EnvironmentAsia
Available
online
at www.tshe.org/EA
Available
online
at www.tshe.org/EA
EnvironmentAsia 25(1)
(2012)
39-47
EnvironmentAsia
(2009)
50-54
DOI10.14456/ea.2012.5
The international journal published by the Thai Society of Higher Education Institutes on Environment
Genotoxicity Assessment of Mercuric Chloride in the Marine Fish Therapon jaruba
Acid Rain Examination and Chemical Composition of Atmospheric Precipitation in
Nagarajan Nagarani, Arumugam Kuppusamy
Kumaraguru, Velmurugan Janaki Devi
Tehran, Iran
and Chandrasekaran Archana Devi
Mohsen Saeedi a and Seyed Pejvak Pajooheshfar b
Center for Marine and Coastal Studies, School of Energy, Environment and Natural Resources,
MaduraiSchool
Kamaraj
University,
Madurai-625021,
Environmental Research Laboratory,
of Civil
Engineering,
Iran UniversityIndia
of Science & Technology, Tehran,
16846, Iran
b
Post Graduate in Environmental Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science & Technology,
Abstract
Tehran, 16846, Iran
a
The aim of the present study was to standardize and to assess the predictive value of the cytogenetic analysis
by
Micronucleus
(MN) test in fish erythrocytes as a biomarker for marine environmental contamination. Micronucleus
Abstract
frequency baseline in erythrocytes was evaluated in and genotoxic potential of a common chemical was determined
in
experimentally
exposed
in aquarium
under
controlled problems
conditions.
(Therapon
jaruba)
were exposed
forsnow,
96
fish
Air
pollution is one
of the most
important
environmental
in Fish
metropolitan
cities
like Tehran.
Rain and
hrs
to
a
single
heavy
metal
(mercuric
chloride).
Chromosomal
damage
was
determined
as
micronuclei
frequency
in
as natural events, may dissolve and absorb contaminants of the air and direct them onto the land or surface waters which
fish
erythrocytes.
Significant
increase
in
MN
frequency
was
observed
in
erythrocytes
of
fish
exposed
to
mercuric
become polluted. In the present study, precipitation samples were collected from an urbanized area of Tehran. They were
2- ppm induced the highest MN frequency (2.95 micronucleated cells/1000 cells compared
chloride.
0.25
, SO
analyzed Concentration
for NO3 , PO43 of
4 , pH, turbidity, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, Ni, Cr, and Al. We demonstrate
to
1
MNcell/1000
cells
in
control
animals).
The
that micronucleus
as an
of of
cumulative
that snow samples were often more polluted
and
hadstudy
lowerrevealed
pH than those
from the rain, test,
possibly
as index
an effect
adsorption
exposure,
appears
to
be
a
sensitive
model
to
evaluate
genotoxic
compounds
in
fish
under
controlled
conditions.
capability of snow flakes. Volume weighted average concentrations were calculated and compared with some other studies.
Results revealed that Tehran’s precipitations are much more polluted than those reported from other metropolitan cities.
Keywords:
genotoxicity;
mercuric
micronucleus
Cluster analysis
revealed that
studiedchloride;
parameters
such as metals and acidity originated from the same sources, such as fuel
combustion in residential and transportation sectors of Tehran.
Keywords: wet deposition; heavy metals; acid rain; chemical composition; Tehran
1. Introduction
In India, about 200 tons of mercury and its
1. Introduction
compounds are introduced into the environment
annually as effluents from industries (Saffi, 1981).
Air quality problems in urban areas mainly arise
Mercuric chloride has been used in agriculture as a
from fuel combustion in transportation, residential and
fungicide, in medicine as a topical antiseptic and
commercial sectors and industrial activities. Metals in
disinfectant, and in chemistry as an intermediate in
the atmosphere originate mainly from metal refining,
the production of other mercury compounds. The
fossil fuel combustion, vehicle exhausts, and other
contamination of aquatic ecosystems by heavy
human activities, and stay there until they are removed
metals and pesticides has gained increasing attention
by a variety of cleansing processes including dry
in recent decades. Chronic exposure to and
deposition, scavenging and washout by wet deposition
accumulation of these chemicals in aquatic biota
(Church et al., 1990; Alloway, 1990; Sillapapiromsuk
can result in tissue burdens that produce adverse
and Chantara, 2010). Heavy metals emitted by combuseffects not only in the directly exposed organisms,
tion processes usually have relatively high solubility
but also in human beings.
and reactivity, because of the small sizes of particles
Fish provides a suitable model for monitoring
on which they are carried (Nriagu, 1984). Thus, they
aquatic genotoxicity and wastewater quality
dissolve readily in rain, especially under low pH condibecause of its ability to metabolize xenobiotics and
tions caused by nitrogen and sulfur oxides in the urban
accumulated pollutants. A micronucleus assay has
atmosphere, resulting in polluted rainwater.
been used successfully in several species (De Flora,
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen are
et al., 1993, Al-Sabti and
Metcalfe, 1995). The
the primary causes of acid rain. These pollutants origimicronucleus (MN) test has been developed
nate from human activities such as waste incineration
together with DNA-unwinding assays as
and fossil fuels combustion in power plants, automoperspective methods for mass monitoring of
biles, mineral processing, refineries and industries. The
clastogenicity and genotoxicity in fish and mussels
levels of NOx are small in comparison to SO2, but its
(Dailianis et al., 2003).
contribution in the production of acid rain is increasThe MN tests have been successfully used as
ing (Singh and Agrawal, 2008; Sillapapiromsuk and
a measure of genotoxic stress in fish, under both
Chantara, 2010).
laboratory and field conditions. In 2006 Soumendra
et al., made an attempt to detect genetic biomarkers
in two fish species, Labeo bata and Oreochromis
Some studies examined acidity of rainfalls in
mossambica, by MN and binucleate (BN)
conjunction with concentrations of chemical species
erythrocytes in the gill and kidney erythrocytes
which influence the pH value of rain. All of them conexposed to thermal power plant discharge at
sidered the rain with pH values lower than 5.6 as acid
Titagarh Thermal Power Plant, Kolkata, India.
rain (Kobori et al., 2005; Sillapapiromsuk and Chantara,
The present study was conducted to determine
2010; Smith et al., 1984; Singh and Agrawal, 2008).
the acute genotoxicity of the heavy metal compound
Monitoring the concentrations of heavy metals in
HgCl2 in static systems. Mercuric chloride is toxic,
the atmosphere (aerosols and rain events) can provide
solvable in water hence it can penetrate the aquatic
important information about the sources of these metals
animals. Mutagenic studies with native fish species
and enables budget and flux calculations to be made
represent an important effort in determining the
(Alloway, 1990). Large volumes of various types of
potential effects of toxic agents. This study was
pollutants from different sources are emitted into the
carried out to evaluate the use of the micronucleus
Tehran’s atmosphere. However, there have not been any
test (MN) for the estimation of aquatic pollution
reports on average concentrations and environmental
using marine edible fish under lab conditions.
geochemistry of wet depositions in Tehran, the most
populated and polluted city of Iran. In the present study,
2. Materials and methods
contents of dissolved metals (Al, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Fe, and
23Cu) and ions (SO4 , PO4 , NO3 ) along with Electri2.1. Sample Collection
cal Conductivity (EC), Turbidity, and pH of rain and
snow samples from an urbanized area of Tehran from
The fish species selected for the present study
December 23, 2008 to July, 1 2009 were investigated.
was collected from Pudhumadam coast of Gulf of
There was no precipitation event from July 1, 2009 to
Mannar, Southeast Coast of India. Therapon
December 23, 2009.
jarbua belongs to the order Perciformes of the
family Theraponidae. The fish species, Therapon
2. Materials and Methods
jarbua (6-6.3 cm in length and 4-4.25 g in weight)
was selected for the detection of genotoxic effect
2.1. Sampling
M. Saeedi et al. / EnvironmentAsia 5(1) (2012) 39-47
Samples were obtained at Elahieh located in
north Tehran near Gholhak valley which is one of the
polluted areas of Tehran (Fig.1). The samples were
collected using a bulk sampler equipped with a plastic
funnel that was set on the roof of a building at about
30 meters from ground level and separated from other
buildings and structures to avoid undesirable effects.
After a precipitation event, the samples were immediately transported to the laboratory keeping them at 4°C.
Snow samples were collected in the sampling funnel
and allowed to melt at room temperature. All sampling
apparatus (buckets and funnels) were acid washed and
rinsed with distilled water prior to sampling.
of rain were collected in a plastic bucket during the
first hour of a rainfall. Each rainfall was treated as
one sample and the samples were not a mixture of
different rains of the same day. Annual precipitation
in Tehran province in the studied year 2008 and 2009
was about 307.41 and 297.2 mm respectively and a fifty
year average is 232.8 mm. Heavy metals along with
other studied parameter concentrations are presented in
Table 1.
Some samples were highly polluted in terms of
almost all studied contaminants. This may be due to
a long time gap between precipitations and heavy air
pollution. For instance, on July 1, 2009, rain had 21.5
NTU turbidity, 167 μs EC, 0.21 mg/L Ni, 1.61 mg/L Al,
32.2. Chemical analyses
and 1.19 mg/L PO4 . This was one of the most polluted
precipitations of the studied time period. Snow samples
pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the samples were usually more polluted than rains. Mean pH value
nd Methods was measured by a pH-EC meter (Cyberscan 510 of snow samples was lower than those of rain. In most
model) following calibration. A HACH 2100N Turbidi- of the samples the pH value was less than 5.5 in autumn
meter (USA) was used to measure samples turbidity. and winter time while it was in higher values in spring
23Concentrations of Fe2+ and anions (SO4 , PO4 , and time. This could be explained by the fact that the air
pollution
in is
Tehran
more extensive in cold seasons
NO3 )atwere
measured
byin
a DR/4000U
HACH
es were obtained
Elahieh
located
north Tehran
near SpectroGholhak valley
which
one ofis the
the year with
(i.e. autumn
photometer.
of Tehran (Fig.1).
The samples were collected using a bulk samplerofequipped
a plasticand winter) than that of warm
seasons.
Fossilfrom
fuel other
combustion in autumn and winter
of
Acidifying
concentrations
of metals
s set on the roof
a buildingsamples,
at about 30
meters from ground
level and
separated
structures to
undesirable
After a precipitation
the samples
wereduring cold seasons to warm
in Tehran
is increased
(Al,avoid
Cr, Ni,
Pb, and Zn)effects.
were determined
by Graphite event,
ansported to the
laboratory
keeping
them Spectrophotometer
at 4°C. Snow samples
were collected
the the
sampling
the homesinand
traffic is heavier during this time.
Furnace
Atomic
Absorption
(Buck
owed to meltScientific
at room 210
temperature.
and funnels)
were acid
frequently
occurs in cold seasons in Tehran
VGP). All sampling apparatus (bucketsInversion
nsed with distilled water prior to sampling.
preventing vertical mixing of the atmosphere. Overall,
the rain and snow in Tehran within the time period of
3. Results and discussion
analyses
study was nearly acidic (mean rain pH; 5.9 and mean
snow pH; 5.08) which may have negative impact on
3.1. Concentrations
d Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the samples was measured by a pH-EC
metersoils
( Cyberscan
structures,
and quality of groundwater and surface
ollowing calibration.
A
HACH
2100N
Turbidimeter
(USA)
was
used
to
measure
samples
Acid precipitation in Tehran is pri 2+Twenty one precipitation
from waters in the area.
23- events occurred
centrations ofJuly
Fe 2008
and to
anions
(SO
4 , PO4 , and NO3 ) were measured by a DR/4000U HACH
October 2009 at Elahieh-Tehran. Samples marily caused by a mixture of strong acids, H2SO4 and
meter.
HNO3, resulting from fossil fuel combustion mainly by
transport sector.
3.2. Precipitation volume weighted-average concentration of elements
The precipitation volume weighted – average
values for pH, studied elements and three ions are sum2marized in Table 2. SO4 has the highest value. Nitrate is
the second most concentrated pollutant. Aluminum, Cu,
Ni, Zn and Pb have much higher values in comparison
with other parts of the world (Galloway et al., 1982;
Barrie et al., 1987; Horvath et al., 1994; Landis and
Keeler, 1997; Takeda et al., 2000). Therefore, we consider Tehran as a highly polluted city in the world.
A comparison of concentration of trace elements
in the wet deposition samples reported in the literature
is presented in Table 3. The higher concentrations of
1. Sampling
site
rain and snow collections in studied elements in Tehran may be mainly due to emising site for rainFigure
and snow
collections
in for
Tehran
Tehran
sions from residential and transportation sectors and
samples, concentrations of metals (Al, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were determined by Graphite
ic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Buck Scientific 210 VGP).
d discussion
40
M. Saeedi et al. / EnvironmentAsia 5(1) (2012) 39-47
Table 1. Sampling date of Tehran precipitations and their chemical and physical compositions
Sample
Jan 8, 2009
NO3
PO4
SO4
(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
1.1
0.046
12
pH
Tur.
EC
Cu
Fe
Zn
Pb
Ni
Cr
Al
(NTU) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
4.65
4.78
56.7
0.19
0.141
0.123
0.877
0.077
0.740
Jan 12, 2009
0.7
0.045
5.5
4.99
1.12
20.6
0.12
0.085
0.023
0.409
0.101
0.008
0.966
Jan 15, 2009
2.2
0.095
30.7
5.03
2.6
107.2
0.21
0.197
0.298
0.649
0.048
0.007
1.095
Jan 21, 2009
0.8
0.018
2.3
5.45
1.25
22
0.137
0.022
0.153
0.950
0.100
0.003
0.891
Jan 29, 2009
1.4
0.037
13.6
5.29
2.2
42.5
0.371
0.078
0.079
0.425
0.132
0.079
1.517
Mean Snow
1.24
0.048
12.820
5.082
2.390
49.800
0.206
0.105
0.135
0.662
0.091
0.024
1.042
Max
2.2
0.095
30.700
5.450
4.780 107.200 0.371
0.197
0.298
0.950
0.132
0.079
1.517
Min
0.7
0.018
2.300
4.650
1.120
0.022
0.023
0.409
0.048
0.003
0.740
20.600
0.120
Dec 23, 2008
0.9
0.057
6.9
5.88
1.6
23.6
0.222
0.063
0.052
0.497
0.121
0.033
0.497
Dec 25, 2008
0.7
0.028
2.7
5.55
2.15
20.8
0.125
0.062
0.009
0.363
0.030
0.016
0.106
Jan 25, 2009
0.5
0.036
6.2
5.52
1.55
11.3
0.115
0.051
0.042
0.128
0.014
0.451
Feb 4, 2009
0.9
0.042
13.1
5.72
2.15
42.4
0.198
0.037
0.071
0.621
0.138
0.157
Feb 7, 2009
0.9
0.202
12.4
5.89
2.9
49.6
0.124
0.026
0.065
0.309
0.026
0.038
0.206
Feb 8, 2009
0.5
0.035
3.1
4.73
3
39.3
0.156
0.072
0.042
0.280
0.053
0.042
0.469
0.009
Feb 8, 2009
0.5
0.043
2.3
5.66
0.8
12.69
0.12
0.03
0.024
0.262
0.085
Feb 14, 2009
0.8
0.34
16.3
5.81
4.3
43.5
0.326
0.181
0.019
0.406
0.099
0.435
1.055
Feb 15, 2009
0.6
0.066
8
5.51
1.4
19.03
0.229
0.002
0.022
0.454
0.014
0.928
Mar 28, 2009
0.6
0.058
5.2
5.89
0.9
39.8
0.125
0.012
0.004
0.096
0.037
0.019
0.443
Mar 29, 2009
0.6
0.091
4.6
5.93
0.87
25.6
0.256
0.052
0.020
0.190
0.088
0.010
1.360
Apr 26, 2009
1.4
0.894
18.4
6.48
ND
101.4
0.269
0.055
0.090
0.900
0.166
0.016
1.301
Apr 26, 2009
0.9
0.28
8.7
6.13
39
75.7
0.321
0.147
0.059
0.358
0.011
0.011
1.476
Apr 26, 2009
0.8
0.253
10.6
5.98
11.7
63.6
0.316
0.177
0.016
0.288
0.084
0.038
0.910
May 17, 2009
4.5
0.266
74.3
7.75
26
521
0.459
0.296
0.275
0.829
0.147
0.063
4.404
July 1, 2009
3.1
1.191
25.5
6.51
21.5
167
0.29
0.134
0.094
0.781
0.213
0.045
1.611
Mean Rain
1.138
0.243
13.644
5.934
7.988
78.520
0.228
0.087
0.056
0.423
0.083
0.028
0.988
Max
4.500
1.191
74.300
7.750
39.000 521.000 0.459
0.296
0.275
0.900
0.213
0.063
4.404
Min
0.500
0.028
2.300
4.730
0.800
0.002
0.004
0.096
0.011
0.009
0.106
11.300
utilization of heavy liquid fuel oil in many industries
and power plants within and around Tehran. It should
be pointed out that lower precipitation in Tehran compared to most of the other studied sites would eventually results in higher metal concentrations. Lower rain
volumes in Tehran and longer time periods between
rain and snow events in addition to the high amounts of
pollutants in the air would result in higher dissolution
and absorption of contaminants in lower volumes of
water making rain and snow highly polluted in terms
of metals and acidic ions.
0.115
Table 2. Precipitation volume weighted-average concentrations of elements and ions in Tehran’s wet depositions
pH
NO3- (mg/L)
PO43- (mg/L)
SO42- (mg/L)
Cu (mg/L)
Fe (mg/L)
Zn (mg/L)
Pb (mg/L)
Ni (mg/L)
Cr (mg/L)
Al (mg/L)
3.3. Acid rain comparisons
Acid rain occurs in Tehran, Iran (Table 1). A rainfall
of pH 4.65 was measured on Jan 8, 2009. It is shown that
all snow samples have lower pH than rainfalls and all
of them are acidic with the pH value of 5.6. Forty three
41
Mean Volume
Weighted
5.4741
0.8376
0.1026
8.0640
0.1849
0.0721
0.0519
0.4057
0.0659
0.0164
0.7612
(Min)
(Max)
4.65
0.5
0.018
2.3
0.115
0.002
0.0043
0.0957
0.0105
0.0031
0.1058
7.75
4.5
1.191
74.3
0.459
0.296
0.2977
0.95
0.2134
0.0789
4.4038
M. Saeedi et al. / EnvironmentAsia 5(1) (2012) 39-47
percent of all samples showed to have pH values lower
than 5.6. The average pH value in of samples was about
5.7 and the mean volume weighted value was around
5.47. All of these results showed that precipitation in
Tehran is acidic and it must be considered as a risk that
has to be taken care in the view of atmospheric corrosion and its effects on structures, impacts on soil and
waters, impacts on plants and crops. Fig. 2 shows the
scatter plot of pH values of samples.
correlation among the ions and elements may be indicative of existence of same sources of their emission into
Tehran’s atmosphere.
3.6. Relationship between rainfall intervals and concentrations
Our data (Table 1) clearly show that concentrations of metals and ions increase whenever the time
betweenand
twoions
precipitations
is longer.
Therefore,
Table 2. Precipitation volume weighted-average concentrationslap
of elements
in Tehran’s wet
depositions
3.4. Relationships between precipitation volume and the correlation coefficients between rainfall intervals
concentrations of chemical species
and quantity of parameters were calculated. Results
3
showed that some parameters
like NO3-, PO4 -, pH, and
Mean Volume Weighted (Min)
(Max)
The relationships between the concentrations of Ni had significant correlation coefficients which are
pH
5.4741
4.65
7.75
2per event 0.49, 0.66, 0.45, and 0.52 respectively. The obtained
Al and SO4 and the volume of precipitation
NO
0.8376
4.5 has higher metal, but lower ion,
3 (mg/L)
are shown in Fig. 3. Increasing
volumes
of precipitation
data reveal0.5
that snow
3PO
(mg/L)
0.1026
0.018
1.191
4
would result in a decrease of pollutant
concentrations concentrations when
compared with rain. This may be
2SOto
(mg/L) effect.
8.0640
74.3
which may be reasonable due
explained 2.3
by the adsorption
capacity of snow flakes
4 dilution
All correlation coefficients
between chemical
metals and
capability of rain (especially in
Cu (mg/L)
0.1849 data to uptake 0.115
0.459
and the volume of precipitation
were
-0.4148,
-0.3921,
lower
pH
valued)
to
dissolve
ions. The pH, turbidity
Fe (mg/L)
0.0721
0.002
0.296
-0.42866, -0.49027, -0.32529,
-0.34134,
-0.28432,
and
electrical
conductivity
(EC)
of rain are also higher
Zn (mg/L)
0.0519
0.0043 0.2977
-0.43522, -0.33402, -0.47766, -0.2258 and -0.34672 for than of snow. Probably ions are more easily soluble in
Pb (mg/L)
0.4057
0.0957 0.95
32NO3-, PO4 , SO4 , Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, Ni, Al, pH, Turbidity rain than snow.
Ni (mg/L)
0.0105 0.2134
and Electrical conductivity, respectively.
It0.0659
means that
Cr led
(mg/L)
0.0031
0.0789
higher volume of precipitation
to lower0.0164
concentra- 3.7. Cluster
analysis
Al
(mg/L)
0.7612
0.1058
4.4038
tions in precipitations.
Data in Table 1 are used to portrait cluster a den3.3. Relationship
Acid rain comparisons
3.5.
between anions and metals
drogram of ions and heavy metals in all the samples
those were collected (Fig. 6). All studied parameters
Acid
rain occurs
Tehran, Iran
(Tableanions
1). A rainfall
of pH 4.65
was measured
on Janas8, coefficients
2009. It is
Linear
regression
wasincomputed
amongst
have positive
similarity
coefficients
- that2-all snow 32shown
samples
have
lower
pH
than
rainfalls
and
all
of
them
are
acidic
with
the
pH
value
(NO3 , SO4 and PO4 ) and metals in samples. Almost between NO3 and SO4 , Al and Cu, Al and Fe,of
Fe5.6.
and
Forty
threehad
percent
all samples
showed
to have
values
5.6.0.939,
The average
pH value
in and
of
all
of them
good of
R-squared
values
indicating
rea-pH Cu,
andlower
Zn andthan
Pb are
0.725, 0.675,
0.675,
2samples
was
about
5.7
and
the
mean
volume
weighted
value
was
around
5.47.
All
of
these
results
showed
sonable relationships between quantities of measured 0.662, respectively. Nitrate, SO4 , Al, Fe and Cu form
that precipitation
in Tehran
is acidic and
it must
be considered
a risk
thatsimilarities.
has to be taken
care in and
the Pb-Zn
view
parameters.
For instance,
relationships
between
metals
a clusteraswith
higher
Nickel-PO
4
of
atmospheric
corrosion
and
its
effects
on
structures,
impacts
on
soil
and
waters,
impacts
on
plants
than
against the ions are shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. A direct also form other clusters with similarities higher and
crops. Fig. 2 shows the scatter plot of pH values of samples.
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Scatter
Scatter plot
plot of
of pH
pH values
values in
in Tehran
Tehran precipitation
precipitation (2008-2009)
(2008-2009)
3.4. Relationships between precipitation volume and concentrations of chemical species
The relationships between the concentrations42of Al and SO42- and the volume of precipitation per
event are shown in Fig. 3. Increasing volumes of precipitation would result in a decrease of pollutant
M. Saeedi et al. / EnvironmentAsia 5(1) (2012) 39-47
Table 3. Comparison of concentration of trace elements in the wet deposition reported in literature (µg/L)
Table 3. Comparison of concentration of trace elements in the wet deposition reported in literature (µg/L)
Sites (rural or urban, bulk or wet)
Al
Sites (rural or urban, bulk or wet)
Fe
Al
Cu
Fe
Cu
Rural area ( Galloway et al., 1982)
Rural(Barrie
area ( Galloway
et al., 1982)
Rural area
et al., 1987)
Hungary 3 sites Rural
Rural area (Barrie et al., 1987)
(Horvath et al., 1994)
3 sites
Rural
(Horvath et al.,
DexterHungary
Michigan,
USA
semi-rural
57
(Landis1994)
and Keeler, 1997)
Dexter
Michigan, USA semi-rural
Hiroshima
Japan
0.06
(Landis
Keeler, 1997)
(Takeda
et al.,and
2000)
Ajlune,Hiroshima
Jordan Rural
Japan (Takeda et al., 2000)382
(Al-Momani, 2003)
Ajlune,
Rural
(Al-Momani, 2003)
Paradise,
NewJordan
Zealand
Rural
(Halstead
et
al.,
2000)
Paradise, New Zealand Rural (Halstead et
al., 2000)
New Castle,
USA Urban
24
(Pike and
Moran,
2001)Urban (Pike and
New Castle, USA
Moran,
2001)
Montreal
Island,
Canada Urban
18
(Poissant
et al.,Island,
1994)Canada Urban (Poissant
Montreal
et al.,Urban
1994)
Singapore
18.4
Singapore
Urban (Hu and
(Hu and
Balasubramanian,
2003)
Balasubramanian,
North Atlantic
Ocean 2003)
47
North
Atlantic
(Church
et al.,
1990)Ocean (Church et al.,
1990)
Tsukuba, Japan Suburban
Japan Suburban (Hou et al., 34
(Hou etTsukuba,
al., 2005)
2005)
Tehran, Iran (This study)
761.17
Tehran, Iran (This study)
Pb
Pb
Ni
Ni
12
2.4
36
0.68 - 5.4
24
3.0 - 12
14.0
0.792.4- 17
36 - 50
4.7
3.0-- 17
14.0
3.6 0.68
- 11- 24 13
0.79- -4.6
17
1.7
4.7
34- 50- 51
13 - 17
1.4
1.7 - 4.6
0.23
57
0.620.86
1.4
1.24
0.23
0.29
0.06
3.10.62
1.24
0.29
92
2.1
92
25
47
7.5
34
7.5
72.1
761.17
4.0
28
5.6
7.2
7.2
1.7
0.38
1.7
18
2.5
184.94
18
405.71
405.71
65.88
65.88
51.89
51.89
232.8
232.8
(b)
-2
SO4 (mg/L)
(a)
Al (mg/L)
1433
28
0.38
2.5
1433
26
26
184.94
72.1
6.5
1.3
5.6
24
25
4.77
0.038
4.0
24
18.4
7.7
4.77
0.013
91
435 - 659
0.038
1.3
91
18
435 - 659
7.7
6.5
23
yr)
34 - 51
3.1
0.013
2.1
23
24
Zn
5.4
3.6 - 11
0.86
382
Zn
Annual
precipitation
Annual
volume
precipitation
(mm/ yr)
volume(mm/
2Figure
4 2Figure3.3.Relationship
Relationshipbetween
betweenprecipitation
precipitationvolumes
volumesand
andconcentrations
concentrationsofof(a)(a)Al,
Al,(b)(b)SO
SO
4
3.5. Relationship between anions and metals
Linear regression was computed amongst anions (NO3-, SO42- and PO43-) and metals in samples.
Almost all of them had good R-squared values indicating reasonable relationships between quantities of
measured parameters. For instance, relationships between metals against the ions are shown in Fig. 4 and
43
M. Saeedi et al. / EnvironmentAsia 5(1) (2012) 39-47
Fig. 5. A direct correlation among the ions and elements may be indicative of existence of same sources of
their emission into Tehran’s atmosphere.
(b)
Fe (mg/L)
Zn (mg/L)
(a)
(d)
Cu (mg/L)
Nl (mg/L)
(c)
(f)
Pb (mg/L)
Al (mg/L)
(e)
Figure 4. Relationship between NO
3 and metals concentrations
Figure 4. Relationship between NO3 and
metals concentrations
44
M. Saeedi et al. / EnvironmentAsia 5(1) (2012) 39-47
(b)
Fe (mg/L)
Zn (mg/L)
(a)
(d)
Cu (mg/L)
Nl (mg/L)
(c)
(f)
Pb (mg/L)
Al (mg/L)
(e)
22Figure
5. Relationship
between
and metals
concentrations
Figure
5. Relationship
between
SO4 SO
and4 metals
concentrations
45
between NO3 and SO4 , Al and Cu, Al and Fe, Fe and Cu, and Zn and Pb are 0.939, 0.725, 0.675, 0.675, and
0.662, respectively. Nitrate, SO42-, Al, Fe and Cu form a cluster with higher similarities. Nickel-PO4 and Pb
Zn also form other clusters with similarities higher than 0.6 which connect to ions cluster in 0.4-0.5
similarity coefficients.
On the
of similarity5(1)
coefficients
M. Saeedi
et al.basis
/ EnvironmentAsia
(2012) 39-47all studied parameters may originate from same
sources which seem to be the combustion of fossil fuels (particularly liquid fuels) in Tehran.
Figure 6. Dendrogram of studied parameters in Tehran precipitation samples
Figure 6. Dendrogram of studied parameters in Tehran precipitation samples
0.6 which connect
to ions cluster in 0.4-0.5 similarity Al-Momani IF. Trace elements in atmospheric precipitation at
4. Conclusions
Northern Jordan measured by ICP-MS: acidity and
coefficients. On the basis of similarity coefficients all possible sources. Atmospheric Environment 2003; 37:
studied parameters mayTwenty
originate
same sources
onefrom
precipitation
samples were collected and analyzed for different constituents within a half
4507–15.
which seem to year
be the
combustion
fuels
(par- revealed
period
of timeof
infossil
Tehran.
Results
that rain and snow samples are more polluted than those of
Barrie LA, Lindberg SE, Chan WH, Ross HB, Arimoto R,
ticularly liquid other
fuels)studies
in Tehran.
around the world. Snow samples
are
mostly
than rain
samples
in in
terms of heavy
Church
TM. more
On thepolluted
concentration
of trace
metals
metal contents. Long intervals between precipitations
result
in
increased
pollution.
The
pH
of
precipitation. Atmospheric Environment 1987; 21:snow samples
4. Conclusionshad more acidity than that of rain. Larger precipitations
1133–35. resulted in dilution of contaminant concentrations in
samples and lower concentrations. We show
that
precipitations
considerably
more
Church Tehran’s
TM, Veron
A, Pattersonare
CC,
Settle D, Erel
Y, polluted than
that
of other metropolitan
of the world.
BasedHR,
onFlegal
the results
of this
studyinand
effects of
Twenty one
precipitation
samples werecities
collected
Maring
AR. Trace
elements
the negative
North
polluted/acidic
rains, some
measures
efficient
energy consumption
andofair
pollution control of
and analyzed for
different constituents
within
a half like more
Atlantic
troposphere:
shipboard results
precipitatransportation
vehiclesrevealed
should be
tion and aerosols. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1990;
year period of time
in Tehran. Results
thattaken
rain in Tehran.
4: 431–43.
and snow samples are more polluted than those of other
Galloway
JN, Thornton JD, Norton SA, Volchok HL, McLean
Acknowledgement
studies around the world. Snow samples are mostly
RA.
Trace
metals in atmospheric deposition: a review
more polluted than rain samples in terms of heavy metal
This study was partially supported by
of research Atmospheric
and Enviro-hydroinformatics
center
deputy
and assessment.
Environment 1982;
16: of excellence
contents. Long intervals between precipitations result in
Iran University of Science and Technology. 1677–700.
increased pollution. The pH of snow samples had more Halstead JRM, Cunninghame GR, Hunter AK. Wet deposition
acidity than that of rain. Larger precipitations resulted of trace metals to a remote site in Fiordland, New
in dilution of contaminant concentrations in samples Zealand. Atmospheric Environment 2000; 34:
and lower concentrations. We show that Tehran’s pre- 665–76.
cipitations are considerably more polluted than that of Horvath Z, Lasztity A, Varga E, Meszaros E, Molnar A.
Determination of trace metals and speciation of
other metropolitan cities of the world. Based on the chromium ions in atmospheric precipitation by ICPAES
results of this study and negative effects of polluted/
and GFAAS. Talanta 1994; 41: 1165–68.
acidic rains, some measures like more efficient energy
Hou
H, Takamatsu T, Koshikawab MK, Hosomi M. Trace
consumption and air pollution control of transportation
metals in bulk precipitation and throughfall in a
vehicles should be taken in Tehran.
suburban area of Japan. Atmospheric Environment 2005;
39: 3583–95.
Hu GP, Balasubramanian R. Wet deposition of trace metals
in Singapore. Water Air & Soil Pollution 2003; 144:
285–300.
Kobori H, Kumazawa M, Kai Y, Ham Y. Monitoring Study on
Acid Rain in Kanagawa Prefecture, Central Japan.
Journal of Environmental and Information Studies 2005;
6: 97-101.
Landis M, Keeler GJ. Critical evaluation of a modified
automatic wet-only precipitation collector for mercury
and trace element determinations. Environmental
Science & Technology 1997; 31: 2610–15.
Acknowledgement
This study was partially supported by deputy of research
and Enviro-hydroinformatics center of excellence, Iran University of Science and Technology.
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Received 20 August 2011
Accepted 18 September 2011
Correspondence to
Professor Dr. Mohsen Saeedi
Environmental Research Laboratory,
School of Civil Engineering,
Iran University of Science & Technology,
Tehran, 16846,
Iran
Email: [email protected]
47