, it does not serve the interest of our
advanced learners or our struggling learners to do this.
Differentiated instruction is offering powerful teaching and
learning opportunities for all students – not just for some.
Differentiated instruction is a blend of whole-class,
group, and individual instruction.
Differentiated instruction is NOT adding extra work
to keep advanced students busy.
Method of instruction and organization of an activity is
predicated upon what the most effective and efficient way to
learn the information might be for students, and arranging the
class activities accordingly.
Adding work is only adding to the workload – the way this
challenges an advanced learner is that is challenges their time
management skills. It may be assigning advanced learners a
more complex task to begin with so that they will finish in
about the same time as the other students.
Differentiated instruction is organic.
Differentiated instruction is NOT a strategy that is
“done.”
Students and teachers learn together. Teachers continually
make adjustments to plans based on the dynamic in the
classroom.
94
Teachers see that differentiated instruction is not something
that is done when there is extra time or that has one application
in one aspect of teaching – it is a philosophy about teaching
and learning that permeates every aspect of the classroom.
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Three questions to consider when differentiating curriculum and
instruction:
•
•
•
What is the teacher differentiating?
How is he or she differentiating?
Why is he or she differentiating?
Differentiate What refers to the curricular element the teacher has modified
in response to various learner needs (content, process, product or learning
environment).
Differentiate How refers to the student trait to which the differentiation
responds (readiness, interest, or learning profile).
Differentiate Why addresses the teacher’s reason for modifying the learning
experiences (access to learning, motivation to learn, and efficiency of
learning).
TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM
Student differences are masked or
acted upon when problematic
Assessment is most common at the
end of learning to see “who got it”
A relatively narrow sense of
intelligence prevails
A single definition of excellence
exists
Student interest is infrequently
tapped
Whole-class instruction dominates
Coverage of texts and curriculum
drives instruction
DIFFERENTIATED
CLASSROOM
Student differences are studied as
basis for planning
Assessment is ongoing and diagnostic
Focus on multiple forms of
intelligence is evident
Excellence is defined by individual
growth from a starting point
Students are guided in making
interest-based choices
Many instructional arrangements are
used
Student readiness, interest, and
learning profile shape instruction
“In differentiated classrooms, teachers ensure that a student competes
against himself as he grows and develops, more than he competes against
other student.”
- Carol Ann Tomlinson
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Inclusive Classroom: Meeting the Needs of Gifted Students:
Differentiating Mathematics and Science Instruction
Excerpts from an article by Jennifer Stepanek
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, December 1999
http://www.nwrel.org/msec/just_good/9/
The following is an excerpt from a 50-page booklet that offers teachers a
variety of strategies and resources for providing different levels of content
and activities that will challenge all students, including gifted learners.
“While many of the ideas come from the body of literature and research on
gifted education, the strategies are appropriate and effective for a wide range
of students. [Also important]… is the need to re-examine the criteria and
processes used to designate some students as gifted, and thus by implication
all other students as not gifted. Clearly, relying on a narrow definition such
as those who score in the top 10 percent on a standardized achievement test
can exclude students with special talents who may have difficulty in taking
tests.” (p. 1)
Strategies for Teaching Gifted Students in the
Inclusive Classroom
In a review of research on gifted students in the regular
classroom, Johnsen and Ryser (1996) describe five overall
areas for differentiation: modifying content, allowing for
student preferences, altering the pace of instruction,
creating a flexible classroom environment, and using specific instructional
strategies. The bulk of the research concentrates on instructional strategies
that have been linked to improved student achievement and have been shown
to increase critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and creativity. The
following have been established as effective strategies (Johnson & Ryser,
1996):
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Posing open-ended questions that require higher-level thinking
Modeling thinking strategies, such as decision-making and evaluation
Accepting ideas and suggestions from students and expanding on them
Facilitating original and independent problems and solutions
Helping students identify rules, principles, and relationships
Taking time to explain the nature of errors
Differentiated Instruction is an approach to teaching that is
comprehensive and guides teachers in all aspects of their practice. It does
not mean grading gifted students harder than other students or assigning
extra work to keep students busy (Tomlinson, 1995). It is a continuous
process of learning about students’ needs and interests and using that
knowledge to guide instruction. Teachers use their knowledge of students
to determine how content is presented, what activities are appropriate, and
how to guide students in demonstrating what they have learned
(Tomlinson, 1999).
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The Learning Environment
The process of differentiating instruction is most effective in a flexible and
supportive learning environment, which encompasses both the physical
setting of the classroom and its climate. The teacher sustains a relaxed yet
challenging environment by encouraging responsibility and autonomy,
supporting students’ different needs, and emphasizing students’ strengths. In
addition, sharing responsibility for the classroom climate with students helps
to ensure that it is productive and comfortable for everyone.
Classroom Organization and Management
The classroom itself must be organized for flexibility and openness. There
will be space for students to engage in a variety of activities, both
independently and in small groups. Students are free to move as they need to,
as long as they remain on task. They are able to leave the classroom in order
to go to the library, for example, or to a resource room or computer lab
(Feldhusen, 1993).
When students work on different content, use different learning strategies,
and create different products, the teacher takes on an altered role in the
classroom. Presenting the curriculum to students is no longer the teacher’s
primary focus. Instead, she concentrates on creating and selecting learning
opportunities for students, guiding them, and working with them to assess
their progress.
“Acknowledging that students learn at different speeds and that they
differ widely in their ability to think abstractly or understand complex
ideas is like acknowledging that students at any given age aren’t all the
same height: it is not a statement of worth but of reality.”
- Carol Ann Tomlinson
How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms (1995)
Giving students choices and allowing them to schedule their activities
encourages independence and keeps students engaged (Feldhusen, 1993). It
is recommended that students be allowed to choose what they want to work
on at least part of the time. Students are still accountable for completing
specific activities or demonstrating what they have learned within a certain
period of time, but they choose when or how they will work.
The following strategies are helpful in organizing and managing the
classroom for differentiated instruction:
ß
Using “anchor activities” that students can complete with little
supervision—tasks such as writing journal entries or working on a
portfolio—provides time for the teacher to work directly with other
students (Feldhusen, 1993; Tomlinson, 1999).
ß
When students are working on different activities, it will be helpful to
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have instructions available for easy access. The teacher may want to
create assignment cards rather than giving directions orally or writing
multiple sets of directions on an overhead (Tomlinson, 1999).
ß
Teachers will also need to be sure that all students know how to get help
when they need it, either by asking another student, going back to the
directions, or working on another task until an appropriate moment for
asking the teacher (Tomlinson, 1999). A student might serve as “Expert
of the Day” when she has shown a deep understanding of the concept or
task.
ß
Involving the students in creating classroom procedures and rules and in
organizing their time helps them to build important skills in decisionmaking, negotiating, and planning. It also ensures that students feel at
home and involved in the classroom (Feldhusen, 1993).
Social and Emotional Climate
A nonthreatening atmosphere is important for all students, including high
ability learners. Gifted students are often perfectionists, and they may place
great significance on getting the right answers or completing tasks quickly.
They are sometimes outsiders among their classmates because of their
unusual abilities, or they may be accustomed to having a higher status than
other students in the classroom.
The foundation of a good learning environment is a feeling of safety and
acceptance. Teachers help to create this atmosphere by modeling respect and
care for all members of the classroom. Emphasizing every student’s strengths
is another important element of an effective atmosphere for learning. All
students need to feel and recognize the value of the abilities and experiences
of themselves and others.
Sometimes gifted students feel insecure when they are presented with openended inquiry or problem-solving activities. Students may insist that they
need procedures spelled out for them so that they can follow directions and
“do it the right way.” The teacher might remind students that mistakes are an
important part of learning. It is possible to communicate understanding for
students’ feelings while also being firm about the requirements of the task.
Gifted students may also resist when they are asked to show their work or
explain their thinking processes. If they are accustomed to finishing tasks
quickly, some students resist what they see as unnecessary work that slows
them down. Explain to the students that it is just as important to show how
they got an answer as it is to be correct. Using a scoring guide with
descriptive criteria helps students understand how their work will be
evaluated and articulates high standards.
Support for Gifted Minority Students
Although there has recently been a significant increase in research about
identifying gifted students from cultural minority groups, there is not yet
comparable attention to the challenge of providing support for gifted
minority students. All gifted students may experience isolation and pressure
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to hide their abilities, but minority students tend to feel the weight of these
forces to an even greater degree. Gifted minority students report feelings of
inferiority, as well as the need to constantly choose between using their
talents and fitting in with their peers (Cropper, 1998).
Indicators of Mathematical Giftedness
ß Unusual curiosity about numbers and mathematical information
ß Ability to understand and apply ideas quickly
ß High ability to see patterns and think abstractly
ß Use of flexible and creative strategies and solutions
ß Ability to transfer a mathematical concept to an unfamiliar situation
ß Use of analytical, deductive, and inductive reasoning
ß Persistence in solving difficult and complex problems
(Holton & Gaffney, 1994; Miller, 1990)
Indicators of Scientific Giftedness
ß Strong curiosity about objects and environments
ß High interest in investigating scientific phenomena
ß Tendency to make observations and ask questions
ß Ability to make connections between scientific concepts and
observed phenomena
ß Unusual ability to generate creative and valid explanations
ß Interest in collecting, sorting, and classifying objects
(Yager, 1989)
http://www.nwrel.org/msec/just_good/9/ch2.html
Providing students with extra support is especially important in mathematics
and science. In these fields, cultural stereotypes have contributed to the
under-representation of minorities. Although there is not yet a substantial
body of published research, there are many suggestions and strategies
developed by educators for meeting the needs of gifted minority students:
ß
Communicate high expectations.
ß
Be sensitive to the experiences and beliefs of people from different
cultural groups. Get to know all students and their cultures. Consider the
challenges that students may face in school.
ß
Continuously and firmly encourage students to go to college. Discuss the
necessary coursework, tests, and other preparations with students and
parents.
ß
Create a multicultural learning environment and make sure the
curriculum reflects a variety of cultures.
ß
Help students connect with role models and mentors. Organize peer
support groups for students with similar interests and abilities.
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ß
Reach out to parents and family members. Enlist their support in
providing encouragement and high expectations.
ß
Provide students with a variety of learning options. Create or select
activities that are engaging, active, and grounded in reality.
ß
Listen to students’ concerns, fears, and beliefs about their experiences
and their education.
(Cropper, 1998; Ford, 1996)
Support for Gifted Girls
Gifted female students face many unique challenges and problems that tend
to undermine their abilities and potential. Gifted girls do not achieve at
expected levels, especially in middle school and high school, and they often
do not pursue careers appropriate to their abilities (Badolato, 1998).
Researchers have identified a number of reasons for female students’
underachievement: gender stereotypes pervasive in society, lack of role
models, declining confidence in their abilities, mixed messages and
conflicting expectations from teachers and parents, and peer pressure to hide
their abilities and intelligence (Smutny & Blocksom, 1990).
More specifically, teachers often have less tolerance for girls who call out
answers in class, ask numerous questions, and are confident in their opinions
and willing to argue—behaviors that are likely to be accepted as evidence of
giftedness in boys (Kerr, 1994). Often girls are socialized in school and at
home to be attractive, obedient, caring, agreeable, and submissive. As a
result, girls have a tendency to hide their intelligence and downplay their
abilities in order to conform to the socially accepted stereotypes of femininity
(Ryan, 1999).
To counteract the forces that work against gifted girls’ achievement, teachers
and parents must become aware of their biases about gender and appropriate
behavior for females. It is also important to strike a balance between
encouraging girls to pursue nontraditional fields while not devaluing
traditional female strengths and interests. Some recommended practices in
meeting the needs of gifted girls include:
ß
Communicate with parents about their daughter’s abilities and the
importance of mathematics and science for higher education and careers.
Encourage them to identify and address sources of gender bias.
ß
Organize peer support groups for girls. Mathematics and science clubs
encourage girls to develop their skills and abilities and help connect them
to other girls who share their interests.
ß
Avoid praising girls for their neatness or behavior. Point out specific
examples of their excellent work and achievements. Actively correct
them if they attribute their accomplishments exclusively to luck or hard
work.
ß
Provide opportunities for girls to use their leadership abilities.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
ß
Expose students to women in nontraditional careers. Help them to
identify and connect with role models and mentors.
ß
Openly discuss gender stereotypes and the mixed messages that society
broadcasts about femininity, intelligence, and achievement.
ß
Provide a safe environment for girls to share their confusion and fears.
ß
Actively recruit girls to participate in advanced courses and
extracurricular activities related to mathematics, science, and technology.
ß
Encourage students to research and report on female contributions to
mathematics and science.
(Davis & Rimm, 1994; Smutny, 1998)
Differentiating Content
Making modifications to mathematics and content is one aspect of in
providing challenging learning opportunities. Gifted educators recommend
that science curriculum for high-ability students should move at a faster pace
and feature less repetition. It should also allow students to delve into
important ideas and thought processes (Boyce et al., 1993). In mathematics,
students should study advanced content in earlier grade levels (Johnson &
Sher, 1997).
Organizing the curriculum around major themes and ideas is one of the first
steps in differentiating content. Using broad concepts helps to create
opportunities for students to learn and apply integrated and complex ideas
(Berger, 1991). Some key themes in mathematics include functions, patterns,
scale, rates, and change (Johnson & Sher, 1997). Systems, models,
reductionism, and evolution are among the major concepts in science (Van
Tassel-Baska, Bailey, Gallagher, & Fettig, 1993). The following publications
may be helpful in identifying other major themes and concepts in
mathematics and science: Benchmarks for Science Literacy (American
Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993), Curriculum and
Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 1989), and National
Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996).
It is important that mathematics and science content focus on more than
computation, formulas, and vocabulary. All students benefit from a
curriculum that does not focus exclusively on basic skills. A broader focus
allows students who may not have strong computation or memorization skills
to demonstrate their abilities in abstract reasoning, creativity, and conceptual
understanding. There are different methods for encouraging students to move
beyond the basic concepts of the mathematics and science curriculum.
One recommendation for differentiating content for gifted students is
increasing the level of abstractness and complexity (Maker & Nielson, 1996).
For example, students might study a concept at the theory level: identifying
and testing mathematical or scientific laws or connecting seemingly disparate
ideas. Students might learn about or develop complex systems that have
many sections and processes.
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Adding variety to the content that students work with is another important
strategy. Students are exposed to new materials, books, tools, and people,
which helps to stimulate curiosity and creativity. Gifted students might work
on projects in which they investigate the history of an idea or generate
formulas or laws from their own observations (Tirosh, 1989). Adding topics
that are not part of the regular curriculum can also be effective. For example,
in mathematics, students might learn about transformational geometry,
topology, number theory, and logic (Wilmot & Thornton, 1989).
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives can be helpful in designing
content for gifted students (Bloom, 1956). Bloom’s six levels of knowledge
are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. The final three levels are most appropriate for gifted students and
may help teachers to identify ways for students to work with content in more
advanced and more challenging ways (Smutny & Blocksom, 1990). Analysis
involves using content to classify, compare, contrast, investigate, and deduce
information and ideas. Synthesis will require students to use ideas and
knowledge to create original work, using it to invent, design, and plan—for
example, developing a theory or hypothesis. Evaluation requires students to
interpret, verify, criticize, defend, and judge ideas and information.
One of the simplest ways to present more challenging content is to provide
advanced materials for gifted students. Textbooks, tradebooks, and other
resources from higher grade levels or even written for adults will help
provide more complexity and will often be more appropriate (Maker &
Nielson, 1996). Teachers might want to provide library books on the subjects
the class is working on or on related topics. Students might also use a list of
suggested resources to find and select their own materials. It will also be
helpful to provide mathematics or science texts from higher grade levels or
even from the college level.
Curriculum Compacting and Flexible Pacing
Curriculum compacting is a method of differentiating content for high ability
learners developed by Renzulli and Reis (1998). There are three basic steps:
pretesting students at the beginning of a unit, eliminating content or skills
that students already know, and replacing the skipped content with
alternative topics or projects.
In order to plan for curriculum compacting, the teacher analyzes an
upcoming unit to determine the key concepts and skills. Next, she selects the
best way to identify students who have already met the learning objectives.
The choice of pretest will depend on the type of knowledge or skills that
need to be assessed. Some options include unit tests, essay questions, brief
interviews, and observations (Reis & Renzulli, 1992).
Students who demonstrate their proficiency on a pretest will collaborate with
the teacher to select alternative activities. Students may use the time to work
on independent projects of their own design. Or the teacher might assign an
enrichment activity that the class is not yet ready to pursue. The students who
complete the activity may wish to act as advisors when the whole class is
ready to begin (Smutny et al., 1997).
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Sometimes there will be specific areas in which the student is still developing
skills. In this case, the teacher might ask the student to rejoin the class at
certain points during the unit. Alternatively, the student might complete skillbuilding activities on her own. The student may also need to join the class for
discussions and problem-solving or inquiry activities.
Curriculum compacting should be an option for all students in the classroom,
not just those labeled “gifted” (Renzulli & Reis, 1998). Students who have
strengths in a particular content area or who have studied a topic that they are
interested in on their own time will benefit from having an opportunity to
pursue other activities.
Another strategy for changing the pace of the curriculum is called “Most
Difficult First” (Winebrenner, 1992), and it is most appropriate for
mathematics. Students are allowed to work on the five most difficult
problems instead of completing the whole assignment. If the students are
successful, they are allowed free time or are asked to work on an alternative
activity (Winebrenner, 1992). Again, this option is available to all students in
the class.
Flexible pacing means that students are allowed to work at the level most
appropriate to their abilities (Miller, 1990). There are several ways to provide
students with suitable options. Advanced students might join higher level
classes in mathematics or science. A group of students might move through
material at an accelerated pace. Or high-ability students might be allowed to
work independently at their own pace (Daniel, 1989).
As they plan for flexible pacing, teachers will probably find it necessary to
consult with their colleagues who teach higher grade levels or advanced
classes. Their guidance will help to identify the advanced content and skills
that students learn. They will also need to be aware of the students who have
been working at an accelerated pace when those students join their classes in
the future (Conroy, 1993).
Key Components of Mathematics Curriculum for the Gifted
ß Content with greater depth and higher levels of complexity
ß A discovery approach that encourages students to explore concepts
ß Focus on solving complex, open-ended problems
ß Opportunities for interdisciplinary connections
(Johnson, 1993)
Key Components of Science Curriculum for the Gifted
ß Significant and deep content
ß Emphasis on understanding concepts rather than memorizing facts
ß An inquiry approach with students as active investigators
ß Opportunities for interdisciplinary connections
ß Investigating real problems and situations
ß Guiding students toward scientific habits of mind
(Van Tassel-Baska, 1994)
http://www.nwrel.org/msec/just_good/9/ch6.html#models
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Models for Differentiating Content
The Enrichment Triad Model (Renzulli & Reis, 1986) is intended to guide
the development of enrichment activities, but it can also be used as a method
for structuring a unit for the whole class. The model consists of three
sequential levels of activities that are increasingly challenging and complex.
Type One activities are exploratory and expose students to new topics. The
primary purpose of these activities is to engage students and spark their
interest. Some possible activities include demonstrations, guest speakers,
field trips, and exploration through open-ended discovery tasks (Renzulli &
Reis, 1986).
Type Two activities are designed to help students learn and develop the
information and skills related to the subject of the unit. They will involve
such concepts and skills as problem solving, critical thinking, interviewing,
analyzing and organizing data, and communicating orally and in writing
(Renzulli & Reis, 1986). These skills are often needed for the next level,
Type Three activities, which are very challenging and require a high level of
creativity and persistence. Students become firsthand inquirers and
experimenters, working as if they were professional scientists or
mathematicians, and creating authentic products (Renzulli & Reis, 1986).
The Cognitive-Affective Interaction model was designed to help students
develop the skills for divergent and creative thinking (Williams, 1986).
Williams defines eight factors—four cognitive and four affective—needed
for divergent thinking. The four cognitive qualities are fluent thinking,
flexible thinking, original thinking, and elaborative thinking. Risktaking, complexity, curiosity, and imagination are the four affective
qualities (Williams, 1986).
Williams also suggests 18 teaching approaches that will encourage creative
thinking and that can be used across the disciplines. The following are some
of the strategies from the model:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Present students with paradoxes to analyze and test
Use analogies to introduce new concepts; ask students to create their
own
Allow students to think about discrepancies in what is known
Ask provocative questions and provide time for inquiry
Examine examples of change and the process of change
Use examples of habit and the results of habit-bound thinking
Encourage tolerance for ambiguity with open-ended problems
Encourage students to use their intuition and follow their hunches
Study creative people and their thinking processes
Evaluate situations by analyzing possible consequences and
implications
Help students practice creative reading, listening, and writing skills
(Williams, 1986)
ß
The following chart shows how Content (D1) interacts with Teaching
Approaches (D2) to yield Student Behaviors (D3).
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Williams, F. E. (1970). Classroom Ideas for Encouraging Thinking and
Feeling. Buffalo, NY: DOK Publishers.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
The Heterogeneous Classroom
Interactive Mathematics Program
http://www.mathimp.org
The Interactive Mathematics Program (IMP) has created a four-year program
of problem-based mathematics that replaces the traditional Algebra IGeometry-Algebra II/Trigonometry-Precalculus sequence. IMP units are
generally structured around a complex central problem. The following article
discusses why IMP believes in heterogeneous math classes and how they
designed their curriculum to be used in them. The philosophy and principles
apply to any heterogeneous class.
What Is Meant by Heterogeneous?
It seems as if you cannot read an article or attend an in-service on
mathematics education reform without hearing the terms heterogeneous
classroom and untracking. According to Webster's New Collegiate
Dictionary, heterogeneous means "consisting of dissimilar ingredients or
constituents: mixed." The movement in education is away from grouping of
students by perceived ability level--tracking--and toward a heterogeneous
learning environment, where students with different mathematical maturity
and development levels are in the same classroom.
Instead of helping students, sorting and tracking them according to ability
institutionalize failure in mathematics. However, placing students in
heterogeneous classes and groups and teaching the same old curriculum will
not solve the problem… The curriculum must be untracked just as the school
structure must be untracked. A multidimensional curriculum will be
accessible to more students and more interesting and more valuable to the
most mathematically sophisticated.1
A heterogeneous classroom coupled with a curriculum written to engage all
students creates the ideal.
Why IMP Believes in Heterogeneous Classes
Our educational system needs to broaden the range of students who learn
mathematics. The heterogeneous classroom promotes access to genuine
mathematics for a larger pool of students than does a system based on abilitylevel tracking.
The IMP curriculum is designed to be used with heterogeneous classes, and
thus to make the learning of a core mathematics curriculum more accessible,
especially to those groups, such as women and minorities, who traditionally
1
Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools (Sacramento, CA:
California Department of Education, 1992), p. 62.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
have been underrepresented in college mathematics classes and math-related
fields.
A curriculum built around complex, open-ended problems can be explored at
many levels of sophistication. The central problems in IMP units have a
richness that will challenge the brightest student, yet their concreteness
allows all students to do meaningful mathematical work.
How to Work with a Heterogeneous Class
Your Own Expectations
First on the agenda for working with a heterogeneously grouped class is to
confront the expectations created in all of us by conventional conceptions of
intelligence--conceptions that have led to ability-level grouping. We need to
believe that all our students are capable of learning mathematics and, as a
group, are rich in their differences.
Students' Expectations
You will probably have some students, previously identified as "gifted," who
don't want to be in a class with "normal" students. You will probably also
have students who have never enjoyed or succeeded in math and now feel
intimidated in a class that includes all the "smart kids." In order to work with
both groups, you need to convey the idea that a variety of backgrounds and
learning styles will prove to be a benefit, not a detriment, to the learning
process. To take full advantage of the various learning styles and
backgrounds in your IMP classroom, foster as much communication among
students as possible. Provide a learning environment where students are
encouraged to present their methods and ideas as well as to listen
thoughtfully to the presentations of others. Provide a model, showing how to
ask thoughtful questions when trying to understand another's point of view.
The heterogeneous classroom needs to provide an environment where
cooperation for the common good is highly valued. Help students build an
appreciation of each other's differences and encourage them to learn from
other approaches and points of view.
Supplemental Problems
When you work with students who have a wide variety of math backgrounds,
there may be times when discrepancies in learning arise. The supplemental
problems in each unit can help you deal with these situations; they were
created in response to requests from IMP teachers. These teachers asked for
problems, written with the IMP style and philosophy, that could be used
when students showed a need for more experience or more challenge when
they approached a topic in the unit.
Using the supplemental problems often requires planning ahead. As you look
over the next week of a unit, ask yourself, "Which lessons are likely to
involve wide discrepancies in student response?" and "How can I meet the
needs of different students?" The teacher guide will often give you guidance,
since it indicates where in the unit each problem fits best.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
There are two types of supplemental problems.
Reinforcements: The reinforcement problems exist for those times when your
students struggle with a concept in the unit. Since they come to you from
various backgrounds, some of your students may need to investigate a topic
from approaches besides those provided by the basic unit. You may even find
that, at some point in time, your whole class needs more work on a concept.
The reinforcement problems provide such additional experience.
Extensions: There may be times when students understand a concept and
want more challenge. The extension problems are provided for those students
who are ready to take concepts from the IMP curriculum farther than the
basic unit does. Extension problems give students greater depth of
understanding of topics in the current unit, rather than having them
"accelerate" to material that appears later in the curriculum. In this way, they
will gain appropriate challenge and enrichment and yet each new unit will be
fresh for them.
Whenever you use supplemental problems, be cautious of tracking within
your IMP classroom. Students should be in on the decision as to which type
of supplement, if any, they work on. You should avoid giving them a sense
that you are labeling them one way or the other. Let it be known that those
who need reinforcement this time are not necessarily the same students that
will need it next time and that all students can tackle the extension problems,
not just those who the teacher feels are "capable."
Revision of Work
Students in a heterogeneous class will not vary only in their mathematics
backgrounds; they will also vary in their writing ability. One way to work
with these differences is to encourage revision of written work. This will
benefit students who find it difficult to express ideas. Also, if a student has
not solved a particular problem or completed an assignment, this will allow
the student to show what he or she learned from the class discussion of the
activity.
It is possible for all students to meet high standards; some simply have to
work harder to get there. Opportunities to revise their work provide such
students with a chance to learn from others and to improve upon their initial
attempts.
Getting Students Started
For a variety of reasons, including weak English-language skills, students
may sometimes have trouble getting started on an assignment. One key to
getting all the students involved in a problem or activity is ensuring that each
student has access to the task at hand. To give students access, you may want
to have a student read the directions aloud and then have each group discuss
or rewrite the task in their own words. You may throw out an open question
about how to get started. You may even let the students get to work on an
activity, then stop them after five minutes for group reports on where they
are headed. Your goal should be to ensure that all students at least start
everything you assign.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
The Honors Option
A heterogeneous mathematics classroom may include students who were
previously labeled "Gifted" or "Honors" and placed in separate classes. As a
result, there may be parental or administrative pressure to provide an
opportunity for students to have an "Honors" designation on their transcripts.
You can provide this option within your heterogeneously grouped class,
offering it to every student in your IMP class, not just a select few. For
example, you can have students elect to attempt some combination of the
extension problems. You will need to set clear criteria for the quantity and
quality of work needed for a student to receive the "Honors" designation at
the end of the grading period.
You can enhance your IMP classroom by having those who do extra work
make presentations to the whole class on their findings. Or you may prefer to
keep this activity separate, providing regular time outside of class for
students who are working on the extension problems to meet and share ideas.
From Strategies for Meeting the Needs of Gifted Students
Boulder Valley School District, CO
http://www.bvsd.k12.co.us/schools/heatherwood/specialprograms/tag/tag
strategies.html
Tiered Assignments
In a heterogeneous class, various levels of activities and assignments are
planned to meet a range of student needs for task complexity,
abstractness, concreteness, and independence. All activities, regardless of
level, should focus on the same key concept of the curriculum. Activities
should be designed to build on prior knowledge and prompt continued
growth. Differences in activities are more qualitative than quantitative.
Varying Questions
In discussions, assignments and tests, questions vary according to
student's readiness, interests and learning style. Adjustments should be
made on complexity, abstractness, degree of mental leap, time
constraints, and connections required between topics. All students should
be responsible for information and thinking at high levels.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Guidebook for Cooperative Learning
Dee Dishon and Pat Wilson O’Leary (1998) 3rd Edition
Cooperative learning is a key component of heterogeneous groupings. In
their book, Dishon and O’Leary outline Five Underlying Principles that make
cooperative learning different from typical classroom groups. The chart
below is a tool for teachers to begin thinking about their own beliefs about
group work.
What is Cooperative Learning?
“Cooperative Learning is one of the best researched of all teaching strategies.
The results show that students who have opportunities to work
collaboratively, learn faster and more efficiently, have greater retention, and
feel more positive about the learning experience.
“There are very specific methods to assure the success of group work, and it
is essential that both teachers and students are aware of them. Cooperative
learning is a way for students to learn essential interpersonal life-skills and to
develop the ability to work collaboratively – a skill now greatly in demand in
the workplace. In a cooperative group, every student has a specific task,
everyone must be involved in the learning or project, and no one can
‘piggyback.’ The success of the group depends on the successful work of
every individual” (http://www.newhorizons.org).
Belief/Behavior Inventory
This chart, adapted from the Belief/Behavior Inventory (page 19), helps
teachers examine their beliefs about group work. According to the authors, if
you tend to agree with statements on one side of the chart (left or right), your
beliefs are consistent with your behavior. If not, it may be causing you stress
when engaging students in group work.
Five Principles
Distributed
Leadership
110
Cooperative Groups
All group members are
capable of understanding,
learning and performing
the tasks required for a
group to complete a task
and like each other when
the task is done.
No leader is assigned or
chosen. All group
members perform the
leadership skills when
appropriate.
Typical Class Groups
One group member, chosen
by the teacher or the group,
is responsible for seeing
that the task is completed
and everyone likes each
other when the job is done.
One leader is assigned or
chosen. That leader
performs all leadership
skills or assigns them to
group members.
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Heterogeneous
Groups
Positive
Interdependence
and Individual
Accountability
Social Skills
Acquisition
Group
Autonomy
The most effective groups
are heterogeneous in
terms of social
background, skill levels,
physical capabilities, and
gender.
The most effective groups
are homogeneous in terms
of social background, skill
levels, physical capabilities,
and gender.
Selection of groups is
made randomly or by the
teacher to insure
heterogeneity.
The teacher selects groups
based on similarities of
group members.
All students are not
willing to work in groups
unless there is a built-in
reason to do so.
Students will work together
if desks are pushed
together.
There are shared and/or
jigsawed materials, one
product, common goals,
and/or rotated roles
within the group. Each
student signs a group
product, is prepared to
report for the group, and/
or shows understanding
of mastery of material.
Group members each have
own materials, make own
decisions, and /or create
their own product. Students
are assessed based only on
the product created.
The ability to work
effectively in a group
comes from skills that
can be taught and learned.
Students come to school
knowing how to get along
and work in groups.
Social skills are defined,
discussed, practiced,
observed, and processed.
Groups are told to
cooperate.
Students learn to solve
their own problems by
resolving them on their
own rather than being
rescued from them by the
teacher.
In problem situations, the
teacher suggests and
prompts at the request of
the entire group.
Group members always
need the teacher’s help to
solve problems.
The teacher directs and
orders groups to solve
problems according to the
teacher’s observations.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Group Activity Checklist
Excerpted from NCREL Pathways to School Improvement
www.ncrel.org
This checklist will help you reflect on how well you form student work
groups and assign group tasks. You might also consider how these factors are
addressed in your own professional work groups and how that experience
informs your classroom practice.
The following was posted to the NCREL Pathways Internet server under the
subject of strategies for helping students work in groups and was contributed
by Gail Foster of BSCS (producers of Science for Life and Living:
Integrating Science, Technology, and Health) in Colorado Springs, CO.
In a hands-on approach to teaching, some basic factors contribute to the
success of students working in groups. Review the checklist to assess
whether you attend to these factors.
Team Task
ß
Do you evaluate a task to determine if it actually lends itself to a team
approach? (If students can do the task just as well on their own, why
should they work in a group?)
ß
Do you provide enough structure and support for teams to complete the
task independently and successfully? (Is the structure and support in the
form of clearly stated, written, and illustrated, or tape-recorded
instructions, rather than in the form of your constant intervention?)
Team Interdependence
ß
Do you structure the task so that all members of a team must be involved
to successfully complete the task? (You can provide such structure by
limiting supplies so that teammates must share them, requiring one
product from each team, providing different information to each member
of the team, and requiring that all members share the information to
complete the task.)
ß
Do you require teammates to assume some level of responsibility for the
understanding and performance of others on their team?
ß
Do you allow for teams to assess their effectiveness at working together
as a team?
Team Jobs
ß
112
Do you select jobs that are appropriate for the age of the student?
ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
ß
Do you select jobs that will promote team interdependence? (If you
assign a team reporter rather than randomly calling on members of a
team, why should the other members of the team be attentive and
involved?)
ß
Do you clearly describe the responsibilities of each job and review the
descriptions as necessary?
ß
Do you monitor whether students are effectively performing their
assigned jobs?
Team Memberships
ß
Is the size of the team appropriate? (The larger the team, the less each
student can interact with the other students and the more it takes for each
student to contribute to the work of the team.)
ß
Do you thoughtfully assign teams rather than allow students to select
their teammates?
ß
Do you vary the composition of each team?
ß
Do students remain in the same team long enough to develop
interdependence and the ability to resolve conflicts, but not long enough
to become bored with one another?
What do you do if groups finish their work at different rates?
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Plan in units, not class periods, so that work can be continuing
Provide “enrichment” activities, “one shot” and “on-going”
Have students become “observers” for other groups
Have students think of questions for the entire class
Have groups that are finished collaborate to check/compare their
work
What do you do to help students keep on task?
ß
ß
ß
ß
Make on-task behavior part of the group responsibility
Have students debrief on-task behavior during their work time and at
the end
Make on-task behavior a collaborative skill focus
Hold students responsible for solving the problem
- Dr. Stephanie Bravmann
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Book suggestions are made throughout this section:
Lesson Study
Democratic Classrooms
De-Tracking
Differentiated Instruction
page 39
page 64
page 90
page 93
These additional books on adapting classroom practice were recommended
by school practitioners. The reviews are drawn from book jackets, publishers
and websites.
Teacher Stories of Curriculum Change
Barbara Wallace and Jane Braunger, Editors
(1998)
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory
Curriculum and Instruction Services
http://www.nwrel.org/lld/teacherstories.pdf
K-12 teachers in the Northwest describe their
experiences with curriculum change as professional
growth. These personal narratives explore connections
between teacher beliefs about learning and their classroom practice. They
illustrate the benefits to teachers and students when teachers take a larger
role in curriculum decisions.
The Challenge to Care in Schools:
An Alternative Approach to Education
Nel Noddings (1992)
Teachers College Press
http://store.tcpress.com/
Noddings emphasizes that to care and be cared for are
fundamental human needs absent in today's educational
system. She states that in the same environment in
which children learn to respond to dependable caring they can achieve
academic goals and begin to develop the capacity to care.
In analyzing the educational needs of a diverse student population, Noddings
challenges readers to imagine being parents of a large heterogeneous family.
In determining what would be best for each child's education she advocates
taking into account the unique interests and capabilities of each individual. In
contrast, liberal education draws on a narrow set of human capacities and
thus should be rejected as a model of universal education, according to
Noddings. She claims a more balanced curriculum would help all students to
discover their unique talents and develop respect for the talents of others.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Negotiating the Curriculum
Garth Boomer (Editor), Nancy Lester, Cynthia
Onore, Jonathan Cook (Editor) (1992)
Taylor & Francis Group
www.taylorandfrancis.com
Negotiating the Curriculum can be used to involve
students in classroom curriculum planning. Four
questions are presented which will assist learners in
focusing in on the problem, question, or issue of the
intended study, whether determined by the teacher or by
the students and teacher together.
1.
What do we know already? (Or where are we now and what don't we
need to learn or be taught?)
2.
What do we want and need to find out? (Or what are our questions?
What don't we know? What are our problems, curiosities, and
challenges?)
3.
How will we go about finding out? (Where will we look? What
experiments and inquiries will we make? What will we need? What
information and resources are available? Who will do what? What
should be the order of things?)
4.
How will we know and show that we've found out when we've
finished? (What are our findings about what we have learned?
Whom will we show? For whom are we doing the work and where
next?) (p. 21).
Uncommon Sense:
Theoretical Practice in Language Education
John Mayher (1990)
Boynton/Cook
http://www.boyntoncook.com
In this book, Mayher traces his own evolution as a
teacher/learner by recapturing the processes of
reflection and inquiry he went through when
confronted by contradictions between the way
commonsense teaching and learning were
supposed to work and the actual experiences of
students in his classrooms.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
The Differentiated Classroom: Responding to
the Needs of All Learners
Carol Ann Tomlinson (1999)
ASCD
http://www.ascd.org
It's an age-old challenge: How can teachers divide
their time, resources, and efforts to effectively
instruct students of diverse backgrounds and
interests, as well as skill and readiness levels? The
Differentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs
of All Learners offers a powerful, practical solution.
Drawing on nearly three decades of experience, author Carol Ann Tomlinson
describes a way of thinking about teaching and learning that will change all
aspects of how you approach students and your classroom. She looks to the
latest research on learning, education, and change for the theoretical basis of
differentiated instruction and why it's so important to today's children. Yet
she offers much more than theory, filling the pages with real-life examples of
teachers and students using-and benefitting from-differentiated instruction.
At the core of the book, three chapters describe actual lessons, units, and
classrooms with differentiated instruction in action. Tomlinson looks at
elementary and secondary classrooms in nearly all subject areas to show how
real teachers turn the challenge of differentiation into a reality. Her insightful
analysis of how, what, and why teachers differentiate lays the groundwork
for you to bring differentiation to your own classroom.
Tomlinson's commonsense, classroom-tested advice speaks to experienced
and novice teachers as well as educational leaders who want to foster
differentiation in their schools. Using a "think versus sink approach,"
Tomlinson guides all readers through small changes, then larger ones, until
differentiation becomes a way of life that enriches teachers and students.
Cooperative Work Groups:
Preparing Students for the Real World
Scott Mandel (2003)
Corwin Press
http://www.corwinpress.com
In his new book, Scott Mandel outlines how
educators can design meaningful learning
experiences that will address standards and utilize
modern-day cooperative learning, brain research,
and the Internet to effectively develop a student’s
ability to thrive in the twenty-first century’s workforce.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Key features include:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Benefits of cooperative work groups and how students accomplish tasks
in groups
Application of brain research in the classroom to maximize learning
Integration of technology into the curriculum, even when computer
accessibility is extremely limited
Classroom-tested, ready-to-use unit plans
Modification strategies for learning disabled and English Language
Learners
Reproducible forms, Multiple Intelligence assessments, group and
individual assessment strategies, and grading rubrics
Numerous references and Web resources for further support, including
the author’s weekly updated Web site
Cultures of Curriculum
Pamela Bolotin Joseph (Editor), Stephanie Luster
Bravmann, Mark A. Windschitl, Edward R. Mikel,
and Nancy Stewart Green (2000)
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
http://www.erlbaum.com
This book is meant to foster awareness, examination,
and deliberation about the curricula planned for and
carried out in classrooms and schools; to inspire
conversations about theory and practice as well as political, social and moral
issues; and to expand critical consciousness about individuals’ approaches to
curriculum and practice. Using Cultures of Curriculum as a lens, the authors
reveal, and critically examine, the belief systems and classroom practices of
six curricular orientations in contemporary American society.
Readers are encouraged to give serious attention to the issues this book raises
for them, and to join with their colleagues, students, and communities in
considering how to create curricula with purpose and congruent practices. A
framework of inquiry is presented to facilitate such reflection.
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ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE
NOTES:
118
TEACHING FOR EQUITY
An Introduction
Teaching for equity suggests that all educators envision an equitable teaching and learning
environment, and work to make equity a reality in their practice. Both students and teachers enter
the classroom with varied experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. In each case, those unique
perspectives play a central role in both expectations and behavior, though teachers carry a deeper
responsibility for understanding the ways their perspectives may limit possibilities for students
and for themselves.
Definitions of equity will almost surely vary widely among educators. For our purposes, equity
—whatever the fine points of the definition—focuses on equity of outcomes. In a time when the
expectations are that schools will serve all students well, not just some of them, giving everyone
the same treatment and resources is inadequate as well as disrespectful. Equity of outcomes
means providing each student with what she [or he] needs to meet the standards the school has
set for all it students.
One good place to begin thinking about equity is by learning how students feel about their school
experiences. The student voices emerge from the resources in this section through the work of
people like Lisa Delpit and Marilla Svinicki, who have found that students are saying:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
They want to participate in class
They want to be able to make decisions and solve problems on their own
They want to have resources to do their work well
They want their teachers to listen to them and understand them
They want to be respected
They want their cultures to be respected
Once we listen to the voices of our students we need to examine our educational institutions,
societal structures, and teaching practices to see if they meet the needs of all students in our
schools and classrooms. Fostering equitable environments requires looking at personal bias and
deciding individually and as a staff how to address those biases and move forward with an honest
awareness. Many of the resources in this section offer tools for evaluation and reflection, and
offer suggestions for making the school and classroom a more equitable place.
To help you address issues of equity in your classroom, this section includes resources for
culturally responsive teaching. Culturally responsive teaching is not about defining students based
on race or ethnicity, but using strategies that have proven effective with all students, particularly
those marginalized by the current educational system. Tapping into students’ prior knowledge,
creating democratic classrooms, having high expectations for all students, and cultivating positive
perspectives on parents and families are just a few of the elements of culturally responsive
teaching.
The recommended readings at the close of this section are critical to further the work of teaching
for equity. A commitment to equitable practice happens with deliberate effort on the part of the
educator and school community. This commitment requires more than good intentions. It requires
gaining a knowledge of equity resources through personal and professional development,
allocating time to address equity issues as a staff, setting forth a plan to build an equitable school,
and getting the input of students and families on how to promote an equitable community.
TEACHING FOR EQUITY
TEACHING FOR EQUITY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy
123
Securing a Knowledge Base for Democratic Teaching
129
The Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning
133
Strategies for Inclusive Teaching
137
Encouraging Students in a Racially Diverse Classroom
140
Confronting the Challenge of Diversity in Education
145
Ebonics and Culturally Responsive Instruction
149
Teaching Diverse Learners: An Observation Guide
157
Virtual Museum Projects in Native America
162
Readings: Teaching for Equity
165
Readings: Multicultural Education
175
Recommended Websites
177
TEACHING FOR EQUITY
TEACHING FOR EQUITY
The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy
CREDE - Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence
http://www.crede.ucsc.edu/standards/standards.html
The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy, developed by CREDE, are
practices that have proven effective for all students, and have been especially
successful with typically marginalized students. The five standards, each
matched with indicators for classroom practice, are an accessible and safe
way to start discussions with teachers surrounding equity in their practice.
One: Teacher and Students Producing Together
Facilitate learning through joint productive activity among teacher and
students.
Learning occurs most effectively when experts and novices work together for
a common product or goal, and are therefore motivated to assist one another.
"Providing assistance" is the general definition of teaching; thus, joint
productive activity (JPA) maximizes teaching and learning. Working
together allows conversation, which teaches language, meaning, and values
in the context of immediate issues. Teaching and learning through “joint
productive activity” is cross-cultural, typically human, and probably "hardwired." This kind of "mentoring" and "learning in action" is characteristic of
parents with very young children; of pre-school, graduate school, adult
learning, school-to-work and service learning, on-the-job training - of all
education, except the common K-12 tradition. In schools, there is ordinarily
little joint activity from which common experiences emerge, and therefore no
common context that allows students to develop common systems of
understanding with the teacher and with one another. Joint activity between
teacher and students helps create such a common context of experience
within the school itself. This is especially important when the teacher and the
students are not of the same background.
Joint activity and discourse allow the highest level of academic achievement:
using formal, “schooled,” or “scientific” ideas to solve practical, real world
problems. The constant connection of schooled concepts and everyday
concepts is basic to the process by which mature schooled thinkers
understand the world. These joint activities should be shared by both students
and teachers. Only when the teacher also shares the experiences can the kind
of discourse take place that builds basic schooled competencies.
Indicators of Joint Productive Activity
The teacher:
1. Designs instructional activities requiring student collaboration to
accomplish a joint product.
123
TEACHING FOR EQUITY
2. Matches the demands of the joint productive activity to the time
available for accomplishing them.
3. Arranges classroom seating to accommodate students' individual and
group needs to communicate and work jointly.
4. Participates with students in joint productive activity.
5. Organizes students in a variety of groupings, such as by friendship,
mixed academic ability, language, project, or interests, to promote
interaction.
6. Plans with students how to work in groups and move from one
activity to another, such as from large group introduction to small
group activity, for clean-up, dismissal, and the like.
7. Manages student and teacher access to materials and technology to
facilitate joint productive activity.
8. Monitors and supports student collaboration in positive ways.
Two: Developing Language Across the Curriculum
Develop competence in the language and literacy of instruction across
the curriculum.
Developing competence in the language(s) of instruction should be a
metagoal of all educational activity throughout the school day. Whether
instruction is bilingual or monolingual, literacy is the most fundamental
competency necessary for school success. School knowledge, and thinking
itself, are inseparable from language. Everyday social language, formal
academic language, and subject matter lexicons are all critical for school
success.
Language development at all levels – informal, problem-solving, and
academic – should be fostered through use and through purposeful, deliberate
conversation between teacher and students, not through drills and
decontextualized rules. Reading and writing must be taught both as specific
curricula and integrated into each content area.
The ways of using language that prevail in school discourse, such as ways of
asking and answering questions, challenging claims, and using
representations, are frequently unfamiliar to English language learners and
other students at risk of educational failure. However, their own culturally
based ways of talking can be effectively linked to the language used for
academic disciplines by building learning contexts that evoke and build upon
children’s language strengths.
The development of language and literacy as a metagoal also applies to the
specialized language genres required for the study of science, mathematics,
history, art, and literature. Effective mathematics learning is based on the
ability to “speak mathematics,” just as the overall ability to achieve across
the curriculum is dependent on mastery of the language of instruction.
Reading, writing, speaking, listening, and lexicons can be taught and learned
in every subject matter, and indeed all the subject matters can be taught as
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though they were a second language. Joint Productive Activity provides an
ideal venue for developing the language of the activity's domain.
Indicators of Language Development
The teacher:
1. Listens to student talk about familiar topics such as home and
community.
2. Responds to students' talk and questions, making 'in-flight' changes
during conversation that directly relate to students' comments.
3. Assists written and oral language development through modeling,
eliciting, probing, restating, clarifying, questioning, praising, etc., in
purposeful conversation and writing.
4. Interacts with students in ways that respect students' preferences for
speaking that may be different from the teacher's, such as wait-time, eye
contact, turn-taking, or spotlighting.
5. Connects student language with literacy and content area knowledge
through speaking, listening, reading, and writing activities.
6. Encourages students to use content vocabulary to express their
understanding.
7. Provides frequent opportunity for students to interact with each other and
the teacher during instructional activities.
8. Encourages students' use of first and second languages in instructional
activities.
Three: Making Meaning: Connecting School to Students’ Lives
Connect teaching and curriculum to students' experiences and skills of
home and community.
The high literacy goals of schools are best achieved in everyday, culturally
meaningful contexts. This contextualization utilizes students’ funds of
knowledge and skills as a foundation for new knowledge. This approach
fosters pride and confidence as well as greater school achievement.
Increase in contextualized instruction is a consistent recommendation of
education researchers. Schools typically teach rules, abstractions, and verbal
descriptions, and they teach by means of rules, abstractions, and verbal
descriptions. Schools need to assist at-risk students by providing experiences
that show abstract concepts are drawn from and applied to the everyday
world.
“Understanding” means connecting new learning to previous knowledge.
Assisting students in making these connections strengthens newly acquired
knowledge and increases student engagement with learning activities.
Schema theorists, cognitive scientists, behaviorists, and psychological
anthropologists agree that school learning is made meaningful by connecting
it to students' personal, family, and community experiences. Effective
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education teaches how school abstractions are drawn from and applied to the
everyday world. Collaboration with parents and communities can reveal
appropriate patterns of participation, conversation, knowledge, and interests
that will make literacy, numeracy, and science meaningful to all students.
Indicators of Contextualization
The teacher:
1. Begins activities with what students already know from home,
community, and school.
2. Designs instructional activities that are meaningful to students in terms
of local community norms and knowledge.
3. Acquires knowledge of local norms and knowledge by talking to
students, parents or family members, community members, and by
reading pertinent documents.
4. Assists students to connect and apply their learning to home and
community.
5. Plans jointly with students to design community-based learning
activities.
6. Provides opportunities for parents or families to participate in classroom
instructional activities.
7. Varies activities to include students' preferences, from collective and
cooperative to individual and competitive.
8. Varies styles of conversation and participation to include students'
cultural preferences, such as co-narration, call-and-response, and choral,
among others.
Four: Teaching Complex Thinking
Challenge students toward cognitive complexity.
Students at risk of educational failure, particularly those of limited standard
English proficiency, are often forgiven any academic challenges on the
assumption that they are of limited ability, or they are forgiven any genuine
assessment of progress because the assessment tools are inadequate. Thus,
both standards and feedback are weakened, with the predictable result that
achievement is impeded. While such policies may often be the result of
benign motives, the effect is to deny many diverse students the basic
requirements of progress - high academic standards and meaningful
assessment that allows feedback and responsive assistance.
There is a clear consensus among education researchers that students at risk
of educational failure require instruction that is cognitively challenging; that
is, instruction that requires thinking and analysis, not only rote, repetitive,
detail-level drills. This does not mean ignoring phonics rules, or not
memorizing the multiplication tables, but it does mean going beyond that
level of curriculum into the exploration of the deepest possible reaches of
interesting and meaningful materials. There are many ways in which
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cognitive complexity has been introduced into the teaching of students at risk
of educational failure. There is good reason to believe, for instance, that a
bilingual curriculum itself provides cognitive challenges that make it superior
to a monolingual approach.
Working with a cognitively challenging curriculum requires careful leveling
of tasks, so that students are motivated to stretch. It does not mean drill-andkill exercises, nor does it mean overwhelming challenges that discourage
effort. Getting the correct balance and providing appropriate assistance is, for
the teacher, a truly cognitively challenging task.
Indicators of Challenging Activities
The teacher:
1. Assures that students - for each instructional topic - see the whole picture
as a basis for understanding the parts.
2. Presents challenging standards for student performance.
3. Designs instructional tasks that advance student understanding to more
complex levels.
4. Assists students to accomplish more complex understanding by building
from their previous success.
5. Gives clear, direct feedback about how student performance compares
with the challenging standards.
Five: Teaching Through Conversation
Engage students through dialogue, especially the Instructional
Conversation.
Thinking, and the abilities to form, express, and exchange ideas are best
taught through dialogue, through questioning and sharing ideas and
knowledge. In the Instructional Conversation (IC), the teacher listens
carefully, makes guesses about intended meaning, and adjusts responses to
assist students’ efforts--just as in graduate seminars, or between mothers and
toddlers. Here the teacher relates formal, school knowledge to the student's
individual, family, and community knowledge. The IC provides opportunities
for the development of the languages of instruction and subject matter. IC is
a supportive and collaborative event that builds intersubjectivity and a sense
of community. IC achieves individualization of instruction; is best practiced
during joint productive activity; is an ideal setting for language development;
and allows sensitive contextualization, and precise, stimulating cognitive
challenge.
This concept may appear to be a paradox; instruction implies authority and
planning, while conversation implies equality and responsiveness. But the
instructional conversation is based on assumptions that are fundamentally
different from those of traditional lessons. Teachers who use it, like parents
in natural teaching, assume that the student has something to say beyond the
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known answers in the head of the adult. The adult listens carefully, makes
guesses about the intended meaning, and adjusts responses to assist the
student’s efforts - in other words, engages in conversation. Such conversation
reveals the knowledge, skills, and values - the culture - of the learner,
enabling the teacher to contextualize teaching to fit the learner’s experience
base.
In U.S. schools the instructional conversation is rare. More often, teaching is
through the recitation script, in which the teacher repeatedly assigns and
assesses. Classrooms and schools are transformed into communities of
learners through such dialogic teaching, and when teachers reduce the
distance between themselves and their students by constructing lessons from
common understanding of each others’ experience and ideas and make
teaching a warm, interpersonal and collaborative activity.
Indicators of Instructional Conversation
The teacher:
1. Arranges the classroom to accommodate conversation between the
teacher and a small group of students on a regular and frequent basis.
2. Has a clear academic goal that guides conversation with students.
3. Ensures that student talk occurs at higher rates than teacher talk.
4. Guides conversation to include students' views, judgments, and rationales
using text evidence and other substantive support.
5. Ensures that all students are included in the conversation according to
their preferences.
6. Listens carefully to assess levels of students' understanding.
7. Assists students’ learning throughout the conversation by questioning,
restating, praising, encouraging, etc.
8. Guides the students to prepare a product that indicates the Instructional
Conversation's goal was achieved.
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Securing a Knowledge Base for Democratic Teaching
North Central Regional Education Laboratory
http://www.ncrel.org/cscd/pubs/lead41/41base.htm
Establishing an equitable, democratic classroom is not something that
happens quickly, nor is there agreement among practitioners as to how to
foster that environment. There are, however, tools for discussion and
observation around the topic. This article is one educator’s perspective on
what it takes to make a school embody democracy, and is followed by a
questionnaire that can assist in goal-setting and prioritizing. The
questionnaire lacks a reflection piece that could be developed and
personalized by your staff.
Given the demands of teaching, how do teachers or school leaders secure an
adequate knowledge base to ensure that democratic teaching will occur?
What are the most pressing needs in teacher education?
To Margaret C. Wang, the current lack of interprofessional programming for
preservice and inservice education contributes significantly to the
fragmentation of service delivery. "We train regular and special education
teachers in separate programs," she observes. "We train school social
workers and school psychologists as separate entities. They may be trained in
the same university but they meet in the field as strangers. Yet we need all of
these professionals to work collaboratively in coordinated ways in the service
of students.
"There is not an undergraduate or graduate course that provides training
experiences that foster interprofessional collaboration among different
disciplines. We view collaboration and coordination as key reform strategies,
but we don't make the structural changes required for implementation."
Collaboration with social services is also necessary, even critical, Wang
argues, and yet teachers lack adequate training to know how to engage in that
type of collaborative process. "School staff need to know how to work with
other educational and related social services providers such as through
working on after-school programs or second-chance adult education
programs with public housing, public libraries, and other educational and
social services agencies. We need to take the scarce resources we have and
pull them together in the most facilitative and efficient ways possible. We
know what needs to be done to achieve the types of outcomes we want for all
children. We even know different ways of achieving this vision.
Implementation won't be easy — it takes hard work and resilience. We
simply need to make the commitment to begin and persist."
Different and creative ways to reach parents and families are necessary as
well, she believes. "We need to figure out and gain insights on the multiple
best ways to reach the targeted audience," she says. "People often don’t
access services because they don't know how. Perhaps more importantly, we
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don't have the knowledge base or credibility for making our services
palatable or accessible to those who may benefit from them. We need to
build a knowledge base on how to involve parents and communities in
nontraditional ways, such as linking school efforts to involve parents with the
efforts of community organizations working on community revitalization
activities."
The solution, she says, is not simple: It demands a multipronged approach to
education and social services delivery. "My point, however," she concludes,
"is that there are multiple ways of knowing and problem solving. We know
far more than we use. What we need is a genuine commitment to take action
and persevere. We need to commit to it. Once we have the commitment, we
can chip away at the barriers and maximize what works."
Margaret C. Wang is Professor of Educational Psychology, and the founder
and current Director of the Temple University Center for Research in Human
Development and Education (CRHDE), the sponsoring institution of the
MidAtlantic Laboratory for Student Success — one of ten regional
educational laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Education. Wang
is the author of 14 books and over 100 articles.
Educating for Democracy: School and Classroom Practices
The following questions are designed to help you evaluate and reflect upon
the concepts central to educating for democracy as it exists currently in your
school.
Democratic School Structures
To what extent does my school involve teachers, parents, and community
members in important decisions about resource allocation, staffing, and
curriculum?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent does the size and structure of my school allow all staff to
know one another, share concerns and solutions to common problems
informally, and draw upon one another as a source of collegial support?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent does staff in my school have frequent opportunities - both
structured and informal - to talk to one another about their classroom
practices?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent do staff in my school observe one another teaching and offer
constructive feedback?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
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To what extent is professional development an ongoing, continuous process
rather than "one-shot" workshops with little follow-up?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent does staff have real authority to make decisions pertaining to
curriculum and instruction, resource allocation, and professional
development?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
Culturally Relevant and Academically Rigorous Learning
To what extent does staff at my school invite students to bring their life
experiences, cultures, and languages into the classroom as a foundation for
curriculum that will be relevant to their lives outside school?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent do teachers and administrators listen carefully and clinically
to what students have to say, using that information to improve and refine the
nature of curriculum and instruction?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent do teachers hold all students to the same academically
rigorous standards and expectations for behavior?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent do teachers and other school professionals work
collaboratively to solve students' special needs in an integrated, personalized
manner?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent do teachers achieve critical awareness of their own attitudes
about students from backgrounds different from their own?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
Working With Parents and Community Members
To what extent do staff at my school want to hear what parents really think
about school practices and their children's achievement?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what degree are there creative and informal mechanisms for parents and
other community members to ask questions, offer feedback, share concerns,
and acquire learning tools for themselves (e.g., after-school
parent/family/staff potlucks in neighborhoods where evening meetings would
be unsafe, parenting classes for potential dropouts, computer or GED classes
for recent immigrant parents)?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
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To what extent does school staff reach out to parents and other family
members beyond formal, structured parent/teacher conferences (e.g., home
visits, phone calls, radio announcements of school events in languages other
than English)?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
In addition to informal opportunities for parents and family members to
interact with school staff, to what degree are there structured opportunities
for family members to participate in decisions that directly affect the quality
and content of student learning?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
If parental feedback about school practices is not positive, to what degree
does school staff respond in constructive, non-defensive ways?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
The Quality and Content of Learning
To what extent do students at my school learn content that engages them in
the solution of complex, real-life problems, working both individually and
collaboratively?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what degree do teachers treat different languages, socioeconomic
backgrounds, races, cultures, and ethnicities as rich learning opportunities for
all students?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what extent do assessments reflect the thinking skills and reasoning
required of students as they engage with challenging content?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
To what degree do students learn to present reasoned arguments and entertain
different points of view, supporting their arguments with compelling
evidence?
Always ____ Frequently ____
Sometimes ____
Never ____
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What They Don't Know Can Hurt Them:
The Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning
Marilla Svinicki, University of Texas
http://www1.umn.edu/ohr/teachlearn/MinnCon/dontknow.html
We often hear the phrase “tapping into students’ prior knowledge” but we are
rarely given the background or philosophy to gain a firm understanding of
why it is necessary. Through a concise, conversational article by Svinicki,
one understands not only the need for using students’ prior knowledge, but
the practicalities of how to begin to do it in the classroom.
Admit it. You've watched the broadcasts of the Olympics and had your eyes
glaze over while Dick Button waxed rhapsodic about the difference between
a double axle and a triple lutz. They looked pretty much the same to you,
didn't they? You were experiencing what many students face every day in
our classrooms, a distressing lack of the prior knowledge necessary to help
them understand or appreciate a new experience or content. Current research
on learning has offered more and more evidence for the extent to which new
learning is determined by what the learner already knows about the topic or
related topics. The effect can be either positive or negative, positive if the
pre-existing knowledge is correct and consistent with the new information or
negative if it is full of misconceptions or conflicts with the new information.
Prior knowledge & current learning
Prior knowledge affects how the learner perceives new information. This
phenomenon is readily demonstrated by a simple experiment. What is the
first image that you associate with the word "cardinal"? Some people think
immediately of football, some of baseball, birds, Roman Catholic priests, or
the color red. In the absence of a context, the association you make will
depend on your prior knowledge. Your interpretation of this new
information, the word "cardinal," was dependent on what you brought to the
situation.
Fortunately, in most learning tasks, words occur in a context to assist in
interpretation. If the word "cardinal" had occurred in the context of a
discussion about the Inquisition, the number of associations which you could
choose from would be dramatically circumscribed. But sometimes the
context is no more meaningful than the word itself. If you had never heard of
the Inquisition, that context would be no help.
Much the same thing happens in the classroom every day. Instructors use
terms and concepts of which students have no prior knowledge to provide an
adequate context for interpretation. Used at the rapid pace of the expert, this
is what they complain about as "jargon" and its over-use leaves gaps in
student ability to process new information. The phenomenon is similar to that
experienced by the average computer novice attempting to obtain help from
an expert. Half of the words are totally unfamiliar and the other half are used
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in an entirely new and illogical way. After two or three sentences, the listener
is left in the dust and feeling hopelessly ignorant and hostile. This may be the
stuff of great comedy routines, but it is disaster in a classroom.
Alternatively, an incorrect bit of prior knowledge which is not corrected
could keep the students from understanding an entire lecture. This is
frequently the case in science classes, where naive conceptions of natural
laws must be unlearned before the correct version can be understood. For
example, in chemistry, instructors must somehow convince students that air
exists just as liquids and solids exist even though it can't be detected by the
senses. Intellectually, students know this, but they often behave as if air were
simply the absence of matter. This concept which seems simple, almost
automatic, to an expert can be a stumbling block to understanding a whole
range of phenomena for a novice.
Prior knowledge affects how a student organizes new information.
Remember that a goal of learning is to incorporate new information into the
existing organization of memory. A student uses that existing structure to
assimilate new information. For example, in the absence of any strong
signals to the contrary, a student in a history class is going to organize new
historical information chronologically because that is the way history had
been organized in earlier classes. History instructors trying to organize
around a different conceptual structure must fight against the students'
tendency to see everything as happening in a straight timeline.
Instructors can use this prior knowledge of structure to their advantage when
they use analogies or examples. The analogy represents a known
organizational structure of information. That organizational structure is what
is transferred to the new information. For example, in trying to explain how a
gland works, an instructor might say that the gland is like a thermostat. Most
students already know that a thermostat controls the temperature by
monitoring the presence of heat. They transfer this understanding to the
functioning of a gland. It monitors and controls the level of a hormone in the
body in the same fashion. If the analogy is a good one, the student can take it
from there to intuit all sorts of properties of the gland which parallel the
thermostat.
Prior knowledge affects how easily students make connections for new
information. One of the keys to learning and memory is the richness of the
connections a bit of information has. The more connections, the easier it is to
remember. When new information gets hooked up with a particularly rich
and well-organized portion of memory, it inherits all the connections that
already exist. This is why it is much easier to learn information that is in
one's existing field of expertise than to learn information from a brand new
field. There are many more ways to access the system. When a student has
nothing to hook new information to, he or she is thrown back on the most
basic characteristics of the information such as sound, or form, or straight
rote memorization.
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Using prior knowledge in instruction
To begin, it is helpful to know what prior knowledge students bring to the
learning setting. Have they had certain common courses? It pays to know
what those courses contained. What are their other common experiences?
Are they all from similar backgrounds, similar environments? How will that
affect the way they interpret the content? Do they have common aspirations
and goals? Are they all going in the same direction? What does this
information tell you about the prior knowledge they will bring to your class?
The use of a pretest of critical concepts and terms can alert both the
instructor and the students to gaps or misconceptions that could prove
inconvenient later.
Prior knowledge need not be only knowledge of the content, although that is
the most critical type of knowledge to monitor. Knowledge of popular
culture or current events can be used to great advantage as well in the same
ways, especially in the context of analogies. Some would say that knowledge
of popular culture is simply another form of cultural literacy.
Use prior knowledge deliberately in the presentation of new information.
Beginning a class with a review of what has gone before helps activate prior
knowledge. Presenting new information in its relationship to old not only
helps students learn the new information but strengthens the old. Introducing
new concepts by contrasting them with some that have already been learned
makes use of prior knowledge to aid in the learning of new. Better yet,
having the students make those comparisons teaches them something about
the way to approach the learning of new material and about the structure of
the discipline.
It is also desirable to get the students to monitor their own prior experiences
and consciously use them in learning new information. Asking students to
recall past courses that are related to the present course is an interesting way
to encourage this. In a graduate course I ask students to produce a personal
bibliography from the readings of their previous courses that relate to the
present course. They find this an interesting experience which has never been
asked of them before, but it makes the point that what they know is related to
what they are learning.
Finally it is always a good idea to check for faulty prior knowledge regularly
so that it is not allowed to continue to detract from learning. There is a
wonderfully apocalyptic story about an astronomy class in which the
instructor drew many beautiful orbital diagrams and still the students had
trouble understanding celestial motions. Finally, by accident, the instructor
discovered that several of the students were interpreting the ovals he drew as
being in reality ovals rather than the circles shown in perspective. Until you
ask the students what they understand about what is being taught, you will
never really know what is being learned. Structure the learning to bring those
misconceptions to the attention of the students. Often they will not realize
their confusion until it is too late.
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Final thoughts
The lesson we take from the research on prior knowledge is simply this:
students are not blank slates on which our words are inscribed. The students
bring more to the interpretation of the situation than we realize. What they
learn is conditioned by what they already know. What they know can be as
damaging as what they don't know.
“There can be no knowledge without emotion. We may be aware of a
truth, yet until we have felt its force, it is not ours. To the cognition of the
brain must be added the experience of the soul.”
- Arnold Bennet
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Strategies for Inclusive Teaching
Center for Instructional Development and Research
University of Washington
http://depts.washington.edu/cidrweb/inclusive/foster.html
Participation is a class dynamic that is often expected but infrequently
discussed. The Center for Instructional Development and Research explicitly
outlines how to plan for and cultivate equitable class participation. The
resource was designed for college-level faculty and students, but most
strategies are appropriate and effective for a high school setting.
Foster Equitable Class Participation
There are many ways to participate in class. Equitable class participation
does not necessarily mean that all students are expected to participate in the
same way, or even the same amount. Rather, the goal is to make sure that
students are able to participate in class in ways that will help them achieve
the learning goals for the course, and that no one is kept from participating as
a result of the way the course is taught.
Before You Start Teaching
1. Plan ahead. Consider the kind of participation that you hope to foster.
Here is a set of planning questions to help you think about the role of
student participation in your course:
ß
What are your goals for class participation?
ß
What do you hope students will learn as a result of taking part in
discussions, responding to questions, or raising questions of their
own?
ß
What do you hope to learn about the students from their
participation?
ß
What range of options are there for participation? Here are a few
possibilities:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
ß
Question and answer sessions
Large group discussions
Small group activities
Projects and presentations
On-line activities outside of class time
How do you help students prepare for participation? Here are a few
possibilities:
a) Reading prior to class
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b) Writing prior to class
c) Discussion questions based on readings, lectures, or prior
discussions
d) Small group discussions prior to large group discussions
e) In-class responses to on-line activities outside of class time
ß
How do you plan to assess participation?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Observing students' oral participation
Collecting written answers to discussion questions
Collecting products or outcomes of group work
Observing students' on-line participation
Student self-assessment
2. Use the first day of class to set expectations. Add a statement to your
syllabus and talk with the students on the first day of class about your
expectations for class participation.
3. Review strategies for encouraging class participation.
While You Are Teaching
1. At the beginning of the class, make expectations for participation clear,
and explain the importance of participation in terms of the learning goals
for the course.
2. Provide feedback on the nature and quality of participation you observe
in the course. Let students know what their participation is adding to the
course.
3. Provide specific suggestions for improving participation. Here are a few
examples of ways to invite student participation:
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ß
Require students to conference with you once every two weeks.
ß
Use group activities or pair work. Students who are hesitant to
speak in front of the full class are often willing to contribute to
smaller groups of classmates.
ß
Give specific tasks and instructions so each person has a role in
the group.
ß
Look for opportunities for you to interact with individual
students in addition to the interactions that are possible in front
of all the other students; for example, before and after class, in
the transition to group work, or while groups are working.
ß
Select a few people a day to summarize key points from the
previous day, bring up a question from the chapter, or comment
on other work that they can prepare outside of class time.
TEACHING FOR EQUITY
ß
Acknowledge other forms of participation; for example,
contributions to the class discussion list, comments made in
journals, or ideas that you overhear mentioned in small groups,
which don't get reported to the larger group.
ß
Call on students by name, but keep in mind that being called on
can be both motivating and intimidating. Be sure students have
had a chance to prepare for answering the question, and that they
are given a reasonable amount of time to formulate a response.
ß
Provide feedback on students' participation. In questions of fact,
point out what’s partially right in a wrong answer, as well as
where it goes off-track.
4. For classes in which potentially heated issues are going to be discussed,
work with the students to establish ground rules for class discussion.
Remind students of these ground rules when you anticipate they may be
needed, and refer to them during discussions to remind students of your
expectations for one another.
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Tips for Teachers:
Encouraging Students in a Racially Diverse Classroom
Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning
Harvard University
http://bokcenter.fas.harvard.edu/docs/TFTrace.html
This tool promotes deliberate and ongoing reflection on equitable teaching
by using questions to examine personal bias, followed by suggestions to
minimize bias in the classroom. The list of questions could be used as an
anonymous whole-staff evaluation tool, or a personal assessment tool, or a
Critical Friends Group (see section on Adapting Classroom Practice)
discussion-starter. For example, choosing a trusted colleague and asking the
questions of one another in a non-judgmental way forces the questioner to
internalize the question and forces the respondent to verbalize suppressed, or
unrecognized feelings. This metacognitive exercise can be a step to changing
attitudes in the classroom.
THE CARDINAL RULE:
Learn as much about and become as sensitive as you can to racial, ethnic,
and cultural groups other than your own.
At the same time:
NEVER make assumptions about an individual based on the racial, ethnic, or
cultural groups he or she belongs to. Treat each student first and foremost as
an individual. Get to know students individually.
Questions a teacher might ask to examine his or her own racial or
cultural biases in preparation for teaching:
ß
Am I comfortable around minority students?
ß
Am I afraid of students whose background differs markedly from my
own?
ß
Am I afraid of the emotional level when there are students of other races
and cultures in my classroom?
ß
Am I afraid minority students might not be fully competitive with the
other students? What is my definition of "fully competitive"?
ß
Do I expect minority students to need extra help?
ß
Do I call on minority students as often as others?
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ß
When minority students do answer, am I afraid their answers will not be
correct, or that their method of answering will be inappropriate?
ß
Do I think that there is one correct or appropriate mode of argument or
discussion in class? How open am I to multiple modes of discourse?
ß
Do the minority students seem to participate less than others?
ß
Do I rationalize or tolerate lack of participation from minority students
more than I would for other students? Do I think their silence means
ignorance? Do I believe it is culturally based?
ß
Do I tend to shelve or "make time later" for minority points of view?
ß
If an issue involving race does come up, do I assume the minority student
will know most about it? Will I not mind acting as the class expert
concerning it?
ß
How do I behave with minority students who are under-prepared?
ß
Does the logic of my classroom hypotheticals or test answers depend
upon stereotypical views of minorities?
ß
What assumptions do I make about different student groups:
ß
Do I imagine that Latinos or African Americans will express
their opinions in non-academic language?
ß
Do I expect that Asian students will do better than most others?
ß
Do I respond to a white student's voice as if it had more
intellectual weight?
ß
Do I assume that white students will be insensitive, arrogant, and
condescending towards persons of color?
ß
Do I assume that African Americans or Latinos or other students
of color are all alike?
ß
Do I assume that when an African American man disagrees he is
angry?
ß
Do I assume that Asian women are likely to be quiet?
What a teacher can do in preparation for class:
ß
Develop a syllabus that explores multiple perspectives on the topic.
ß
Develop paper topics that encourage students to explore different racial
and cultural perspectives.
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ß
Consider how all students would experience the syllabus.
ß
Consider whether students of all cultures are likely to have a background
in the material.
ß
Consider whether different approaches to learning are accounted for.
ß
Anticipate sensitive areas in the subject matter being taught.
ß
Think in advance about how one might handle sensitive topics or
explosive moments.
ß
Incorporate multicultural examples, materials, and visual aids as much as
possible in class.
ß
Structure project groups, panels, laboratory teams, and the like so that
membership and leadership roles are balanced across ethnic and gender
groups.
What a teacher can do to be sure the classroom itself is open to all
students:
ß
Get to know each student individually. Learn their names and how to
pronounce them correctly.
ß
Divide the class into smaller groups, each with the responsiblity of
reporting on the material from the viewpoint of a particular minority
group.
ß
Ask students to locate cultural or even discriminatory content in
textbooks or other materials.
ß
Ask for each student's thoughts about the subject, acknowledging the
statement of each as it is made. This lets students know from the very
beginning that their thoughts have a place in the classroom, that there are
differences, and that the differences will be tolerated.
ß
Make it safe for everyone to voice their views by accepting all views as
worthy of consideration. Don't permit scapegoating of any student or any
view. Team up with a student who is alone out on a limb.
ß
Present all sides of an issue. Play the devil's advocate for the least
popular view.
ß
Ask students to research the position they are least comfortable with and
come prepared to articulate a defense of that posture.
ß
Acknowledge racial and cultural differences in the room. Ask students to
discuss racial tensions or cultural outlooks when they come up in class or
in the materials.
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ß
Make the classroom norms explicit.
ß
Keep expectations high and provide the support required to meet these
expectations.
ß
Be careful about the language you use, avoiding terms or expressions,
like "black sheep," that might be offensive. If you use fictitious names or
examples in discussions or on exams, use names from a variety of
cultures.
ß
Avoid discussing particular racial groups or race-related issues with a
focus that is derogatory or stereotypical to the race. e.g., talking about
blacks only in the context of ghettos, welfare, or gangs.
ß
Use eye contact with all students; be open and friendly outside of class.
What a teacher can do to handle hot moments:
ß
Ask students, when there is a particularly heated exchange, to step back
and see how they might make something positive of this exchange, what
they can learn from it. This can move the discussion to a broader, more
general level that helps everyone to see what issues have been at stake
and what the clash itself might mean.
ß
Ask students to think about how their reactions mirror the subject at
hand, and what they might learn about the subject from their own
behavior. Often groups act out or replicate in their own discussion the
topic under discussion. Thus a discussion of a case in which race is a
factor which has been denied may mirror the case by avoiding the issue
of race. Seeing this can enhance people's understanding of the issues.
ß
If a student makes a blatantly racist assertion or there is a particularly
charged discussion, stop the class and give all the students an assignment
for the next class meeting to research this statement and write a short
essay about their findings. Alternatively, ask students to write about the
issue for five minutes in class. This enables students to think about and
come to some kind of terms with the issue and can enable further
discussion of it.
ß
Go around the room and ask each student who has spoken (and others if
they wish) to state his or her view and explain the reasoning behind it.
Every student is heard and the class can be enriched by the range of
perceptions.
ß
Use the passion as a vehicle to talk about differences in kinds and levels
of discourse: who is comfortable with emotion and who is not, who
favors personalizing material and who prefers to keep it abstract, whether
or not there are cultural differences that underlie these differences.
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ß
Use the passion and arguments to look at how group dynamics work -who speaks and who does not, who allies him or herself with whom, who
plays what role -- and to think about how the group wants to work.
ß
In short, the teacher will have to decide whether to stop the emotional
charge and go on, or whether to use it to explore the topic at hand. Often
when things get most hot, people are most capable of learning at a very
deep level, if the exchange among students is properly handled. To make
this possible, however, requires comfort with feelings and with conflict
and enormous skill on the part of the teacher.
Some helpful definitions:
We have been helped by the following definitions, which distinguish
between racism and other realities often associated with discussions of race.
Prejudice: prejudgment on insufficient grounds; can be positive or negative.
Bigotry: more intensive form of prejudice and carries the negative side of
prejudgment.
Stereotyping: attributing characteristics to a group simplistically and
uncritically.
Discrimination: the act or practice of according differential treatment to
persons on the basis of group categories such as race, religion, sex, class.
Scapegoating: assigning blame or failure to persons or groups in place of
other persons or groups to whom blame or failure actually belongs.
Racism: a set of attitudes, behaviors, and social structures that differentiates
on the basis of race. It involves four essential elements:
1. Power: the capacity to make and enforce decisions is
disporportionately or unfairly distributed.
2. Resources: access to such resources as money, education,
information, etc. is unequal.
3. Standards: standards for appropriate behavior are ethnocentric,
reflecting the norms and values of the dominant society.
4. Problem-Defining: reality is defined by naming the problem
incorrectly and thus misplacing it.
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Confronting the Challenge of Diversity in Education
Pedro A. Noguera, Ph.D.
In Motion Magazine, April 10, 1999
http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/pndivers.html
Dr. Noguera’s article points out the unique opportunity educators have to
explore the diversity present in American education today. Instead of taking
the assimilationist approach of the past, we can use the diversity in our
classrooms to enhance learning for all students. This article is especially
poignant for schools that have recently seen a change in the demographic of
their student body due to migration/immigration.
How we respond to the increase in diversity in America will be a
challenge for many schools and communities, but it need not be a
problem.
More often than not, the increase in racial and cultural diversity that is
occurring in schools across the United States is thought of as a problem, or
even a threat.
I was reminded of this a few weeks ago when I received a call from a
journalist who asked me to comment on some of the problems being
experienced by a school district in a suburban area of northern California.
She informed me that this had been a fairly homogenous, middle class
bedroom community, that had very recently seen an increase in diversity
among students. She said that with this increase there had been a rise in the
kinds of problems typically associated with urban schools.
When I asked her to be more specific, she said, “You know, gangs, fighting
and some complaints from minority parents about school curriculum.”
Apparently, some minority parents were protesting the district’s use of The
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in 8th grade English classes. “School
officials are at a total loss,” she continued. “They have no idea of how they
should be responding to these issues.”
A Common Refrain
This journalist’s description of the community’s troubles in responding to an
increase in student diversity is quite common. I hear similar stories, typically
phrased as complaints, when I visit public schools throughout California.
Diversity is no longer an urban issue.
As the home to more new immigrants than any other state in the nation,
communities across California are convulsing from the demographic and
political changes that accompany the change in population. And perhaps
more than any other social institution, public schools are at the epicenter of
this change, and educators are on the frontline in figuring out how to
respond.
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But, why is the rise in diversity seen as a problem? This is an important
question, for I believe that in framing the growth in racial and cultural
diversity as a problem, educators, policy makers and journalists, have set the
stage for how communities will react to this change.
This is not to say that a change in the racial and ethnic composition of a
school or community does not pose new challenges or require a change in
approaches on the part of educators. New immigrants often speak languages
other than English, and in many California school districts for example, it is
not uncommon for 30, 40 and even 50 foreign languages to be present among
the student population.
The arrival of new groups, especially racial minorities, often leads to racial
conflict and the venting of various kinds of prejudice and intolerance. Too
often, those receiving the new arrivals feel threatened and insecure and react
with hostility and resentment.
Finally, and most importantly, diversity tends to be perceived as problematic
because American schools have historically seen cultural assimilation of
immigrants and non-whites as central to their mission. During the nineteenth
century, one of the major concerns of educators and politicians was how new
immigrants would be absorbed into the American population. For many,
public schools were the most logical place at which the task of converting
foreigners into Americans could be carried out.
But Americanization was not limited to foreigners. In the southwest it was
common for Native American children to be taken from their families and
sent to boarding schools so that they could be saved by Christianity. For
African American and many Mexican American children, segregated
schooling spared them from being subjected to forced acculturation.
However, de-segregation has changed that also, and with it, the spoken
language of children - whether it be Spanish or Ebonics - has often been
subject to eradication. Furthermore, far too often, the cultural differences of
these children are equated with cultural inferiority, and not surprisingly,
children from these groups are more likely to do poorly in school, get into
trouble, or drop out.
Return to Yesteryear
Given our history, and given the real challenges that accompany an increase
in diversity, it is not surprising that many educators and communities would
treat the issue as a problem. However, like it or not, even in small towns and
isolated rural areas, diversity is our future, and all projections point to
continued growth in diversity in the years ahead.
Conservative activists in California have responded to this trend with futile
efforts aimed at preserving the status quo. The approval of ballot measures
such as 187 - which denies undocumented aliens access to public services
such as education, 209 - which eliminates affirmative action, and 227 - which
prohibits bilingual education in public schools, is likely to make life more
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difficult for immigrants and many people of color, but unlikely to stem the
tide of diversity.
Evidence that wedge issue politics has the effect of adding to racial tensions
and conflict between groups, a prospect which the LA uprising of 1991
clearly showed could have disastrous consequences if left unchecked.
Pluralistic Advantages
However, there is another alternative. Instead of responding to rising
diversity with fear and insecurity, we can treat our diversity as an asset and
devise ways of responding to it, which enable our society to reap benefits
from our pluralism.
For this to happen there must be a significant shift in the perspective taken on
the growth in diversity, and educators must play leading roles in bringing this
shift about. Schools will undoubtedly continue to serve as the initial meeting
place for different cultures, and it will be very important that educators find
ways to make those encounters positive experiences for children, parents and
teachers.
Shifting the perspective involves getting the public to understand the benefits
our society derives from a growth in diversity. For example, there is
substantial evidence that rather than draining economic resources, new
immigrants often help to revive local economies. It is ironic that in some of
the communities where opposition to immigration has been greatest, that
there is a complete dependence on immigrant labor in most service jobs (e.g.
nannies, gardeners, waiters, etc.).
Furthermore, with larger numbers of people expected to live longer lives,
retirees have a vested interest in seeing that our diverse student population is
well educated so that they can be gainfully employed and make steady
contributions to social security funds.
The Need for A Willingness to Adapt
Finally, schools can move away from their preoccupation with assimilating
those who are culturally different and promoting a version of American
history that has rendered many groups - racial minorities, women, workers,
etc. - largely invisible. In its place we can teach students to respect
differences and develop curricula aimed at helping them to understand more
about themselves and others.
We can also teach our students to think critically about America’s past and
help them to recognize that they can play a role in creating a fairer and more
equitable society in the future.
How we respond to the increase in diversity in America will be a challenge
for many schools and communities, but it need not be a problem. Once we
recognize that, like changes that are brought about as a result of innovations
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in technology, diversity is our future, and not a passing fad, then we can
begin to make the adjustments that will make change possible.
As educators we will be on the frontline of this change, and we have a
responsibility to show that change can happen without acrimony and
resentment, if there is an openness to adapt and to continue to learn.
Dr. Pedro Noguera is a Judith K. Dimon Professor in Communities and
Schools at the Harvard Graduate School of Education.
“Poverty, race, ethnicity and immigration status are not in themselves
determinative of student achievement. Demography is not destiny. The
amount of melanin in a student's skin, the home country of her
antecedents, the amount of money in the family bank account, are not the
inexorable determinants of academic success.”
- Justice Leland DeGrasse,
Supreme Court of the State of New York
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Ebonics and Culturally Responsive Instruction:
What Should Teachers Do?
By Lisa Delpit
Excerpted from Rethinking Schools
http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/12_01/ebdelpit.shtml
Conversation and debate are a necessary part of any change process. This
article, by Lisa Delpit, addresses the issue of Ebonics in the classroom, and
raises some salient questions for educators working with youth from a
multitude of ethnic backgrounds, as Ebonics is branching out from its origin
in the African American community to youth of many cultures. The article
can also be the basis for a broader discussion around equitable teaching of
English language learners.
The "Ebonics Debate" has created much more heat than light for most of the
country. For teachers trying to determine what implications there might be
for classroom practice, enlightenment has been a completely non-existent
commodity. I have been asked often enough recently, "What do you think
about Ebonics? Are you for it or against it?" My answer must be neither. I
can be neither for Ebonics or against Ebonics any more than I can be for or
against air. It exists. It is the language spoken by many of our AfricanAmerican children. It is the language they heard as their mothers nursed them
and changed their diapers and played peek-a-boo with them. It is the
language through which they first encountered love, nurturance and joy.
On the other hand, most teachers of those African-American children who
have been least well-served by educational systems believe that their
students' life chances will be further hampered if they do not learn Standard
English. In the stratified society in which we live, they are absolutely correct.
While having access to the politically mandated language form will not, by
any means, guarantee economic success (witness the growing numbers of
unemployed African Americans holding doctorates), not having access will
almost certainly guarantee failure.
So what must teachers do? Should they spend their time relentlessly
"correcting" their Ebonics-speaking children's language so that it might
conform to what we have learned to refer to as Standard English? Despite
good intentions, constant correction seldom has the desired effect. Such
correction increases cognitive monitoring of speech, thereby making talking
difficult. To illustrate, I have frequently taught a relatively simple new
"dialect" to classes of pre-service teachers. In this dialect, the phonetic
element "iz" is added after the first consonant or consonant cluster in each
syllable of a word. (Maybe becomes miz-ay-biz-ee and apple, iz-ap-piz-le.)
After a bit of drill and practice, the students are asked to tell a partner in "iz"
language why they decided to become teachers. Most only haltingly attempt
a few words before lapsing into either silence or into Standard English.
During a follow-up discussion, all students invariably speak of the
impossibility of attempting to apply rules while trying to formulate and
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express a thought. Forcing speakers to monitor their language typically
produces silence.
Correction may also affect students' attitudes toward their teachers. In a
recent research project, middle-school, inner-city students were interviewed
about their attitudes toward their teachers and school. One young woman
complained bitterly, "Mrs. ___ always be interrupting to make you 'talk
correct' and stuff. She be butting into your conversations when you not even
talking to her! She need to mind her own business." Clearly this student will
be unlikely to either follow the teacher's directives or to want to imitate her
speech style.
Group Identity
Issues of group identity may also affect students' oral production of a
different dialect. Researcher Sharon Nelson-Barber, in a study of phonologic
aspects of Pima Indian language, found that, in grades 1-3, the children's
English most approximated the standard dialect of their teachers. But
surprisingly, by fourth grade, when one might assume growing competence
in standard forms, their language moved significantly toward the local
dialect. These fourth graders had the competence to express themselves in a
more standard form, but chose, consciously or unconsciously, to use the
language of those in their local environments. The researcher believes that,
by ages 8-9, these children became aware of their group membership and its
importance to their well-being, and this realization was reflected in their
language.1 They may also have become increasingly aware of the schools's
negative attitude toward their community and found it necessary -- through
choice of linguistic form -- to decide with which camp to identify.
What should teachers do about helping students acquire an additional oral
form? First, they should recognize that the linguistic form a student brings to
school is intimately connected with loved ones, community, and personal
identity. To suggest that this form is "wrong" or, even worse, ignorant, is to
suggest that something is wrong with the student and his or her family. To
denigrate your language is, then, in African-American terms, to "talk about
your mama." Anyone who knows anything about African-American culture
knows the consequences of that speech act!
On the other hand, it is equally important to understand that students who do
not have access to the politically popular dialect form in this country, are less
likely to succeed economically than their peers who do. How can both
realities be embraced in classroom instruction?
It is possible and desirable to make the actual study of language diversity a
part of the curriculum for all students. For younger children, discussions
about the differences in the ways television characters from different cultural
groups speak can provide a starting point. A collection of the many children's
books written in the dialects of various cultural groups can also provide a
wonderful basis for learning about linguistic diversity,2 as can audio taped
stories narrated by individuals from different cultures, including taping books
read by members of the children's home communities. Mrs. Pat, a teacher
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chronicled by Stanford University researcher Shirley Brice Heath, had her
students become language "detectives," interviewing a variety of individuals
and listening to the radio and television to discover the differences and
similarities in the ways people talked.3 Children can learn that there are many
ways of saying the same thing, and that certain contexts suggest particular
kinds of linguistic performances.
Some teachers have groups of students create bilingual dictionaries of their
own language form and Standard English. Both the students and the teacher
become engaged in identifying terms and deciding upon the best translations.
This can be done as generational dictionaries, too, given the proliferation of
"youth culture" terms growing out of the Ebonics-influenced tendency for the
continual regeneration of vocabulary. Contrastive grammatical structures can
be studied similarly, but, of course, as the Oakland policy suggests, teachers
must be aware of the grammatical structure of Ebonics before they can
launch into this complex study.
Other teachers have had students become involved with standard forms
through various kinds of role-play. For example, memorizing parts for drama
productions will allow students to practice and "get the feel" of speaking
standard English while not under the threat of correction. A master teacher of
African-American children in Oakland, Carrie Secret, uses this technique and
extends it so that students video their practice performances and self-critique
them as to the appropriate use of standard English (see the article
"Embracing Ebonics and Teaching Standard English"). (But I must add that
Carrie's use of drama and oration goes much beyond acquiring Standard
English. She inspires pride and community connections which are truly
wondrous to behold.) The use of self-critique of recorded forms may prove
even more useful than I initially realized. California State UniversityHayward professor Etta Hollins has reported that just by leaving a tape
recorder on during an informal class period and playing it back with no
comment, students began to code-switch -- moving between Standard
English and Ebonics -- more effectively. It appears that they may have not
realized which language form they were using until they heard themselves
speak on tape.
Young students can create puppet shows or role-play cartoon characters -many "superheroes" speak almost hypercorrect standard English! Playing a
role eliminates the possibility of implying that the child's language is
inadequate and suggests, instead, that different language forms are
appropriate in different contexts. Some other teachers in New York City have
had their students produce a news show every day for the rest of the school.
The students take on the personae of famous newscasters, keeping in
character as they develop and read their news reports. Discussions ensue
about whether Tom Brokaw would have said it that way, again taking the
focus off the child's speech.
Although most educators think of Black Language as primarily differing in
grammar and syntax, there are other differences in oral language of which
teachers should be aware in a multicultural context, particularly in discourse
style and language use. Harvard University researcher Sarah Michaels and
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other researchers identified differences in children's narratives at "sharing
time."4 They found that there was a tendency among young white children to
tell "topic-centered" narratives--stories focused on one event--and a tendency
among Black youngsters, especially girls, to tell "episodic" narratives--stories
that include shifting scenes and are typically longer. While these differences
are interesting in themselves, what is of greater significance is adults'
responses to the differences. C.B. Cazden reports on a subsequent project in
which a white adult was taped reading the oral narratives of black and white
first graders, with all syntax dialectal markers removed.5 Adults were asked
to listen to the stories and comment about the children's likelihood of success
in school. The researchers were surprised by the differential responses given
by Black and white adults.
Varying reactions
In responding to the retelling of a Black child's story, the white adults were
uniformly negative, making such comments as "terrible story, incoherent"
and "[n]ot a story at all in the sense of describing something that happened."
Asked to judge this child's academic competence, all of the white adults rated
her below the children who told "topic-centered" stories. Most of these adults
also predicted difficulties for this child's future school career, such as, "This
child might have trouble reading," that she exhibited "language problems that
affect school achievement," and that "family problems" or "emotional
problems" might hamper her academic progress.
The black adults had very different reactions. They found this child's story
"well formed, easy to understand, and interesting, with lots of detail and
description." Even though all five of these adults mentioned the "shifts" and
"associations" or "nonlinear" quality of the story, they did not find these
features distracting. Three of the black adults selected the story as the best of
the five they had heard, and all but one judged the child as exceptionally
bright, highly verbal, and successful in school.6
This is not a story about racism, but one about cultural familiarity. However,
when differences in narrative style produce differences in interpretation of
competence, the pedagogical implications are evident. If children who
produce stories based in differing discourse styles are expected to have
trouble reading, and viewed as having language, family, or emotional
problems, as was the case with the informants quoted by Cazden, they are
unlikely to be viewed as ready for the same challenging instruction awarded
students whose language patterns more closely parallel the teacher's.
Most teachers are particularly concerned about how speaking Ebonics might
affect learning to read. There is little evidence that speaking another mutually
intelligible language form, per se, negatively affects one's ability to learn to
read.7 For commonsensical proof, one need only reflect on nonstandard
English-speaking Africans who, though enslaved, not only taught themselves
to read English, but did so under threat of severe punishment or death. But
children who speak Ebonics do have a more difficult time becoming
proficient readers. Why? In part, appropriate instructional methodologies are
frequently not adopted. There is ample evidence that children who do not
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come to school with knowledge about letters, sounds, and symbols need to
experience some explicit instruction in these areas in order to become
independent readers (See Mary Rhodes Hoover's article in this issue of
Rethinking Schools, page 17). Another explanation is that, where teachers'
assessments of competence are influenced by the language children speak,
teachers may develop low expectations for certain students and subsequently
teach them less.8 A third explanation rests in teachers' confusing the teaching
of reading with the teaching of a new language form.
Reading researcher Patricia Cunningham found that teachers across the
United States were more likely to correct reading miscues that were "dialect"
related ("Here go a table" for "Here is a table") than those that were
"nondialect" related ("Here is a dog" for "There is a dog").9 Seventy-eight
percent of the former types of miscues were corrected, compared with only
27% of the latter. He concludes that the teachers were acting out of
ignorance, not realizing that "here go" and "here is" represent the same
meaning in some Black children's language.
In my observations of many classrooms, however, I have come to conclude
that even when teachers recognize the similarity of meaning, they are likely
to correct Ebonics-related miscues. Consider a typical example:
Text: Yesterday I washed my brother's clothes.
Student's Rendition: Yesterday I wash my bruvver close.
The subsequent exchange between student and teacher sounds something like
this:
T: Wait, let's go back. What's that word again? {Points at "washed."}
S: Wash.
T: No. Look at it again. What letters do you see at the end? You see "e-d."
Do you remember what we say when we see those letters on the end of the
word?
S: "ed"
T: OK, but in this case we say washed. Can you say that?
S: Washed.
T: Good. Now read it again.
S: Yesterday I washed my bruvver...
T: Wait a minute, what's that word again? {Points to "brother."}
S: Bruvver.
T: No. Look at these letters in the middle. {Points to "brother."} Remember
to read what you see. Do you remember how we say that sound? Put your
tongue between your teeth and say "th"...
The lesson continues in such a fashion, the teacher proceeding to correct the
student's Ebonics-influenced pronunciations and grammar while ignoring that
fact that the student had to have comprehended the sentence in order to
translate it into her own language. Such instruction occurs daily and blocks
reading development in a number of ways. First, because children become
better readers by having the opportunity to read, the overcorrection exhibited
in this lesson means that this child will be less likely to become a fluent
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reader than other children that are not interrupted so consistently. Second, a
complete focus on code and pronunciation blocks children's understanding
that reading is essentially a meaning-making process. This child, who
understands the text, is led to believe that she is doing something wrong. She
is encouraged to think of reading not as something you do to get a message,
but something you pronounce. Third, constant corrections by the teacher are
likely to cause this student and others like her to resist reading and to resent
the teacher.
Language researcher Robert Berdan reports that, after observing the kind of
teaching routine described above in a number of settings, he incorporated the
teacher behaviors into a reading instruction exercise that he used with
students in a college class.10 He put together sundry rules from a number of
American social and regional dialects to create what he called the "language
of Atlantis." Students were then called upon to read aloud in this dialect they
did not know. When they made errors he interrupted them, using some of the
same statements/comments he had heard elementary school teachers
routinely make to their students. He concludes:
The results were rather shocking. By the time these Ph.D Candidates in
English or linguistics had read 10-20 words, I could make them sound totally
illiterate . ... The first thing that goes is sentence intonation: they sound like
they are reading a list from the telephone book. Comment on their
pronunciation a bit more, and they begin to subvocalize, rehearsing
pronunciations for themselves before they dare to say them out loud. They
begin to guess at pronunciations . ... They switch letters around for no reason.
They stumble; they repeat. In short, when I attack them for their failure to
conform to my demands for Atlantis English pronunciations, they sound very
much like the worst of the second graders in any of the classrooms I have
observed.
They also begin to fidget. They wad up their papers, bite their fingernails,
whisper, and some finally refuse to continue. They do all the things that
children do while they are busily failing to learn to read.
The moral of this story is not to confuse learning a new language form with
reading comprehension. To do so will only confuse the child, leading her
away from those intuitive understandings about language that will promote
reading development, and toward a school career of resistance and a lifetime
of avoiding reading.
Unlike unplanned oral language or public reading, writing lends itself to
editing. While conversational talk is spontaneous and must be responsive to
an immediate context, writing is a mediated process which may be written
and rewritten any number of times before being introduced to public
scrutiny. Consequently, writing is more amenable to rule application -- one
may first write freely to get one's thoughts down, and then edit to hone the
message and apply specific spelling, syntactical, or punctuation rules. My
college students who had such difficulty talking in the "iz" dialect, found
writing it, with the rules displayed before them, a relatively easy task.
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To conclude, the teacher's job is to provide access to the national "standard"
as well as to understand the language the children speak sufficiently to
celebrate its beauty. The verbal adroitness, the cogent and quick wit, the
brilliant use of metaphor, the facility in rhythm and rhyme, evident in the
language of Jesse Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, Toni Morrison, Henry Louis
Gates, Tupac Shakur, and Maya Angelou, as well as in that of many innercity Black students, may all be drawn upon to facilitate school learning. The
teacher must know how to effectively teach reading and writing to students
whose culture and language differ from that of the school, and must
understand how and why students decide to add another language form to
their repertoire. All we can do is provide students with access to additional
language forms. Inevitably, each speaker will make his or her own decision
about what to say in any context.
But I must end with a caveat that we keep in mind a simple truth: Despite our
necessary efforts to provide access to standard English, such access will not
make any of our students more intelligent. It will not teach them math or
science or geography -- or, for that matter, compassion, courage, or
responsibility. Let us not become so overly concerned with the language
form that we ignore academic and moral content. Access to the standard
language may be necessary, but it is definitely not sufficient to produce
intelligent, competent caretakers of the future.
©1997 Lisa Delpit
Lisa Delpit is holder of the Benjamin E. Mays Chair of Urban Educational
Excellence at Georgia State University in Atlanta. A former MacArthur
fellow, her most recent book is "Other People's Children" (New Press: 1995).
Endnotes
1. S. Nelson-Barber, "Phonologic Variations of Pima English," in R. St. Clair
and W. Leap, (Eds.), Language Renewal Among American Indian Tribes:
Issues, Problems and Prospects (Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse for
Bilingual Education, 1982).
2. Some of these books include Lucille Clifton, All Us Come 'Cross the
Water (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1973); Paul Green (aided by
Abbe Abbott), I Am Eskimo -- Aknik My Name (Juneau, AK: Alaska
Northwest Publishing, 1959); Howard Jacobs and Jim Rice, Once upon a
Bayou (New Orleans, LA.: Phideaux Publications, 1983); Tim Elder, Santa's
Cajun Christmas Adventure (Baton Rouge, LA: Little Cajun Books, 1981);
and a series of biographies produced by Yukon-Koyukkuk School District of
Alaska and published by Hancock House Publishers in North Vancouver,
British Columbia, Canada.
3. Shirley Brice Heath, Ways with Words (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge
University Press, 1983).
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4. S. Michaels and C.B. Cazden, "Teacher-Child Collaboration on Oral
Preparation for Literacy," in B. Schieffer (Ed.), Acquisition of Literacy:
Ethnographic Perspectives (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986).
5. C.B. Cazden, Classroom Discourse (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1988).
6. Ibid.
7. R. Sims, "Dialect and Reading: Toward Redefining the Issues," in J.
Langer and M.T. Smith-Burke (Eds.), Reader Meets Author/Bridging the
Gap (Newark, DE: International Reading Asssociation, 1982).
8. Ibid.
9. Patricia M. Cunningham, "Teachers' Correction Responses to BlackDialect Miscues Which Are Nonmeaning-Changing," Reading Research
Quarterly 12 (1976-77).
10. Robert Berdan, "Knowledge into Practice: Delivering Research to
Teachers," in M.F. Whiteman (Ed.), Reactions to Ann Arbor: Vernacular
Black English and Education (Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics,
1980).
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Teaching Diverse Learners
The Education Alliance at Brown University
http://www.lab.brown.edu/
As with many of the resources in this section, the following nine
principles could benefit all students in any school, but they are
highlighted here because of the deliberate planning that goes into making
one’s practice responsive to each student, particularly those that have
been historically marginalized. The nine principles have been converted
into an observation guide to reflect on equitable classroom practice.
Some possible uses for the observation guide would be:
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ß
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to reflect on one’s own teaching practice
to assist in developing an equitable curriculum
to evaluate and discuss pedagogy with peers
to create a team/school-wide plan to address the nine principles
to become comfortable with the elements involved in teaching for
equity
to periodically revisit the effectiveness of one’s own teaching
practice
ONE: ACTIVE TEACHING METHODS
"In our multicultural society, culturally responsive teaching reflects democracy at its highest
level. [It] means doing whatever it takes to ensure that every child is achieving and ever moving
toward realizing her or his potential."
- Joyce Taylor-Gibson
In Principle:
In Practice:
Learning is inquiry-based &
discovery-oriented
Focus on themes of personal
interest to students
Content is socially and
culturally relevant
Relate questions to real life
issues
Dynamic partnership between
teacher & student
Share responsibility for
instructional practice
What I Observed:
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TWO: CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
"The increasing diversity in our schools, the ongoing demographic changes across the nation and
the movement towards globalization dictate that we develop a more in-depth understanding of
culture if we want to bring about true understanding among diverse populations."
- Maria Wilson-Portuondo
In Principle:
In Practice:
The "strange" becomes
"familiar" through
understanding of socio-cultural
& linguistic norms
Conduct research, solicit
student input, pose directed
questions, identify cultural
informants, attend local
events
Cultural differences are
bridged through effective
communication
Coach students to become
active participants in their
own learning
Knowledge is translated into
instructional practice
Employ practices that draw on
students' prior knowledge &
communication skills
What I Observed:
THREE: CULTURALLY MEDIATED INSTRUCTION
"Ongoing multicultural activities within the classroom setting engender a natural awareness of
cultural history, values and contributions."
- Kathleen Serverian-Wilmeth
In Principle:
In Practice:
Multicultural viewpoints &
histories are integrated into the
curriculum
Research students' experience
with learning & teaching
styles
Learning occurs in appropriate
socio-cultural & linguistic
situations
Allow students to speak in
primary language; initiate field
trips for language learning
Developmentally equivalent
patterns of behavior are
recognized as such
Encourage diverse ways of
achieving developmental
milestones
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FOUR: POSITIVE PERSPECTIVES ON PARENTS & FAMILIES
"Whether it’s an informal chat as the parent brings the child to school, or in phone conversations
or home visits, or through newsletters sent home, teachers can begin a dialogue with family
members that can result in learning about each of the families through genuine communication."
- Sonia Nieto
In Principle:
In Practice:
Parents are active participants
in the education process
Seek to understand parents'
hopes, concerns &
suggestions
A forum exists for mutual
learning & support
Apprise parents of the
services offered by the school;
initiate a parent training
component
Effective home-school
partnerships are maintained
Gain cross-cultural skills
necessary for successful
exchange & collaboration
What I Observed:
FIVE: RESHAPING THE CURRICULUM
"[Schools must] take a serious look at their curriculum, pedagogy, retention and tracking
policies, testing, hiring practices, and all the other policies and practices that create a school
climate that is either empowering or disempowering for those who work and learn there."
- Sonia Nieto
In Principle:
In Practice:
Curriculum is integrated,
interdisciplinary, meaningful
& child-centered
Develop a coordinated,
building-wide strategy
Equity in the areas of race,
class, national origin &
language is sought &
promoted
Present a variety of learning
strategies, responsiveness to
the needs of all students
Higher-order knowledge and
skills are developed
Establish high expectations for
all students
What I Observed:
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SIX: SMALL GROUP INSTRUCTION
"Instructional methods that are student centered, collaborative, and process oriented develop a
supportive environment for members of all cultures."
- Kathleen Serverian-Wilmeth
In Principle:
In Practice:
Instruction is cooperative,
collaborative, & communityoriented
Provide non-threatening
environment
Performance, persistence &
attitudes improve
Develop higher-order thinking
skills and cognitive
development
Speaking and self-advocacy
skills are strengthened
Create bridge between oral &
academic language
What I Observed:
SEVEN: STUDENT—CONTROLLED CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
"Students . . . need to be at the center of teaching and learning. Successful educators
acknowledge, respect, and build on the knowledge, beliefs and experiences that children bring
with them to class, affirming the value of students' cultures."
- Kathleen Serverian-Wilmeth
In Principle, students:
In Practice, students are
given opportunities to:
Discover their own thinking
and learning processes
Make decisions and solve
problems on their own
Become self-confident, selfdirected & proactive
Expand their discourse
repertoire through frequent
expression
Demonstrate cultural
negotiation skills
Develop their understanding of
course material using prior
knowledge
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EIGHT: TEACHER AS FACILITATOR
"A caring adult can make a big difference in the educational outcome of any child that is at risk of
experiencing educational failure."
- Maria Wilson-Portuondo
In Principle, teachers should
be:
In Practice, teachers should
develop:
Guides, mediators, consultants,
instructors, advocates
A repertoire of culturally
appropriate teaching
approaches
Empathetic, available,
equitable, open, flexible, caring
Knowledge about language &
culture of students
Understanding of role played
by language & culture in
identity formation
Awareness of personal
ethnocentric attitudes
What I Observed:
NINE: COMMUNICATION OF HIGH EXPECTATIONS
"When a teacher expresses sympathy over failure, lavishes praise for completing a simple task, or
offers unsolicited help, the teacher may send unintended messages of low expectations."
- Kathleen Serverian-Wilmeth
In Principle:
In Practice:
Instruction is effective,
equitable, inclusive & high
quality
"Make the familiar strange":
question beliefs
All students are respected as
eager learners
Provide extensive feedback
Students develop self-esteem,
autonomy, self-reliance &
motivation
Propose challenging
curriculum
What I Observed:
Adapted from its original format.
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Virtual Museum Projects in Native America
Mark Christal, Paul Resta, and Loriene Roy
The University of Texas at Austin
http://www.ericit.org/newsletter/Volume23-2/articles.shtml
The Four Directions project is an example of how an educational
organization took a deliberate approach to culturally responsive, equitable
teaching and made it the focal point of their work in Native American
communities. Noteworthy is the intentional symbiotic nature of the three
components that the project is built around; culturally responsive teaching,
cultural revitalization, and cultural collaboration. The virtual museum tours
are part of the project’s product and can be viewed by going to the links in
the box below.
The Four Directions project (www.4directions.org), funded by a federal
Challenge Grant, worked with 19 American Indian schools in 10 states to
promote the use of technology for the purpose of creating and delivering
culturally responsive curriculum. The Four Directions helped these schools
to develop technology-supported curricula and learning activities that were
thematic and interdisciplinary, connecting the values and traditions of these
diverse cultures with core academic standards. One of initiatives of the
project was the production of virtual museums of native culture, which uses
Web page authoring, multimedia production, and new media such a
QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR).
Because of historical circumstances, much of what remains of American
Indian material culture resides in museums across the nation and in private
collections. The virtual museum projects in the Four Directions schools used
digital photography and QuickTime Virtual Reality to “digitally repatriate”
Native artifacts for use in the schools’ culturally responsive curricula and to
share with the world on the World Wide Web.
Four Directions Virtual Museum Links
The Virtual Tour of the National Museum of the American Indian
http://www.conexus.si.edu/VRTour
The Hannahville Indian Community School Virtual Museum
http://www.hvl.bia.edu/
The Four Directions Project
http://www.4directions.org
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QTVR is a photography-based “immersive imaging technology” that enables
a user to explore panoramic spaces and examine objects by rotating them to
any viewpoint using a computer mouse. Special regions on the QTVR
movies called “hot spots” trigger various actions when clicked on, such as
picking up a virtual object out of a virtual panoramic space, bringing up
detailed views of parts of an object, or displaying a Web page of information
about the object or panorama.
The Four Directions project also trained students and teachers in oral history
techniques, audio recording skills, and digital audio technology that enabled
students to make valuable records of the wisdom and memories of tribal
elders.
With the assistance of the Four Directions project, several schools developed
virtual museums. The Smithsonian Institute’s National Museum of the
American Indian (NMAI) in New York City and the Heard Museum in
Phoenix, Arizona were partners in the Four Directions project, and have
collaborated in the production of Native American virtual museums. Three
Four Directions schools sent teams of students, teachers, and community
members to produce a virtual tour of the NMAI exhibitions from the
perspective of Native American children. This virtual tour is accessible on
the World Wide Web at http://www.conexus.si.edu/VRTour.
The Heard Museum collaborated with three Four Directions schools to
produce cultural content for school learning projects. Teachers at Seba
Dalkai and Dilcon, sister Navajo schools in Arizona, used the media students
created at the Heard Museum, along with digital audio and video of
community members, to create HyperStudio stacks that illustrated the history
of the schools.
With help from the Four Directions project, other schools have embarked on
virtual museum projects in partnerships with museums in their regions that
have substantial collections of culturally relevant items.
Throughout these various virtual museum projects a model has been
emerging that combines authentic learning projects, culturally responsive
pedagogy, and collaboration between museums and schools. This “Four
Directions Model of Virtual Museum Projects” consists of three interacting
and over-lapping components.
1. Cultural Responsive Teaching: Virtual museum projects are culturally
responsive, because they teach to and through the culture of the child and
bring community concerns and values to the center of the teachinglearning process. Students are motivated to excel because they are doing
important, authentic work to recover and preserve their heritage. They
gain from the knowledge of museum professionals and the wisdom of
community elders. They develop skills in research, writing, social
studies, science, mathematics, information literacy, and twenty-first
century information technology.
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2. Cultural Revitalization: A common concern among Native American
peoples is the recovery and preservation of cultures and languages. Much
of what remains of traditional material cultures resides in museum
collections far from Native American communities. Virtual museum
projects provide a way for communities to “digitally repatriate” precious
items of cultural heritage. In the Four Directions Model, virtual museum
activities also take place in the Native American communities, where
students research and record local materials that supplement the
museum's resources for the virtual museum. Local resources such as oral
histories, cherished heirlooms, traditional stories, dances, and songs,
native language and contemporary arts get combined with museum
materials to present the vision of a vital, living culture.
3. Cultural Collaboration: Museums exist to preserve heritage and educate
the public, but Native Americans sometimes object to the way museum
exhibitions appropriate cultural property. Native Americans want the
public to have access to authentic knowledge of their histories and
cultures, but they believe that some aspects of their cultures should not
be shared with outsiders. Virtual museum collaborations provide a venue
where thorny issues of cultural property rights may be addressed and
protocols for cultural collaboration may be designed and levels of
accessibility decided.
Figure 1: The Four Directions Model of Virtual Museum Projects
The National Museum of the American Indian has also been actively seeking
out American Indian schools and colleges for virtual museum partnerships.
Two such projects have been conducted at the museum’s Cultural Resource
Center near Washington D. C. in the past two years. The Four Directions and
NMAI virtual museum projects are furthering the concept of virtual museum
projects with American Indian students. The next logical step for this
culturally responsive teaching strategy would be to adapt the practice to other
student populations.
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The following books were recommended by school practitioners. The
reviews are drawn from book jackets, publishers, and websites.
Diversity and Motivation: Culturally Responsive Teaching
Raymond J. Wlodkowski, Margery B. Ginsberg
Jossey-Bass
http://www.josseybass.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd0787967424.html
Wlodkowski and Ginsberg have written the foundational book on defining
culturally responsive teaching and creating a culturally responsive pedagogy.
Their work offers realistic, tested methods for turning learners’ experiences
into rich teaching and learning opportunities.
“Every day college and university faculty ask
themselves the question, 'How can we become more
effective teachers of a culturally diverse student body?'
This book provides the most comprehensive and useful
answer that I have ever read. Drawing upon years of
experience and research with students from various
cultural backgrounds, Wlodkowski and Ginsberg offer
faculty a remarkable integration of theory and
practice—full of the kinds of insights and strategies they
can use today.”
- Michael Nettles, professor, Center for the Study of Higher and
Postsecondary Education, University of Michigan
Wlodkowski and Ginsberg's Diversity and Motivation addresses the role that
cultural factors play in motivating students. According to the authors,
providing a culturally responsive teaching environment involves four
primary components:
Establish inclusion
When inclusion is established within the classroom, all learners will feel
respected and connected to one another.
Develop attitude
Create a favorable disposition among learners toward the learning
experience.
Enhance meaning
Expand, refine, and/or increase the complexity of what is being learned in a
manner that matters to students. In order to do this, you must consider the
values and purposes of your students.
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Engender competence
Create an understanding for learners of how they can be effective in learning
something of personal value in the classroom.
Throughout Diversity and Motivation, you are given theories and specific
strategies for accomplishing each of the four objectives. Hypothetical
situations provide examples of how you can appropriately deal with cultural
tensions and disagreements that arise in the classroom.
Among other things, the authors emphasize ways to reach students whose
primary language is not English, and they give suggestions on how to
effectively meet each student's individual academic needs. You are
encouraged to try out viable alternatives to the typical means of goal setting,
research methods and assessment. These options allow students' perspectives
and intrinsic values to be taken into consideration, motivating them to work
to the best of their ability. (Excerpted from the Center for Instructional
Development & Distance Education at the University of Pittsburgh)
Raymond J. Wlodkowski and Margery B. Ginsberg combine their
respective expertise in motivation and multiculturalism to go beyond the
usual rhetoric on promoting diversity, offering real-world guidance and
suggestions for successful teaching in today's changing classroom
environment.
“We can, whenever and wherever we choose, successfully teach all
children whose schooling is of interest to us. We already know more than
we need in order to do this. Whether we do it must finally depend on
how we feel about the fact that we haven’t so far.”
- Dr. Ron Edmonds (1982)
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Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice
Geneva Gay (2000)
Teachers College Press
http://store.tcpress.com/0807739545.shtml
"From her careful analysis of the educational research
and best practices literature, and her wealth of
experiences from working with P/K-18 students and
teachers, Gay clearly explains how culturally
responsive teaching can be used to dramatically
influence the academic achievement of students of
color and other marginalized students."
–Carl A. Grant, University of Wisconsin at Madison
"Geneva Gay has written a passionate and inspiring
book that provides a comprehensive explanation of
culturally responsive teaching and how it can make a difference in the lives
of students of color. She argues that all teachers, regardless of their ethnic
group membership, must have the ‘courage, competence, and confidence’ to
teach in a culturally relevant manner."
–Christine Bennett, Indiana University
"Written by one of the leading interpreters of diversity in the schools, this
book challenges all teachers to reconsider their pedagogical and personal
approaches to young people in our nation's increasingly multicultural
classrooms."
–Carlos E. Cortés, University of California, Riverside
In this wonderful new volume, Geneva Gay makes a convincing case for
using culturally responsive teaching to improve the school performance of
underachieving students of color. She combines insights from multicultural
education theory, research, and classroom practice to demonstrate that
African, Asian, Latino, and Native American students will perform better, on
multiple measures of achievement, when teaching is filtered through their
own cultural experiences and frames of reference. Key components of
culturally responsive teaching discussed include teacher caring, teacher
attitudes and expectations, formal and informal multicultural curriculum,
culturally informed classroom discourse, and cultural congruity in teaching
and learning strategies. The personal stories woven throughout enliven the
deeply textured scholarly analysis. This is an excellent resource for anyone
who cares about improving and recognizing the factors that shape culturally
responsive teaching and learning.
Geneva Gay is Professor of Education and Associate of the Center for
Multicultural Education at the University of Washington, Seattle.
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Educating Teachers for Diversity: Seeing with a Cultural Eye
Jacqueline Jordan Irvine (2003)
Teachers College Press
http://store.tcpress.com/0807743577.shtml
Educating Teachers for Diversity addresses the
complex issues of how culture, race and ethnicity, and
social class influence the teaching and learning
processes. The author provides not only an analysis of
current conditions and reforms in education, but also
offers suggestions and practices for improving
educational outcomes for all children.
Tackling hard truths and controversial issues head on,
the author:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Offers advice for closing the achievement gap of low-income
African American students in urban schools.
Focuses on issues of assessment and measurement for K-12 students
and teachers of color.
Explores the declining number of teachers of color in the United
States and its relation to school failure in African American and
Latino students.
Outlines a curriculum for teacher education programs to help them
produce culturally aware and effective teachers.
Examines how colleges of education can reverse the cycle of failure
for students of color by producing teachers who are culturally
responsive.
Concludes with a summary of the work and recommendations of
such scholars as James A. Banks and Sonia Nieto.
"In this insightful and wise book, Jacqueline Jordan Irvine reflects on topics
ranging from the preparation of future teachers for urban schools to the role
of colleges of education in current reform efforts. Debunking both taken-forgranted assumptions and facile answers to complex problems, she insists
instead on focusing on what really matters: caring for and about the most
vulnerable and forgotten children in our schools. Anyone interested in the
future of public education today would do well to read this book."
—Sonia Nieto, author of The Light in Their Eyes: Creating Multicultural
Learning Communities
"This is a book to be read by education school faculty and administrators. It
offers a design for the revitalization of teacher education that needs to be
carefully considered…it is an agenda that must be pursued."
—David G. Imig, President and CEO, American Association of Colleges for
Teacher Educators
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Renegotiating Cultural Diversity in American Schools
Patricia Phelan and Ann Locke Davidson, Editors (1993)
http://www.teacherscollegepress.com/multicultural_studies.html
"This book should be read not just by scholars, but by all who want to know
about the perspectives of our youngsters."
—Kenji Hakuta, Stanford University
"This landmark volume moves beyond stereotypes and ‘the blame game’ to
unify us as stakeholders so all students succeed in school."
—Catherine Cooper, University of California, Santa Cruz
An intimate look at the lives of young people as they negotiate the world of
the family with the world of their peers and the demands of school. Provides
a clear understanding of features in school and classroom environments that
aid or impede students in making transitions among their worlds and the
world of school—both social and academic.
Unique to Adolescents’ Worlds:
Youth’s perspectives are central—here, the students tell the
researchers/educators what is important to them.
Unique conceptual model—the authors have developed a model and typology
that emerged from data gathered directly from interviews and observations.
Transcends categories—this work moves beyond a narrow focus of
individual ethnic groups to present a model that is applicable to
understanding diverse adolescents.
Focus on contextual factors that inhibit youth from connecting with
school—rather than viewing individual characteristics as creating risk, the
authors see risk as contained in the borders that students face.
Case study approach—provides an intimacy and authenticity that will engage
teachers and students in discussions and analysis about their own classrooms
and schools.
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Walking the Color Line:
The Art and Practice of Anti-Racist Teaching
Mark Perry (2000)
Teachers College Press
http://store.tcpress.com/0807739642.shtml
"Perry's meticulous journaling over a period of years as
teacher and principal in an inner-city alternative high
school has been transformed into a book that enables
readers to get a profound sense of daily life in this
school. It is a rare and special gift for teachers and
teacher educators."
–Susan Huddleston Edgerton, Western Michigan
University
"Perry reveals to us the gestalt of a school climate where
teachers and students, teaching and learning, are
interconnected as part of a whole."
–Rosalie Romano, Ohio University
"What is valuable about this book is Mark's willingness to talk with equal
candor about the successes, half successes, near failures, and failures he
experienced; as well as how and what he learned in the process. Reading this,
teachers and administrators will both recognize themselves and learn how to,
and how not to, proceed."
–Barbara Osborne, Alternative High School Teacher, Seattle, Washington
At the heart of this volume and central to current efforts to improve public
education is the attempt to create anti-racist, democratic, student-centered
schools. Mark Perry shows how racially mixed teaching faculties can model
democratic ideals and how white teachers and administrators of color can
effectively deal with their differences. As a former principal and teacher, he
is committed to developing and implementing a culturally relevant
curriculum that offers realistic alternatives to inaction. An honest, readable,
and succinct account of real-life teaching, this book provides a framework as
well as valuable insight for all educators, parents, and community activists
who work toward social justice, particularly at the grassroots level.
Mark Perry is a teacher educator, an alternative high school teacher, and a
former principal. He works primarily with marginalized, dropout, and
adjudicated students. He holds master’s and doctorate degrees in Education
from the University of Illinois at Chicago.
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We Can't Teach What We Don't Know:
White Teachers, Multiracial Schools
Gary R. Howard (1999)
Teachers College Press
http://store.tcpress.com/080773800X.shtml
"Gary Howard describes in moving and powerful ways
the changes and growth that must take place within
White educators in order for them to help create caring
and humane schools for the new century."
–James A. Banks, Series Editor
"Like Paulo Freire, Gary Howard speaks of his own
transformation as a rebirth. . . . The theoretical work he
has developed on White identity orientations is
groundbreaking."
–From the Foreword by Sonia Nieto
With lively stories and compelling analysis, Gary Howard engages his
readers on a journey of personal and professional transformation. From his
25 years of experience as a multicultural educator, he looks deeply into the
mirror of his own racial identity to discover what it means to be a culturally
competent White teacher in racially diverse schools. Inspired by his
extensive travel and collaboration with students and colleagues from many
different cultures, We Can’t Teach What We Don’t Know offers a healing
vision for the future of education in pluralistic nations.
Gary R. Howard is president and founder of the REACH Center for
Multicultural Education in Seattle, Washington.
“Don't limit a child to your own learning, for he was born in another
time.”
- Rabbinic saying
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Making Assessment Work for Everyone:
How to Build on Student Strengths
Kusimo, P., Ritter, M.G., Busick, K., Ferguson, C., Trumbull, E., &
Solano-Flores, G. (2000)
Southwest Educational Development Laboratories (SEDL)
http://www.sedl.org/
Making Assessment Work for Everyone: How to
Build on Student Strengths is intended to provide
teachers with research information and practical
ideas for modifying assessments to make them more
effective. Throughout the document, examples
demonstrate how to make the process equitable and
beneficial for students and teachers alike.
Making Assessment Work for Everyone is intended to
help educators:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Understand the essential characteristics of good assessment
Uncover the strengths and cultural perspectives of diverse learners
Create or select classroom assessments that meet high standards as
well as support and reveal the learning of every child
Increase awareness of potential sources of bias and inequity in
assessments
Use strategies to improve inequitable assessments
Making Assessment Work for Everyone contains eight sections; each provides
information, suggestions, and opportunities to try out key ideas. In addition,
there are activities to use with students and reflective exercises. Brief
vignettes bring to life the challenges of equitable assessment and enable
readers to look over the shoulders of educators who have developed
strategies and tips for success. This book is intended to be helpful both to
individual readers and for use as part of a professional development program.
Activities for this latter purpose are included with facilitator notes in Section
VII.
Our Guiding Principles
As we encounter more students whose culture and language differ from our
own, we will need to expand the ways we assess their knowledge and skills.
The information and guidance offered in this publication for doing so is
grounded in the following research-based realities and in our understanding
of what these realities imply for school and, more specifically, for classroom
practice:
1. Culture is inherent in every aspect of schooling; therefore, we need
to be aware of the cultural values underlying our schooling practices
and how they may result in confusion or conflict for some students.
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TEACHING FOR EQUITY
2. Diversity should be seen as a benefit and as additive; therefore, the
strengths in all cultures should be acknowledged and built on in the
classroom.
3. Language, the primary vehicle for thought and learning, is inherent
in virtually all assessment; therefore, it is important to understand
how the forms and uses of language in assessment coincide or
conflict with the forms and uses students have learned in their own
homes and communities.
4. All learners are born curious and can acquire new knowledge, skills,
and patterns of behavior; therefore, when students are not achieving,
our educational practices need to change.
5. No single method of assessment is capable of showing achievement
on a full range of learning objectives; therefore, multiple assessments
must be used to provide adequate opportunities for learners to
demonstrate achievement.
6. Assessment experiences should be part of a positive learning
process; therefore, assessment tasks should not erode students' sense
of self-worth.
7. All learners deserve opportunities for authentic assessment of their
learning and honest feedback; therefore, assessments should make
sense to students, and their performance should be reported and
interpreted in terms they can understand.
8. Assessment is a high stakes activity. Assessment outcomes often
determine who is allowed to enroll in courses or receive job, college,
or scholarship opportunities; therefore, we are ethically bound to
ensure that it is fair and valid.
9. The most important purpose of assessment is to improve teaching
and learning; therefore, assessments that do not contribute to these
processes should be questioned.
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TEACHING FOR EQUITY
Diversity in the Classroom:
A Casebook for Teachers and Teacher Educators
Editor: Judith H. Shulman, Amalia Mesa-Bains (1993)
Research for Better Schools & Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
http://www.wested.org/cs/wew/view/rs/54
As schools are grappling with how to translate knowledge around diversity
and equity issues into classroom practice, it is important to glimpse the
everyday struggles and successes of educators committed to creating
equitable teaching and learning communities. The case studies in this book
are straightforward, thought provoking, and speak to the teacher/student
relationships that are at the heart of all learning. This book would be a
valuable tool for classroom planning.
This casebook includes 13 compelling firstperson accounts of inner-city teaching
dilemmas, focusing on the teacher-student
relationship in multilingual, multicultural,
and multi-ethnic classrooms. Each case is
followed by commentaries by scholars and
practitioners, which add multiple
perspectives to each account. The
narratives provide stimulation for group
discussion by both teachers and professional developers. A companion
facilitator's guide is available.
Read alone or used as the basis for group discussion, these cases have proved
a valuable tool for addressing such questions. Written by teachers whose
ethnic backgrounds include Japanese-American, Chinese-American, Latino,
Filipino, African-American, and Caucasian, the cases help teachers reflect
not just on the barriers of language and customs, but also on deeper, more
troubling aspects of the classroom exchange: how unrecognized
psychological undercurrents of race, culture, and class can obstruct teaching
and learning. Following each case and providing a range of perspectives for
interpreting it are commentaries written by administrators, scholars, and
other teachers.
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TEACHING FOR EQUITY
Savage Inequalities
Jonathan Kozol (1991)
Perennial Press
http://www.cincinnati.com/samepage/book_kozol.html
Savage Inequalities is the eye-opening result of
Jonathan Kozol's visits to a number of urban public
schools across America. He effectively explores the
long-term effect of school systems that have
experienced the hardships of inadequate funding and
inadequate staffing in impoverished neighborhoods. The lives of children are
sensitively portrayed, and are described by Kozol as "defenseless emblems of
hope and promise." Savage Inequalities: Children in America's Schools,
published in 1991, won the New England Book Award, and was a National
Book Critics Circle award finalist in 1992.
"He [Kozol] courageously crosses the unwritten line that makes charges of
racial discrimination taboo in this day and age... a superbly written,
thoroughly researched documentary of a world hidden to most." -- Chicago
Sun-Times
"... a haunting reminder of Malcolm X's ever urgent question, 'If democracy
is equality, why don't we have equality?"' –Mirabella
Recommended readings on multicultural education and culturally
responsive teaching:
The Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers of African American
Children
Gloria Ladson-Billings (1994)
Quote: “ . . .culturally responsive teaching uses student culture in order to
maintain it and to transcend the negative effects of the dominant culture.
The negative effects are brought about, for example by not seeing one’s
history, culture, or background represented in the textbook or curriculum or
by seeing that history, culture, or background distorted. Or they may result
from the staffing pattern in the school (when all teachers and the principal are
white and only the janitors and cafeteria workers are African American, for
example) and from the tracking of African American students into the
lowest-level classes. The primary aim of culturally relevant teaching is to
assist in the development of a “relevant black personality” that allows
African American students to choose academic excellence yet still identify
with African and African American culture (p. 17).”
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TEACHING FOR EQUITY
Radical Equations: Civil Rights from Mississippi to the Algebra
Project
Robert P. Moses, & Charles E. Cobb, Jr. (2001)
Quote: “Math literacy and economic access are how we are going to give
hope to the young generation. . . And why focus, as we do, on algebra, of all
things? . .The Algebra Project is founded on the idea that the ongoing
struggle for citizenship and equality for minority people is now linked to an
issue of math and science literacy. This idea determines strategies and
choices made about the organization, dissemination, and the content of the
curriculum (p.14).”
Portraits of Teachers in Multicultural Settings: A Critical Literacy
Approach
Lettie Ramirez, & Olivia M. Gallardo (2001)
Quote: “Critical educators recognize that they cannot change a students’
circumstances or environments; however, they find that they can act as
agents of change through critically examining how traditional education
promotes or hinders the student’s success or failure. Teacher and student
alike work together to become part of the problem-solving process. This
teaching goes beyond celebration of ethnic holidays and into the heart of
what is known as “humanizing pedagogy . . .The teacher/student relationship
is at the heart of schooling (p.3).”
Reaching All Students with Mathematics
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1993)
Quote: “The contributors to this book recognize that strategies and
approaches for enhancing mathematics instruction must be comprehensive
and flexible so that no student is left out (p.3).”
“The quality of student-teacher interpersonal communications depends, in
part, on issues of cultural diversity and a healthy respect for differences
(Chapters 2, 3, 8, and 13 address a different aspect of this issue) (p.5).”
How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice
National Research Council (1999)
Quote: Key Finding #1--“Students come to the classroom with
preconceptions about how the world works. If their initial understanding is
not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information that
are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert to their
preconceptions outside the classroom (p.11).”
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TEACHING FOR EQUITY
Wachale!: Poetry and prose about Growing Up Latino in America
I. Stavans (2001)
This work could easily be integrated into a poetry unit and honor the multiple
life experiences of Latino authors.
Recommended Websites:
Online Resources for culturally responsive teaching through Knowledge
Loom
http://knowledgeloom.org/resources.jsp?location=6&bpinterid=1110&spotlig
htid=1110
Teaching Diverse Learners: Northeast and Islands Regional Educational
Laboratory
http://www.alliance.brown.edu/tdl/
New Horizons for Learning, Teaching and Learning, Multicultural Education
http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/multicultural/front_multicultural.htm
Culturally Engaged Pedagogy, a concept by Renee Moore, Carnegie
Foundation
http://kml2.carnegiefoundation.org/html/poster.php?id=84
Pi Lambda Theta publication, Ed Horizons, on African American students in
public schools in the September 2002 issue
http://www.pilambda.org/horizons/v80-4/v80index.htm
Center for Multicultural Education, University of Washington, Seattle
Research on Successful K-12 Programs, including the Algebra Project,
AVID, and others
http://depts.washington.edu/centerme/k-12.htm
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NOTES:
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM
An Introduction
Integrated or interdisciplinary curriculum—the terms are used interchangeably in this collection,
though there are various distinctions made by others within the field—has enjoyed renewed
attention in recent years. Many fine small schools have worked hard to develop an integrated
curriculum that is contextualized for their students, their community, and their school, district, or
state standards. Small school staff are drawn to integrated curriculum because they believe it both
reflects real-world experience more accurately and better fits newer understandings about how
people learn best.
Integration is around us everywhere in society and in nature. Most contemporary jobs require the
integration of a range of skills. In today’s workforce, we are given a problem and asked to solve
it, often with guidance but infrequently with direct instruction. The “test” is whether or not the
problem gets solved. In traditional schools students are given a set of facts, asked to memorize
them, but then are not given the opportunity to apply them in a way that is applicable to life
outside of the school. Disconnection breeds apathy while integration thrives on connections.
Integrated learning more accurately approximates the lives of human beings when they are not in
schools.
What sometimes comes to mind when teachers think of integrated curriculum is two teachers
combining their classes and teaching their subject-specific material in the same room at the same
time. Although team teaching is an effective way to familiarize oneself with the work of a
colleague and to begin helping students make connections between subjects, it is only a beginning
to the integration process. A fully integrated curriculum combines disciplines in a synergistic
manner that makes the knowledge of one subject inseparable from that of another subject, with
division occurring only in the teaching of sophisticated content or vocabulary.
Disciplines—the “subjects” we teach—are artificial constructs that serve effectively as organizers
and reservoirs of human knowledge. Most people, however, learn in quite different ways. Three
key understandings seem critical here:
•
•
•
We learn by connecting new information to familiar information, which is almost always
organized idiosyncratically by individuals, not neatly in a discipline.
For almost everyone, learning is social—it requires watching and interacting with
others—before it is individual.
Relevance is critical for most learners—that is, we need to see something useful in new
information before we expend the energy to integrate new information with existing
knowledge.
Integrated curriculum—because it is frequently presented in the form of thematic approaches,
often requires project-based learning and flexible student groupings, and usually highlights
relationships between and among important concepts that cross disciplinary lines—can serve as a
powerful aspect of a school’s approach to learning.
Schools that have had little exposure to integrated curriculum have much to gain. By mapping out
the current curriculum and sharing with one another, revelations are likely to occur. Overlap of
materials will be found, gaps in content will become clear, and opportunities for crossdisciplinary work will become apparent. Once teachers are aware of one another’s work, and the
science curriculum is no longer a mystery to the English teacher, the space for integrated teaching
and learning is created.
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM
This section is divided into three parts: Why Integrate, How to Integrate, and What Integration
Looks Like. Why Integrate focuses on the history of integration, different models of integration,
and what practitioners in the field have to say about integration. How to Integrate takes the reader
step-by-step through the planning of an integrated curriculum, from four of the leading voices in
curriculum integration. What Integration Looks Like is a sampling of integrated projects from
schools across the country that have effectively utilized integrated teaching.
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
WHY INTEGRATE CURRICULUM
Ten Methodologies for Integration
183
Integrated Curriculum: A Research Study
189
21st Century Mathematics Education
198
The Science Curriculum Sequence
204
A District that Puts Physics First
206
HOW TO INTEGRATE CURRICULUM
Planning for Curriculum Integration
210
Integrated Units: A Planning Guide from High Tech High
214
Planning Integrated Curriculum: The Call to Adventure
233
Developing Curriculum Across the Disciplines
243
Criteria for Promising Practice
247
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM
WHAT INTEGRATION LOOKS LIKE
READINGS
Experiencing Math Through Nature
251
Dream House Project
255
The Boat Project
260
The Ultra 5000 Project
266
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
Integration of the Disciplines: Ten Methodologies for Integration
Dr. Mark L. Merickel
Oregon State University
http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/ed555/zone3/tenways.htm
Adapted from Integrating Curricula with Multiple Intelligences: Teams,
Themes, and Threads,
By Robin Fogarty and Judy Stoehr (1995)
This resource is based on the work of Robin Fogarty and Judy Stoehr from
their book, Integrating Curricula with Multiple Intelligences: Teams,
Themes, and Threads. Dr. Merickel’s expansion on their work gives detailed
descriptions of the ten models and helps the reader visualize the difference
between the methodologies.
Fogarty and Stoehr’s ten views for integrating curriculum are the most
frequently used planning models in the field. The ten views define different
types of integration examples and various configurations for designing
integrated curriculum. As a teacher, a teaching team, or a whole staff, the
models are a means of assessing current practice, mapping out a course of
action for future integration, and evaluating a new integrated class or unit.
Form One: Within a Single Discipline
Fragmented
The fragmented methodology is a traditional
curriculum design which separates topics and courses
into distinct disciplines. In this model courses are
separated into traditional areas of study:
mathematics, science, humanities, social studies, art,
technical arts, etc. Each area is defined as an
independent course of study. At the middle, secondary and post-secondary
levels these courses are generally taught by different teachers, in different
locations or rooms, and students commonly move from classroom to
classroom.
Despite the fragmentation of this methodology, integration can begin by
listing and ranking topics, concepts, and skills to systematically organize
curricular priorities within each subject.
Connected
A connected methodology focuses on the details,
subtleties, and interconnections within an individual
discipline. It is this focus on making connections
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
(i.e., one topic to another, one skill to another, or one concept to another)
which makes this methodology a simple form of integration. To make this an
effective integration methodology, it is recommended that the instructor
assist students with connecting one day's work, or a semester's work and
ideas, to the next.
It is important to the concept of integration that this methodology directly
relates ideas within a discipline. Teachers help students make connections by
explicitly making linkages between subject topics, skills, and concepts.
Nested
Nested integration takes advantage of natural
combinations. Integration is performed by overtly
making connections or creating combinations. This
could be accomplished in a lesson on the circulatory
system by having the lesson focus on both the
circulatory system and the concept of systems.
Form Two: Across the Disciplines
Sequenced Model
Topics and units are taught independently, but they
are arranged and sequenced to provide a framework
for related concepts.
Teachers arrange topics so that similar units
articulate. For example, a graphing unit can coincide
with data collection in a weather unit. In higher education, the teacher could
plan units so that students can study the stock market in a math class at the
same time that these same students are studying the Depression in their
history class.
In order for this type of integration to take place, it is often necessary that the
teachers in both classes plan the sequence of their units so that they will be
synchronized. This may mean that the teachers will need to change the
sequence of topics contained in the courses textbooks.
"The textbook is not a moral contract that teachers are obliged to
teach...teachers are obliged to teach [students]."
- John Adams
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
Shared
The shared model brings two distinct disciplines
together into a single focus. The shared methodology
overlaps concepts as the organizer.
In this shared approach to integration it is necessary
that the teachers of the two disciplines plan their
teaching, which will take place in the individual classes together.
The two members of this "partnership" (possibly cross-departmental) plan
the unit of study by focusing on common topics, concepts and skills. As the
"team" identifies these commonalities, they identify overlaps in content.
The partners should examine what concepts and skills the topics and unit(s)
have in common.
Webbed
Webbed curricula commonly use a thematic approach
to integrate subject matter. Broad themes such as
change, cultures, discovery, environments,
interaction, inventions, power, systems, time and
work provide a greater opportunity for teachers of
various disciplines to find common topics, concepts
and skills.
Themes may be created which address different concentrations. Three of
these are concepts, topics and categories. A few examples include:
Concentrations for Integration
Concepts
Change
Culture
Discovery
Freedom
Topics
Community
Partnerships
Relationships
Society
Categories
Adventure
Biographies
Medieval Times
Science Fiction
Webbing:
Webbing is a systematic process for recording brainstorming. The process
involves all the members of the integrated team, and is used to determine the
topics, concepts and skills to be addressed in the curriculum.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
The illustration shown below is a simple example of a web for the theme:
CHANGE
Brainstorming:
There are many procedures for brainstorming and recording the process. No
matter which process is used, there are a few guidelines which make
brainstorming more effective.
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Generate as many ideas as possible.
Accept all ideas.
Seek clarification, if necessary, but do not edit at this stage.
Encourage people to brainstorm on their own before contributing to a
common pool of ideas.
Remember that brainstorming is an open-ended exercise. At any
time, new ideas or directions may be introduced.
Do not close down the process too soon. Provide ample thinking
time.
Threaded
The threaded approach to integration is a
metacurricular approach where big ideas are enlarged.
This methodology threads thinking skills, social
skills, study skills, graphic organizers, technology,
and multiple intelligences (see Howard Gardner)
approach to thinking throughout all disciplines.
The threaded approach supersedes all subject matter content. Using this
approach, interdepartmental teams can focus on thinking skills to integrate
with content information.
The threaded approach takes learning to a synthesis level. That is, teachers
incorporate into their teaching strategies such techniques as inquiry and self-
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
reflection. For example, a teacher may ask the student: what do you think
about that? Or, what thinking skills did you use and find most helpful in
solving the problem?
Integrated
In an integrated methodology interdisciplinary topics
are arranged around overlapping concepts and
emergent patterns. This process blends the disciplines
by finding overlapping skills, concepts, and attitudes
found across the disciplines.
Much like the shared methodology, integration is a result of shifting related
ideas out of the subject matter content. An important process of the
integrated methodology is that teachers work together on the topics or themes
as commonalities emerge.
Form Three: Within and Across Learners
Immersed
The immersed methodology focuses all curricular
content on interest and expertise. With this
methodology, integration takes place within the
learners, with little or no outside intervention.
For example, students such as doctoral candidates are
generally immersed in a field of study. These students integrate all
information and data to answer a question or interest or solve a problem. This
immersed study is often undertaken in a field of intense interest or passion.
Similarly, a young child will immerse themselves in drawing pictures or
writing stories about subjects which they are extremely interested. This is
normal behavior which is often viewed by teachers as obsessive and
therefore diverted.
Just as most artists and writers have a passion for their field, immersed
learners continually make connections between their chosen topic of interest
and subjects. Immersion takes advantage of this intense interest and allows
students to make these connections and self-direct their learning based on
those interests.
Networked
A networked methodology creates multiple
dimensions and directions of focus. Like
brainstorming, it provides various ideas and ways of
discovering.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
The networked methodology is totally student centered. It professes that only
the learner can direct the integration process. The methodology proposes that
the learner knows their topic and can self-direct their focus on the necessary
resources both within and across subject areas.
Networks are created between the learner and various information systems,
subject matter experts, and others who have an interest, experience or
knowledge of the topic or theme.
“Only in education, never in the life of the farmer, sailor, merchant,
physician, or laboratory experimenter, does knowledge mean primarily a
store of information aloof from doing.”
- John Dewey
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
Integrated Curriculum
Kathy Lake
Northwest Regional Education Laboratory’s
School Improvement Research Series
http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/8/c016.html
For those educators who want to analyze the research done on integrating
curriculum, this report by Kathy Lake explicates the theory, history, and
evidence behind the argument for integrated curriculum. The references that
follow the article are also helpful to review.
“The integrated curriculum is a great gift to experienced teachers. It's like
getting a new pair of lenses that make teaching a lot more exciting and help
us look forward into the next century. It is helping students take control of
their own learning.”
- M. Markus, media specialist, quoted in Shoemaker, September 1991, p. 797
“I'm learning more in this course, and I'm doing better than I used to do when
social studies and English were taught separately.”
- Student, quoted in Oster 1993, p. 28
This teacher and student express an increasingly widespread enthusiasm for
curriculum integration. While not necessarily a new way of looking at
teaching, curriculum integration has received a great deal of attention in
educational settings. Based both in research and teachers' own anecdotal
records of success, educational journals are reporting many examples of
teachers who link subject areas and provide meaningful learning experiences
that develop skills and knowledge, while leading to an understanding of
conceptual relationships.
Definitions
Integrated curriculum, interdisciplinary teaching, thematic teaching,
synergistic teaching.... When attempting to define integrated curriculum, it is
also necessary to look at related terms. Several definitions are offered here.
As this paper is narrowed to K-12 integrated curriculum, definitions from
vocational and higher education are not included, although there is a growing
interest in both of those areas in the interdisciplinary, integrated curriculum.
The reader interested in specifics about interdisciplinary work in those fields
is invited to consult the General References at the end of this report.
A basic definition is offered by Humphreys (Humphreys, Post, and Ellis
1981) when he states, "An integrated study is one in which children broadly
explore knowledge in various subjects related to certain aspects of their
environment" (p. 11). He sees links among the humanities, communication
arts, natural sciences, mathematics, social studies, music, and art. Skills and
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
knowledge are developed and applied in more than one area of study. In
keeping with this thematic definition, Shoemaker defines an integrated
curriculum as
...education that is organized in such a way that it cuts across subject-matter
lines, bringing together various aspects of the curriculum into meaningful
association to focus upon broad areas of study. It views learning and teaching
in a holistic way and reflects the real world, which is interactive. (1989, p. 5)
Within this framework there are varied levels of integration, as illustrated by
Palmer (1991, p. 59), who describes the following practices:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Developing cross-curriculum sub-objectives within a given
curriculum guide
Developing model lessons that include cross-curricular activities and
assessments
Developing enrichment or enhancement activities with a crosscurricular focus including suggestions for cross-curricular "contacts"
following each objective
Developing assessment activities that are cross-curricular in nature
Including sample planning wheels in all curriculum guides.
Dressel's definition goes beyond the linking of subject areas to the creation of
new models for understanding the world:
In the integrative curriculum, the planned learning experiences not only
provide the learners with a unified view of commonly held knowledge (by
learning the models, systems, and structures of the culture) but also motivate
and develop learners' power to perceive new relationships and thus to create
new models, systems, and structures. (1958, pp. 3-25)
Another term that is often used synonymously with integrated curriculum is
interdisciplinary curriculum. Interdisciplinary curriculum is defined in the
Dictionary of Education as "a curriculum organization which cuts across
subject-matter lines to focus upon comprehensive life problems or broad
based areas of study that brings together the various segments of the
curriculum into meaningful association" (Good 1973). The similarity
between this definition and those of integrated curriculum is clear. Jacobs
defines interdisciplinary as "a knowledge view and curricular approach that
consciously applies methodology and language from more than one
discipline to examine a central theme, issue, problem, topic, or experience"
(1989, p. 8). This view is supported by Everett, who defines interdisciplinary
curriculum as one that "combines several school subjects into one active
project since that is how children encounter subjects in the real worldcombined in one activity."
These definitions support the view that integrated curriculum is an
educational approach that prepares children for lifelong learning. There is a
strong belief among those who support curriculum integration that schools
must look at education as a process for developing abilities required by life in
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
the twenty-first century, rather than discrete, departmentalized subject matter.
In general, all of the definitions of integrated curriculum or interdisciplinary
curriculum include:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
A combination of subjects
An emphasis on projects
Sources that go beyond textbooks
Relationships among concepts
Thematic units as organizing principles
Flexible schedules
Flexible student groupings.
Several authors have gone beyond a single definition of curriculum
integration to a continuum of integration. Fogarty has described ten levels of
curricula integration (1991). The following chart summarizes some of her
work. The reader who is interested in a more complete explanation is referred
to Fogarty's book, The Mindful School.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
This work has been supported by others involved with the implementation of
curriculum integration (Jacobs 1989; Shoemaker 1989). These
differentiations may move from two teachers teaching the same topic but in
their own separate classes (e.g., both English and history teachers teaching
about the same period of history), to team design of thematic units, to
interdisciplinary courses or thematic units, to a fully integrated curriculum,
which is also referred to as synergistic teaching. Bonds, Cox, and GanttBonds (1993) write:
Synergistic teaching goes beyond the blurring of subject area lines to a
process of teaching whereby all the school subjects are related and taught in
such a manner that they are almost inseparable. What is learned and applied
in one area of the curriculum is related and used to reinforce, provide
repetition, and expand the knowledge and skills learned in other curriculum
areas. This process of synergistic teaching allows the student to quickly
perceive the relationships between learning in all curriculum areas and its
application throughout each of the school subjects.... Synergistic teaching
does more than integrate; it presents content and skills in such a manner that
nearly all learning takes on new dimensions, meaning, and relevance because
a connection is discerned between skills and content that transcends
curriculum lines. In a synergistic classroom, simultaneous teaching of
concepts and skills without regard to curriculum areas would have a greater
effect that the sum of learning skills and concepts in individual subject areas.
Background
It is taken for granted, apparently, that in time students will see for
themselves how things fit together. Unfortunately, the reality of the situation
is that they tend to learn what we teach. If we teach connectedness and
integration, they learn that. If we teach separation and discontinuity, that is
what they learn. To suppose otherwise would be incongruous. (Humphreys
1981, p. xi).
The subject of curriculum integration has been under discussion off and on
for the last half-century, with a resurgence occurring over the past decade.
The "explosion" of knowledge, the increase of state mandates related to
myriad issues, fragmented teaching schedules, concerns about curriculum
relevancy, and a lack of connections and relationships among disciplines
have all been cited as reasons for a move towards an integrated curriculum
(Jacobs 1989). Almost every teacher has experienced the feeling that "there
just isn't enough time to get it all in" or "the school day just isn't long enough
for all that I'm supposed to do; it seems that every year there are more things
added to the curriculum." This feeling of frustration is one of the motivations
behind development of an integrated curriculum. Teachers see this as part of
the solution to the requirements that pull teachers in different ways.
These forces in contemporary schools are reinforced by Benjamin (1989, pp.
8-16), when he cites the trends towards global interdependence and the
interconnectedness of complex systems, the increase in pace and complexity
of the twenty-first century, the expanding body of knowledge, and the need
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
for workers to have the ability to draw from many fields and solve problems
that involve interrelated factors.
Each of these trends is relevant to the discussion of integrated curriculum, as
schools move away from teaching isolated facts toward a more constructivist
view of learning, which values in-depth knowledge of subjects. This view
finds its basis in the work of Piaget, Dewey, Bruner, and others who hold a
holistic view of learning. Each of these theorists is concerned with children
having an understanding of concepts and underlying structures. Proponents
of the progressive education movement of the 1930s advocated an integrated
curriculum, sometimes identified as the "core curriculum" (Vars 1987). The
movement towards integrated curriculum is a move away from memorization
and recitation of isolated facts and figures to more meaningful concepts and
the connections between concepts. The twenty-first century requirement for a
flexible use of knowledge goes beyond a superficial understanding of
multiple isolated events to insights developed by learning that is connectedor integrated. Perkins advocates teaching for transfer and thoughtful learning
when he states:
A concern with connecting things up, with integrating ideas, within and
across subject matters, and with elements of out-of-school life, inherently is a
concern with understanding in a broader and a deeper sense. Accordingly
there is a natural alliance between those making a special effort to teach for
understanding and those making a special effort toward integrative education
(1991, p.7).
This view supports the notion of curriculum integration as a way of making
education more meaningful. Concerns about national achievement levels and
high dropout rates have put the spotlight on any educational change that can
lead to increased student success. In addition to the realization that
curriculum integration may be an effective element in making education both
manageable and relevant, there is a body of research related to how children
learn that supports curriculum integration. Cromwell (1989) looks at how the
brain processes and organizes information. The brain organizes new
knowledge on the basis of previous experiences and the meaning that has
developed from those experiences. The brain processes many things at the
same time, and holistic experiences are recalled quickly and easily. "The
human brain," writes Shoemaker, "actively seeks patterns and searches for
meaning through these patterns" (p. 13).
This research is supported by Caine and Caine (1991) when they connect
neuro-psychology and educational methodologies and state that the search
for meaning and patterns is a basic process in the human brain. In fact, the
brain may resist learning fragmented facts that are presented in isolation.
Learning is believed to occur faster and more thoroughly when it is presented
in meaningful contexts, with an experiential component. Of course, every
brain-every student-is unique. While the search for patterns and context may
be universal, every learner will have his/her own learning style. To meet
these diverse needs means providing choices for students.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
Put to use in the classroom, the brain research points toward interdisciplinary
learning, thematic teaching, experiential education, and teaching that is
responsive to student learning styles. These finding are summarized by
Shoemaker (1991, pp. 793-797).
The current movement toward an integrated curriculum, then, has its basis in
learning theorists who advocate a constructivist view of learning. There is a
body of brain research that supports the notion that learning is best
accomplished when information is presented in meaningful, connected
patterns. This includes interdisciplinary studies that link multiple curricular
areas. There are many examples in the literature of such efforts by K-12
teachers, as well as those teachers involved in vocational education and
higher education.
Another rationale for curriculum integration finds its basis in the
commonsense wisdom of teachers, who are coping with an increased body of
knowledge, large classes, and many mandates related to everything from
drug awareness to AIDS to bus safety. When all of these requirements are
added to the traditional body of knowledge for which teachers feel
responsible, integration is seen as one way to meet both the needs of the
students and the requirements of the state. The integration of curricular areas
and concepts allows teachers to assist students as they prepare for the next
century.
Finally, the movement toward a global economy and international
connections, as well as the rapid changes in technology, are pushing
education toward integration. The ability to make connections, to solve
problems by looking at multiple perspectives, and to incorporate information
from different fields, will be an essential ingredient for success in the future.
An enduring argument for integration is that it represents a way to avoid the
fragmented and irrelevant acquisition of isolated facts, transforming
knowledge into personally useful tools for learning new information (Lipson,
et al. 1993, p. 252).
Key References
Aschbacher, P. "Humanitas: A Thematic Curriculum." Educational
Leadership 49/2 (1991): 16-19.
Benjamin, S. "An Ideascope for Education: What Futurists Recommend."
Educational Leadership 47/1 (1989): 8-16.
Bonds, C.; Cox, C., III; and Gantt-Bonds, L. "Curriculum Wholeness through
Synergistic Teaching." The Clearing House 66/4 (1993): 252-254.
Brandt, R. "On Interdisciplinary Curriculum: A Conversation with Heidi
Hayes Jacobs." Educational Leadership 49/2 (1991): 24-26.
Brophy, J., and Alleman, J. "A Caveat: Curriculum Integration Isn't Always a
Good Idea." Educational Leadership 49/2 (1991): 66.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
Caine, R., and Caine, G. Making Connections: Teaching and the Human
Brain. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 1991.
Cromwell, S. "A New Way of Thinking: The Challenge of the Future."
Educational Leadership 49/1 (1989): 60-64.
Dressel, P. "The Meaning and Significance of Integration." In The
Integration of Educational Experiences, 57th Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education, edited by Nelson B. Henry. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1958, 3-25.
Edgerton, R. Survey Feedback from Secondary School Teachers that are
Finishing their First Year Teaching from an Integrated Mathematics
Curriculum. Washington, DC, 1990. (ED 328 419)
Fogarty, R. The Mindful School: How to Integrate the Curricula. Palatine,
IL: Skylight Publishing, Inc., 1991.
Friend, H. The Effect of Science and Mathematics Integration on Selected
Seventh Grade Students: Attitudes Toward and Achievement in Science. New
York: New York City Board of Education, 1984.
Gehrke, N. "Explorations of Teachers' Development of Integrative
Curriculums." Journal of Curriculum Supervision 6/2 (1991): 107-112.
Good, C. (Ed.). Dictionary of Education, Third Edition. New York: McGraw
Hill, 1973.
Greene, L. "Science-Centered Curriculum in Elementary School."
Educational Leadership 49/2 (1991): 48-51.
Humphreys, A.; Post, T.; and Ellis, A. Interdisciplinary Methods: A
Thematic Approach. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear Publishing Company,
1981.
Jacobs, H. H. Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
1989.
Levitan, C. "The Effects of Enriching Science by Changing Language Arts
from a Literature Base to a Science Literature Base on Below Average 6th
Grade Readers." Journal of High School Science Research 2/2 (1991): 20-25.
Lipson, M.; Valencia, S.; Wixson, K.; and Peters, C. "Integration and
Thematic Teaching: Integration to Improve Teaching and Learning."
Language Arts 70/4 (1993): 252-264.
195
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
MacIver, D. "Meeting the Need of Young Adolescents: Advisory Groups,
Interdisciplinary Teaching Teams, and School Transition Programs." Phi
Delta Kappan 71/6 (1990): 458-465.
Markus, M., media specialist. Quoted in Shoemaker, B. "Education 2000
Integrated Curriculum." Phi Delta Kappan 72/10 (1991): 797.
Meckler, T. Reading Improvement Using the Health Curriculum. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, San Francisco, CA, April 1992. (ED 254 836)
Oster, L. "Sub-Saharan Africa: An Interdisciplinary Curriculum Unit."
English Journal 82/4 (1993): 24-28.
Palmer, J. "Planning Wheels Turn Curriculum Around." Educational
Leadership 49/2 (1991): 57-60.
Pappas, C. "Focus on Research: Collaborating with Teachers Developing
Integrated Language Arts Programs in Urban Schools." Language Arts 70/4
(1993): 297-303.
Perkins, D. N. "Educating for Insight." Educational Leadership 49/2 (1991):
4-8.
Schmidt, W. Curriculum Integration: Its Use in Language Arts Instruction.
Research Series Number 140. East Lansing, MI: Institute for Research on
Teaching, 1983. (ED 241 942)
Shoemaker, B. "Integrative Education: A Curriculum for the Twenty-First
Century." Oregon School Study Council 33/2 (1989).
Vars, G. A Bibliography of Research on the Effectiveness of Block-Time
Programs. Ithica, NY: Junior High School Project, Cornell University, 1965.
Vars, G. Interdisciplinary Teaching in the Middle Grades: Why and How.
Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association, 1987.
Vye, N. The Effects of Anchored Instruction for Teaching Social Studies:
Enhancing Comprehension of Setting Information. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston,
MA, April 1990. (ED 317 984)
Willett, L. The Efficacy of Using the Visual Arts to Teach Math and Reading
Concepts. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA, April 1992. (ED 348
171)
Williams, D. A Naturalistic Study of Unified Studies: A Holistic High School
Program. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, April 1991. (ED 333 552)
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
Ten Reasons to Teach an Integrated Curriculum
10. Unless you have 50 hours a day to teach, you'll never get it all in.
9. An integrated curriculum allows science and social studies to
frame your reading, writing, and math.
8. The brain thrives on connections.
7. Life is not divided into neat little blocks of time called science,
math, reading, writing, social studies, and recess.
6. Problem solving skills soar when all of our knowledge and higher
level thinking from all curriculum areas are tapped.
5. Real literature in real books provides an authentic diving board
into learning all subjects. Award-winning literature provides
models for problem solving, peer relationships, character
development, and skill building as students are captivated by
exciting adventures with realistic characters who go through
problems very much like their own or problems (like war) from
which they will learn historical truths.
4. School's got it backwards! In real life you are tested with a
problem and then must scramble for answers, but in traditional
school you are given the answers and asked to... regurgitate them.
3. Group interaction and team building inherent in an integrated
curriculum depend on using various strengths and skills to create
bridges to understanding.
2. Your standardized test scores will hit the top! By inspiring
students to think, to love learning, and to put their learning to
work in authentic ways, your kids will be equipped for whatever
curves they might be thrown...on standardized tests and in life!
1.
Students LOVE an integrated curriculum and thrive on its
challenges!
- The Little Red Schoolhouse, 2002
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
Integrated Curriculum:
A Driving Force in 21st-Century Mathematics Education
Judy Spicer
http://www.enc.org/
Judy Spicer has written a succinct study on integrated mathematics that
covers the history of integrated mathematics, the controversy surrounding it,
the testimony to its effectiveness, its challenges, and the outcome on student
learning and teacher satisfaction. Often, the lines dividing the segments of
the high school mathematics curriculum (algebra, geometry, calculus, etc.)
are just as static as those between history and science, or English and art. The
work of Judy Spicer, and others, is about blurring those lines to create a
holistic model for mathematics education.
An integrated high school mathematics curriculum offers an approach to
teaching and learning that is vastly different from the compartmentalized
mathematics curriculum (arithmetic, algebra, geometry, more algebra, and
pre-calculus/calculus) commonly found in U.S. classrooms. The idea is not
new. Major national education groups have issued reports--from the 1893
Committee of Ten Report to NCTM's April 2000 Principles and Standards
for School Mathematics (PSSM)--that have encouraged greater integration of
these subjects. Textbooks that integrate mathematics have been around since
the 1920s (NCTM Yearbook, 2000, p. 2). Support for an integrated
curriculum is strong among leaders in mathematics education.
The controversy comes not from theory but from practice. The arguments
began in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the National Science
Foundation (NSF) funded several major projects to provide models for
integrated mathematics curricula. Implementation of these integrated
curricula raised objections from those to whom the traditional curriculum
was sacrosanct. Disagreement about the integrated curriculum became
interwoven with other controversial issues such as cooperative learning, the
use of technology, alternative assessments, and the teacher-as-a-guide model
of teaching. Thus, the integrated curricula became a focus point of what
came to be known as the math wars.
Many critics of integrated mathematics point out that few teachers are
prepared to handle that kind of curriculum. Teachers who lack a deep
knowledge of the mathematics content may struggle and as a result are
accused of teaching fuzzy mathematics. Lack of teacher preparation is the
principal reason many school districts hesitate to adopt an integrated
mathematics program (Dialogues, 2001).
Nevertheless, calls to the publishers of five NSF-funded integrated curricula
listed on the COMPASS (Curricular Options in Mathematics for All
Secondary Students) web site (www.ithaca.edu/compass/frames.htm)
revealed that these programs were used in more than 1,200 schools in at least
39 states during the 2000-2001 school year. Clearly, teachers all over the
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United States have responded positively to the challenge of teaching an
integrated high school mathematics curriculum. They firmly believe in the
benefits of showing students that mathematics is an integrated whole and
how mathematics relates to the world beyond the classroom.
In researching this article, I corresponded with eight teachers who are finding
success with NSF-funded and publisher-developed integrated mathematics
curricula. Their enthusiasm contradicts today's embattled math-wars
environment.
Re-energized Teachers
A veteran of 35 years of teaching, Rosalie Griffin reports that during the last
10 years she has been re-energized and inspired by a dynamic integrated
curriculum that provides challenges for all students. Griffin notes, "The
changes that occurred from using this curriculum were beyond our
expectations. Not only did student grades improve, but we also received
feedback from students that they finally understood math and could see how
it was used in real life."
The curriculum Griffin uses begins each unit with a real-world word problem
that "really engages students and makes math relevant to daily life. The use
of the graphing calculator made math come alive and provided the power of
visualization of what had previously been presented as a system of symbols
that were abstract and meaningless to students."
She continues, "The thematic threads that weave through the curriculum push
students to look for patterns, make conjectures, and validate findings. This
process enables students to develop higher-level reasoning skills and to
become critical thinkers."
Barbara MacDonald, mathematics department chair with 27 years of
experience, enjoys the student engagement: "Use of real life data allows for
interesting discussions. An integrated curriculum also causes our students to
think more. The hands-on activities make it more difficult for students to just
sit."
In only the second year using the integrated program, Jim Kearns,
department head for math, science, and technology at his high school, is
enthusiastic, "Students who didn't have an understanding of what slope was
in the old curriculum are now describing angle measure by the slope. They
are making connections that I thought were beyond them."
The Challenges
Change is difficult for everyone involved--students, parents, and teachers.
Yet, even as the teachers recognize the challenges, their focus is on the
benefits.
For students, sometimes those who are most successful with traditional
mathematics programs face the greatest challenges with the new. Sandie
Gilliam, National Board Certified Teacher and winner of the Presidential
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Award for Excellence in Mathematics Teaching, explains: "What I find is
that for the students who have previously learned (or so they think) to follow
the teacher's directions, do 20 practice problems, and memorize for the test,
doing the integrated program actually is harder for them. Instead of thinking
deeply into the mathematics to conceptually understand what mathematically
is happening, they feel that the mimicking approach is actually easier. An
integrated program is the best for all students, just like eating vegetables is
very healthy for humans. Many humans hate vegetables and neglect eating
them. In the end, it is their body's health that suffers."
Jim Kearns admits, "The students have had a difficult time transitioning to
the new curriculum series since they were used to memorizing simple
procedures, doing multiple practice problems, and taking tests and quizzes on
a small selection of topics."
Sometimes parents resist the change, notes Helen Crowley. "This curriculum
doesn't look like 'real math' (i.e., the algebra we used to memorize when we
were in school) to parents. It is difficult for many parents to help their
children because they can't find problems in the book that show them how to
do the problems we assign. Also, some tutors find it difficult to tutor students
because they have not been exposed to this type of curriculum before."
Gaby McMillian, a teacher with 10 years experience, describes the
challenges faced by teachers, "Pretty much everything had to change. We had
to change our role in the classroom from in-front lecturer to classroom
facilitator. We had to learn to incorporate technology, specifically the
graphing calculator. We had to manage groups, lead whole-class discussions,
change our questioning techniques, change our ideas about assessment,
change our ideas about how students learn, change our expectations of their
capabilities--and work harder!"
Helen Crowley says, "The real challenge to teaching this way is that you
must be very familiar with the material and willing to risk having students
take you in a direction other than the one you had planned for the lesson.
This is also the most exciting part of using the curriculum because we are
really doing math more often, as opposed to pushing around numbers and
variables."
"Our teachers needed to learn more mathematics," says Barbara MacDonald.
"We needed to work together to explore different topics. The integrated
curriculum forced teachers who taught predominately algebra or geometry to
combine skills. Yes, it takes more work to make the transition, and yes, I am
sure some teachers would like to return to a traditional program. However, in
working through the challenges, our teachers have become a more cohesive
staff with common goals."
The Payoff
Despite the challenges of making the change, the teachers feel that the
integrated curricula are making it possible for them to meet two tightly
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intertwined goals--helping all students achieve mathematics success and
demonstrating that success on high-stakes assessments.
Sandie Gilliam comments, "For the gifted students, who by nature may want
to know why things are happening and how formulas or equations develop,
this program enables them to get deeper into the mathematics than they
would in a traditional program. For the lower-level students who need a
hands-on approach and real-life problems in mathematics to work with, this
program best serves their needs."
Mathematics department chair at the University of Illinois Laboratory High
School, Craig Russell reports, "I see an important benefit to those strong
math students who are committed to lots of non-math activities (music,
sports, hobbies) and who tend to race through homework assignments. The
integrated curriculum makes those students slow down and think about the
problem setting and actually problem solve (the way adults solve problems)
by trying to decide which tools to use."
Gaby McMillian says, "Right now we are seeing a huge increase in the
number of students who opt for the pre-AP course and in the number
enrolling in upper-level classes. We have gone from only seven students in
AP Calculus to 32, and from 19 students in AP Statistics to 99 for the 200102 school year."
McMillian goes on, "All our test scores have gone up. We are seeing much
better understanding of math concepts, as well as retention. Reading is better.
'Word problems' are so much a part of what students do daily that there is no
struggle against them."
Pat McCarthy, a teacher with 12 years experience, observes, "Because scores
for our general math population were low, we were looking to provide a
curriculum to help boost scores at that level. These students are now taking
four years of math. We had a couple of these students take the SAT this year-that never happened when we had just general math."
"As we analyzed the 1998 and 1999 results of our state tests, we noticed that
we had a population of students who failed," says Jim Kearns. "These were
the students who entered high school without completing algebra in grade
eight. For both of these exams, 100 percent of these students failed. We felt
that the traditional approach was not working. After we instituted our
integrated curriculum, these same students found the state test reasonable.
Just to have that feeling of confidence in their math ability is a change from
the notion that they cannot do mathematics."
Rosalie Griffin describes the situation in her inner-city high school: "When I
was named math department chair in 1990, one of my major concerns was to
address the high failure rate of 'lower-level' students enrolled in our two-year
Algebra I course. If a change in curriculum could make a difference, this
group would surely be the test. My inner-city school has struggled with the
challenge of raising test scores especially on the Connecticut Academic
Performance Test (CAPT) given to all sophomores. With the second group of
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
students using integrated curriculum, the top two scores in math on the
CAPT were from our students. Quite an achievement!"
According to Craig Russell, the benefit of an integrated curriculum for statemandated testing depends on the testing program: "High-stakes tests in some
states gear mathematics portions toward problem solving, with rubrics
supporting thought process as well as skill development. To the extent that
that kind of testing becomes prevalent, integrated curricula are well suited to
preparing students for the tests without having to teach to the test. The
opposite would be true for high-stakes tests focusing on low-level factual
knowledge and rote skill demonstration."
Gaby McMillian concludes, "I used our results on our state test to argue for
integrated mathematics. The test is becoming increasingly challenging. It is
also being written to defy short-term test-taking strategies. A student must
have a deeper understanding of the math and a larger toolbox of skills and
problem-solving strategies."
References
National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching. (2000). Before
It's Too Late. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
NCTM. (1992). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School
Mathematics, Addenda Series, Grades 9-12. Reston, VA: Author.
NCTM. (1989). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School
Mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.
NCTM. (January/February 2001). Mathematics Education Dialogues.
Reston, VA: Author.
NCTM. (2000). NCTM Yearbook: Learning Mathematics for a New Century.
Reston, VA: Author.
NCTM. (2000). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston,
VA: Author.
Stigler, James W. & Heibert, James. (1999). The Teaching Gap. New York:
Free Press.
The following teachers contributed to this article by responding to email
from the author. Our thanks to:
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Helen Crowley, Southington High School, Southington, Connecticut
Sandie Gilliam, San Lorenzo Valley High School, Felton, California
Rosalie Griffin, Crosby High School, Waterbury, Connecticut
Jim Kearns, Lynnfield High School, Lynnfield, Massachusetts
Pat McCarthy, Portsmouth High School, Portsmouth, Rhode Island
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
ß
ß
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Barbara MacDonald, North Allegheny Intermediate High School,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Gaby McMillian, Harlandale High School, San Antonio, Texas
Craig Russell, University of Illinois Laboratory High School,
Urbana, Illinois
Former high school mathematics teacher Judy Spicer is senior mathematics
abstractor for ENC.
On aligning curriculum across disciplines:
“We’re growing eucalyptus to see if eucalyptus extract stops the
germination of different seeds like oat, rye, and diachondria. In math class
we’re doing statistics for that experiment, and learning to use Excel so we
can make a graph of our results. Through that I learned about statistics,
which I can use in other things I do. In humanities we’re writing a paper
about our project; and the writing is easier because I actually did it, I’m
not just reporting what someone else did. You could do the experiment,
but if you don’t have your statistics or results, or you can’t read them,
then the project is worthless. Or if you can prove something but not
explain it in writing, then what’s the point of doing it?”
- Monica, student at High Tech High.
Excerpted from the High Tech High Summer Institute handbook (2003)
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
The Science Curriculum Sequence: Leon Lederman's View
Leon Lederman
http://www.enc.org/features/focus/archive/horizons/document.shtm?input=F
OC-002312-lederman,00.shtm
High school science curriculum reform has been building momentum for
quite some time, and lively discussions have ensued. Leon Lederman writes
passionately about his view for the future of high school science, and he
poses salient points that are worthy of discussion within and across
disciplines. The article is followed by an example of a school district that
adopted the ARISE Physics First curriculum, highlighted below, and has
seen positive results.
Suppose you were teaching math and you said, "We are going to start math
with calculus, and then after calculus, we will get down to adding and
subtracting and multiplying and dividing." Anybody who proposed such a
sequence would be arrested, locked up, or otherwise hustled off the scene.
Starting the high school science curriculum with biology is about like starting
the study of mathematics with calculus. Biology is the most complex of all
the basic sciences. An understanding of modern biology depends on an
understanding of the structure of large, complex molecules.
The sciences have a hierarchy based on atoms. That was not known in 1893
when the present sequence--biology, chemistry, and physics--was installed in
our high schools on the recommendation of the Committee of Ten. It is a
comment on how slowly schools change that we are still teaching this 1893
sequence even though the sciences have rushed ahead.
Currently, students forget ninth-grade biology when the exam is over. For
one thing, the course requires them to memorize and regurgitate thousands of
new Latin words, and for another, they don't build on the concepts the
following year. With Physics First (http://www-ed.fnal.gov/arise/arise.html),
students use physics in the following year's chemistry class because almost
every process in chemistry has a physics explanation for it.
There is a tremendous misconception about physics requiring advanced
calculus. In reality, the Physics First sequence allows students to use learning
from Monday's mathematics class in Tuesday's science class. The conceptual
physics courses use ninth-grade algebra to explain, for example, that the
parabolic path of Michael Jordan's basketball shot is the resolution between
throwing the ball and having gravity pull on it. Students can appreciate that
the math that they are learning is useful in their physics class.
In an ideal situation, every Monday, the science, math, and humanities
teachers sit down together for several hours and discuss their coordinated
strategy for the week. The collaboration of these teachers of different
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate
disciplines is necessary because science is connected knowledge, and
knowledge without wisdom is dry as dust.
In addition, the math, physics, chemistry, and biology teachers would sit
down and make a solemn pledge to give up some fraction of the content of
each of their courses. What you want to teach in addition to the content is the
process of science; some of its history; why it works. What we want our
young people to remember is the "science way" of thinking because they will
forget many of the details.
Let me finally add that a slowly growing number of schools are
experimenting with reordering the sequence. They overwhelmingly report
greatly enhanced enrollment in science electives.
Leon Lederman, winner of the 1988 Nobel Prize for Physics, is director
emeritus of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois. In the
field of education, he founded and chairs a professional development
program for primary school teachers in the Chicago Public Schools. This
initiative is now being replicated in inner-city schools in East St. Louis and
Joliet, Illinois. Lederman has been instrumental in creating the Illinois
Mathematics and Science Academy, a residential public high school for
gifted children. For more information about the Physics First curriculum,
visit the web site (www-ed.fnal.gov/arise/arise.html).
References
The Essential Ted Sizer. (1996, December 4). Education Week, Retrieved
July 2, 2001:
www.edweek.org/ew/ewstory.cfm?slug=14sizer2.h16&keywords=%22com
mittee%20of%20ten%22
United States Bureau of Education. (1893). Report of the Committee on
Secondary School Studies. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
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A District That Puts Physics First
Kenneth Roy
http://www.enc.org/features/focus/archive/horizons/document.shtm?input=F
OC-002313-index,00.shtm
Kenneth Roy, K-12 Director of Science and Safety for Glastonbury,
Connecticut Public Schools, talks about how his district implemented the
Physics First program (http://www-ed.fnal.gov/arise/arise.html). They started
out with an initial pilot program in 1997 and have since expanded it to
include the entire high school science program. Although Physics First is not
a model that integrates across disciplines (it would be in the Nested or
Sequenced stage of Robin Fogarty and Judy Stoehr’s Integration Models), it
does align the 4-year high school science curriculum in a cohesive manner
that would be a logical first step toward integration with other disciplines
(particularly mathematics).
A Call to Change
Beginning with A Nation at Risk (1983), direction for change in science
education has been provided by national educational reform movements and
reports such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS) Project 2061 (1989), National Science Teachers Association
(NSTA) Scope, Sequence, and Coordination project (1996), and the National
Science Education Standards (1996). One reform movement that directly
addresses high school curriculum sequencing is the American Renaissance in
Science Education (ARISE).
Based in part on the tenets of other national reform movements, ARISE
asserts that knowledge of physics fosters learning in chemistry. In turn,
knowledge in chemistry fosters learning in biology. In effect, ARISE
proposes to reverse the traditional model of the secondary science curriculum
sequence.
In 1996, my school district, the Glastonbury, Connecticut, Public Schools,
explored the ARISE approach to secondary science education. Although this
approach is controversial, we were convinced that it had merit. We felt it
would expose students to major concepts in all the sciences in addition to
fostering better understanding of the relationship between the sciences.
The science department began by designing a five-year pilot program for
high-achieving students (see Table 1) compares the traditional program in
grades 8 to 12 with the pilot program modeled after the ARISE approach. If
the pilot proved to be successful, we planned to change to the science
program for the entire school population.
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Results of the Pilot Program
Since the initiation of the program, the first group of pilot program students
has successfully taken Conceptual Physics in grade 8, level I Chemistry in
grade 9, Advanced Placement (AP) Biology in grade 10, and AP Chemistry
in grade 11. As of this writing, grade 12 students are enrolled in the new,
two-credit AP Physics course.
The first three years of the pilot have produced positive results by increasing
students' exposure to the physical sciences. For example, the number of
students taking AP Chemistry jumped from 22 in 1997-98 to 48 in 2000-01.
The program also allows students to take more science courses. They now
have the opportunity to take three years of AP coursework in science or other
science electives (see Table 2).
Another benefit of the program is the increasing involvement of girls in our
school's science program. Since we instituted Physics First, enrollment in the
10th-grade AP Biology class increased from 26 percent female to 54 percent
female. AP Chemistry class enrollment for grade 11 increased from 33
percent female to 48 percent female students. I believe part of the reason for
this change is that all students in grade 8 are now introduced to Conceptual
Physics. This introduction allows girls to gain more confidence--they know
they can do the work.
Various assessments have indicated that students in the pilot program have
achieved well beyond anyone's expectations. For example, in 1999-2000,
Glastonbury Public Schools was the sole recipient of the AP Regional Award
for New England. This award was based on the facts that Glastonbury
students had the highest increase in numbers taking the test and the highest
increases in individual scores.
Plans are now being made to expand the Physics First program to include
students at all achievement levels. Over the next three years, the total science
program will take on the curriculum profile outlined in Table 2, providing all
pilots are successful and approval is secured from the board of education.
There is much optimism in our district about the new science curriculum
model and its potential to improve science education for all students.
Table 1. Original Proposal: Science Sequence for High-Achievement
Students
Grade
Grade 8
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
Program Before 1997
General Science
Biology level I
Chemistry level I
Physics or elective
Physics or AP elective
Pilot Program (1997-2001)
Conceptual Physics
Chemistry level I
AP Biology
AP Chemistry
AP Physics
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Table 2. Second Phase: Physics-First Sequence for All Students
Grade 8
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12
Conceptual Physics
Conceptual Chemistry or College
Preparatory Chemistry
Conceptual Biology or College
Preparatory Biology or AP Biology
College Preparatory Chemistry or AP
Chemistry or Science Electives
College Preparatory Physics or AP
Physics or Science Electives
Electives include Anatomy & Physiology, Botany, Genetics, Geology,
Meteorology, Oceanology, and more.
Resources
American Association for the Advancement of Science: Project 2061. (1989).
Science for All Americans. New York: Oxford University Press.
Bardeen, Marjorie & Lederman, Leon. (1998). Coherence in Science
Education. Science, 281, 178-179.
Lederman, Leon. (1999). A Science Way of Thinking. Education Week,
18(40), 1-3.
National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at Risk:
The Imperative for Educational Reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Education. Retrieved May 22, 2001:
www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/title.html
National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
National Science Teachers Association. (1996). Scope, Sequence, and
Coordination: A Framework for High School Science Education. Arlington,
VA: Author.
Kenneth R. Roy is K-12 director of Science and Safety for Glastonbury,
Connecticut Public Schools. He also is an author/columnist for numerous
professional publications; he and co-author Malcolm Cheney contributed the
article "Teaching in an Equitable--and Safe--Science Laboratory" to a
previous issue of ENC Focus.
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Why try interdisciplinary teaching?
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To Promote Collaboration: Many teachers are seeking the
opportunity to collaborate with others. Many teachers also value
the chance to collaborate with their students and to get to know
them better through a joint endeavor. Teachers are also searching
for easy ways to get kids working with each other in healthy,
cooperative learning in order to build social skills and class
morale.
To Reflect the Real World: Because an interdisciplinary study
is a reflection of the real world, students become more interested
and motivated in their learning. This kind of learning involves
and engages students positively. They understand the need to
learn a skill and to apply it. Thus students can readily develop a
life-long love of learning.
To Try an Exciting Approach: Many teachers responded that
teaching in a new and different way is exciting. Teaching an
interdisciplinary course is not only very interesting for them, but
also engaging for their students.
To Connect School Subjects: Making connections between a
schools’ often artificial categories or disciplines makes sense to
teachers and students. This “whole” topic approach can actually
cover more in greater depth as well as fill in the gaps between
subjects. The flow of study also provides meaningful continuity
through an unlimited number of ongoing activities.
To Have Fun: Some teachers noted that a good motivator for an
interdisciplinary study is simply to have fun. This kind of course
can regenerate enthusiasm for learning. Teachers and students
can enjoy their unity activities, and celebrate learning.
To Motivate Self: Just teaching an interdisciplinary study can be
its own motivation. The challenge of developing something new
can be an intensely rewarding experience. Improving oneself as a
teacher is the goal.
To Involve the Community: The opportunity to garner
community support also encourages some teachers to pursue an
interdisciplinary study. By involving community resources with
the school in a special project, positive public relations can result
for both.
To Respond to Collegial and Administrative Support: A very
few respondents indicated that their teaching situations already
offered collegial support for teaching an interdisciplinary unit. To
take advantage of that encouragement was a worthy reason to
pursue this approach.
- Ken Bergstrom, Goddard College, Plainfield, VT
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Planning for Curriculum Integration
Heidi Hayes Jacobs
Excerpted from the Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development’s Educational Leadership, October 1991
http://www.ascd.org/cms/index.cfm?TheViewID=353
Heidi Hayes Jacobs is a leading voice in curriculum integration, and this
article emphasizes the necessity to take things slowly so that curriculum
integration becomes a lasting, strong, staple part of the school culture. Her
four-phased integration plan outlines the time frame, tasks, and goals of the
process in an uncomplicated, informed manner. Although Jacobs discusses
integration at the district level, small schools have the opportunity to
condense the 4-year timeline because of their ability to devote more time to
planning and less time to developing proposals for district approval, resulting
in quicker implementation.
To develop an interdisciplinary curriculum, a district needs an action plan.
Here is such a plan, based on extensive field work. The plan’s four phases –
conducting internal and external action research, developing a proposal,
implementing and monitoring a pilot unit, and adopting the program – can be
accomplished over a three-year period.
Phase I: Conducting Action Research
The time frame for carrying out research is six months to a year. During this
phase, staff members concentrate on learning more about their current
curriculum as well as about best practices from the field.
Internal research. Research is conducted internally by small groups of
teachers assembled by grade levels, departments, or interdisciplinary teams.
Using the school calendar, they plot month-by-month the units of study they
teach. If each teacher comes prepared with his or her individual monthly
outline, compiling the information takes only a few hours.
With information for an entire year at their fingertips, teachers can: (1)
discover when students are studying various units in their subjects; (2) align
subjects that would mutually benefit from concurrent teaching (Jacobs 1989);
(3) eliminate repetition from year to year; (4) identify possibilities for
multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary units of study (Jacobs 1989); and (5)
target units that lend themselves to performance-based assessment of specific
skills and concepts.
External research. External research extends staff members’ awareness of
relevant work in the larger education community. Through conferences,
readings, site visits, in-service courses, and voluntary study groups, they
study best practices and options for curriculum reform. Regional service
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centers, state education departments, national education organizations, and
universities are excellent sources for learning about desirable practices.
Topics that teachers often choose for further research include team building,
curriculum design, scheduling alternatives, evaluation approaches, and
writing across the content areas.
Investigation of these areas can be helpful to teachers as they develop
interdisciplinary programs.
Phase II: Developing a Proposal
Phase two, proposal development, usually take from two to four months
during the first year of planning. One of the first tasks is to assess potential
areas for multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary units.
For their first effort, most schools decide to upgrade an existing unit of study
through collaboration between disciplines. The length of the pilot is usually
from two to six weeks. If the proposal is to be effective, the most motivated
and capable staff members should be involved in this design. Further, the
proposal should specify evaluation procedures, budget, timelines, and
teachers’ responsibilities.
Two dangers inherent in a pilot are its experimental cast and its peripheral
nature (Jacobs 1989). A strong long-term agenda can allay these problems.
Creating an interdisciplinary proposal should not be seen as an enrichment
event; ultimately, the goal is for the pilot to become part of the program, not
a passing experience. As a middle school teacher put it, “We’re going to try
this science and English unit on the ethics of experimentation because we
believe it’s better than what we’re doing now separately.”
After the proposal has been written and reviewed at the building and district
levels, it’s time to try the unit in the classroom.
Phase III: Implementing and Monitoring the Pilot
The third phase, implementing and monitoring the pilot unit, take place
during the second year of the plan. Most units run from two to six weeks.
During the pilot, teachers evaluate decision-making procedures, relationships
between team members, time allotted for implementation, adequacy of
resource materials, and political considerations. A frequent outcome of their
efforts, according to teachers, is the satisfaction of collegial collaboration.
As Leiberman and Miller suggest, “it is the personal interaction rather than
instructional interaction that is most valued” (1990, p. 159).
The group members also meet regularly to assess the impact of the pilot unit
on students. If they have devised outcome-based assessments for the pilot,
they now have critical feedback about student growth.
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The key to the pilot’s success is the data collected through the monitoring
procedures. From this wealth of information, the staff then plans revisions to
the unit’s design or to conditions that influence its effectiveness.
Phase IV: Adopting the Program
During the third year of the plan, staff members are prepared to make
revisions to the program, based on the data collected in the pilot phase, and
then adopt it as a permanent part of the curriculum. There is not time in a
school year to add more curriculum. So, in order to adopt the pilot, they
must replace whatever was offered previously. For example, the high school
course guide will now state that there is a 9th grade Humanities course rather
than separate English, social studies, and arts courses. A pilot can easily
dissipate unless it is elevated to program status.
Looking Ahead
Eventually, staff members will want to examine the new unit for ways to
expand it throughout the system. Over two to three years, schools can make
steady and meaningful curriculum reform. A successful interdisciplinary
pilot can spearhead systematic examination of scheduling, teaming, and
evaluation procedures.
By following as action plan based on solid research, a powerful pilot, and
thoughtful monitoring, district planners can guide a unit through to
successful program adoption.
References
Jacobs, H. H. (1989). “Design Options for an Integrated Curriculum.” In
Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation, edited by H. H.
Jacobs, pp. 13-24. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Leiberman A., and L. Miller. (1990). “The Social Realities of Teaching.” In
Schools as Collaborative Cultures: Creating the Future Now, edited by A
Leiberman. Bristol, Pa.: Falmer Press.
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Dr. Heidi Hayes Jacobs, president of Curriculum Designers, Inc., has served
as an educational consultant to thousands of schools nationally and
internationally. She works with schools and districts, K-12, on issues and
practices pertaining to: curriculum reform, instructional strategies to
encourage critical thinking, and strategic planning. Her book,
Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation, published by
ASCD, has been a best seller. In spring of 1997, her book, Mapping the Big
Picture: Integrating Curriculum and Assessment K-12, was released by
ASCD.
Example of Calendar Curriculum Mapping
English/
Language Arts
February
March
April
May
June
Sarah, Plain and
Wilson’s Letter
Diary of Anne
Tall
and Diaries of
Frank
Immigrants
Social Studies
The Westward
Movement
The Industrial
Revolution;
World War I
World War II
Mathematics
Fractions
Roman Numerals
Metrics
Compare Bases
Science
Matter and
Energy
Electricity
Weather
Percents
Geometric
Shapes
Scale Area
Magnetism
Weather
Art
Color;
Western
Landscapes
Shape;
Cubists, Picasso,
Gris
Photography;
Documentary
Purposes
A 6th grade team begins interdisciplinary planning by plotting the topics
teachers teach month-by-month
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Integrated Units: A Planning Guide for Teachers
High Tech High
San Diego, California
http://www.hightechhigh.org/
High Tech High’s Integrated Units: A Planning Guide for Teachers is a stepby-step guide to defining, planning, and carrying out an integrated unit. With
plenty of examples, such as the project The Environment: Love it or lose it,
the process of integrating is demystified and can be seen as a doable,
enjoyable teaching and learning opportunity.
San Diego’s Gary and Jerri-Ann Jacobs High Tech High (HTH) is founded
on three design principles: personalization, adult-world connection, and a
common intellectual mission. To actualize those principals in the classroom,
HTH has made discipline integration a high priority because HTH believes
integration fosters adult-world connections and a more realistic reflection of
society and nature.
High Tech High’s Integrated Units: A Planning Guide for Teachers places
an emphasis on the specific teacher preparation involved in integrating
curriculum. Step One helps teachers define the learning goals to be met
through the integrated curriculum. Step Two assists teachers in generating a
theme, or themes, that align with the learning goals. Step Three includes a
web diagram to assist in mapping out the components of multiple disciplines
while keeping the generative themes developed in Step two at the forefront.
While the guide is practical, it leaves space for staff to modify and cater the
tools to their specific setting.
The Environment: Love it or lose it project example puts the planning steps
into action and addresses six disciplines, but to varying degrees of challenge.
The degree to which an integrated project covers discipline-specific content
should be kept in mind so that if key concepts are not covered in one unit,
they can be incorporated into another.
The guide concludes with teacher and student evaluations of the integrated
unit to assess what went well and what can be improved on in future units.
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Planning Integrated Curriculum: The Call to Adventure
Susan M. Drake
http://www.ascd.org/readingroom/books/drake93book.html
Susan Drake has aided in demystifying the integrating process in her book,
Planning Integrated Curriculum (1993). The following is a sampling of her
material that focuses on the development and planning of an integrated
school system. She has also written Creating Integrated Curriculum: Proven
Ways to Increase Student Learning (1998), available through Corwin Press
(http://www.corwinpress.com/).
Chapter 1. Exploring the Process
For the past three years I have been deeply involved in the process of
creating integrated curriculum as a developer, implementor, workshop leader,
and researcher. Talking to people involved in similar endeavors, I invariably
met rolled eyes, groans, and epithets such as "a nightmare," "impossible," or
"a battle." The consensus seemed clear: developing integrated curriculum
collaboratively was a challenge in the best sense of the word. But as I
followed different teams at different points in the process, I was fascinated to
discover that the "impossible nightmares" faded and were replaced by much
more positive interpretations once a writing team actually began to
implement integrated curriculum. The team could then go on to plan the next
units with some degree of ease, and everyone could begin to talk about how
rewarding the experience had been.
These teams seemed to have forgotten most of their initial struggles. Their
stories matched my own experiences so well, I began to wonder whether
there were universal aspects that most people might expect to experience
when undertaking such an endeavor. By listening to others, could I identify
commonalities that would lead to a clearer understanding of the problems
involved in planning integrated curriculum? These questions intrigued me
and led me to further explore the process of developing integrated
curriculum.
Making Sense of Curriculum Integration
Is there really a need to develop integrated curriculum, or is it just another
passing fad? This question deserves to be examined carefully. We live in a
global world characterized by ever-accelerating change, technological
advances, a knowledge explosion, changing economic and social realities,
and, perhaps, impending environmental disaster. The educational system
seems to be constantly under attack. Critics claim that students are dropping
out at an alarming rate. Those who stay in school are not doing well enough
to be able to compete in a global economy and maintain a high standard of
living.
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In many districts there has been a demand for a restructuring in education to
shift it to decentralization and site-based management. Teachers have been
empowered as decision makers; this includes curriculum development. This
shift has often led teachers to integrate the traditional subject areas because it
made sense to those educators at the grassroots level.
It is important to understand the context of integration as an idea with an
intellectual history. Disciplines were artificially created by humans to
organize their world, and were often defined by political needs (Beane 1991).
Eisner (1992) points out that as early as the 1920s the progressive movement
in education advocated curricular integration through themes because
proponents believed the disciplines prevented students from seeing the
relationships between subjects and therefore decreased the content's
relevance. In the '60s, based on Jerome Bruner's (1960) concept of
curriculum development, there was a shift to discipline-oriented curriculums
where the structure of the discipline was considered to be the facilitator for
the storage and retrieval of knowledge. Still, many students today move from
science to history to math classes and are taught in a fragmented,
disconnected way that has little resemblance to real life.
Today, some people criticize educators for not adequately teaching basic
skills; others argue that the basic skills students will need for the 21st century
are not the same skills that we are now teaching. The knowledge component
of virtually every subject area is proliferating at an ever-increasing rate.
Paradoxically, as distinct subject areas become overloaded, a surprising
amount of duplication is occurring across classrooms. Educators are caught
in a dilemma. Integration, by reducing duplication of both skills and content,
begins to allow us to teach more. It also gives us a new perspective on what
constitutes basic skills.
The concept of integrated curriculum makes sense for other reasons. Students
who drop out perceive little relevance in school life. Integration connects
subject areas in ways that reflect the real world. When we set curriculum in
the context of human experience, it begins to assume a new relevance.
Higher-order thinking skills become a necessity as students begin to grapple
with real issues and problems that transcend the boundaries of disciplines.
Current newspapers offer an abundance of real-life issues that could be
explored from a problem-based perspective. Conscious of ageappropriateness and student interest, the teacher may design problem
scenarios based on reality; for example, issues that pit jobs versus the
environment, the influence of media in shaping reality, violence in our
society, schools and sports, the ethics of genetic engineering, or social issues
such as AIDS, poverty, or the war on drugs. Current problems in these areas
can be explored from a content perspective, but in searching for practical
solutions they also require higher-order thinking skills that transcend both the
content and the procedures of disciplines.
Another important consideration is how people learn. Recent brain research
indicates that the brain searches for patterns and interconnections as its way
of making meaning (Caine and Caine 1991). If humans do learn by
connection-making, it only makes sense to teach through connections.
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First Efforts
A rationale for curriculum integration seems clear; however, there are few
models available to guide us in developing such curriculum. Those beginning
the process often feel as if they are in uncharted territory. The purpose of this
booklet is to explore some of the territory ahead.
This exploration involves a synthesis of the experiences of several different
school districts in Ontario. However, through dialogue and working with
others throughout North America, I have come to believe that the process of
developing integrated curriculum is universal in many respects. The common
experiences identified here will hopefully extend beyond Ontario to offer a
helpful guide for others.
In response to some of the criticisms of today's educational system, Ontario
chose to focus on increasing relevance in the "transition years" (grades 7 to
9) as explored in such documents as Hargreaves and Earl's (1990) Rights of
Passage. Uncertain of how to go about this task, the government set up a
consultation process. This process involved a committee headed by Gerry
Connelly that traveled across the province to consult with community
teachers, principals, students, and parents in an effort to rethink traditional
models and values. The government funded 66 grass roots projects. The
committee followed the progress of these projects during the consultation
process.
As a part of this initiative, the government announced an intent to provide a
common curriculum for all learners. This involved eliminating the time
allocations in terms of being defined by subjects and the designation of
programs such as basic, general, and advanced in grade 9. In response to the
challenge to eliminate streaming (tracking) difficulties in grade 9 and in an
effort to increase meaning and relevance, many schools focused on
integrating the curriculum. They did this in a wide variety of ways limited
only by the imaginations of the curriculum developers and the support of
their schools and districts. At the same time, many schools that did not
receive funding for transition years projects were inspired to explore
innovative ways to answer some of their educational dilemmas.
Given the freedom to innovate, many schools came up with creative
solutions. The results of these explorations during the transition years
initiative are guiding the educational policy currently being developed at
grades 1 to 9. The major thrust of this policy is to educate the citizens of the
21st century. The emphasis is on clear expectations (knowledge, skill, and
values) for students to attain by the end of their primary, junior, and
transition years. These expectations reflect an integrated, holistic approach to
curriculum. This policy is expected to be extended until graduation.
Integration was a conscious effort to connect curriculum areas that had not
previously been connected. I was astonished by the vast differences in
interpretation of what integration might be and how it might work. These
differences become clear in the following list of some Ontario explorations
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that range from grades 6 to 12 and involve gifted, learning disabled, and
mixed ability groupings:
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Subdisciplines such as auto mechanics, graphics, welding, electricity,
and woodworking were integrated into a broad-based technology
approach at the provincial level.
Integrated curriculum was written at central office for the early
childhood years.
A theme or issue was being infused into existing curriculums. For
example, the International Joint Commission of the Great Lakes
worked on infusing environmental issues into existing science and
social studies courses.
One teacher working on an existing course of study adapted it in a
way that connects to other subjects.
A group of teachers from one school developed curriculum together,
but each teaches independently in a separate classroom.
Another group of teachers developed, team taught, and evaluated
curriculum together.
Use of "curriculum merges" or "curriculum links" integrated various
subject areas. This has been done in a variety of ways. In one high
school, grade 9 classes met during the first period of the day. At
other schools, teachers who see subject connections chose to work
together.
Some newly built schools have had the luxury of a principal who
began with a new vision and new staffs to match that vision. In these
instances, the schools have been able to move more quickly than
others toward integration across the curriculum. There are several
examples of this phenomenon, ranging from K-8 schools to a school
that initially included only grades 9 and 10 but eventually moved to
include 11 and 12.
One high school has organized all curriculums around the
environment. Another high school is organizing around technology
as an integrating focus.
Gathering the data for this exploration involved various strategies. On some
occasions, I interviewed several key players on an integration team. At other
times, I was involved in inservicing with a district. I also attended planning
meetings and presentations on curriculum integration whenever possible. I
led a provincial curriculum team that developed a K-12 transdisciplinary
curriculum based on story as the organizing principle (Drake et al. 1992).
During this experience I kept a journal that I shared with my colleagues; this
facilitated a mutual understanding of the process.
During this exploration I interacted with many people who were involved in
integrated projects from several different districts. I am deeply grateful to
those who so generously gave their time to share their experiences with me. I
have chosen to name only a handful of these people in this account; however,
the experiences of the many others are reflected in the stories that are
offered.
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I found that the process does get easier. One Ontario district, deeply involved
in integrating at a systemwide level, reports that new teams beginning the
journey are "light years ahead" of the groups that originally embarked into
the uncharted territory. These newer groups have the advantage of reading
materials such as Jacobs' (1989) Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and
Implementation, Tchudi's (1991) Travels Across The Curriculum: Models for
Interdisciplinary Learning, and the Educational Leadership (October 1991)
issue on integration. They are also able to talk to those who are currently
implementing their integration ideas. Collectively they are beginning to
identify the process that leads to success.
Nevertheless, the process outlined here may sound pessimistic. The
descriptions are not intended to be frightening, but realistic. In asking several
of the people represented on these pages if I should soften the experience, the
response was uniform. For them, undergoing the process was the most
important aspect of developing integrated curriculum; they believed it is
essential to know that there is indeed a struggle ahead. It is just as important
to know that the journey is worth taking and that the process gets easier once
you have been through it.
This interpretation is not offered as a "truth," for much of the process is still
taking place in uncharted territory. It is offered in the hopes that it may
increase understanding for others who are undertaking ventures like ours.
The Journey Metaphor
When I began the project with my own curriculum team, I offered the
metaphor of a journey as a guide for the process ahead. This journey was
based on my interpretation of the "Journey of the Hero" developed for an
earlier integrated studies project (Miller et al. 1990); later, I applied this
metaphor to organizational change (Drake 1990) and to individuals involved
in significant new learning (Drake 1991). Since this venture involved both
experiencing organizational change and significant new learnings, the model
seemed to fit.
This journey metaphor worked well for us, a team of six strangers who were
well aware of the obstacles ahead. We could have spent all the allotted time
dwelling on our perception that there was not a school system in Ontario that
offered a realistic structure in which to teach such a curriculum. (In two years
this has shifted dramatically.) The metaphor allowed my team to move past
the impossibility of the project into navigating new territory with a positive
risk-taking attitude.
Listening to others, I was struck at how often I heard the metaphor of
"journey." For one district the process was a journey of continually extending
their boundaries and learning more. For a high school it was a "voyage of
discovery" that primarily involved process rather than product. Karen
Erskine, a principal of a K-8 school, comforted her integrated team during
times of stress with the metaphor of a ship sailing through choppy waters to
get to a safe shore. Fullan and Miles (1992) also use the metaphor of journey
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for educational change, acknowledging that it is a process of moving through
largely uncharted territory.
The "Journey of The Hero" is the basis for most of our stories throughout
time and across cultures. According to noted mythologist Joseph Campbell
(1988), this quest can be interpreted metaphorically as a blueprint for
successful transition. The hero is called to adventure; he or she leaves the
kingdom in search of this adventure. Ahead are the demons to be confronted,
the dragons to slay. Often the hero is aided by a magic helper such as a magic
sword. Finally, the hero slays the dragon, receives a reward, and returns to
the kingdom where he or she must share the lessons of the journey.
For educators, the journey could be interpreted as five stages in developing
integrated curriculum (Figure 1.1). The heroes as curriculum writers hear a
call to adventure and enter the world of integrated curriculum. They leave
behind traditional methods of curriculum development and experience
endings accompanied by loss. This is followed by a struggle as they
encounter anxiety, conflict, and the excitement of stepping into the unknown.
Finally they reach the reward and personal satisfaction of truly
understanding how to integrate curriculum. The last stage is service where
the heroes, feeling fulfilled, share what they have learned with other
interested educators.
Chapter 2. The Call to Adventure
Educators are being called to adventure. The catalyst may be either their
critics or a sense that there are more relevant ways of educating students.
Integration offers an exciting challenge. There are several things to consider
at this stage concerning the phenomenon of resistance and the exigencies of
planning.
Resistance
A natural human reaction to impending change is resistance. More than one
team leader reported that a typical beginning has been to say, "It can't be
done." Fullan and Miles (1992) caution that we shouldn't even use the word
resistance. This initial reaction would be better understood as coming to
personal meaning. Rather than bemoaning resistance, we need to support
people through this first reaction.
Teachers will offer some solid reasons for resistance such as:
ß
ß
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ß
"This is just a fad; ignore it long enough and it will go away."
"I'm not interested in change for change's sake."
"I'm not fixing what already works."
"I am already integrating in my subject area."
As we move into a world in which knowledge is proliferating at a fantastic
rate, it is hard to conceive of integration as a fad. We simply can't keep
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: How to Integrate
adding to the curriculum. As I heard over and over "we need to add by
subtracting."
Most teachers are already doing a good job. I found that educators resisted
the need to integrate when they felt that a personal attack was being made on
their current teaching. Claire Ross, principal of Holy Family Education
Center, offers a helpful perspective: "It's not that we haven't been doing a
good job—we have, but the world is changing and we must change with it."
True, many teachers are currently integrating in their own areas. Yet, from a
global perspective a more inclusive view of integration may be more
appropriate.
Planning
Setting out on the journey, it is best to plan for the knowns with a
collaborative vision of the destination. The vision is often very hazy and
"when you get there, it's never how you thought it would be." However, to
borrow K-8 principal Karen Erskine's metaphor, "without some description
of the safe haven the ship is sailing toward, it will no doubt be destined to
forever cruise the choppy waters or return to the familiar shores it left
behind."
Some aspects that need to be explored are philosophical: What is worth
knowing? What is the image of the learner? How do students learn? and
What values are important? With a vision in place, it is possible to address
some of the more obvious questions. The following is a synthesis of answers
recommended by a variety of groups.
Who Should Be Involved?
Many teams start with numbers as large as 13; this may include all teachers
in one school or include others such as central office consultants. This is
clearly an attempt to involve everyone, but most conclude it is too many;
they tend to break into smaller groups anyway. My team worked well with
six individuals from different subject areas; others report good success with
four people. One experienced team leader found an even number seemed to
work better than an odd number. Given group dynamics, it seems that any
number over seven is too many for constructive work to emerge.
Initial efforts in a district often include representatives from different schools
writing together; the expectation is that each representative will act as a
messenger and take the process back to others in their own school. In
practice, this hasn't worked as well as expected; the writers also need to be
able to implement collaboratively. This creates a greater sense of ownership
and a greater understanding of the process itself. As teams work together
they get good at the process and curriculum planning becomes infinitely
easier.
Only those who volunteer should be involved. Usually there are a few
enthusiastic participants, some who are there "in case something good might
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happen," and those who are "brick walls." Reflecting on sometimes painful
experiences, many team leaders recommended letting the "brick walls" go. It
may seem like this person's subject area is necessary and there will be an
important gap in the curriculum design. However, a brick wall, regardless of
subject area, can sabotage the whole project. Accept the limitations and begin
with people who are willing to innovate and take risks.
According to the experiences of many, the members of an ideal writing team:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
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ß
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Are volunteers
Will implement the product
Love teaching and students
Are willing to learn
Are risk-takers
Demonstrate interpersonal skills
Perceive the teacher as a facilitator
Are generalists who "love" a specialized area or
Are specialists interested in a generalized approach
Are innovative and creative
Have taught several subjects
Are technologically literate
What Form Should Integration Take?
Integration can occur in many different forms and combinations. Perceptions
of top-down mandates of how to integrate have often been met with almost
reflex-like resistance. Allowing groups to come to their own sense of
meaning of "what," guided by a collaborative vision is important. Others,
seeing the energy and enthusiasm of those actively involved, are often
inspired to join. "Show them that their jobs will be easier" or "better" has
convinced many who are hesitant to make a true commitment.
How Much Time Do We Need and Where Should We Work?
The amount of time people spent planning varied from five days, to a month,
to a year. Planning seemed to work best when teachers were allowed blocks
of time. One or two full days of orientation sets integration in a positive and
supportive context. Orientation sessions in which outside "experts" offered a
vision of integrated curriculum and some practical strategies were helpful.
Subsequent sessions seemed to be most effective when teams were allocated
half a day.
Planning time seemed to be most successful when it occurred outside of a
school setting. This was particularly true for the initial sessions. My team,
funded by the Ontario Curriculum Superintendents' Cooperative, had the
luxury of meeting at a hotel in a central location. Other projects have met at a
district retreat setting; one team did its best writing over two weeks in the
summer at one member's house. Talking over food and drink in the relaxed
forum of an outside setting increased feelings of collegiality.
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How Do We Do It?
In the final analysis, integration takes "jumping in and doing it." The jumping
in can take many forms. Some teams spend a year in preparation. Others are
less cautious. One participant commented: "Everyone else has dipped their
toes in the water. We jumped in head first. That's how my father taught me to
swim."
Successful teams evolved "comfort zones of integration." One integration
team consisting of Peter Marshall, Sally Friedenberg, Raquel Ahearn, and
Jerry DuQuetteville collaborated for two years through grades 6 and 7. They
described this comfort zone as a "balance between working together and
respecting that each member will interpret things differently in the classroom
. . . and that's okay." The process seems best as an ongoing process of both
planning and implementation. Together, through collaboration and personal
experience, the team members come to develop this "comfort zone,"
however, not without having to navigate the path of the journey ahead.
Reprinted with permission from Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development. All rights reserved.
Susan M. Drake is Assistant Professor in the Graduate Studies Department,
Faculty of Education, Brock University, St. Catharine’s, Ontario, L2S 3A1.
She has over twenty years of teaching experience in elementary, secondary,
and adult education.
Criteria for reflecting on the quality of the unit one is
planning to teach:
Higher-Order Thinking: Do students use higher-order thinking as they
work with ideas and concepts in the classroom?
Depth of Knowledge: Do students explore complex relationships and
important concepts in the subject matter?
Connectedness to the World: Does the class have value or meaning in
life beyond the classroom?
Substantive Conversion: Does the process of teaching build on student
ideas, revealing connections between ideas, processes, and facts in a
coherent process of exploration?
Social Support of Achievement: Does the class encourage high
expectations, respect, and inclusion of all students?
Author unknown.
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Developing Curriculum Across the Disciplines
Staff of the Eisenhower Southwest Consortium for the Improvement of
Mathematics and Science Teaching
http://www.sedl.org/scimath/compass/v04n01/1.html
A condensation of an article from the Eisenhower Southwest Consortium's
newsletter, Classroom Compass (Winter 1998)
When taking the first steps toward developing an integrated curriculum it can
be a challenge to visualize not only what the curriculum might look like for
students, but also what the planning process might look like for teachers. The
story of Evelyn Madison and Diane Rainey takes us step-by-step through the
planning stages to illustrate how teachers can take a curriculum idea and
shape it into a rich learning experience.
Choices about what to teach are some of the most important decisions that
educators make. While national and state standards and district curriculum
frameworks can give general guidance, teachers make the final decisions for
day-to-day instruction. The following hypothetical story presents one way
teachers might work together to develop curriculum.
Evelyn Madison, a life science teacher at Elmore Middle School, and Diane
Rainey, a mathematics teacher, had often worked together, sharing ideas and
trying to be sure their instruction was complementary. They benefited from
their school's commitment to professional time for teachers--one afternoon a
week was set aside for planning, meetings, and conversations that helped the
faculty explore ways to improve their teaching.
The two teachers had often collaborated on student activities that usually
lasted a week or two and focused on an issue in science with extensions in
mathematics. If they extended this effort over time, perhaps a six-week unit,
they thought they would be able to introduce and pursue themes. They
wanted to design a unit that enabled students to explore ideas, pose problems,
and work toward their own solutions.
Integrating Design Technology
Their discussion interested Will Hooks, Elmore's technology education
teacher. Hooks was not the computer teacher, although he included
computers in much of his instruction. He taught about systems-theory design,
development, and influence. He was particularly interested in the connections
between classroom instruction and the world of work.
Listening to Madison and Rainey discuss their ideas, Hooks realized that
students involved in this work could build their understanding of systems
development. He suggested combining the efforts of the three classes-mathematics, life science, and technology--in a way that would emphasize
the connections among disciplines. The school's scheduling would
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accommodate a shared group of students--the school called it a student
"family"--who would attend all three classes.
The teachers' thoughts coalesced into the idea of designing and building a
model hydroponics farm. Madison had seen a similar project at the previous
year's state science teachers' conference and liked the way it demanded
understanding of both mathematics and science.
The three teachers searched an online database offered by the Eisenhower
National Clearinghouse and found a helpful notebook, the Technology
Science Mathematics Connection Activities Binder (available from
Glencoe/McGraw Hill). With its purchase, the teachers had detailed
instructions for six long-term projects, including a hydroponics farm that
integrated science, mathematics, and technology.
Building on the Curriculum Framework
The teachers knew that they needed to ground their plans in the district's
curriculum framework, and that some topics outlined for each discipline fit
quite nicely. An understanding of biological and physical properties were key
components for producing the farm's products. In mathematics, concepts of
determining volume, interpreting ratios, and analyzing data were essential to
the model's development and the interpretation of its results. Hooks knew
that basic design elements--understanding environmental requirements,
analyzing materials and equipment, sketching and refining designs--were
fundamental to developing the model.
Remembering the Big Ideas
With such a complex undertaking, the big ideas in each lesson can be
overlooked, so the teaching team set regular meetings and continually
reminded themselves of the areas they wanted to cover. For Madison, these
included understanding pH balance, exploring plant structures, and
determining the role of nutrients in plant growth. Rainey's class would
concentrate on determining volumes of various containers, interpreting
ratios, drawing conclusions, and making predictions from data. Hook's focus
would be on the basics of systems design, the role of materials and
equipment, and responding to the model's environmental needs including
light and temperature controls.
In their first meetings, the team established their learning goals, based on
curriculum requirements. Their choices for specific learning activities
emerged from their students' interests and the requirements of the model.
While goals were set in these first meetings, the three came back to them
many times over the semester, not only to see if the goals were being met but
also to revise them.
Early in their planning, the teachers outlined ways they might assess students'
understanding. While the students' completion of the model would be
tangible proof of some forms of mastery, the specific goals of content
understanding also needed to be addressed along the way.
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The teachers agreed that each class period would provide time for the
students to keep journals that would include a short log of that day's activity
and learning. Rainey asked her students to include their calculations for
determining container volumes and ratio interpretations in these journals. She
read the journals weekly.
Madison scheduled discussion times throughout the unit for teams to respond
to specific questions, such as "What do we mean by pH level?" and "What
happens if a plant receives a nutrient solution with a pH level that is too
acidic? Too basic?" Following each of these discussions, students wrote short
essays to respond to questions that stretched their understanding.
Every two weeks, Hooks asked each student team to prepare a summary of
their learning, responding to questions, such as "What changes did you make
to your original design, and why?" and "How would you describe the
hydroponics farm model in terms of these four characteristics: input, process,
output, and feedback?"
Through these assessment approaches, the team hoped to keep track of
student progress and understanding.
Linking with the Community
At the beginning of the unit, the teachers had set the goal of establishing
links with the world outside their school. They believed that students needed
to understand how the experience of designing, building, and observing their
model could be useful beyond the immediate classroom experience.
One afternoon Hooks invited several guests to the class, including a local
farmer, an instructor from a nearby agricultural college, and a friend who
was a systems engineer. Before the visit, the guests had talked with the three
teachers about the project and what the students should accomplish.
The teachers posed several specific requests to the guests, asking them to
comment on changes they had seen in their work in the past 10 years, the
effect of the use of technology in their work, and how science and
mathematics affected what they did. The students were also ready with
questions of their own.
To get a look at the world outside their town, students spent some time on the
Internet and found an international study of fast-growing plants in space
called the Collaborative Ukrainian Experiment
http://fastplants.cals.wisc.edu/cue/cue.html. This study was collecting data
similar to the information the students would be gathering from their model.
Keeping the Focus
As the project progressed, the teachers tried to maintain a classroom
atmosphere that encouraged inquiry and exploration. Bringing in community
guests and surfing the Internet further broadened the students' horizons and
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increased their queries beyond the unit's original plan. They posed new
questions, such as
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Does growing in space affect plants in a different way from growing
on the surface of the earth?
What is the economic impact of farming on our town?
Is there a computer game that simulates plant growth and
environmental impact?
The students' explorations were suggesting so many avenues to pursue that
the teachers began to fear that the learning would become scattered. If less is
more is a guiding principle for in-depth understanding, the breadth of content
must be limited to allow continued, thoughtful exploration of specific
content.
Steven Levy in his book Starting from Scratch (1996) describes his method
of classroom curriculum development. He concentrates on finding the genius
of the topic--determining the essence of what makes the content unique and
letting that essence steer the development of the lesson. This helps him
decide which questions will lead the students to a closer understanding of the
topic and which will lead them away. So, while communicating
electronically with the Collaborative Ukrainian Experiment about growing
plants in space might be fascinating, the teaching team or students must
determine first if it contributes to their learning goals and, if it does, how to
guide the exploration so it is productive.
Looking Back
By the conclusion of the project, the three teachers and their students had
faced many practical and theoretical issues. The strengths of their work
became apparent as they reflected on their experience. The benefits of their
teamwork and sharing across disciplines were paramount. They were also
convinced that student learning was enhanced through practical experience.
The teachers liked the notion that, while they had designed a firm structure
for student work, much of the learning was directed by student inquiry and
exploration that emerged naturally. Their effort in setting up and working
through a logical sequence of activities had resulted in a rewarding
experience for the students.
The teachers decided to use some of the summer after their first year to learn
about embedded assessment and developing rubrics for measuring student
work. They were already convinced that these assessment techniques might
be more useful than traditional methods had been. They were looking
forward to improving and extending their collaboration in the coming year.
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Criteria for Promising Practice
Adapted from New Visions for Public Schools,
Center for School Success
http://www.newvisions.org/schoolsuccess/
Integrating curriculum involves much more than just developing curriculum
in new ways. It requires deliberate planning of whole-school practice that
aligns with the design, mission, and culture of the school. The following
assessment rubric is one way a staff can begin to look at the “whole picture”
of curriculum integration and envision a future for integrated curriculum that
meets their needs, while fulfilling “Promising Practice” requirements. The
New Visions web site also offers several excellent examples of integrated
units.
A school's instructional model should aspire to meet the following criteria in
order to be considered a "Promising Practice":
“Promising Practice” Criteria
Existing
Emerging
Non-existent
Curriculum integration is
consistent with the school's
mission. There are clear and
specific goals for the integrative
curriculum and they are described
in the school's official plan (e.g.,
Comprehensive Education Plan).
Action Plan:
A broad-based concept, theme, or
essential question that goes across
two or more discipline areas is the
driving force of the curriculum.
The curriculum engages students
in the "big ideas" of a discipline or
disciplines, encompasses critical
skills, and fosters habits of mind
that will produce lifelong learners.
Action Plan:
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“Promising Practice” Criteria
The curriculum has carefully
conceived design features: a scope
and sequence, a cognitive
taxonomy to encourage thinking
skills, behavioral indicators of
attitudinal change, and a solid
evaluation scheme.
Action Plan:
Staff are sufficiently supported to
implement curriculum through
common scheduling of prep time,
professional development, and
control over resources. Three to
four weekly meetings of at least 30
minutes each is recommended.
Action Plan:
Student scheduling is consistent
with goals for integrating
curriculum (e.g., there is block
programming, or teachers teach
the same set of students).
Action Plan:
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Existing
Emerging
Non-existent
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: How to Integrate
“Promising Practice” Criteria
Existing
Emerging
Non-existent
The curriculum is aligned to the
standards in each of the disciplines
involved. There is a process in
place for teachers to examine the
standards within their discipline
and share them with their peers in
other disciplines. Together they
determine the overlap of
knowledge, skills, and habits of
mind that cross-cut their
disciplines.
Action Plan:
Sufficient time has been provided
to pilot, evaluate, and modify
curriculum units.
Action Plan:
Teachers have sufficient autonomy
to design, shape, and modify the
curriculum according to their
students' needs.
Action Plan:
There are sufficiently rich
resources to support the
curriculum.
Action Plan:
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: How to Integrate
“Promising Practice” Criteria
Students are engaged in the
curriculum. Students have input
into identifying topics, developing
questions of study, planning the
inquiry, assigning tasks, selecting
and gathering resources and
information, and developing the
assessments.
Action Plan:
Parents are informed and
understand the curriculum. They
know what their children will be
expected to know and do, and how
they will be assessed.
Action Plan:
A variety of assessments (formal
and informal) are incorporated into
the curriculum to determine what
students know and can do.
Action Plan:
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Existing
Emerging
Non-existent
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Experiencing Math Through Nature
Colleen Niemi, Jeffers High School, Painesdale, Michigan
Eisenhower National Clearinghouse
http://www.enc.org/features/focus/archive/across/document.shtm?input=FOC
-002785-index
This lesson from Colleen Niemi is an example of an engaging,
interdisciplinary unit where one teacher was able to combine the study of
math and science in a real-world context.
High school students learn how mathematics
helps us understand the natural world
To help create a more positive attitude toward studying mathematics among
high school juniors and seniors and to address their questions about its
relevance, I developed lessons connecting mathematics and nature. The ideas
came from a course in the Educators' Science and Mathematics Institute
Series (ESMIS) at Michigan Technological University. The lesson described
here is based on the capture/recapture technique, which naturalists use in
estimating the number of a certain species in a given geographic area.
The lesson is successful with students because they are actively engaged in
the collection of data outdoors rather than using textbook-generated samples
of data. Students also develop their cooperative learning skills as they collect,
analyze, and present their data.
The mathematical topics covered include ratios and proportions, percents,
measurement, calculation of perimeter, circumference, area and volume, and
random sampling. Throughout the activity, the students refine and
demonstrate their knowledge of these mathematical concepts, as well as
acquire new information and skills.
Capturing Candy
In Michigan, this activity must be implemented early in the fall because it is
dependent on the presence of soldier beetles and goldenrod plants. Because
using the capture/recapture method with the beetles is quite challenging, we
begin with a brief activity in which individually wrapped caramel candies are
used to represent the beetles.
Before class, I outline an area in an overgrown field and scatter caramels
throughout the area. The goal for the students is to estimate the total number
of caramels I distributed even though they cannot find all of the candies.
To begin, half of the students are designated naturalists. They have two
minutes to search for and "capture" caramels. When they run out of time,
they record the total number of captured caramels, mark each caramel with
an X, and redistribute the marked caramels in the designated area.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
The remaining students then become naturalists for two minutes. This time,
some of the caramels they find will be marked and some will be unmarked.
The students record the number of each. When that task is complete, the
students search for the remaining caramels, knowing that all the candy will
be eaten as we discuss our data.
For a large class, this activity could be expanded to several trials. Another
option would be to have several different search sites.
Once we are back in the classroom, the students estimate the total number of
caramels originally distributed using the following ratio:
Number of marked caramels collected in 2nd search
Total number collected in 2nd search
Number marked in 1st search
=
Total number initially distributed
Inputting the numbers from their searches and solving the proportion gives
an estimate of the total number of caramels. This number is then compared to
the actual value that I first distributed. The discrepancy between the two
numbers gives students some idea of the difficulties faced by naturalists
when they are searching for animals rather than candy. It also prepares them
for the next activity.
Capturing Beetles
In their first experience with real collection of data from nature, students use
the capture/recapture activity to determine the size of the population of
soldier beetles on the property surrounding the school. The insect to be
collected will depend on the species found near your school. I selected
soldier beetles because goldenrod is abundant on the school property, and the
beetles are attracted to the pollen of the goldenrod.
Before our actual data collection, the students determine the area of the
school property (in square meters), and select several different sites to search.
Each site must have the same area, measured in square meters. Students are
assigned to groups and each group is responsible for a site. Data are collected
for four days before making a prediction.
While marking caramels is easy, marking soldier beetles is a little trickier.
We have tried using different colors of fingernail polish. Each group of
students goes out on day one with a bottle of red fingernail polish. When they
find a soldier beetle, they mark its back with a tiny dot of fingernail polish. It
is important not to get any polish on the wings, which would harm the
beetles. The total number of beetles marked on day one is recorded.
For the next two days, the students go to their designated sites with different
colors of fingernail polish. They record the number of marked and unmarked
beetles they find and mark the unmarked ones with the color of the day.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
On the fourth day, students go out again to gather data, but do not mark any
beetles. They calculate the predicted population size each day using the same
formula they used with the caramels, and make observations about how the
size changes, if in fact it does. See Figures 1 and 2 for examples of the
individual data sheet/class data sheet and prediction calculation sheet we
used.
The activity concludes with discussion about the use of this type of sampling
and population determination. This activity is even more meaningful if you
can arrange to have a naturalist or a representative of the Department of
Natural Resources visit the class to discuss how scientists use the
capture/recapture method.
My students benefited from the cross-curriculum approach of this lesson and
enjoyed learning about a method used in forestry and wildlife management
and how it relates to mathematics.
Resource:
Michigan Department of Education. (1998). Michigan Curriculum
Framework. The mathematical content of this unit addresses topics covered
in the Data Analysis and Statistics Strand of the Michigan Curriculum
Framework Project Mathematics Standards.
Figure 1. Data Collection Sheet for Capturing/Recapturing Beetles
This same form is used for recording small group data and for recording
combined data for the entire class.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Figure 2. Formulas for Daily Prediction Totals
This simple proportion gives an estimate of the number of a particular
species in a designated area. The percentage of the number of marked beetles
found on the second day gives us an idea of what percent of the total
population we marked the previous day.
Because this was our first experience with the capture/recapture method, we
took data for four days and made comparisons of estimated population sizes.
We used the data again when we were studying probability and statistics.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Dream House: A Discovery Learning Project
Roosevelt Middle School
Port Angeles, Washington
Engaging students while covering important content is a challenge faced by
all teachers. In some cases, combining subject matter provides more avenues
to “hook” students, and to differentiate for multiple learning styles by
offering more than one way to reach an outcome. The Dream House project
crossed multiple disciplines, combined multi-layered daily activities with
long-term goals, and used various assessment methods.
This project was a collaborative effort of Mimi Tiderman and Susan
Williams, sixth grade teachers at Roosevelt Middle School in Port Angeles,
Washington. This project took four weeks and was accomplished as part of
the math curriculum, though it integrated elements of geography and
language arts.
The unit began with students reading a description of Bilbo’s house in J.R.R.
Tolkein’s The Hobbit. As a class, they discussed the ways that it was
perfectly suited to its environment and its inhabitant.
Next, students were introduced to the idea of dreaming up their own house.
They had no limits, including cost. But, they did have to address some
specific criteria, such as:
ß
ß
ß
Where will the house be located? Including the hemisphere,
continent, country, state or province (if applicable) and city (in or
near).
Why did you choose to build the house there?
How have you designed your house to be unique to you and/or its
setting?
Students began the project with a pre-design activity. They looked at floor
plans from architectural magazines to get ideas and began measuring
everything from doorways to bathtubs. In hindsight, the teachers would like
to have invited an architect to share actual blueprints with the class.
For the first draft of the project, students had to list all of the rooms they
wanted to include and determine the initial layout and shape of the house.
Some began with the outside frame and other began by fitting together
individual rooms, like a puzzle. As students tried to answer questions about
room dimensions, such as square footage, they realized that they lacked some
necessary math skills. The classroom atmosphere became one of students
saying, “I need to know how to do X” and teachers saying, “Let’s figure it
out!” The lessons stuck much better embedded in a real world context.
Mini-lessons arose to teach the difference between linear measurement and
area, how to find the perimeter, how to represent architectural characteristics
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
in the floor plan. Related lessons included issues of privacy and access as
students had to determine whether a room would be accessed through a
hallway or private entrance, for example.
The students’ favorite part of the project was shopping for home furnishings.
They were charged with completely furnishing three rooms in the house,
within a budget of $3,000 to $20,000 for each room. “Furnish” also included
flooring, such as hard wood or carpet. Student shopped in catalogs and honed
their Internet skills by shopping online. They learned to manipulate photos,
comparison shop, figure tax, and balance a budget.
The final product of the Dream House project consisted of an information
sheet, which demonstrated students’ knowledge of math concepts, an essay
answering the original location and design questions, and
drawings/blueprints of the façade and floor plans. The final assessment
included a student self-assessment; they were very hard on themselves,
especially after seeing other students’ projects.
Some project extensions created options for extra credit.
Students could:
ß
ß
ß
Build a scale model of their house
Create a landscaping plan for their house
Use a computer program (CAD) to input their house dimensions and
see if it looked like they thought it would
Students often ask, “Why do I need to know this?” With this project, students
participated in deciding what they needed to learn and could make the
connection between their work and the world around them.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
PRE-DREAM HOUSE DESIGN ACTIVITY!
You will attempt to complete as much of this assignment as possible. At any time you believe that you
need more information or need to learn how to do something before you can complete requirements, list
them on “I NEED TO KNOW!!” chart below.
Draw floor plans for a bungalow (small house). The following is required:
Rooms
ß 2 Bedrooms
ß 1 Bathroom
ß Kitchen
ß Living room
A key
ß Show the scale
ß Symbols for windows
ß Symbols for doors
Show the dimensions and square footage of each room
Choose the floor covering of your choice for each room
ß Figure the cost of the carpet, etc. that you choose
Figure the total cost of the house based on total square footage ($89/sq. ft.)
I NEED TO KNOW:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
DREAM HOUSE PROJECT!
This project will consist of several components, each worked on in class and after explanation. There is
no need to work ahead, but you can think ahead!
ß
Make a FLOOR PLAN OF YOUR HOUSE using graph paper. It will consist of 6-20
rooms. Include doors, windows, hallways, fireplaces, etc. using the methods shown in class.
ß
Include the SQUARE FOOTAGE of each room with DIMENSIONS written clearly on
your drawing.
ß
FURNISH 3 ROOMS OF YOUR HOUSE. To complete this part of the assignment you
must have all the following in each room:
A. A page for each room with a catalog or digital picture of the items to be purchased
for the room.
B. Create a spreadsheet of expenditures, spending no less than $3,000 and no more
than $20,000 per room.
ß
DRAW A SIMPLE VIEW of the front of your house.
ß
PURCHASE FLOOR COVERING FOR 3 ROOMS in your house. Figure the cost for
each room using the floor covering form (in packet). Be careful that you are figuring square
footage, not square yardage.
ß
SUBMIT A HOUSE INFORMATION SUMMARY with your final project (form in
packet).
ß
WRITE A HOUSE ENVIRONMENT ESSAY describing how, where, and why you build
your house.
ß
STAY UNDER THE TOTAL BUDGET OF $1,500,000 (not including rooms furnished)
using the cost of $89.75 per square foot.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
DREAM HOUSE INFORMATION SHEET
1. HOUSE ENVIRONMENT
Attach an essay in final form explaining:
ß Where you will build your dream house
ß Why you chose to build it there
ß How you have designed you house to be unique to you and/or its setting
Supply the following information here before you begin your essay:
ß Hemisphere
ß Continent
ß Country
ß State or Province (if applicable)
ß City (in or near)
2. TOTAL NUMBER OF ROOMS:
3. ROOMS AND SIZE (example: Bedroom #1 is 15 ft. x 18 ft. = 270 sq.ft.)
Room
Dimensions
Square Footage
4. TOTAL SQUARE FEET:
5. TOTAL COST OF CONSTRUCTION:
6. TOTAL COST OF FURNISHINGS:
7. TOTAL MONEY SPENT:
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
The Boat Project
Gena Merliss, Dan Noel, Mit Wanzer, Ann Colligan,
Tanya Bouzy and Derek Brown
Francis W. Parker Charter Essential School
http://www.parker.org/
The Boat Project came about because of the dedication and collaboration
between six teachers in the Mathematics, Science, and Technology team at
Parker Charter Essential School in Devins, Massachusetts. The Boat Project
was a seven-week unit involving 150 students in grades 7 and 8.
The Boat Project was designed to cover the content areas of density,
measurement, mechanics, and fluid dynamics, but the teaching team found
that communication, career exploration, community connections, and
language arts were threaded throughout the project.
Teacher Gena Merliss said the integrated curriculum influenced students’
learning because, “kids could see math and science as one, and they were
jumping back and forth between the two without even realizing it. The math
became the evidence for their scientific reasoning.”
In terms of the collaboration between staff to build the curriculum, Dan Noel
stressed the “ability to have an openness to let your team-members decide
what is important to cover in their subject-area, and then working that into
the plan.” Having common planning time was crucial for Gena and Dan, as
well.
What emerged from all of the collaboration was a unit with solid content and
high student engagement with a problem-based frame that students loved.
The school hosted a family boat night where the fire department came and
brought their rescue boat, and students found local boat owners and
interviewed them informally. Then they put their knowledge to the test (after
much trial and error on a smaller scale) and built their boats for the big race,
which had many challenges, surprises, and rewards.
The three Challenges of the Week (COW’s) that follow demonstrate the
seamless blend of math, science, and technology present in this project, but,
more than anything else, it is clear just how much fun this project was for
students and teachers alike.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Boat Project Description
Ahoy maties! Your challenge for this term is to design a boat that can carry you. And unless you want to
get wet, it better be a good, sound boat! Each student will design a boat and create a small cardboard
model of it. On October 20, we will test the boats to see which one carries the most weight. The winner
of the contest will receive an exciting prize! Then the class will get to build that boat. The final test will
be when we put it in the water with someone inside.
The Learning Goals
In order to advance in academic standing at Parker Charter School, students must demonstrate
proficiency in 5 competencies: Math, Science, Humanities, Technology, and Personal Development.
The benchmarks needed to reach the competency in science include skills and habits of mind. In the
science competency, we address these benchmarks in this term:
Design Process
Propose a design to a given problem or challenge
Implement a solution that conforms to design constraints
Communicate the problem, process, rational and solution
Data and Results
Take scientific measurements
Observe
Construct table of data using Excel
Summarize results concisely
Materials and Methods
Conduct experiments
Communicate experimental procedure
Identify variables
Define variables operationally
Design investigations with appropriate methods of recording and interpreting data
Content
Physical science-fluid mechanics: density, pressure, buoyancy, Archimedes principle, water
displacement
Accurately use scientific and technological vocabulary, symbols and models
Demonstrate an understanding of scientific concepts in writing and orally
Identify the relevance of scientific concepts and their connection to real life
Teambuilding
Build a boat with other students
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Challenge of the Week #12
Float Your Boat!
Boat: Due March 14th, 2003
Write-up: Due March 17th, 2003
Design Challenge:
Build a boat that can carry the most cargo in your class . . . without sinking!
Be sure to include:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Fantasy drawing
Final drawing on graph paper
Your boat
Explanation of how concepts of fluid mechanics influenced your design
Summary and analysis of results
Assessment rubric for COW #12, based on the Parker School Criteria for Excellence and Habits of
Learning
1.
You understand the problem.
ß you restate the problem in your own words
ß you make connections to class activities
2. You solve the problem.
ß you use graphs, tables, drawings, and modeling
ß you use mathematical and scientific language
ß your work is correct and you have supported it with evidence
3.
The work shows effective effort.
ß your approach is efficient or sophisticated
ß your work is well organized and detailed
ß you have completed all parts
4. You go beyond the requirements (exceeding the standards).
ß you formulate a conjecture or a question and follow through with an investigation
Exceeds = all of 1-4
Meets = all of 1-3
Approaches = some of 1-3
Just Beginning = little or none of 1-3
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Challenge of the Week #13
Local Wonders
Due March 28th, 2003
You may not live near the Titanic or even the Mayflower, but you can choose any local boat that is
significant because of its appearance, strength, speed, or historical or social impact. Once you have
chosen your “local wonder” you should visit it, research it and present your findings orally to the class.
Your final presentation should include:
1.
Name and description of boat (identify the type of boat, when it was built, describe and explain
its parts).
2. Why is this local wonder important, interesting, or significant? What is/was it used for?
3.
Approximate size (dimensions, displacement, etc.)
4. Approximate date boat was built.
5.
What the boat is made out of? How was it constructed?
6. Multiview drawing of your boat.
7. Interesting facts about your local wonder.
Sample questions to research:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
What are the parts of the boat?
Why was it built?
Why did the builders choose the materials they did?
How much weight can it hold?
How long did the construction take?
What is the boat used for?
Who has owned the boat?
[Assessment Rubric not available]
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Challenge of the Week #14
Ferry Service
Due April 18th, 2003
You are an employee of Quality Boat Systems (QBS), a company that designs boat hulls for carrying
people and cars. Like many other boat design companies, QBS has been able to develop cost-effective,
high performance hulls by building and testing scale models. Your customers want boats that will
speed up their ferry service to and from the cape cod mainland to Martha’s Vineyard. Your team’s
challenge is to research how to increase the speed through water by redesigning the boat hull. For
COW 14, each student will hand in his/her own written work, but will design the boat in pairs.
Design Challenge:
ß
Make a Quick-Build according to plans and collect baseline performance data
ß
Understand how fluid dynamics affects hull speed
ß
Redesign the model hull to improve its performance
ß
Test the new design, Collect quantitative data, and calculate percent improvement in
performance
ß
Document your process, design improvement and tests using the steps of the Engineering
Design Process
ß
Explain your rationale for your final boat design, connecting it to what you have learned during
this unit
Assessment rubric for COW #14, based on the steps of the Engineering Design Process
1.
You identify the need or problem
2. You research the need or problem
ß you examine the current design
ß you explore other options: class, books, magazines, internet
3.
You develop possible solutions
ß you brainstorm possible solutions
ß you draw on mathematics and science
ß you present the possible solutions in two and/or three dimensions
4. You select the best possible solution
ß you determine which solution best meets the original requirements
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
5.
You construct a prototype
6. You test and evaluate your solution
ß you evaluate whether your solution works
ß you make sure that it meets the design constraints
7. You communicate the solution
ß you state how your solution meets the needs of the initial problem
ß you discuss the pros and cons of your design
8. You attempt to redesign
ß you propose further improvements or ask questions
Exceeds = all of 1-8 and it is connected to what you learned in this unit
Meets = all of 1-8
Approaches = some of 1-8
Just Beginning = little of 1-8
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
The Ultra 5000 Project
James Mitchell, Patty Blome, and Eileen Ege
The O’Farrell Community School
San Diego, California
http://ofarrell.sandi.net/index.html
The Ultra 5000 Project, formed by an interdisciplinary team at the O’Farrell
Community School, combines community involvement, problem-based
learning, and career exploration in an exciting, ambitious format with high
rewards for students.
The O’Farrell Community School is a pioneer charter school in the San
Diego school district. The school serves 1,500 middle school students in six
“families” of 250 students each, with a high level of autonomy granted to
each family. The families share a common administrative office and CEO,
but have control over staffing, scheduling, discipline, assessment and
curriculum decisions. Each family has a core of subject-specific and special
education teachers, family support teachers, ESL teachers, and instructional
aids. Most students remain with the same educational family the entire time
they attend O’Farrell.
The Ultra 5000 project was a joint effort by the Horizon Explorers teachers
(Family 6), to combine the study of science and the humanities. Enlisting the
aid of a forensic scientist, Family 6 created a unit complete with a crime lab,
a press center, and a courthouse. The team strived to make the project a
simulation of the criminal and judicial system, and the students were asked to
select a role in the process to solve a problem/crime. The crime was the theft
of a new telescope, the Ultra 5000, during a party at the school. Students
selected roles from the following choices:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Jurors
Defense Attorneys
Prosecution Attorneys
Paralegals
Bailiff
Suspects
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Witnesses
Custodians
Handwriting Specialists
Forensic Scientists
Reporters
Each day the students were given a case update and a task (see sample daily
assignment) pertaining to their role. Moving between the crime lab, witness
room, attorney room, courthouse, and library, the students would complete
their task by working cooperatively and doing research surrounding their role
and objective. The project would culminate when the trial ended and the jury
reached a verdict.
The Horizon Explorers teachers found that the students were highly
motivated by the project, and couldn’t wait to find out what the next layer of
the case would be. The teachers also found that having the expertise of a
forensic scientist raised the standard of the work and gave the students a
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
high-stakes audience. Students also contacted community members who held
jobs in the roles they were playing for the project.
Through the Ultra 5000 project, students engaged in:
Science - data collection, scientific inquiry, investigative analysis and
interpretation;
Social Studies - studying societal institutions, power, authority, and
governance, governmental mechanisms, and social justice;
Language Arts - writing for different audiences, purposes, and career
applications, reading to learn new information and for career applications,
and communicating to a range of audiences for effective delivery.
267
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Sample Project Description:
What Happened?
On Thursday at 6:00 pm there was a party at O’Farrell Community School in
room 213 to celebrate the arrival of a new telescope – the Ultra 5000.
People from the community, in addition to the school staff, were invited to
attend the celebration.
The telescope is a state of the art model that has the power to see the
surface of Pluto with perfect clarity. The marvelous part of it is that it
weights a mere 15 pounds, which makes it very light and portable. Needless
to say, it is extremely expensive.
Sometime during the evening, the Ultra 5000 telescope was stolen. The
night custodian, Joe Clean, called the police to report the missing
property and possible burglary at 9:57 pm.
There is a guest sign-in sheet, which names most of the guests who were in
attendance that night, in addition to their arrival times. A few of the
attendees are Sadie Truth, Justin Time, Seth Mefree, and Hope N.
Forthebest.
All of the attendees of the party are suspects. Furthermore, the
custodian has not been cleared from being a suspect. The task of solving
this crime now rests in the hands of detectives and forensic scientists.
They are assigned to collect and examine the physical evidence left in room
213, as well as to sort through the information provided by the suspects
and witnesses in their interviews. It is up to them to try to piece together
all of the evidence to find out who stole the Ultra 5000 telescope and put
the suspect on trial in a court of law.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Sample Project Assignment:
Reporter
What you need to turn in on April 20th to get an ACCOMPLISHED grade for
the Trial of “Who Stole the Ultra 5000?”
You will submit one complete project portfolio containing the following
(in order):
q Log of all interviews conducted
q Subject/Date/Time/Location sheets
q Sampling of interviews (at least two)
q Sampling of articles written (derived from interviews) (at least two)
q Sampling of articles written about forensic science (derived from
research)
q Journal/collection of daily reflections on Forensic Science
NOTE! Your journal must include reflections on the following
questions:
1. What are you learning about the role you have been assigned?
2. How is forensic science affecting your character’s life? or
What have you learned about forensic science?
3. Explain one new hypothesis that you or your team has
developed.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Sample Project Assignment:
Paralegal
What you need to turn in on April 20th to get an ACCPMPLISHED grade for
the Trial of “Who Stole the Ultra 5000?”
You will submit one complete project portfolio containing the following:
q Journal/collection of news articles with reflection
The pool of reporters will be writing daily news articles and you will
need to read them, and reflect on your character’s portrayal,
whether or not the information presented is accurate, etc.
q Journal/collection of daily reflections on forensic science
NOTE! Your journal must include reflections on the following
questions:
1. What are you learning about the role you have been assigned?
2. How is forensic science affecting your character’s life? or
What have you learned about forensic science?
3. Explain one new hypothesis that you or your team has
developed.
q In addition to the reflections, create a daily task list for the
following day.
q Create a “Joe defense attorney or prosecutor” poster.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Sample Project Assignment:
Handwriting analyst
What you need to turn in on April 20th to get an ACCPMPLISHED grade for
the Trial of “Who Stole the Ultra 5000?”
You will submit one complete project portfolio containing the following:
q Journal/collection of news articles with reflection
The pool of reporters will be writing daily news articles and you will
need to read them, and reflect on your character’s portrayal,
whether or not the information presented is accurate, etc.
q Journal/collection of daily reflections on forensic science
NOTE! Your journal must include reflections on the following
questions:
1. What are you learning about the role you have been assigned?
2. How is forensic science affecting your character’s life? or
What have you learned about forensic science?
3. Explain one new hypothesis that you or your team has
developed.
q Research paper on the life of a handwriting analyst or a
criminologist.
q “Joe handwriting analyst or criminologist” poster.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Sample Daily Assignment for Reporters and Attorneys:
Reporters!
The prosecution has just announced a defendant. The defendant will be
tried on Wednesday and Thursday of this week.
Your job is to get the scoop! You may question people who were suspects,
or witnesses, as well as the attorneys and forensic science team.
You should have a story published on the web at http://165.24.16.243/ by
the end of the school day.
Attorneys!
On Friday, the prosecution announced who the defendant will be; now it is
time to prepare for trial! The trial is on Wednesday and Thursday of this
week.
Today, you have to decide how you are going to defend or prosecute the
defendant. In order to do this you need a plan. After developing your plan,
you may want to decide who you want to call as a witness in the trial.
Practice with them so they know what to expect when on the stand. Also,
think about who the other side is going to call for their witness, and how
you are going to counter them on the stand.
If you want to call expert witnesses you will need to decide who you are
going to call, and for what reason. The expert witnesses are in room 213.
Call them and interview them before making a final selection.
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
The following books were recommended by school practitioners. The
reviews are drawn from book jackets, publishers, and websites.
Designing & Implementing an
Integrated Curriculum: A Student-Centered Approach
Edward T. Clark, Jr. (1997)
Holistic Education Press
http://www.great-ideas.org/clark.htm
Ed Clark, more adeptly than anyone else, has translated
the revolutionary insights of systems theory and
ecological science into a specific educational agenda
for the twenty-first century. In this new and compelling
book, he makes it clear that "integrated curriculum" is
more than the mere combination of subject areas, and
more than another passing educational fad: By
examining hidden assumptions about human potential,
learning and intelligence, the nature of the universe,
and the effectiveness of organizations, Clark
demonstrates that the established educational structure
is not equipped to cope with the major changes taking place in the world
today. He calls for systemic restructuring.
An integrated curriculum begins with important, open-ended questions about
student’s places in society, history, their community, and the ecosystem.
Integrated teaching is attuned to natural processes of learning, such as
constructing meaning and understanding context, relationships, and concepts
within a genuine community of learning. Clark explains how, in the
technological worldview, isolated facts came to assume undeserved
importance; in a systemic, ecological perspective, the purpose of education is
not to pile up facts but to cultivate inquiry, meaningful understanding, and
direct personal engagement. Surveying the political and economic scene at
this time, Clark concludes that such goals are vital to the survival of
democratic citizenship. Systemic, ecological thinking is increasingly relevant
today because of the complexity and speed of social, cultural, and
technological change. Clark quotes Margaret Mead: "Now young people face
futures for which their parents culture cannot prepare them." Clark’s
integrated curriculum enables students to address their world with
imagination, creativity, and purpose, rather than making them passive
consumers of textbook and media-packaged information. This is a visionary
book, yet firmly grounded in the author’s extensive and successful work with
school staffs attempting genuine restructuring.
Designing and Implementing an Integrated Curriculum is a powerful
curriculum development tool for teachers, schools, and school districts. By
using the philosophy, strategies, and models presented in this book,
individual teachers, teacher teams, or administrators can design a curriculum
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
that is integrated, interesting, substantive, provocative, and genuinely
relevant to the concerns and needs of students.
Drawing from the hundreds of workshops that he has conducted over the last
twenty years, Clark examines the assumptions that support traditional
educational designs and proposes a new perspective that is integrated,
ecological, and learner-centered. He then develops the principles of a truly
integrated curriculum framed by a set of universally relevant concepts and
organized around "questions worth arguing about." He concludes with
dozens of real-world examples that illustrate the implementation of the
integrated curriculum in a Chicago-area school.
Dr. Ed Clark is an educational consultant specializing in integrated
curriculum design and site-based educational change. He has been involved
in teacher education for thirty years -- as Director of Teacher Education at
Webster University, as Professor of Environmental Education at George
Williams College, and as an independent educational consultant for the last
fifteen years. A native of Virginia, he and his wife Margaret live in the far
western suburbs of Chicago.
Making Sense of Integrated Science: A Guide for High Schools
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (2000)
http://www.bscs.org/cp_ids.html
The interconnectedness of natural science disciplines has become
increasingly obvious of late. The "high ground" perspective of observing
Earth from space allows us to see that the individual "-ologies" are really part
of a unified whole: integrated science.
Across the country, we at Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS)
have heard a consistent message from teachers, schools, and districts that are
thinking about ways to improve science education for their students. In
general, we have found the following:
ß
ß
ß
ß
Teachers seek a coherent alternative to the discipline-based
sequence.
States are establishing standards across the disciplines and teachers
see a multidisciplinary science program as a way to meet those
standards.
Science programs that integrate across disciplines engage a greater
diversity of learners.
Science that integrates across the disciplines reflects the unity of the
natural world.
How can high school teachers best use this concept to enhance their students'
understanding of their natural world? How might schools go about
implementing such a program? Check out our new guide: "Making Sense of
Integrated Science: A Guide for High Schools," which is the result of a study
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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
funded by the National Science Foundation, and can be downloaded in its
entirety from our website.
The key features of BSCS Science Inquiry Approach include:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Rigorous, standards-based content
Lessons that are activity-based
Opportunities for structured and open inquiry in relevant contexts
A constructivist, student-centered approach
The BSCS 5-E Instructional Model [see website for information]
A collaborative learning environment
A comprehensive assessment package
The use of student science notebooks
Concept-Based Curriculum and Instruction
Teaching Beyond the Facts
H Lynn Erickson, Gonzaga University (2002)
Corwin Press
http://www.corwinpress.com/
"It is the clearest approach I have seen for helping
teachers distinguish the difference between concepts and
facts. I will recommend it everywhere."
- Heidi Hayes Jacobs, Curriculum Designers, Inc.
"A lucid and helpful volume, very much what people need to move beyond
simplistic teaching."
- Grant P. Wiggins, Learning by Design, Inc.
This book is the ideal companion to Erickson’s landmark Stirring the Head,
Heart, and Soul, Second Edition. Here, the author explores concept-based
learning on a more in-depth level across disciplines and grade levels.
Teachers can use the specific strategies to create a seamless learning program
that teaches students the skills they really need to think conceptually and to
solve problems in today’s complex, changing world.
Learn how to:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Take learning beyond the facts
Facilitate deep understanding and knowledge
Develop conceptual systems in the brain to process new information
Meet higher academic standards related to content knowledge,
process abilities, quality performance, and school-to-work transitions
Align your curriculum with state and national standards and establish
appropriate performance assessments
275
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
This excellent resource for K-12 teachers, teacher educators, curriculum
designers, and staff developers contains numerous charts and figures that
enable readers to put the book to immediate use.
Making Integrated Curriculum Work:
Teachers, Students, and the Quest for Coherent Curriculum
Elizabeth P. Pate, Elaine R. Homestead, and Karen L. McGinnis
Forward by James A. Beane (1997)
Teachers College Press
http://store.tcpress.com/cgi/sc/productsearch.cgi?storeid=tcpress
"Almost every teacher has been confronted by students
asking, ‘Why do we have to learn this? Rarely, though,
do we hear of teachers raising similar questions: ‘Why
do I have to teach this?’ ‘What is this for?’ ‘When will
they ever use this?’… This book could stand alone as
an example of the kind of reflective teacher research
that is presently breathing fresh air into the generally
abstract and aloof world of educational inquiry… [or]
as a sourcebook on teaching methods… for those who
are willing to try some progressive teaching but are not
sure how to get started."
– From the Foreword by James A. Beane
Full of real stories and practical suggestions, this book searches for a
curriculum that is at once inclusive, democratic, and empowering for
teachers, students, and parents. Based on their one-year curricular experiment
called the "McHome Team," the authors–two classroom teachers and a
university professor–describe their efforts to guide a middle-school class to
co-create their own curriculum. Exploring their successes and challenges, the
authors examine the implications their approach has for the study of
integrated curricula and democratic schooling. Rather than relying on outside
sources for curriculum decisions and justifications, the authors suggest that
teachers turn to their students and to their own professional judgment to
create possibilities for curriculum and teaching.
Introductory chapters are followed by individual chapters on each of the
eight essential components of coherent curriculum:
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
276
Goals
Democratic Classrooms
Traditional and Alternative Assessments
Content Integration
Pedagogy
Communication
Scheduling and Organizational Structures
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Multicultural Mathematics:
Interdisciplinary, Cooperative Learning Activities
J. Weston Walch, Publisher (1993)
http://www.enc.org/resources/records/full/0,1240,003787,00.shtm
Packed full of complex, constructivist activities, this activity book
demonstrates how cultures across the globe and through the span of time
use(d) math structures to explain, invent, and create their societies. This book
would work very well at the ninth grade level with heterogeneous groups
working at different paces, but needing to grasp similar concepts.
This reproducible blackline master book of 55 multicultural activities for
mathematics is designed as a supplement and enrichment for the mathematics
curriculum of the middle and secondary grades. The authors propose to
expose students to the mathematics practices of other peoples of the world; to
show students how mathematics is applied in science, social studies, art, and
sports; and to develop the critical thinking skills of students.
Each activity includes cultural, historical, or other background information as
appropriate; an explanation of the pertinent mathematical concept; problems
to be solved with examples; an optional THINK ABOUT THIS section to
encourage further exploration of the mathematical concept and its relevance
to real world situations. Activities frequently are set in the context of real life
situations. One chapter is devoted to activities that emphasize developing
skills for estimation, approximation, mental arithmetic, and judging whether
results are reasonable.
A brief teachers' guide prefaces the book. It includes suggestions for how to
use the activities, a concepts and a skills chart relating the activities to the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Curriculum and
Evaluation Standards for grades 5 to 8, and reproducible grids. The book also
includes a bibliography for multicultural and global mathematics.
277
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like
Introduction
ß Content of activities
ß How to use this book
ß Concepts and skills chart
ß Sequence of activities
ß Reproducible grids
Chapter 1: Numbers Old & New
Reproducible activities
ß Names for numbers
ß All kinds of numerals
ß Chinese stick numerals
ß Calculating: Roman, Egyptian, and Maya
style
ß The amazing Maya calendar
ß Ancient Egyptian multiplication by
doubling
ß Counting on the Russian abacus
ß Counting on the Japanese abacus
ß Fractions in Ancient Egypt, part 1
ß Fractions in Ancient Egypt, part 2, Eye of
Horus fractions
ß Fractions in Ancient Egypt, part 3, unit
fractions
ß Is zero anything?
ß Casting out nines
ß More about numbers, Goldbach's conjecture
ß Pythagorean triples
Chapter 2: Using Numbers in Real Life
Reproducible activities
ß Rounding numbers
ß Big numbers and approximation
ß Mental arithmetic, part 1, money in West
Africa
ß Mental arithmetic, part 2, more cowrie
shells
ß Mental arithmetic, part 3, African genius
ß Benjamin Banneker's Almanack
ß Change in population of four cities
ß Growth of the population of the United
States
ß Spending our money: the federal budget
Chapter 3: Geometry & Measurement
Reproducible activities
ß The largest garden plot
ß The shape of a house
ß The wonderful pyramids of Egypt
ß The golden ratio
278
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
Stretching and shrinking a design
Similar shapes in three dimensions
Border patterns
Symmetry in Dine art
The symmetry of symbols
The symmetry of Hopi baskets
Islamic art: design
Islamic art: tessellations
Chapter 4: Probability, Statistics, and Graphs
Reproducible activities
ß What are the outcomes?, part 1, toss a
coin or two
ß What are the outcomes?, part 2, toss a
cowrie shell
ß What are the outcomes?, part 3, toss
more coins and shells
ß What do you eat?
ß To smoke or not to smoke, part 1, Why
die young?
ß To smoke or not to smoke, part 2, Who
pays?
ß Infant mortality: why do babies die?
ß Population of California
ß Population of New York state
ß Big money
ß Where does the money go?
Chapter 5: Fun With Math
Reproducible activities
ß The first magic square
ß Magic squares: find the mistake
ß Four by four magic squares
ß More four by four magic squares
ß Secret codes with numbers
ß Map coloring
ß Networks, part 1, Chokwe
ß Networks, part 2, Bakuba
ß Networks, part 3, more Bakuba
ß Three in a row games: Tapatan
ß Three in a row games: Picaria
Bibliography for multicultural and global
mathematics
Answer key
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM
Writing to Learn Mathematics and Science
Paul Connolly and Teresa Vilardi, Editors (1989)
Teachers College Press
http://store.tcpress.com/0807729620.shtml
This book, written by undergraduate or pre-service teacher educators, offers
a collection of essays that discuss how students' learning in mathematics and
science can be improved through both conventional formal writing and
regular informal writing. The forward traces the development of educational
philosophy in the twentieth century and places the writing to learn process in
an historical context. It also explains the seminal nature of John Dewey's
work proposing language and writing as starting points that can be used to
enhance the teaching of science and mathematics. The essays emphasize the
importance of using writing for advancing, not just testing, student
understanding in math and science, and present ideas and strategies designed
to give students an understanding of and experience with the writing to learn
process. This writing process also aims to enrich students' conceptual
understanding, to develop thinking, and to integrate information. A sample
article, Writing and Mathematics Theory and Practice, contains a review of
recent publications that describe efforts to use writing in the teaching of
mathematics and considers the impact of writing activities on the
mathematics classroom. Each chapter ends with references. (Author/JRS)
Contents:
Preface
Foreword:
ß The ordinary experience of writing, by Leon Botstein
ß Writing and the ecology of learning, by Paul Connolly
ß Writing and mathematics: theory and practice, by Barbara Rose
Part 1: Defining problems, seeing possibilities
ß Using writing to assist learning in college mathematics classes,
by Marcia Birken
ß Writing to learn science and mathematics, by Sheila Tobias
ß Reflections on the uses of informal writing, by Alan Marwine
Part 2: Writing as problem solving
ß Writing is problem solving, by Russel W. Kenyon
ß Locally original mathematics through writing, by William P.
Berlinghoff
ß Writing and the teacher of mathematics, by David L. White and
Katie Dunn
Part 3: Classroom applications: what works and how
ß Writing micro themes to learn human biology, by Kathryn H. Martin
ß The synergy between writing and mathematics, by David Layzer
ß Exploring mathematics in writing, by Sandra Keith
ß Writing to learn: an experiment in remedial algebra, by Richard J.
Lesnak
279
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM
ß
ß
Writing as a vehicle to learn mathematics: a case study, by Arthur B.
Powell and Jose A. Lopez
Writing in science education classes for elementary school teachers,
by Mary Bahns
Part 4: Programmatic policies and practices
ß The advanced writing requirement at Saint Mary's College, by
Joanne Erdman Snow
ß Qualitative thinking and writing in the hard sciences, by William J.
Mullin
ß What's an assignment like you doing in a course like this?: writing to
learn mathematics, by George D. Gopen and David A. Smith
Part 5: The context of learning
ß On preserving the union of numbers and words: the story of an
experiment, by Erika Duncan
ß They think, therefore we are, by Anneli Lax
ß Writing and reading for growth in mathematical reasoning, by
Hassler Whitney
ß The dignity quotient, by Dale Worsley
Part 6: Responses
ß Is mathematics a language? by Vera John-Steiner
ß A mathematician's perspective, by Reuben Hersh
ß About the editors and contributors
ß Index
280
INTEGRATING CURRICULUM
NOTES:
281
SURVEY
This collection is ever growing! We’d love to hear about additional resources for
advisories, project-based learning, literacy, and college-access. We will include new
additions in our final publication (January 2004) as well as on our website.
Suggested Resource:
(circle one)
Adapting Classroom Practice
Teaching for Equity
Integrating Curriculum
$ Cut Along Dotted Line
Suggested Resource:
(circle one)
Adapting Classroom Practice
Teaching for Equity
Integrating Curriculum
Based on teacher surveys, we’ve outlined some topics for our upcoming resource
collection. Let us know if there are additional topics you’d like us to consider.
October 2003
Suggested Topics:
Performance Assessment
Web-Based Learning
Family & Community Relationships
The first collection, from April 2003, addressed advisories, project-based learning,
literacy, and college access. It is available at http://www.smallschoolsproject.org.
Return by mail:
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