Institute of Austronesian Studies, National Taitung University
國立臺東大學南島文化研究所
Master Thesis
碩士論文
Supervisor: Dr. Chang-Kwo Tan
指導教授：譚昌國
博士
Harmonic Spectral Analysis of Indigenous Musical
Instruments from Taiwan and New Zealand
諧波頻譜分析台灣和紐西蘭之土著樂器
Graduate Student: Terence A. Varhalamas
研究生：魏泰瑞
撰
June 2011
中華民國一百年六月
ii
iii
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my gratitude to my family for their constant support and to the Taiwan
Government scholarship committee who made this research possible. Also to my supervisor
Professor 譚昌國 Chang-Kwo Tan for assistance throughout my stay in Taiwan, and to
Professor H Yang 楊弘章 and his student 老 孫 Guo Chang Sun for the indispensible support
in the coding of analysis software. Finally, I would like to thank the informants, translators and
musicians that took part in the field recordings of this research.
iv
Harmonic Spectral Analysis of Indigenous Musical Instruments from Taiwan and
New Zealand
Terence A. Varhalamas
Abstract
This research investigates the harmonic spectral characteristics produced by the musical
instruments of two cultures belonging to the Austronesian linguistic family. Digital audio
samples are acquired from the Aboriginal cultures of Taiwan and the New Zealand in order to
provide an initial dataset of 154 tones taken from 14 musical instruments. Timbral features are
then analysed and clustered through a k-means Euclidean distance algorithm to ascertain
similarities and deviations in the harmonic structure exhibited by each culture. Clustering results
show a significant grouping of two specific samples taken from the Maori Koauau bone flute and
Bamboo headhunting flute of the Turku tribe in Northern Taiwan, these results suggest that
preference of timbre and tone may have been retained from the Austronesian migration of 5,000
years ago and still evident in the harmonic signature of these musical instruments.
Keywords: Austronesian Ethnomusicology, Indigenous Musical Instruments, Timbre
Migration, Harmonic analysis, Aboriginal Flutes
v
諧波頻譜分析台灣和紐西蘭之土著樂器
Terence A. Varhalamas
魏泰瑞
摘要
本研究探討以諧頻光譜分析樂器音色的特性，所研究的對象來自兩種南島文化。數位
音頻的採樣得自於台灣和紐西蘭的原住民文化，以來自 14 個樂器的 154 個音調提供初
始數據集。接著分析音色特徵，然後通過集群的 k - means 歐氏距離算法，以確定每一
種文化所展現的諧波結構的相似性和差異性。研究結果顯示，兩個特殊的樣本，即毛
利骨笛 Koauau 和台灣北部太魯閣族的竹獵頭笛，顯示出顯著的相關。這些結果表明，
音質和音色的偏愛，可能在 5000 年前遷移的南島語族中，仍然明顯保留下來，證據就
來自這些樂器的諧波特徵。
關鍵詞：南島民族音樂學、土著樂器、音色遷移，諧波分析、原住民笛
vi
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:
Introduction.......................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 6
Overview of the Austronesian speaking peoples ................................................................... 6
Essential concepts in Timbre and Harmonic Analysis.......................................................... 7
Motivation ........................................................................................................................ 12
1.2 Theoretical premise ......................................................................................................... 13
Aims and Purpose ............................................................................................................. 14
Statement of the problem .................................................................................................. 15
List of issues to resolve ...................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 2:
Literature Review ................................................................................................ 18
2.1 Organology and Ethnomusicology .................................................................................. 18
2.2 Taiwan Musical Instruments overview ............................................................................ 20
Taiwan instrument details ................................................................................................. 26
2.3 Māori Musical Instruments overview .............................................................................. 33
Māori instrument details ................................................................................................... 34
2.4 Migration Theories ......................................................................................................... 43
2.5 Musical signal processing................................................................................................. 46
Investigations into Harmonics........................................................................................... 48
2.6 Modern Advancements In Timbre perception ................................................................. 50
M.I.R (Music information Retrieval) ................................................................................ 53
2.7 Summary of literature ..................................................................................................... 57
Musical Literature ............................................................................................................. 57
Signal processing Literature ............................................................................................... 58
1
Chapter 3:
Materials and methods ........................................................................................ 60
3.1 Data Selection ................................................................................................................. 60
Playing techniques and technical descriptions ................................................................... 62
3.2 Recording methodology .................................................................................................. 67
3.3 Analysis and clustering .................................................................................................... 69
Chapter 4:
Results and Analysis ............................................................................................ 71
4.1 Rukai Bakararo............................................................................................................ 71
4.2 Complete dataset......................................................................................................... 73
4.3 Complete dataset, 1 second ......................................................................................... 75
4.4: Bakararo pipe1,2 and British samples removed........................................................... 76
4.5: Pipe1Pipe2 British removed 100-5000Hz band filter ................................................. 79
4.6 Brightness roughness features removed ........................................................................ 83
Chapter 5:
Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 84
Summary of research results .............................................................................................. 84
Contributions and limitations ........................................................................................... 86
Orientation of future research ........................................................................................... 87
Bibliography….......................................................................................................................... 89
2
Appendix
Results………………………………………………………………………………..…95
i:
Results complete dataset, full samples 4 Clusters
ii:
Results complete dataset, full samples 5 Clusters
iii:
Results complete dataset, full samples 5 Clusters
iv:
Results dataset without Bakararo pipe1,2 and British samples, 1second, 4 Clusters
v:
Results dataset without Bakararo pipe1,2 and British samples, 1second, 4 Clusters
vi:
Results dataset, British, Pipe1,2 and overblown samples removed, 1sec samples, 4
Clusters
vii:
Results dataset, British, Pipe1,2 and overblown samples removed, 1sec samples, 4
Clusters
viii:
Results dataset Pipe1,2 and overblown samples removed, 1sec moderate, 14 group
Clusters
xi:
Results dataset -Brightness roughness features removed, British Pipe1Pipe2 and all
overblown samples removed, 1sec samples, 4 group Clusters
x:
Timbre MATLAB code……………….…………………..……………………......111
xi:
Function MATLAB code
xii:
Separate MATLAB code
3
Table of Figures
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 Graphic Equalizer .................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2-1 Mouth Bow ............................................................................................................. 26
Figure 2-2 Mouth Bow ............................................................................................................. 26
Figure 2-3 Jews Harp ................................................................................................................ 27
Figure 2-4 Jews Harp ................................................................................................................ 27
Figure 2-5 Amis double pipe six hole nose flute......................................................................... 28
Figure 2-6 Paiwan nose flute measurement................................................................................ 30
Figure 2-7 Paiwan nose flute measurement................................................................................ 30
Figure 2-8 Pestle Ensemble ....................................................................................................... 31
Figure 3-1 Koauau one pipe mouth blown flute ........................................................................ 62
Figure 3-2 Rukai double pipe nose blown flute ......................................................................... 63
Figure 3-3 Truku head hunting one pipe mouth blown flute .................................................... 64
Figure 3-4 Philippine Karareng one pipe nose blown flute ........................................................ 65
Figure 3-5 Thai circular mouth blown panpipe ......................................................................... 65
Figure 3-6 Classical western flute mouth blown flute ................................................................ 66
Figure 3-7 Bansuri .................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 3-8 Frequency response curve of the M-Audio Nova cardioid Microphone .................... 67
Figure 3-9 Recording equipment setup ..................................................................................... 68
Figure 3-10: MATLAB flowchart Interconnections ................................................................... 70
List of Tables
Table 1-I: Harmonic and overtone frequencies from ‘A’ 440Hz .................................................. 9
Table 2-I Notes and Intervals derived from Tonic ‘F’ ................................................................ 46
Table 2-II Other intervals derived from scale elements .............................................................. 47
Table 2-III Similarity spaces ...................................................................................................... 56
Table 3-I Indigenous Musical Instruments from Taiwan and New Zealand ............................. 60
4
Chapter 1: Introduction
Cultural Anthropology has long been employed to study migration routes and cultural
relationships of human populations, techniques from this discipline have long been used to
establish the relationship of the Polynesian peoples with that of the aboriginal population of
Taiwan. Primarily this connection was established through linguistic studies of the Austronesian
language family, more recently, research in archaeological and genetic data have all but
confirmed this relationship and opened up the possibility of more abstract cultural concepts
based on the evidence of existing research. This study uses a dataset assembled on the harmonic
acoustic structure emitted from identical instrument classifications, to investigate relationships in
the tonal preference of two cultures from the extreme ends of the Austronesian migration. Audio
samples are recorded from comparable instrument categories currently in use by the tribes of
Taiwan, and the New Zealand Māori, this provides a base dataset to demonstrate the plausibility
of ancestral timbre retention. Similarities by way of harmonic cultural comparison would then
permit the possibility of cultural classifications to be made on the quantitative study of shared
cultural tonal preferences produced by corresponding musical instruments. This paper
principally draws on the studies of organology 1 and ethnomusicology 2 combined with techniques
drawn from digital signal processing 3 in order to investigate the tone quality and timbre
produced by a specific set of musical instruments from within the Austronesian language family,
with its strong cultural, archaeological and genetic associates, to draw conclusions as to whether it
is possible to demonstrate that the tones/timbre sampled from similar categories of shared
musical instruments exhibit detectible similar harmonic characteristic.
1
Organology is the study of musical instruments including their classification and development throughout history
and cultures as well as the technical study of how the instrument produces sound.
2
Ethnomusicology is the study of social and cultural aspects of music and dance in local and global contexts
3
Digital signal processing is concerned with the representation of discrete time signals by a sequence of numbers or
symbols and the processing of these signals.
5
1.1 Background
Overview of the Austronesian speaking peoples
The term Austronesian is largely a linguistics concept that refers to speakers of the
Austronesian languages, further identified by archaeological and genetics research in the
geographical areas inhabited by the Austronesian speaking peoples (Bellwood, 1995), these
include the aboriginal peoples of Taiwan, the majority ethnic groups of East Timor, Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Brunei, Madagascar, Micronesia, and Polynesia, and aboriginal
peoples of New Zealand and Hawaii, and the non-Papuan people of Melanesia, to a lesser extent
the ethnic minorities of Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia among others. The
Austronesian language family has several primary branches, all but one of which is found
exclusively in Taiwan. All Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan (including its offshore
Yami language) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, also called Extra-Formosan taken for
the original Dutch name of Taiwan. The Malayo-Polynesian language subgroup is widely
dispersed throughout the island nations of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean, with a smaller
number in continental Asia. Malayo-Polynesian has traditionally been divided into Western,
Central, and Eastern branches, with the united Central-Eastern branch being reasonably well
supported by linguistic data (Blust, 2008). The Western Malayo-Polynesian languages, also
known as the Hesperonesian languages, is somewhat less supported and can be considered a
dumping ground for those Malayo-Polynesian languages which are not in the Central-Eastern
branch. Austronesia as a region has four traditional divisions, Taiwan (Formosa), Southeast Asia,
and Oceania (Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia and Madagascar). Proposed models postulate
Austronesian peoples originating on the island of Taiwan following the migration of preAustronesian speaking peoples from continental Asia approximately 10,000-6000 B.C.
(Bellwood, 1995) where 5000-6000 years ago Proto-Austronesian was spoken in East or
Southeast Asia by a Neolithic population due to an extended split from the Pre-Austronesian
populations. The linguistic data is often used in support of the ‘express-train’ model in which the
Polynesian forebears migrated from Taiwan and rapidly migrated through the Philippines on to
the Pacific islands without substantial interbreeding with the indigenous Melanesians (Gray,
2000) (Diamond J. M., 2000). Archaeological evidence suggests that the islands of Fiji, Futuna,
6
Samoa, Tonga in western Polynesian were settled 2,100–3,200 BP by peoples belonging to the
Lapita culture, identified by their distinctive pottery and agricultural practices, then quickly
dispersed to the Pacific islands (Bellwood, 1995). Alternative models proposed include the
‘entangled-bank’ model which proposes a firm Melanesian origin of the Lapita culture with a
long history of cultural and genetic interactions among the two peoples (Terrell, 1986) This is
further divided between a “slow-boat" diffusion from Wallacea, a biogeographically designation
for a group of Indonesian islands and a "pulse-pause" expansion from Taiwan placing the
Austronesian origin in Taiwan approximately 5230 B.P. (Gray R. D., 2009) revealing a series of
settlement pauses and expansion pulses linked to technological and social innovations with the
first Taiwan-Austronesian settlers originating from the south-east of Taiwan and migrated to the
northern Luzon Island of the Philippines, where they would have encountered and intermingled
with the earlier Australo-Melanesian population already inhabiting the islands (Capelli, 2001).
Over the next thousand years; Austronesian peoples migrated south-east to the rest of the
Philippine Islands, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The
Austronesian peoples of Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia,
and Micronesia between 1200 B.C., and 500 A.D. respectively. The Austronesian inhabitants
that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia, had reached some parts of mainland
Southeast Asia; and later on to Madagascar. Sailing from Melanesia, and Micronesia, the
Austronesian peoples discovered Polynesia by 1000 B.C. where these people settled most of the
Pacific Islands. They had settled Easter Island and Madagascar by approx. 300 A.D., Hawaii by
approx. 400 A.D., and into New Zealand by 800 A.D. (Pawley, 2002)
Essential concepts in Timbre and Harmonic Analysis
The human aural distinction between musical instruments is based on the differences in
timbre, a rudimentary element of a musical tone that can be used to describe the quality or
‘colour’ of a musical note. Whereas pitch is used to describe the fundamental frequency of a tone
measured in Hertz 4, and Volume is used to describe the sound pressure level measured in
4
Hertz (symbol: Hz) The International System of Unit frequency defined as the number of cycles per second of a
periodic phenomenon.
7
decibels5, timbre is used to describe all remaining aspects making up the components of what can
be experienced as a musical, or non-musical sound becoming “something if a "wastebasket”
attribute: if two tones are judged to be "different", and yet have the same pitch and the same loudness,
then they must differ in timbre" (Williams, 1965). An example could be a musical note produced
simultaneously by a flute and guitar, both notes at identical pitch and for an equal amount of
time with the exact same volume, the ability to distinguish between these two notes would be
due to the variances in timbre produced by the separate instruments.
The four basic features of a musical sound described as:
•
Pitch: Pitch is defined as the perception of the fundamental frequency of a sound. Or
"that auditory attribute of sound according to which sounds can be ordered on a scale
from low to high."
•
Loudness: The volume or intensity of energy or amplitude, defined as "that attribute of
auditory sensation in terms of which sounds can be ordered on a scale extending from
quiet to loud.
•
Duration: The Duration of a note is the amount of time or a particular time interval
that the note is sounded. Duration is a property of a tone that may be sustained for
varying lengths of time and becomes one of the bases of rhythm.
•
Timbre: Timbre can be defined as the sound characteristics that allow a listener to
perceive a note of multiple tones when produced with the same pith, loudness and
duration.
.
Timbre can be further appreciated by the understanding that each note emitted by a musical
instrument as consisting of a set of complex wave of more than one frequency. A musical
instruments that produces notes with a clear and specific pitch involves frequencies that are part
5
Decibel (symbol: dB) is a logarithmic unit that indicates the ratio of a physical quantity (usually power or intensity)
relative to a specified or implied reference level.
8
of a harmonic series, where the set of partials are whole number multiples of the common
fundamental frequency, this also includes the fundamental as a whole number multiple of itself.
Other instruments such as percussion 6 involve sound wave that have an even greater variety of
frequencies which deviate from the closest ideal harmonic. Instruments typically generate sound
waves with frequencies that are integer multiples of each other, the frequencies generated are the
harmonics, or harmonic partials, of the lowest frequency. This lowest frequency is the
fundamental ‘f0’ which has close relation with pitch of the note. The second and higher
frequencies are called overtones. Harmonics are periodic at the fundamental frequency, therefore
the sum of harmonics is also periodic at that frequency, all frequencies are equally spaced by the
width of the fundamental frequency and determined by repetitively accumulation that frequency
(see Table 1-I). For example, if the fundamental frequency is 250 Hz, the frequencies of the
harmonics are: 500 Hz, 750 Hz, 1000 Hz etc. The combination of these harmonic partials and
fundamental frequency, distinguish timbre by altering the colour of sound.
Table 1-I: Harmonic and overtone frequencies from ‘A’ 440Hz
Frequency
1 · f = 440 Hz
2 · f = 880 Hz
3 · f = 1320 Hz
4 · f = 1760 Hz
5.f = 2200 Hz
Order
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
Name 1
Fundamental tone
1st overtone
2nd overtone
3rd overtone
4th overtone
Name 2
1st harmonic
2nd harmonic
3rd harmonic
4th harmonic
5th harmonic
The human auditory system hears each mix of frequencies not as separate sounds, but as a
combination which is perceived to be the colour of that sound. Sounds with stronger upper
partials produce a "brighter" sound and those with weaker higher partials create a "duller" sound,
more natural spectra will roll off with varying slopes with higher frequencies. Minute differences
in the balance of harmonic frequencies, how many of these harmonic frequencies are audible,
their relationship to the fundamental pitch, and their volume in comparison to each other, create
6
Percussion: The formal classifications of most Percussion instruments are either Idiophones (instruments that
vibrate when struck, shook, plucked, or scraped) or Membranophones (instruments that have a stretched membrane
that vibrates when struck, shook, or rubbed). Examples of percussion instruments in a western orchestra would be
Timpani or Cymbals
9
the many different colours of music. The auditory system and cerebral cortex are capable of
hearing and deciphering very small variations in timbre. A listener can not only hear the
difference between two instruments such as a flute and a guitar, but also the difference between
two different guitars. Variations in timbre between specific instruments, such as two different
guitars, or two different guitar players, or the same musician playing the same guitar with
different performance techniques, are all examples of differences in timbre. This quality is
employed by musicians to improve the sound of their performance, such as when an amateur
musician rehearses to have a "fuller" or "richer" sound. When utilized in performance it can refer
to intensify differences in sound, as when an orchestral member is asked to play with a
"smoother" tone quality in one passage and a "stronger" tone quality in another. Timbre then is
a general term for the distinguishable characteristics of a tone and allows the ear to differentiate
between multiple tones of the same pitch and loudness.
Figure 1-1 Graphic Equalizer
The physical behaviour of timbre can be understood by its
behaviour in content of time frequency 7 or spectrum 8 of a
sound. Human perception of timbre is closely related to the
physical phenomena of combined partials in the spectrum
of a sound enclosed in a spectral envelope. Many modern
day media players and stereo systems use this information to
display a graphic representation of this data by depicting
glowing lights in accordance with the strength of frequency
bands (see Figure 1-I). The louder the treble, for example,
the more activity is displayed generating a light bar that will
peak and trough in according to the frequency of the music.
What is generally appreciated of a familiar sound, such as a
Windows Media Player graphic equalizer
representation of Beethoven's Symphony
No. 5 in C minor 2nd bar at 628ms
violin note, are certain characteristics that develop over a certain period of time. If the initial
7
A time–frequency representation is a view of a signal, such as an image or sound, represented by the number of
occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.
8
Spectrum is an array of entities such as waves or particles, ordered in accordance with the magnitudes of a common
physical property such as wavelength or mass. As when sunlight is passed through a prism producing the band of
colours red orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
10
instance of the violin note was to be omitted, the remainder of the sound the resulting tone will
lose a considerable amount of what makes is recognizable as a piano note. When an acoustic
musical instrument, such as the violin, produces a musical note, the volume and spectral content
of the note sounded change over time due to the instrument's sonic characteristic of "attack" and
"decay". Modern sound synthesis techniques often employ an envelope generator that controls a
sound's parameters at any point in its duration. Most often this is an Attack-Decay-SustainRelease (ADSR) envelop which can be applied to overall amplitude control. The contour of an
ADSR envelope is specified using four parameters:
•
Attack time: The time occupied for initial escalation of level from zero to peak
originating from when the note is first sounded.
•
Decay time: The time occupied for the ensuing decrease from the attack level to the
designated sustain level.
•
Sustain level: The intensity throughout the principal sequence of the sound's duration
pending the notes release.
•
Release time: The time occupied for the level to decline from the sustain level to zero
after the note is released.
Instruments such as violins have very narrow resonating frequencies formants and the addition of
performance techniques, such as vibrato, can alter a tone outside of a peak formant area, this is
further moderated by our perception of the complex of a particular sound or instrument
irrespective of its register. This means that a note played in the lower registry of a violin can still
be considered related to a note played in the higher end of the instruments registry. The art of
musical orchestration relies on the ability of a composer to combine the harmonic spectra of
numerous instruments, often playing in harmony or octaves, to create a single timbral entity.
Classical studies of timbre were written in the late 19th Century which culminated in the
innovative publication of “On the Sensation of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music”
in 1863. Helmholtz utilized the mathematical concepts of François Fourier (1772-1837) to the
interrogation of timbre. Fourier had invented a category of mathematical analysis that established
that any periodic sound wave can be symbolised as the sum of sine waves having the applicable
11
amplitude, frequency and phase. This allowed for Helmholtz's reductionist concepts of sound,
whereby all complex sounds are constituted of simple tones. Helmholtz extended these ideas to
the human perception of sound, reasoning that our ears analyse sounds in a comparable way to
his mechanical inventions, with vibrations of diverse frequencies being obtained from the sound
and directed to different nerve endings.
On Māori preference for timbre
An interesting commentary on the topic of Māori preference for timbre is evented in Reverend
William Colenso’s writings of 1881, where he mentions Māori men altering the European
manufactured Jew-harp, an instrument reliant on harmonic manipulation, to pertain to their
own preference of timbre.
“It is well known that at an early date, say, forty years go, the Māoris showed a great desire to obtain
jew's-harps: this was common. But to see them.... critically examine and try a whole score, or more, of
those little instruments, before one was found that was “soft” enough or suitably melodious in its twang
to please their ear! I have known them to leave the store where jew's-harps were sold without
purchasing one after trying many, though sadly in want of one at the time, 'rather than bring away a
'hard' or unsuitable one. They also spent much time in endeavouring to alter its tone, by trying all
manner of schemes and plans with its tongue. Again, in later years, I have known them to improve on
the sound of the jew's-harp (for their ear), by fixing a lump of sealing-wax, or kauri resin, on the
projecting end of the tongue of the instrument, for the purpose of playing the same with their tongue
instead of with their finger. This certainly rendered the sounds much softer than when played in the
usual way. Young men would sometimes be thus occupied for one or more hours, evidently delighting
themselves with the dulcet sounds." (Andersen, 1934)
Motivation
The initial concept for this research arose from considerations on the topic of musical
evolution and migrations. As a life-long appreciator and performer of music, the concept of the
12
origins and evolution of music, along with its effects on the human psyche seemed to be worthy
of further investigation. Years of employment in areas of information technology and signal
processing, along with its implications on the area of music allowed for an appreciation as to how
the two subjects could assist each other. Growing up in New Zealand and having worked in
Taiwan gave an insight into the similarities shared between the Aboriginal groupings of peoples
living in both countries, this was further assisted by working with musicians from both countries
and appreciating their mutual enthusiasm for creating music.
1.2 Theoretical premise
A traditional view of the disciplines of ethnomusicology and signal processing appears to
occupy mutually exclusive expanses of music research, ethnomusicology absorbed in the
humanities and signal processing concerned with the analytical study of sound. On further
consideration however, there is a point where studies from each discipline can coincide to shed
light on fundamental questions about cultural musical preferences. Ethnomusicology
demonstrations that musical understanding has evident implications inside a specific cultural
context, but broader issues of tonal preference inside of a cultural migrations have yet (to the best
of my knowledge) to be explored. The relative deficiency of empirical studies in ethnomusicology
precludes an informed cross cultural cognitive theory of music from being comprehended. Audio
signal processing aids in the development of cognitive theories of music and concerns itself with
the association between physical properties of sound such as frequency, waveforms and spectrum
with the perceptual experiences of pitch, timbre, and intensity. One aspiration in the objective of
audio signal processing is to realise which physical properties are accountable for the human
perceptual timbre response and how these physical properties can be used to envisage these
responses. Musical timbre perception theories centred exclusively on signal processing
experiments, however, have typically neglected to investigate for culture tonal preference. By
combining the humanistic and social positions of ethnomusicology and the scientific position of
signal processing, it may be possible to work toward a further understanding of cultural music
perception, taking into consideration different levels of qualitative and quantitative data. This
research looks into the tones produced by a specific instrument, used by the peoples of similar
13
language grouping and decent in order to further understand relationships of harmonic structure
between these instruments and if these relationships are unique when compared with similar
instruments used by peoples of different cultural language groupings and genetic decent.
Aims and Purpose
A fundamental aim of the research is to further understand connections between the
Austronesian speaking peoples inhabiting different areas of the earth by analysing the sound
produced by their musical instruments. By taking two subgroups of the Austronesian family and
comparing data regarding to the harmonic timbre of their musical instruments, is it possible to
show if different peoples share a similar preference for frequencies. Secondly, can any similarities
shown in the harmonic frequency data be evidence enough to reinforce what we is already known
though linguistic, genetics and archaeological evidence, and will how will this compare with the
harmonic data provided by musical instruments used from peoples outside this cultural grouping.
In short, can this form of analysis act as a marker for migrations of the human species.
An additional purpose of this research is to further investigate, and supplement, the knowledge of
the harmonic spectrum of non-western musical instrument. The study of western musical
instruments that make use of equal-tempered musical scales has long been the studied in areas of
sound analysis and synthesis. Research in these fields tend to ignore the multitude of instruments
found in various parts of the world that make limited, or no use, of the Western theoretical
system. Music information retrieval (MIR) is a relatively young discipline, which has its focus
mainly in Western music culture. This research offers additional information that could
theoretically be used to enhance a multidisciplinary field of Music information research and
ethnomusicology with a purpose of exploring and studying ethnical music cultures with the tools
and techniques developed by M.I.R.
14
Statement of the problem
The first issue is the considerable lack of historical quantitative data on cultural preferences of
timbre. For example, the first westerns to encounter a traditional Chinese orchestra may have
considered its timbre to be unconventional, if not somewhat unpleasing for their westernised
preferences. Obviously a considerable data set of musical instruments, representing cultures from
around the globe, would need to be collected and analysed in order to prove any scientific
evidence on cultural timbre preference, much more work in order to show any migration route of
these preferences.
Research that exists on the migration of musical instruments used by the Austronesian speaking
peoples is limited and somewhat contradictory. Methods that have been utilised to compare and
trace the dispersal of the musical instruments relies heavily on established methods such as
linguistics, based on the Austronesian musical lexicon (McLean, 2010) and Material Culture
(Blench, 2004), which is based on the collection of instruments found within cultures and the
distribution of these instruments.
Although the technology used for the first audio recordings of these musical instruments was
adequate at the time for documenting music of the Aboriginal people, the quality of the
recordings is not currently sufficient to extract supplementary detailed data. Furthermore, most
of these audio collections were stored on media that has, over time, suffered deterioration from
humidity, dust, and the loss of magnetic powder. As a result, the integrity of the sound quality
has suffered greatly. While actions have been taken to preserve a restore the quality of these audio
recordings (Wu), it is impossible to extract important data that was not encompassed in the
original format, therefore, essential frequency data is not represented and cannot be analysed.
15
List of issues to resolve
The first issue necessary to resolve will be to consider what instruments are shared between
the Austronesian speaking peoples of Taiwan and New Zealand, this is in order to construct a
data set of comparable instruments that exhibit comparable frequencies, it would be erroneous to
compare the timbre of instruments such as a conch shell trumpet with that of a wooden
percussion set, just as it would be of no use comparing the harmonic composition of a violin
with that of a cymbal. Additionally it will be important to consider the validity of these
instrument in having traditional origins to each of the cultures i.e. do these instruments have a
confirmed account in historical documentation, do these instruments hold a place in myth and
folk law of each culture, and are these instruments plausible regarding the accepted timeline of
the Austronesian migration. In the case of Taiwan it will be necessary to show that the
manufacturing of such an instrument was plausible before the Austronesian expansion of 4000
years ago.
It will then be necessary to acquire such instruments in order gain further knowledge into the
production methods and materials used in construction, also to develop the performance skills
necessary to perform on each selected instrument. A primary reason for developing performance
skill is in order to control variables and attributes in the final analysis of harmonic data. To act as
a control method it will be necessary to record notes played by the same person to ensure similar
playing methods of instruments. It would also be beneficial to have another person perform the
same set of recordings on order to verify any final conclusions. In addition to musical
instruments selected from the Austronesian collection, it would be necessary to acquire similar
instruments from outside the Austronesian cultural grouping. This will be necessary to ensure
any similarities found in the harmonic composition of the first group is somewhat unique and
not just shared by all musical instruments of comparable frequencies initially outlined above.
It could also be conceivable to utilise existing recordings which can be used to confirm, or
disprove, the harmonic signatures of the current data sets, thought this may not be appropriate as
the methods of recording will not be controlled allowing for many variables such as microphone
16
quality, recording location, etc. in cases of older recordings, the quality may not be sufficient for
analytical purposes even after digital restorations techniques have been applied.
A working knowledge of signal processing analysis tools will be required to extract data in order
for comparisons of data sets. This will be based largely on existing models and software programs
developed for audio analysis and visualisation. In the case of existing tools not being deemed
sufficient, it may become necessary to develop software with specifications for necessary
extraction and comparison of the data sets, which will likely require additional knowledge in the
field of computer programming.
Finally, is it scientifically plausible to show if these instruments share detectible harmonic
components sufficient enough to draw conclusions on their relationships. This would only be
conceivable if the instruments of the Taiwan data set exhibited a predetermined measurable
quantity of characteristics in common with the New Zealand data set. It would then need to be
shown that these common characteristics were absent, or altered, in samples taken from the data
set outside of the Austronesian collection. It could then be proposed that there exists a similar
composition of harmonic timbral features unique to the Austronesian family allowing for the
possibility that harmonic analysis could be utilised as a viable means to find a preferred timbre
used by a specific peoples of similar decent and language family. This would allow for further
studies in an attempt to discover similar harmonic preferences in other cultures.
17
Chapter 2: Literature Review
The first section of this chapter reviews existing literature on the proposed musical instrument
data set from both traditional Taiwan aboriginal culture and traditional Māori culture in order to
organise into the Sachs-Hornbostel system of classification then select a single instrument type
that is mutual shared by both cultures. Special attention will be given to the instruments
historical documentation in ethnography and ethnomusicology reports, materials and method of
production, ceremonial or religious use, place in myth and legend, retention through periods of
colonisation, revivals, renaissance and relevance in the modern culture. The second section of this
chapter will deal with literature regarding the historical development of musical signal processing,
from a rudimentary mathematical understanding of fundamental pitch analysis, to a general
overview of current research in digital audio processing and music information retrieval.
2.1 Organology and Ethnomusicology
Musical instruments can be used in Organology and Cultural Anthropology studies as a
marker of society and of social-political structure, with the ownership of such instruments being
restricted to a certain hierarchy, gender or social status whereby a musical instrument could be a
symbol of that status. Various forms of material culture inescapably possess a limited occurrence
in the archaeological record but this does not mean they weren’t integral to the societies whose
way of life Austronesian researcher endeavour to reconstruct. Musical instruments signify a
principally interesting situation, because their discernible morphology can be explicitly
recognized and then effectually compared. Also, the findings of organology studies of musical
instruments suggest that human material cultures are comparatively un-innovative in standings
of instruments and conjunction is then not a primary hindrance. The subject of material culture
and cultural associations in a comparative framework can add to the knowledge of Austronesian
prehistory in the similar fashion of genetic and linguistic studies. These studies are progressively
being acknowledged in areas of archaeological but comparative material culture largely has not.
This reason can largely be attributed to archaeological data of physical objects such as pottery,
18
when contemplating material culture in its ethnographic placement they tend to focus on
analogous items which can be uncovered.
In 1914 Erich M. von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs produced Systematik der Musikinstrumente, a
new system of musical instrument classification that remains the most widely used system of
classification by ethnomusicologists and Organologists. Instead of grouping instruments as they
were found in a Western orchestra: strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion, their new method
grouped instruments according to how their sounds are produced: Chordophones, Aerophones,
Membranophones, and Idiophones. The western orchestral system of classification is based on
the ancient Greek method of dividing instruments into wind, strings, and percussion. This was
later adapted by German renaissance composers and music theorists who distinguished plucked
string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. This method
is well-known, but is difficult or confusing to apply to the many non-orchestral instruments.
There are also problems with classifying certain instruments such as the piano which produces
notes via strings struck by hammers, or a harpsichord where the strings are plucked.
These were far from the first methods to classify musical instruments; the oldest known scheme is
Chinese and dates from the 4th century BC. It groups instruments according to what they are
made out of. All instruments made out of stone are in one group, all those made out of wood in
another, those made out of silk are in a third. The Hornbostel Sachs system pre-dates to a much
earlier period of between 200 BC and 200 AD in ancient India written as a treatise on the
performing arts, encompassing theatre, dance and music. In the late 19th century Victor-Charles
Mahillon, curator of musical instruments at Brussels Conservatory borrowed heavily from the
Indian ‘Natya Sastra’ treatise to divided instruments into four broad categories according to the
nature of the sound-producing material: air column; string; membrane; and the body of the
instrument. From this basis, Hornbostel and Sachs expanded Mahillon's system to make it
possible to classify any instrument from any culture. The result is the Sachs-Hornbostel system in
use by most Ethnomusicologists and Organologists. Formally, the Sachs-Hornbostel is modelled
on the Dewey decimal classification. It has four top level classifications, with several levels below
those, adding up to over 300 basic categories in all.
19
The four top levels of the Hornbostel Sachs system of organology are:
Chordophones: All instruments in which sound is primarily produced by the vibration
of a string or strings that are stretched between fixed points.
Aerophones: All instruments in which sound is produced through vibrating air.
Membranophones: All instruments in which sound is produced primarily through a
vibrating membrane
Idiophones: All instruments in which sound is produced primarily by way of the
instrument vibrating without the use of membranes or strings.
Sachs used this system as a methodology to first establish connections between cultures by way of
their music, as stated in his book ‘The rise of music in the ancient world’
“Music is one of the steadiest elements in the evolution of mankind. It is so steady that races of a
relatively high cultural level, Polynesians and Micronesians, for example--and many groups of
European peasants hold onto musical styles of an astonishingly archaic character; indeed, of the most
primitive character we know. The general culture of a people, therefore, cannot be judged by its music.
But there is hope, inversely, that the music of the most primitive peoples has preserved a very early stage
of evolution without the interference of higher civilizations.” (Sachs, 1943, p. 21)
2.2 Taiwan Musical Instruments overview
Taiwan's aboriginal Austronesian speaking population had not invented an indigenous form of
writing or musical notation a t t i m e o f i n i t i a l c o l o n i z a t i o n . Songs and melodies were
handed down by way of cultural transmission until written and notation techniques were slowly
developed throughout the Dutch and Japanese periods. As with many aspects of the of the
Indigenous culture, the songs, melody’s and musical instruments they use are closely linked to
20
aspects of traditional life including hunting, battle, agriculture, fishing, wedding ceremonies,
worship ceremonies, tribal legends, prayers for bountiful harvests, celebration of harvests, joy,
morning and life stages such as birth and death.
There are limited resources describing music of the Formosan Aborigines in Taiwan prior to the
arrival of Dutch missionaries who developed a Romanized writing system for the aboriginal
languages and taught in church schools. One important description of the tribes way of life from
the period before the Dutch entrance is found in Shen Ying's ‘Record of the environment in the
coastal area’ (Linhai shuitu yiwuzhi) written in the Three Kingdoms era (220 A.D-280AD), The
‘Dong ji’ (‘Eastern barbarians’) section of the encyclopaedia contains a description of the music of
the eastern barbarians:
“For a gathering, a big hollow trunk, ten zhang [23 cm] or longer, is set in the middle of the garden.
It is struck with big pestles. The drum-like sound can be heard from four or five miles away. People go
for the gathering when they hear the sound”. (Sadie, 2001)
Chinese records of Taiwan were written in 1603 by Chen-Di 陳第, a member of Ming admiral
Shen-You-Rong's mission around Taiwan and Penghu. In the report "Eastern Barbarian Lands"
(Dong Fan Ji), Chen Di observed and documented cultural activities and mentions dance songs,
drums and the Jews harp as musical instruments being in use amongst the indigenous groups of
Taiwan (Di, 1603).
In the 19-20th centuries many early records of the music of Taiwan’s aboriginal population were
documented by European foreign missionaries and officials who aid in giving prior knowledge to
current research. These reports can be very contradictory and range from ‘pleasant sounds’ to
‘very unpleasing’ as reported by John D Ford near the end of the 20th century in his book
"Formosa: An American cruiser in the East, travels and studies in the far East”. He noted the tribe
members will often sing, but they have no musical instruments for accompaniment, he
considered the timbre of their voices as “harsh, unpleasing, and discordant, but the scene is
enjoyable because it is novel, quaint, and weird” (Ford, 1898). An equally partisan view of
21
aboriginal music was offered by British government administer William Pickering, writing near
the beginning of Japanese occupation.
“They are fond of music, listening with evident pleasure to the efforts of the foreigners, either
instrumental or vocal, and they will return the compliment by executing one of their pathetic chants,
in a minor key, accompanying their efforts with a weird war dance, making music upon a bamboo
Jew's harp, or a flageolet breathed into from one nostril. (Pickering, 1898, p. 73)
Further confirmation of the musical instruments existing at the time was given by Elizabeth
Ritchie who was married to Reverend Hugh Ritchie before the two of them left England on July
15, 1867, to begin work with the English Presbyterian Mission in south Formosa (Messenger,
1867). Mrs Ritchie also accompanied her husband on his travels to inland mission stations and
taught Formosan converts to read, on one of their travels she noted the following.
“When Mr. Ritchie was away at Lai-sia, the Toa-sia brethren brought out some strange musical
instruments and gave me quite a treat. They played their wild mountain airs, and the women sang so
sweetly; their voices are more harmonious than those of the Bak-sa folks. They have never ventured to
show these to any of the pastors, lest they might be blamed for using remnants of idolatry. I had them
all brought out of their hiding-places again for Mr. Ritchie to hear. Two of them, if I remember aright,
are played with a bow, and one with the fingers -- long narrow instruments with several strings;
another is played with two little hammers; and for the playing of yet another something is slipped on
the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, into which is fixed what looks like a tooth from the large
end of a comb " -- Mrs Ritchie, 25th April 1878. (Ritchie, 1878)
The ‘Annotated bibliography of 19th Century German articles concerning Taiwan (Formosa),
compiled by Douglas Fix notes the following specifics regarding the musical attributes of the
Formosan aborigine.
•
The Formosan aborigine tribes possess simple musical instruments; members of some
tribes also sing together in choirs.
22
•
There are two music instruments, the Jew's harp and a bamboo flute. The natives dance
to the accompaniment of the former musical instrument; there are group dances, too.
•
The natives take much pleasure in music and dancing.
•
The savages have been taking up Chinese culture, with tutors striving to gradually
enlighten children so they are able to understand Chinese literature, customs and music.
(Fix, 1872)
In his 1868 book ”The Aborigines of the Island of Formosa” Mr. Guérin, the former vice-consul
of France to Formosa noted that
“The savage women like to sing, and in some tribes they play [musical instruments] as well. The
instrument is a bamboo segment that is a decimetre long; two copper tongue-like strips are fastened to
one of the extremities, and a thread is slipped through each end. When you want to play this
instrument, you place its convex side between the lips; your hands pull the two threads and this gives
the instrument a movement of traction and rotation, while the tongue keeps pressing the metallic valves.
In some of the tribes the women and girls accompany their recitative chant with an obscene motion of
their hips, and they do this in the most innocent manner imaginable.”
(Guérin, 1868)
In the Japanese period the ‘Organization for the temporary investigation of old customs in Taiwan”
(Rinji Taiwan kyūkan chōsakai) produced an eight-volume series provisional report on
investigations of laws and customs in the Island of Formosa from 1913 to 1921 (Okamatsu,
1913-21). Japanese scholars, starting with Tanabe Hisao and, later, Kurosawa Takatomo,
performed extensive research on tribal music, including recordings and transcriptions (Tanabe,
1968). The modern study and documentation of Taiwanese aboriginal music was initiated by
anthropologists in the early part of last century, in the 1930s, Japanese musicologist Takatomo
Kurosawa conducted field trips across the island, recording twenty-six volumes of ten-inch discs.
Later, Taiwanese musicologist Hsu Tsang-Houei (1929- 2001) collected and wrote about
Taiwanese folk music, pioneering the realm of Ethnomusicology research in Taiwan. For more
than 30 years, he continuously engaged in fieldwork all over the island, founding the Chinese
Folk Music Research Centre. Systematic study by Taiwanese scholars did not begin until the
23
1960s, when aboriginal music was a significant aspect of the ‘Folksong collection movement’ led
by Shi Weiliang and Hsu Tsang-houei.
The following listing of musical instruments as used by the aboriginal peoples of Taiwan are
grouped in the Hornbostel-Sachs is a system of musical instrument classification.
Aerophones
Transverse, end-blown and mouth and nose flutes are found all over the island, but appear far
more frequently in the South. These are all considered native aboriginal instruments and are very
similar to other flutes in South-east Asia. End-blown flutes are found with two to eight fingerholes, but four-five seems most common. Uses for the flutes are as varied as their forms, and were
traditionally used in anything from headhunting ceremonies to courtship. The southern tribes
such as Puyuma, Paiwan and Rukai predominately make use of the double pipe nose and mouth
flutes which have intricate ties within the culture and hierarchical system. The instrument is said
to have originated both to honour and imitate the sound of the hundred-pace snake
(Deinagkistrodon acutus) which is believed to be the ancestor and protector of the tribes, the
instrument has since developed into an art form of its own and a symbol of power among the
Paiwan elite 9. Northern tribes such as the Atayal and Truku predominately use a mouth flute
which is inherently entwined with the practice of headhunting and compliance of ‘Megaga’ term
or ‘Pegaga’ 10, the old study of ancestral teachings (Gaga) and ancestral spirit (Utuh) protection
for allowance to a spirit world after death. This flute is fashioned and played immediately after
cutting the head of an enemy for the purpose of taming the victims soul, the flute is made from
bamboo in the immediate proximity of the corpse, in cultures such as Truku this instrument is
thrown away immediately after use 11, whereas the Atayal practice of headhunting allows for the
claim of subsequent honours of flute ownership and acquiring of chin and facial tattoos as
representation of the glory (國立臺灣史前文化博物館).
9
Interview conducted at Sandimen village with Paiwan tribal elder and musician Pavava Lung. 17th March 2010
The names Gao, Pngao and Pgagu are also recognised, confirmed by Dr. Chang-Kwo Tan. June 2010
11
Interview conducted at Dong Hur village with Rukai musician Gilra-gilrao Lraakaroko. 30th April 2011
10
24
Idiophone
Stamping pestle, wooden xylophones and various Jew's harp are among the most common
idiophone instruments used in aboriginal Taiwan, other idiophones include bells, rattles and, to
a lesser extent, gongs. Although accounts of gongs occur from the Qing dynasty, the instruments
have all but disappeared since the early 20th century. The stamping pestle is played
predominately by the Thao and Bunun peoples where eight to ten various sized pestle, tuned to a
pentatonic scale, are used in group ensembles. The bamboo tubes are struck against a stone-plate
placed on the ground. The music of the stamping pestle ensemble is customarily played as a
prelude or interlude between A cappella vocal recitals performed by groups up to ten females,
this is most now commonly seen at festivals or welcoming ceremonies. The Jew's harp is played
by all aboriginal groups with exception of the Yami, (Chi-Lu, 1968) the frame is made of
bamboo, into which as many as seven metal tongues are inserted, vibrations are set in motion by
pulling a thread that is fixed to one side of the tongue. The Atayal tribe uses the Jew’s harp most
frequently to accompany dancing, play melodies or replace verbal communication. Xylophones
of wood or bamboo may come from Indonesia or the Philippines, only the Ami currently make
use them and they are very rarely seen. There also exists a wooden drum which principally serves
as a loom or mortar for husking millet and is still used in this way by the Atayal people, although
when used for percussion purposes it may be called a drum, the construction is simply a large
wooden box or bowl without membrane (Sadie, 2001).
Membranophones
Drums were unknown in Taiwan so they seem to have been innovated in the post-Formosan
region (Blench, 2006). Although it has been documented that plains tribes, as well as the Ami
and the Puyuma, have played drums, which are believed to have originated from the Han
Chinese, the aborigines do not presently use any drums in their traditional music (Sadie, 2001).
25
Chordophones
The musical bow which is typically used for solo entertainment is found in all aboriginal tribes
but used most frequently by the Bunun. There is also a less common flat board zither that seems
to be found only among musicians in the Bunun tribe 12.
Taiwan instrument details
Figure 2-1 Mouth Bow
Mouth Bow – Latuk, Pis latuk, La-tuktuk, 弓琴
The instrument consists of a thin, bow-shaped bamboo rod with
twine made from a plant, dried vegetable skin, or metal wire,
stretched between both ends. The top curve of the bow is placed
in the musicians mouth and held between the teeth, the base of
the instrument is held in with the left hand, with the thumb used
to ably pressure to the string in order it alter the tension, or
alternatively, held between the thumb and index finger with the
remaining fingers used to alter tension. The musician places his
Mouth Bow
(Taiwan National Repository of
Cultural Heritage)
Figure 2-2 Mouth Bow
mouth around the vibrating string, and by varying the size and
shape of his mouth cavity, isolates and resonates specific overtones
to sound. The right hand is used to pluck or strum the string.
Traditionally the bow was usually played by men, although
priestesses occasionally use it as an accompaniment to their
chanting during ceremonials connected with harvest festivals
(McGovern, 1922). It can now be found in use for solo
entertainment or in small ensembles in performance with the Jews
(弓琴 Mouth Bow)
harp.
12
Interview conducted with Ebu Jun, Musical director for Bunun foundation. 22nd July 2010
26
Jew's harp - Hong-Hong (pis haung haung ) -口簧琴
The Jew’s harp has manifested ubiquitously around Taiwan, the shape and form depending on
the materials available and its uses varying according to the aesthetic sensibilities of its players.
The common form of the Jew's harp arising in Taiwan consists of three parts, with the body
made if a bamboo strip around 7 to 15cm long,
Figure 2-3 Jews Harp
with one to four vibrating reeds, in some
instruments as many as seven reeds are attached,
these are commonly made of bronze, attached
to the centre of the body and made to vibrate
via a hemp string tied to holes drilled in the
end of the main bamboo body, an additional
length of hemp road is tied to the opposite end
of the body which can be wound around the
players opposite hand (Ping-chuan, 1974, p.
Jews Harp
(National repository of cultural heritage)
Figure 2-4 Jews Harp
96). The end of the instrument with attached
vibrating reed is held in the left hand with the
main body held loosely between the players’
lips. The right hand is used to tug the string
attached to the opposite end which vibrates the
body. The tone is then altered through
manipulating the shape of the mouth. This
Bunun Four Reed Jews Harp
instrument is played in almost all occasions, and was popular for use in spare or leisure time, the
instrument is general used for self-entertainment but is also used in a two person Jew harp
ensemble when entertaining in group situations, traditionally the instrument was intrinsically
tied with courtship rituals.
"When a young man's fancy begins to pay court to the maiden of his choice by going each evening
about sunset to her home... squatting in front of the door-way of her hut and beginning to play upon a
bamboo musical instrument which somewhat resembles a jews' -harp, and which is played in much the
27
same way. The sound produced is, to the Western ear, more like a wail or lament than like a love-song.
However, in Formosa it is—as far as the aborigines are concerned—the practically universal method
of serenading one's lady-love, and is apparently enjoyed both by the serenading warrior and by the
young lady. The lover often keeps up the performance for hours at a time, and returns the next evening,
and for many succeeding evenings, to repeat it. All this time he makes no attempt to pay any other
form of address to the young lady, or to ingratiate himself with her parents. Finally, after some weeks of
this nightly serenading, he leaves the bamboo Jews' -harp one evening at the lady's door. When he
returns next evening if he finds it still lying there, he knows that his suit has been rejected ; and as in
Formosa a woman's " No " apparently means " No," the swain makes no further attempts to renew the
courtship." (McGovern, 1922, pp. 154-155)
Xylophone
Xylophones of wood or bamboo may come from Indonesia or the Philippines. In the past, only
the Ami used them, and they are very rarely seen today (Sadie, 2001)
Flutes
Vertical single tube flutes, double tube mouth
and nose flutes, single and double end-blown
Figure 2-5 Amis double pipe six hole nose flute
flutes are found all over the island in various
forms (Sadie, 2001), and range from 20cm to
60cm long (Ping-chuan, 1974, p. 203) All
groups played a version of the mouth flute the
Rukai, Paiwan, and Tsou are especially known
for their nose flutes though all tribes other that
the Yami are noted to have indigenous versions
(Tseng J. M., 2008). The double pipe nose flute is possibly the most widely acknowledged
musical instrument amongst the aboriginal peoples of Taiwan and is still highly revered in
28
Paiwan and Rukai cultures, though it seems to have been of equal significance to the Atayal and
Tsou tribes near the beginning of last century.
“It is possible that these may be used by other tribes, but I think n ot commonl y so;
certainly I have not found them elsewhe re than among the Tai yal (Ata yal) and
Tsuou (Tsou). And wi th these t ribes the nose -flute is used only by t he men; it seems
semi-sacred in cha racter, as it is played only on festive occasions, usuall y when
celebrating a victory over anothe r tribe or tribal unit. Not eve n a priestess will
play upon a nose-flute ; to do so woul d be "bad form." Playing upon this instrument
is the excl usive prerog ative of the sterner sex—as much so as i s the decapitati on of
enemies, with the celebration of which it seems closely connecte d” (McGovern,
1922, p. 184)
The ‘Lalingedan’ or ‘Bakararo’ flute is said to have originated both to honour and imitate the
sound of the hundred-pace snake, which was considered sacred in the Paiwanese culture. The
instrument was played to show their respect to the hundred-pace snakes and eventually developed
into an art form of its own and a symbol of power among the Paiwan elite. The concept of dual
pipes is also said to represent a man and a woman as “One without the other is useless” 13, the
pipe containing the holes used for melody representing the male, while the drone pipe represents
the female 14.
The Grove dictionary of music describes the end-blown nose flutes as having two to eight fingerholes, with five being most common (Sadie, 2001). On his ethnographic research Ju-Ming Tseng
had found only three of five holed flutes and believes the distribution of holes seemed to be
determined by the area where the flute is found, he has three holed flutes appearing in Pinghe
village and five holed flutes in the Sandimen area (Tseng J.-M. , 2008). In its most general form
the double pipe nose flute is made up of two bamboo pipes of approx. 60cm in length with a
3cm internal diameter, the length of the finished pipes vary greatly but can be generalized as 3513
14
Interview conducted at the Institute of Austronesian Studies graduate class. November 2009
Interview conducted at Taitung University with Rukai musician Gilra-gilrao Lraakaroko. 27th May 2011
29
45cm long, finger holes are burnt/drilled in the pipes which are fitted with fipple ducts and tied
adjacent.
“The nose flute, which is common throughout the Austronesian area, especially in the Philippines, may
have single or double pipes. All groups except the Yami formerly used it, but now it is mainly used by
the Paiwan. When two pipes are played together, the following combinations are possible: one pipe
with holes plays the melody while the other without holes plays the drone; two pipes with the same
number of holes play the same melody; or two pipes with different numbers of holes play in polyphony.
Only the chief and the higher-ranking members of the tribes are allowed to play end-blown or nose
flutes for ceremonies.” (Sadie, 2001)
‘Katawan’ bamboo (Bambusa dolichomerithalla Hayata) is the
preferred construction material for flutes due to its long nodes,
Figure 2-6 Paiwan nose flute
measurement
strength and beauty 15. This type of bamboo is also referred to
as ‘Blow pipe’, or ‘Fire Pipe’ owing to its use in blowing air in
to the kitchen fire, it grows 2-4cm in diameter with nodes 3060cm apart in length and grows at high altitude so is
notoriously difficult to acquire, as a result other types of
bamboo are often used in its place. The method for the
positioning of the holes also allows for variation, with some
Figure 2-7 Paiwan nose flute
measurement
sources giving approximate measurements, 5cm holes
positioned 10cm from the end of tube (Tseng, 2008), and
others relaying on the size of the players hands/fingers to
determine the positioning of holes. In this method the length
of the pipe is measured by three spans of the outstretched
thumb to the tip of the index finger, the holed placement
positioned by the width of four adjacent fingers then at
intervals measured by the length between knuckles, finally the mouth top holes positioned under
the width of the index finger. The melodies used are a mixture of sacred melodies, which are
played with very little augmentation, traditional melodies, which are typically local folk songs
15
Interview conducted at Dasa village with Paiwan tribal elder and musician Pavava Lung. 2nd April 2010
30
with regional lyrical variations, played as a solo piece with elaborate variations on the theme. And
solo improvisation, which can also be a learned piece, previously practiced to show the virtuosity
and ability of the musician. An improvisation performance typically employs standard and
harmonics intervals, standard and harmonic trill techniques, glissandi and micro-intervals.
Specific attention is paid to the envelope of the note, with a ‘harmonic attack’ used to emphasise
the beginning of a note, or the elaborate use of crescendo and decrescendo dynamics through the
sustain. 16.
Ancient myths including the nose flute tell of a man, who always accompanied Paiwan
storytellers whenever they sang songs or relayed folklore, embellishing with his flute melodies.
Another telling of the hero Kulelele falling in love with a girl named Muakakai, she seldom left
the house and stayed inside in order to hide her beauty. Kulelele is said to have played the nose
flute to win her affection and entice her out of the house. Though the instrument is not divine, it
may be the subject for taboo: Among the Taiyal and Tsuou tribes in the Malay Peninsula the noseflute holds this position: Its use is taboo except on the most solemn occasions, such as the celebration of a
victory (Lorenzo, 1992). It is also said that the sound of the nose flute was capable of
immobilizing the hundred pace snake (Tseng J.-M. ,
Figure 2-8 Pestle Ensemble
2008).
Pestle Ensemble – Dur Dur, Ma Turtur, 木杵合奏
An ensemble utilizing varying sized pestles, typically from
one to three meters long, to pound stone slates in order to
create a genre of music called Dur Dur. This technique
was traditionally employed to pound and husk millet
through harvest seasons, and as such are intrinsically tied
with harvest ceremonies. Presently Dur Dur is purely a
musical instrument used in ceremonially and tourist
(Government Information Office
Republic of China)
16
A degree of ‘feeling’ or ‘soul’ is attributed to the improvisation performance to convey the “emotion” of the piece ,
It is not uncommon for a recording session to be cancelled because the “Ancestors aren’t here today” ,
31
performances. The performers, of which there are usually 6 to 10, form a circle and begin the
performance by hammering the slate four times to signal commencement. The rhythm is
performed with a fixed pattern of alternative hammering to produce a sensation of complex tone.
The wood used for the pestles are carved to create a thinner diameter at the shaft leaving a greater
mass at either end which determines the pitch of the instrument.
Zither, Banhir latuk, Pis Latuk Banil, Banhir la Tuktuk, Toto Toro, 五弦琴
The Banhir latuk is a timber sounding board with pairs of four or five pegs inserted at each side.
Strings are wound around the pegs and typically tuned to Sol, Mi, Re and Do if the instrument
includes a fifth string this will be tuned to La and octave below and acts as a drone note.
Performers squat over the instrument using two sharpened bamboo sticks to pluck the strings.
To increase volume it is common to place an empty box, or bamboo tube underneath the board
to act as a resonance box, in modern times it has become conventional to use a tin can for
resonance. The Banhir latuk predominately known to be used by the Bunun tribe and is
commonly used for self-entertainment to express emotion, this instrument has traditionally had
no gender or class restrictions on its use which is fairly uncommon for Taiwan aboriginal
instruments.
“The five-string zither is played only by the Bunun people. The strings are fixed in a wooden plate and
can be tuned e.g. E, F, G, A, C. The musical bow, now used for entertainment, is common to all the
aborigines and is used most frequently by the Bunun.” (Sadie, 2001)
Percussion stick - Ki-papa (Ki-pahpah) -敲擊棒
Two sticks of different lengths producing different tones are struck together, it is primarily used
in the passing of signals between hunters, but also can be seen being used for self-entertainment
by adults or children.
32
2.3 Māori Musical Instruments overview
Māori sound producing instruments are involved in the very first documented encounter
between Māori and Europeans, as Abel Tasman notes in his journal.
“We called out to them (the Māori) upon which they repeated their cries several times, but came no
nearer than a stone shot; they also blew several times on an instrument of which the sound was like
that of a Moorish trumpet; we then ordered one of our sailors (who had some knowledge of trumpetblowing) to play them some tunes in answer. Those on board the Zeehaan ordered their second mate,
who had come out to India as a trumpeter, to do the same; after this had been repeated several times
on both sides, and as it was getting more and more dark, those in the native prows at last ceased and
paddled off.” (Tasman, 2006)
After this initial contact it would be more than 120 years before Māori and European next
encountered with the arrival Captain James Cook in 1769. Cook mentions in the Endeavour
journal during his first voyage to New Zealand a “Diversions and Musical instruments they have
but few; the latter consists of two or three sorts of Trumpets and a small Pipe or Whistle” (Cook,
1773) Also aboard was HMS Endeavour was Royal Society representative, naturalist Joseph
Banks who recorded these notes about the music instruments encountered in New Zealand.
“Instrumental musick they have not, unless a kind of wooden pipe or the shell calld Tritons Trumpet
with which they make a noise not much differing from that made by boys with a Cows horn may be
calld such. They have indeed besides these a kind of small pipe of wood, crooked and shapd almost like
a large tobacco pipe head, but it has hardly more musick in it than a whistle with a Pea in it; but on
none of these did I ever hear them attempt to play a tune or sing to their musick.” (Banks, 1770)
John Macmillan Brown was professor of English and Classics at Canterbury College in
Christchurch from 1874 to 1895 when he retired to devoted himself to Polynesian anthropology
and ethnology. In 1907 he realised “Māori and Polynesian: their origin, history and culture”
Where he writes one of the first detailed descriptions of Māori music instruments.
33
“There is the extreme of simplicity and lack of variety of effect; and New Zealand has it in its greatest
bareness. There are the fife, the flageolet or flute, and the trumpet of various kinds. Of these, the flute
was the instrument most capable of development in the range of notes. But here a unique custom
barred the way. It was played, not with the mouth, but with one of the nostrils, the left in Tahiti, the
right in New Zealand. Now, in order to give range, both hands were needed as stops for the holes. But
the need of one hand to stop one of the nostrils precluded this. The result was that the largest number of
notes in a Polynesian flute was five, and as a rule one of these was below for the thumb. How could the
scale be other than pentatonic at its utmost range, where the chief musical instrument was confined to
five holes or notes? And in New Zealand there was more often than not only one hole in the centre,
and the variety of note was obtained by the greater or less extent of this that was covered. (Macmillan
Brown, 1907)
Māori instrument details
The following listing of musical instruments are grouped in the Hornbostel-Sachs is a system of
musical instrument classification. As the Māori have no indigenous form of membranophones
and the only instrument of the chordophone family has limited reference, the majority of this
section deals with instruments of idiophones and aerophones
Idiophone
Pahu
The Pahu is a wooden gong used for signalling and not generally considered a musical
instrument, used as a signalling device to warn of enemy approach and to indicate that a sentry
was on duty. It was carved from a piece of rectangle shaped wood around two metres in length,
with a hollow grove carved out of the centre. This was then hung from ropes on a look out
platform where the sentry on duty would hit the hollowed groove area with a stick on the
underside of the gong and is reported to be heard up to fifteen kilometres away. The war gong
was formed from the wood of the kaiwhiria (Hedycarya dentata), or, if very large, was made of
matai (Podocarpus spicata). These gongs were either of canoe shape, or were resonant slabs of
34
timber reaching even to 30 feet in length. They were suspended between two trees, but the wardrum was hung between two posts on the watch-tower (puhara) of a fort, a stage for the striker
being erected beneath it. The drum was struck at intervals during the night by the watchman
(kai-mataara), whose songs and drumming served to let an enemy know that the defenders of the
pa were on the alert. (Tregear, 1904, p. 66). Johannes Andersen (1873–1962) who charted the
history of Māori music including Māori dance and Polynesian instruments describes the pahu as
the one Māori instrument in any way comparable to a drum, he mentions it was not used to
mark rhythm, but for the purpose of producing a large volume of sound, as in other parts of the
world including the Pacific, it was used for signalling, especially during war-time. Andersen cites
Angas, an artist who visited New Zealand in 1846 and sketched and described a pahu he saw in a
village of the Waikato near Taupo. Angas writes:
“I, amidst the decaying ruins of the Pah of Otawhao I found the pahu or war-bell, an instrument now
fallen into disuse and regarded as obsolete; it was only sounded when an enemy was expected. It is an
oblong piece of wood, about six feet long, with a groove in the centre; and being slung by ropes of flax,
was struck with a heavy piece of wood, by a man who sat on an elevated scaffold, crying out at every
stroke the watchword of alarm. It was only during the night that the pahu was sounded. for the
purpose of informing the enemy that the inmates of the pah were awake, and also to let the people of
the pah know that the sentinel is on the lookout. Its sound is a most melancholy one; the dull heavy
strokes breaking with a solemn monotony on the stillness of the night; tolling, as it were, the deathknell
of many to be slain on the morrow" (Andersen J. C., 1934)
Pakuru
The Pakuru is a wooden resonating tapped rod, the long resonant rod held between the teeth
while being tapped with the other stick. The mouth is used as a resonator while the player chants,
hums or sings to alter the shape of the mouth and accent different harmonics. It is explained as
elementary in its construction consisting of an inch-thick stick held by the teeth and the left
hand, and a striker held in the right. The variation in the notes arose from the movements of the
lips. It was evidently meant, like the guitar, for serenades and other amatory music (Macmillan,
1907). Sometimes the instrument was plain; sometimes it was elaborately ornamented with
35
carving, notches, paaua shell inlays, or burnt designs. It is not quite clear whether the pakuru was
used simply to accompany songs or whether it functioned like a Jew’s harp or musical bow as a
substitute for the vocal cords to suggest words.
There were two kinds of musical toy known as Pakuru. One of these (also called pakakau) was played
with two sticks. The principal stick was about fifteen inches long by one and a-half inches wide, with
one flat and one convex side. Sometimes it was well carved and at others only notched with “parrot
nibbles” (whaka-kaka) along its side. One end of this stick was held between the teeth, flat side down,
and the other end held in the left hand, while the right hand struck the wood with the other stick in
time to an accompanying song. The sticks were generally made of matai or kaiwhiria. The other form
of the pakuru was a bar of wood about eighteen inches long held in one hand and struck lightly with a
small mallet; both mallet and bar being highly decorated with carving. (Tregear, 1904)
A detailed description is provided by Andersen who details the Pakuru as consisting of two strips
or rods of wood, respectively fourteen inches or fifteen inches, and six inches long. The longer
rod is the principal part of the instrument, and is made from matai, mapara (hard durable
heartwood of Podocarpus spicatus), or kaiwhiri (Poporokaiwhiri or porokaiwhiria, Hedycarya
arborea). It is nearly one inch in diameter, flat on one side, convex on the other. According to
Captain Mair's notes, it is one inch thick and from one inch to two inches deep and often
beautifully carved, or merely with notches (whakakaka pattern) cut along the edges.
“This rod is held in the left hand, and one end placed between the teeth, fiat side down. It is struck
with the small rod, made from the same wood, held in the fingers of the right hand. The striking, or
tapping, is done in time to the words of the song, and the movements of the lips, as with the jews-harp,
cause different sounds or notes to be emitted by the longer rod“ (Andersen, 1934, p. 208)
Tetere
The Tetere is a miniature form of trumpet made from rolled flax-leaf, it was used as a toy and
made for children by splitting a half blade of flax and winding it in overlapping turns from the
36
small mouth opening to the wider distal end. It could also used by adults as a temporary
instrument to announce their approach to a village (Rangi Hiroa, 1949). Anderson remarks that
the Tetere can hardly be considered more than a toy and was quickly improvised. It consisted of
a long funnel made from a green blade of flax. The tip of the leaf was wound around the end of
the third finger of the left hand to give the start, and the blade wound round this, fresh blades
being added according to the length desired, the roll being tied with a thin strip of flax whose
ends were either cut off or left long and frayed into a tassel-ornament. There is a record of the
Tetere being used on important or ceremonial occasions, as in the year 1862 when Matutaera,
King Potatau II, paid a visit to Te Horo, as related by Lt.-Colonel St. John. Matutaera, then the
Māori king, came with his suite by river, and having landed 'some distance above the settlement.
"In order to make a display and impressive entry into the kainga, they were soon seen to emerge from
among the harakeke [Māori flax] and eoeeoe [Māori pampas-grass], a native in advance, carrying the
flag. At a short distance behind him came the trumpeter with a tetere, or trumpet made of leaves of
hamkeke, or green flax; then the advance guard, of thirty men, three abreast, an armed, with one
officer-a captain; as a substitute for a band, the bodyguard sang Māori songs to English tunes."17
(Andersen J. C., p. 239)
Rorie
The Rorie is a form of Jews harp with the sound produced by vibrating a sliver of wood or bone
held between the teeth and plucked to produce a vibrating sound. The frequencies are amplified
and modified by manipulation of the player's mouth, which acts as the resonator to accent
different harmonics. The Roria has also been documented as simply a slip of tree bark held
between the lips and made to vibrate (Brown, 1907, p. 215). A slip of supple-jack (pirita) held
between the teeth with the elastic material being sprung with the fingers and the sound governed
by the pressure of the lips (Tregear, p. 67). It was a common sight for Māori lovers, each with a
Jew’s harp, to sit side by side and hold a quiet conversation on the instruments. A drawback of
the indigenous instrument was that the supple jack was liable to crack with use, hence the
proverb 'He arero kareao ka whati; engari te arero wahine kaaore kia whati haere tonu ana' (‘A
17
Excerpt taken from St. John, Lt.-Col. ‘Pakeha rambles through Māori lands’. Wellington, 1873
37
supplejack tongue will become cracked; not so the tongue of a woman - it goes on for ever’) (McLean,
Maori Music, 1996, p. 173)
Chordophones
Ku
The Ku is the only member of the Chordophone category represented by Māori instruments.
The instrument is a small one string bow played like a Jews harp using the mouth as a resonating
chamber, it is individual in that it is the only stringed instrument known to Māori. Various
forms of mouth bow have a world-wide distribution and can be dated to as far back as 15,000
BCE and is a depicted in Cave paintings in southern France being played as a musical instrument,
The mouth bow is frequently found in cultures that make use of the bow and arrow weaponry in
their warfare and hunting, though this does not seem to be the situation with the Māori.
“The Māori had not evolved any string instrument, unless the ku was a genuine native
instrument…..To conclude this subject of the bow and arrow as a Māori weapon there is no evidence
to show that he ever employed it either as a weapon or toy since his long sojourn in these isles began.
There is, however, some little evidence in favour of an assumption that the bow and arrow has been
used in New Zealand in olden times. There are but two items of such evidence. One is the finding of a
bow buried in a swamp, the other is a statement made by two of the most learned and reliable natives
of the Takitumu folk of last century.” (Best, 1934, p. 156)
Aerophones
The majority of Māori aerophones consists of their large collection of flutes, possibly the most
prominent is the Koauau, it is an end/cross-blown flute traditionally made of wood, bone or a
species of kelp. The instrument features in Māori folklore most famously the love story of
Hinemoa who was sitting on her rock when Tūtānekai played his Koauau flute on Mokoia Island.
The Porutu, Rehu and Whio flutes are considered to be of similar design as the Koauau with
alternate sizes and positioning of finger holes. The Nguruis a short, semi-closed, cross-blown
38
flute made of wood, bone or stone and played with the mouth and possibly nose. The flute is
curved at one end owing to its original production material of whale tooth.
Trumpets make up the remainder of Māori aerophones, The Pukaea is a long wooden war
trumpet primarily used to for signalling and in times of war to assemble the army, or to warn of
an enemy's approach. The Putatara is a conch shell trumpet with an attached short, wooden
mouthpiece. It had a variety of roles from signalling to ceremonial and ritual use. They were
sometimes carried by chiefs to use for summoning his people or to announce his approach to a
village. The Putorino is a multi-function instrument that functions both as a bugle and flute as
well employed as a resonator when sung into. Traditional Māori flutes were usually carved from
wood, whale teeth, animal or human bone, this was typically taken from the arm or leg of an
enemy.
“After all the foreigners were killed; not one escaped. They took the bodies and cooked them. The bones
of the foreigners who had been killed were made into forks for picking up food, and the thigh-bones
were made into flutes.” (White)
Some wooden flutes are particularly significant for the rich detail of their carving and were
especially valued by Māori with appearances in legend, place names and feature in a number of
traditional Māori tales such as the Tūrehu, a mythical peoples of fair complexion who live in the
mountains and play flutes which can be used to lure humans. The origins of New Zealand’s
longest place name is derived from the story of the man named Tara, who was one of the
descendants of the early migration. He owned a very intelligent dog named Potaka. Tara was a
very proficient flute player, and he trained Potaka so the dog would come to him whenever a
special call was played on the instrument. One day the dog Potaka went missing. Tara searched
everywhere and blew his flute, but in vain. He went to the top of Whakapunake mountain and
blew his flute without result. Going towards the sea-coast he reached the top of a high hill near
the present Māori pa at Kihitu and again blew his flute in vain. Thereafter the place was called
and is known to the present day as Whakatangihanga-pu-a-Tara or "the blowing of the flute of
Tara." (Mitira, 1972, p. 191)
39
Another legend is that of Tama-Te-Kapua who was Captain of the Arawa canoe, involved in the
great immigration from Hawaiki to New Zealand. At its launching, Tama Te Kapua is said to
have kidnapped Whakaoterangi, the beautiful young wife of Ruaeo, and carried her with him to
New Zealand. Upon catching up with Tama-Te-Kapua, Ruaeo caught the attention of his wife
by playing his flute and utilize it in a plan to reclaim her back.
“Ruaeo played upon his flute, and the music woke his wife, and she said, “Dear me, that's Rua'!” and
when she looked, there he was sitting under the side of the canoe; and they passed the night together. At
last Rua' said, “O mother of my children, go back now to your new husband, and presently I'll play
upon the flute and putorino, so that both you and Tama-te-kapua may hear. Then do you say to
Tama-te-kapua, ‘O la! I had a dream in the night that I heard Rua' playing a tune upon his flute,’
and that will make him so jealous that he will give you a blow, and then you can run away from him
again, as if you were in a rage and hurt, and you can come to me.” Then Whakoti-rangi returned,
and lay down by Tama-te-kapua, and she did everything exactly as Rua' had told her, and Tama'
began to beat her, and she ran away from him.” (Grey, 1885, p. 92)
Possibly the most famed story involving a flute is that of Hinemoa and Tūtānekai who were in
love, but kept their love a secret as they feared their families would not accept the relationship.
Tūtānekai built himself a platform on Mokoia Island where every evening he and his friend Tiki
played their flutes; Tūtānekai’s flute was known as Murirangaranga. Across the water Hinemoa
would sit on a rock, listening and yearning for her melodious lover. (Tapsell, 2009). It is
considered that instead of the faint and plaintive sound produced by a flute that could scarcely
have been heard across two miles of water. The source of the sound was more likely the braying
of Tutanekai's wooden trumpet, softened by distance (Cowan, 1930, p. 98).
Koauau
The Māori Koauau is an instrument of the flute kind, and it was made of wood or bone. Like the
flute, it was pierced with holes, in number from one to six, the most usual number in
instruments that have been preserved being three (Andersen, p. 276). It was said that a
particularly skilful musician could breathe words into a flute that would be then be carried to
40
listeners on the notes of the tune. “The Koauau was a nose-flute, and with it the performer could
speak, in a nasal way, thus saying to music the words of a Waiata (song).” (Cowan, 1930, p. 97).
The Koauau was frequently fashioned from the thigh-bone of a tribal enemy, and the owner
would derive much satisfaction from playing upon such an instrument. (Best, The Maori As He
Was : A Brief Account of Life as it Was in Pre-European Days, 1934, p. 153). Short lengths of
human bone from the humerus or the femur were preferred to wood not only from the saving of
labour in boring the tube but because bone instruments were said to produce a sweeter sound
than the wooden ones. The wooden Koauau were usually elaborately carved and in some
perforated discs of paua shell were inlaid to surround the sound holes. The bone instruments
were carved more simply with a band at each end or with an additional band in the middle and
sometimes applied to raised ridges which encircled the instrument. The bone was usually
obtained from an enemy slain in battle which gave an additional value to the instrument (Rangi
Hiroa, p. 265). The smaller flute Koauau was usually made of bone, an enemy's leg-bone for
preference, and was often used as a nose-flute, the end being inserted into one nostril while the
other was closed with the thumb. The Koauau ranged from six inches to eighteen inches in
length (Tregear, p. 66).
The Koauau was structurally a shortened form of the whio and it differed from the porutu or
rehu, not only in length but in being open at both ends. It was played with the lips by blowing
across the open upper end. Some instruments were occasionally played with the nose, the upper
end being pressed against the upper lip to close the opening. The top side hole then came under
the left nostril and the right nostril was closed by pressure with the right thumb. In this way, the
instrument could be used as a nose flute but, as pointed out by Andersen (Andersen, p. 230), this
technique could not be applied to the majority of Koauau owing to the nearest side hole being
out of reach of the left nostril. The instrument was usually four to five inches in length but some
were as long as eight inches. The sound holes varied in number to as high as six but three was the
most common. A transverse hole through a protuberance in the back was frequently present to
carry a cord for suspending the instrument around the neck (Rangi Hiroa, p. 264).
41
“It is one of the only native instruments about which we can give some definite information. After
making many enquiries concerning this article, and considering much evidence, the writer has come to
the conclusion that it was primarily a mouth flute, but that occasionally, as in the case of an expert
player, it was used as a nose flute. The proper nose flute was, however, of quite a different form. This
Koauau was widely used, and a number of fine old specimens of the stone age of these isles are
preserved in various museums. They were often carried about suspended from the neck of the owner,
even as, after the arrival of Europeans, the Māori carried his clay pipe thrust through a hole in his ear.”
(Best, p. 153)
Nguru
The Nguru, or nose flute, is an interesting instrument of singular form, as seen in the illustration.
The curved end is its peculiarity. The writer has never seen a wooden specimen, but a number of
stone nguru are in our museums, and one fashioned from a whale's tooth is in the Williams
collection at Hastings. We are told that it was sounded by applying the small end to the nostril,
the other nostril being closed by pressure from one of the thumbs. (Best, p. 155) The Nguru is
generally shorter than the Koauau, most are only 6-10 cm long and made of wood, clay, stone or
more infrequently a whale's tooth, which are all bored longitudinally like a Koauau. One end is
open and rounded externally like a Koauau and the other finishes with a small hole in the centre
of an upturned snout. Besides the snout hole there are usually two finger holes on top and
sometimes another one or two underneath the snout. Like Koauau, some nguru instruments have
a hole bored through the back for a suspension cord. (McLean, p. 190)
Trumpets
The trumpets (putara, putatara, pukaea) were made of wood. They were about four feet to six
feet long, and were used for summoning the inhabitants of a village, or for announcing the
approach of a chief. They were formed by roughly shaping the outside, then splitting the wood
down the centre, hollowing out the interior, and then binding the pieces together again with
close lashings. Some trumpets were made of several pieces of wood accurately fitted together and
jointed; these were neatly and strongly lashed solid with supple-jack creeper (kareao;
42
Rhipogonum scandens). Others were used as speaking trumpets, through which insults or
defiance could be hurled at an enemy. Most of the musical trumpets had a large hole in the
centre, the note being modulated with the hand; some had artificial diaphragms or vibrators set
about a foot within the larger end. A kind of trumpet made of a calabash pierced with two or
three holes, was now and then to be seen among the Taranaki tribes. Shell-trumpets (pu-moana
or potipoti) were made from the shell of the Triton australis, the apex being cut off, and a carved
wooden mouthpiece fixed on. The cord by which it was carried was decorated with tufts of the
feathers of the owl-parrot (Stringops). (Tregear, p. 65)
2.4 Migration Theories
There is limited research in specific regards to the expansion of Austronesian musical
instruments and all relay heavily on the broad category of Cultural Anthropology. Techniques
such as Linguistics (McLean, 2010), Organology (Fischer, 1983) (Dioquino, 2008), and
Material Culture (Blench, 2006) have been used to offer theories of a Polynesian, Southeast
Asian, or larger Austronesian musical instrument expansion. In his book ‘Sound-producing
instruments in Oceania: Construction and playing technique, distribution and function’ Hans
Fischer offered an explanation for the development of musical instruments being derived for
their personal use and points to their supernatural properties.
‘Some instruments can indeed only serve the pleasure of an individual as their sound is so quiet that it
can only really be heard by the player. Particularly jaw’s harps, musical bows, panpipes, end-blown
and notched flutes are all played for personal enjoyment in Oceania. It is notable that these are
precisely those instruments to which love magic properties are ascribed.’ (Fischer, 1983, p. 156)
Roger Blench has employed methodologies from material culture and cultural institutions in a
comparative framework in order to review some of the musical practices that occur among the
indigenous peoples of Taiwan and show that their broader distribution is linked with that of the
Austronesian-speaking peoples (Blench, 2006, p. 8), He has stated that musical instruments
constitute an effective marker of the Austronesian expansion across the Pacific and suggested that
43
musicological evidence strongly supports the more recent hypothesis of pre-Austronesian having
migrated from the Chinese mainland. From Taiwan the Austronesians expanded rapidly across
lightly inhabited territory and largely carried with them a repertoire of material culture.
“Following their departure from Taiwan they seem to have undergone a cultural explosion, for many
new instruments were developed and were carried as the Austronesian people themselves moved south
and began the peopling of Indonesia” (Blench, 2006, p. 10).
While particular musical instruments can be visibly recognized as emerging inside the
Austronesian area and reveal a possible expansion path, others seem to reveal a distributions
pattern with the south of China which could be seen to reflect the initial interaction scope with
Philippines that is also reflected in the transmission of rice farming (Blench, 2006, p. 1).
Instrumental music of the Philippine highlanders is part of their existing culture and still heard
in fields during planting and harvesting, curing or rituals, the transmission of playing technique
and styles having been handed down through generations (Dioquino, 2008). Some conspicuous
sporadic distributions seem to be connected to the swift expansion of the Austronesian speaking
peoples after leaving Taiwan. Musical instruments such as metal gongs and cymbals, while highly
discernable in synchronic analysis ethnography, are likely later starters that have coverage through
the region in a course conflicting to Austronesian expansion.
In a hypothesis on the Lapita complex with regards to its relationship with Polynesian culture,
Mervyn McLean used evidence from music, physical anthropology, genetics, and canoe types to
draw a conclusion that pointed him exceedingly to a Micronesia, rather than Melanesia, as a path
for Polynesian migration with a supporting hypothesis of Polynesian origins (McLean, 2008, p.
53).
The Lapita people were Melanesians who settled all of the currently Melanesian areas of both Near
and Remote Oceania. After arriving in Fiji, they may indeed have been among Polynesian ancestors,
but were not primarily or exclusively so. Instead, Polynesians developed independently within Western
Polynesia, most likely in Samoa, after migrating there from Micronesia, and only later began to
intersect with descendants of the Lapita potters. (McLean, 2008, p. 53)
44
In 1907 Macmillan Brown wrote what could possibly be the first attempt to explain the origin of
Māori musical instruments. He notes the extreme of simplicity and lack of variety of effect in
Polynesia wind blowing instrument and states that “New Zealand has it in its greatest bareness”.
Listed are trumpet of various kinds, the fife, flageolet or flutes which he notes was the instrument
most capable of development in the range of notes, but played with the unique custom of not
with the mouth, but with one of the nostrils, the left in Tahiti, the right in New Zealand. In
order to give range, both hands were needed as stops for the holes, but in New Zealand there was
more often than not only one hole in the centre, and the variety of note was obtained by the
greater or less extent of this that was covered. The playing techniques for these instruments
formed the basis of his musical migration theory on an ancient migration from Indonesia.
“The result was that the largest number of notes in a Polynesian flute was five. How could the scale be
other than pentatonic at its utmost range, where the chief musical instrument was confined to five
holes or notes? The route of this inefficient device for bringing the breath to bear on a music-tube was
Java, Borneo, Celebes; for the nose-flute is found in all three islands. Had this not pointed so definitely
to South Asia as its source, one would have been inclined to assign the origin of the use of the nose-flute
to some climate, like the northern or sub-Arctic, where the bitterness compelled the habitual closing of
the mouth. That it came into Polynesia with a very ancient migration from Indonesia we may be sure;
for it did not find its way to Madagascar, although the peculiar stringed instruments of Malaysia went
thither. It was not used in religious, but in amatory music throughout the islands a sign that it did not
belong to the last conquerors, but to the aboriginals; and, though in the islands bamboo was preferred
for it, in New Zealand, in the absence of that universal provider of Indonesia, bone and especially the
leg-bone of an enemy was used for it in preference to wood and other material”. (Brown, 1907, p.
214)
45
2.5 Musical signal processing
The first person accredited with realising the association between the fields of math and music
was the Ionian Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras of Samos (approx. 570–495
BC) 18. The catalogue of theories attributed to Pythagoras include the oldest known verification
of what is now known as the Pythagorean
Theorem and associated belief system that all
things could be explained as ratios with values
that could be expressed as a fraction allowing
for a "music of the spheres" where five planets
of the universe moved along similar ratios. One
example for the indication of underlying
rational numbers was found in the music of
Greece, where the octave 19 was divided into five
Table 2-I Notes and Intervals derived from Tonic ‘F’
Note
Interval from Tonic
Ratios
F
C
G
Unison
Perfect 5th
Major 2nd
1:1
3:2
9:8
D
A
E
Major 6th
Major 3rd
Major 7th
27:16
81:64
243:128
B
F
Augmented 4th
Octave
729:512
2:1
notes. Pythagoras discovered that each note was a fraction of a string. When the string was tuned
to a specific note, such as an ‘A’ note, the next note along would be four fifths (.08) of the way
along the length the string, which can be expressed as 5/4 the frequency emitted by the vibration
of the whole string, which would equate approximately to the note of ‘C’, the remainder of the
octave was then divided in to fractions of three quarters ¾ (.75), which is approximately ‘D’, two
thirds 2/3 (.66 recurring), approximately ‘E’, and three fifths 3/5 (.6), approximately ‘F’, before
arriving at the half point of the string to become the next octave ‘A’. The evolution of this into
the modern western twelve note scale can be derived by applying these ratios to other notes on
the scale. For example, if ‘B’ is the result of the 2/3 ratio note applied to itself. 2/3 * 2/3 = 4/9 ‘E’,
which lies between the octave of ‘A’ ½, and octave ‘C’ 4/10. In order to place B in the same
octave requires a multiplication of 4/9 by two to arrive at 8/9, ‘G’ is generated backward from ‘A’.
As ‘B’ is two semitones above ‘A’ at a string ratio of 8/9, it will produce a missing tone below ‘A’
by way of expanding the string to a ratio of 9/8. A ‘G’ added to the same octave must apply 9/8
to 1/2 (octave A) and by multiplication arrives at 9/16 as the ratio to G.
18
Most of the information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, so that very little reliable
information is known about him
19
In western music theory an octave is the interval twelve semi-tone notes up or down the chromatic scale.
46
Table 2-II Other intervals derived from scale elements
Tones
E-F, B-C
Interval from Tonic
Minor 2nd
D-F…
Minor 3rd
G-C…
Perfect 4th
A-F
Minor 6th
G-F
Minor 7th
Derivations
Octave – Major 7th
Octave – Major 6th
or
th
5 – Minor 3rd
Octave – 5th
or
th
5 – Major 2nd
Octave – Major 3rd
or
5th + Minor 2nd
Octave – Major 2nd
or
th
5 + Minor 3rd
Ratios
256:243
32:27
4:3
128:81
16:9
The issue arose when this transformation was applied for a third time. The twelve tone octave
originating from tonic A was not the same as the twelve tone octave originating from tonic A#.
The resolution of this was created around early 18th Century with the implantation of the
western ‘well-tempered" scale, created by using the 2 to the 1/12th power ratio. It was also
around this time that detailed scientific explanations were first derived to explain the nature of
sound.
“The enigma which, about 2500 years ago, Pythagoras proposed to science, which investigates the
reasons of things, 'Why is consonance determined by the ratios of small whole numbers?' has been
solved by the discovery that the ear resolves all complex sounds into pendular oscillations, according to
the laws of sympathetic vibration, and that it regards as harmonious only such excitements of the
nerves as continue without disturbance. The resolution into partial tones, mathematically expressed, is
effected by Fourier's law, which shows how any periodically variable magnitude, whatever be its
nature, can be expressed by a sum of the simplest periodic magnitudes….. Ultimately, then, the reason
of the rational numerical relations of Pythagoras is to be found in the theorem of Fourier, and in one
sense this theorem may be considered as the prime source of the theory of harmony.
(Helmholtz, 1877, pp. 229-31)
47
Investigations into Harmonics
The great leap forward in the understanding of components of sound arose in the 19th
Century with French mathematician and physicist Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (21 March 1768
– 16 May 1830), who investigated various issues relating to the conduction of heat in solids and
discovered that it was possible to depict an arbitrary mathematical function by a sum of simpler
functions. The simpler functions chosen for this description were the elementary sine (sin) and
cosine (cos) functions which make it achievable to give an near description of the Fourier method
without need of mathematical details by using the concept of vector. It was rapidly appreciated
that Fourier's method was immensely relevant to the explanation of the sound phenomena,
caused by variations of pressure within the air and as such can be described as a function of airpressure against time, functions such as these are directly pliable to Fourier's method of analysis.
German scientist Hermann Helmholtz (August 31, 1821 – September 8, 1894), among many
others working in areas of musical perception and the sounds produced by conventional western
musical instruments, offered a simple theory of pitch and timbre perception by suggesting a
sound perceived as a single pitch was found through Fourier analysis, to be comprised of various
sine wave components which displayed a simple harmonic relationship to each another. In 1863
Helmholtz published “Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen als physiologische Grundlage für die
Theorie der Musik” (Helmholtz, 1863).Helmholtz speculated that musical tones and speech
vowel sounds are comprised of many various frequencies which he referred to as harmonics
partials, and so the timbre of any sound was regulated by the relative force of these partials. By
means of the amplifying effect of sympathetic resonance, Helmholtz constructed and utilised
resonators to ascertain and approximate relative strengths of the harmonic partials present in
these sounds. The resonators were intended to ensure a very precise natural frequency with each
resonator, somewhat like a glass bottle, comprising of a mouth, a neck and a main cavity, with a
thin protruding aperture at the back. By inserting the resonator's aperture into the ear canal,
Helmholtz was able to observe when sounds of the particular frequency of his resonator were
present.
48
“The ear when its attention has been properly' directed to the effect of the vibrations which strike it,
does not hear merely that one musical tone whose pitch is determined by the period of the vibrations in
the manner already explained, but in addition to this it becomes aware of a whole series of higher
musical tones, which we will call the harmonic upper partial tones, and sometimes simply the upper
partials of the whole musical tone or note, in contradistinction to the fundamental or prime partial
tone or simply the prime, as it may be called, which is the lowest and generally the loudest of all the
partial tones and by the pitch of which we judge of the pitch of the whole compound musical tone itself.
The series of these upper partial tones is precisely the same for all compound musical tones which
correspond to a uniformly periodical motion of the air, as follows:
•
The first upper partial tone [or second partial tone] is the upper Octave of the prime tone,
and makes double the number of vibrations in the same time. If we call the prime C, this
upper Octave will be c.
•
The second upper partial tone [or third partial tone] is the Fifth of this Octave, or g,
making three times as many vibrations in the same time as the prime.
•
The third upper partial tone [or fourth partial tone] is the second higher Octave or c,
making four times as many vibrations as the prime in the same time.
•
The fourth upper partial tone [or fifth partial tone] is the major Third of this second
higher Octave, or e , with five times as many vibrations as the prime in the same time.
•
The fifth upper partial tone [or sixth partial tone] is the Fifth of the second higher Octave,
or (f , making six times as many vibrations as the prime in the same time. And thus they
go on, becoming continually fainter, to tones making 7, 8, 9, times as many vibrations in
the same time, as the prime tone. (Helmholtz, 1877, p. 20)
Helmholtz's devised an apparatus utilizing the pure tones produced by tuning forks, to generate
first upper partial tone and first six overtones which were then combined in varying proportions.
The tuning forks were constructed to vibrate using electromagnets and the sound produced by
each fork then amplified by was of a Helmholtz resonator with adjustable shutter activated
mechanically via a keyboard. By altering the relative intensities of the partial tones, Helmholtz
49
was capable of simulating sounds of assorted timbres and, in particular, reconstruct and
comprehend the character of vowel sounds used in human speech and singing. Vowel sounds are
generated by the resonances of the larynx (voice box), with every vowel characterized by two or
three resonant frequencies known as formants. For example, when the vowel of 'a' (as in 'mad') is
produced, the larynx amplifies frequencies close to 800Hz, 1800Hz and 2400Hz amongst others.
When a different vowel sound is produced, the muscles of the throat and mouth alter the shape
of the vocal tract, generating an altered set of resonances.
“Get a powerful bass voice to sing Eb to the vowel “O”, in sore (more like “aw” in “saw” than “O” in
so), gently touch Bb on the piano, which is the Twelfth, or third partial tone of the note Eb, and let its
sound die away while you are listening to it attentively. The note Bb on the piano will appear really
not to die away, but to keep on sounding, even when the string is damped by removing the finger from
the digital, because the ear unconsciously passes from the tone of the piano to the partial tone of the
same pitch produced by the singer, and takes the latter for a continuation of the former. But when the
finger is removed from the key, and the damper has fallen, it is of course impossible that the tone of the
string should have continued sounding. To make the experiment for G the fifth partial, or major
Third of the second Octave above Eb, the voice should sing to the vowel “A” in father…. By frequently
instituting similar experiments for perceiving the upper partial tones, the observer comes to discover
them more and more easily, till he is finally able to dispense with any aids. But a certain amount of
undisturbed concentration is always necessary for analysing musical tones by the ear alone, and hence
the use of resonators is quite indispensable for an accurate comparison of different At least, I must
confess, that my own attempts to discover the upper partial tones in the human voice, and to determine
their differences for different vowels, were most unsatisfactory until I applied the resonators.”
(Helmholtz, 1877, p. 51)
2.6 Modern Advancements In Timbre perception
Observation of sound has progressed steadily since Helmholtz and is now widley
acknowledged that audio signals can be defined in terms of its pitch, volume, period, and timbre,
which as discussed, involves an exceedingly complex underlying perceptual mechanism
50
accounting for several perceptual dimensions simultaneously. More recent studies investigating
musical timbre have benefited from the development of digital technology, it is now possible to
describe in detail the physical structure of tones, and produce many kinds of complex sounds by
controlling specific acoustical properties. Timbre can then be understood as a multi-dimensional
feature which includes its spectral envelope, temporal envelope, and variants of both. Numerous
experiments conducted in the field of timbre analysis including Reinier Plomp, who has had a
huge impact on the field of psychoacoustics over the last 40 years, affirmed quantitatively the
behaviour of the perception of roughness as being the psycho-acoustical foundation of the
dissonance. Plomp employed multidimensional scaling analysis to investigate the relationships of
timbre on the spectral amplitude pattern by exhibiting nine stimuli origination from musical
tones. He revealed that variances in the frequency spectrum interrelated with differences in
timbre, concluding that the physical analysis and the perceptual judgements were founded on the
distribution of spectral energy. (Plomp, 1976) Timbre description still remains somewhat
idiosyncratic and subjective, Unambiguous formulation for procedures of objective condition of
timbre with regards to digital descriptors will likely always express subjective and informal
prejudice on sound characteristics, in the 1990’s William Sethares further explored Plomp's work
and formalized the relationships between a tuning and timbre's partials that control sensory
consonance, using them to expose the relationship between the tunings and timbres as well as
exploring other novel combinations of related tunings and timbres. Where microtonal music was
previously either dissonant, due to being played with harmonic timbres to which it was not
related, or restricted to the narrow range of harmonically related tunings to retain sensory
consonance, his dissonance model is weighted by assuming that the roughness is proportional to
the loudness of the beating of sine waves by summation of roughness between all pairs of sine’s
obtained through spectral peak-picking (Sethares, p. 174) . Other particular features have found
well expressed objective counterparts, such as the quality of brightness being calculated as gravity
centre of the spectrum, with the simple spectral centroid being shown to be a better predictor of
perceived brightness (Schubert, 2004) and brightness being a determining factor in perception of
music (Juslin, 2000). While other methods of determining how to combine the F0 adjusted
centroid may be calculated, in addition to being a good predictor of perceived brightness, the
51
centroid of the total spectrum (AFC) is definitive in calculating perceived brightness from
commercial sound recordings.
Conventional short time Fourier analysis necessitates the windowing of pieces from a continuous
time signal and calculating its continuous time Fourier transforms (CTFT) in order to obtain a
time frequency arrangement. To reduce side-lobe interference it is necessary to selected windows
that diminish the quantity of included frequency content outside of the window in time.
Controlling the information engages methods such as low-pass band filters. Synthesis is achieved
by calculating inverse Fourier transforms (IFT) of each window and additive methods are
employed to re-join the transformed windows. In 1986 Robert McAulay and Thomas Quatieri
offered a new technique of analysis and synthesis of continuous time signals that endeavoured to
improve a reconstruction process to represent an approximate estimate of the original signal
(McAulay, 1986). McAulay and Quatieri displayed speech signals as two elements, the first being
a signal in an excited state that consists of a sum of sinusoids with time-varying amplitudes and
frequencies, along with its initial phase offset. The second element is the voice track which is
exhibited as a time variant filter along with its time varying phase and magnitudes.
In order to locate manifestations of these sinusoids they developed a novel technique for
analysing signals. By using intersecting window techniques comparable to standard short time
analysis, the MQ technique calculates Fourier transforms of the separate windows. The partials
(peak frequencies) pertaining to each window are identified and the amplitude and phase are
obtained. The partials from respective windows are related to the partials in the subsequent
window to elaborate on a tendency of the progression of frequencies. The full resolution
transpires when there is an absence of partials in the preceding window with which to associate
with the current window. To generate the wave each point is linked evenly by incorporating
between them by way of a cubic function. This provides a continuous function that defines the
movement of the phase, amplitude and frequency of the signal. The MQ Model has been utilised
to reproduces inaudibly altered signals when applied to a vast array of quasi-harmonic sounds
with the advantage of a reduced amount of data essential to execute this process when compared
with standard Fourier techniques that require the use of a great many coefficients, a possible
52
infinite number in order to reconstruct perfectly, where the MQ method allows for several time
varying sinusoids to be stored with little superfluous data.
M.I.R (Music information Retrieval)
Methods in Music information retrieval (MIR) and research on automatic sound classification
enjoyed a major gain in interest in the early part of the 21st Century, in part due to the mass use
of music sharing via the internet I formats such as .MP3 and .WMA codecs, along with the
inevitable copyright infringement that boosted research from the entertainment industry. One of
the concerns in MIR is to standardardised parameterization for a classification basis, sound
descriptors currently employed are centred on assorted approaches of analysis in the time domain,
the spectrum domain, time-frequency domain and cepstrum. Fourier Transform for spectral
analysis could be considered the most commonly used application, with approaches such as such
as Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), Short-time Fourier Transform (STFT) and Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT), though wavelet analysis has gained increased interest in the area of musical
sound representation and analysis. Audio files such as.WAV and .MP3 represent an arrangement
of samples whereby each sample contains a digital representation of the amplitude of digital
sound. The sound data is then parameterized for sound classification purposes by employing
numerous description features expressing the temporal, and spectral-temporal properties of
sounds. Established on current research implemented in this area, The Moving Picture Experts
Group (MPEG), a working group of experts formed by ISO to set standards for audio and video
compression, has proposed an MPEG-7 standard, where it describes a set of low-level sound
temporal and spectral features.
In order to extract information from audio files requires several processes abstraction techniques
in order to ascend to a more meaningful level of information. Recently Fabien Gouyon has
proposed three main levels of abstraction whereby distinct features with distinct meanings are
extracted. When each of these levels have been realized, the extracted features become less
abstract and increasingly more meaningful for human comprehension. (Gouyon, 2010)
53
• High-level features:
• requiring context modelling, difficult for computer, natural for human
• Structural features
• form, type, style
• Content features: context
• expression: affect, emotion, behaviour, gesture;
• e.g. mood, genre
• Mid-level features:
• requiring generalisation from data, more difficult for computer, usually meaningful for
human;
• Perceptual features
• pitch, texture, timbre
• e.g. tempo, instrument type, genre, melody, harmony, rhythm;
• Low-level features:
• Computed from data in a direct way, easy for a computer, usually no sense for human
• Sensorial features
• roughness, time, volume
• Physical features
• frequency, duration, intensity, spectrum, noise
• e.g. spectral centroid, MFCC
MPEG-7’s ‘Timbre’ descriptors intend to describe the perceptual features of musical sounds by
analysing these low-level features. The aim of the description tools is to depict these perceptual
features utilizing a reduced set of features such as brightness attack and richness of the sound
signal. Low-level descriptors expressed by MPEG-7 metadata are presented to facilitate the
timbre description of the perceptual features of music: LogAttackTime, HarmonicSpectralCentroid,
HarmonicSpectralDeviation,
HarmonicSpectralSpread,
HarmonicSpectralVariation,
TemporalCentroid and SpectrumCentroid. The parameters presented describe basic spectral and
temporal audio properties incorporated into the MPEG-7 standard.
•
LogAttackTime
•
HarmonicSpectralCentroid
- The decimal logarithm of the duration from the beginning of the signal
to the time when it reaches its maximum or its sustained part, whichever comes first.
- the average over the sound duration of the instantaneous
Harmonic Centroid within a frame. The instantaneous Harmonic Spectral Centroid is
54
computed as the amplitude (in linear scale) weighted mean of the harmonic peak of the
spectrum, indicating the "centre of mass" of the spectrum.
•
- the average over the sound duration of the instantaneous
harmonic spectral deviation in each frame, i.e. the spectral deviation of the log amplitude
components from a global spectral envelope.
•
HarmonicSpectralSpread
•
HarmonicSpectralVariation
•
TemporalCentroid
•
SpectrumCentroid
HarmonicSpectralDeviation
- the average over the sound duration of the instantaneous
harmonic spectral spread of a frame, i.e. the amplitude weighted standard deviation of
the harmonic peaks of the spectrum with respect to the instantaneous harmonic spectral
centroid.
- mean value over the sound duration of the instantaneous
harmonic spectral variation, i.e. the normalized correlation between the amplitude of the
harmonic peaks of two adjacent frames
- energy weighted mean of the duration of the sound, representing
where in time the energy of the sound is focused.
- computed as power weighted average of the frequency bins in the
power spectrum of all the frames in a sound with a Welch* method
‘MPEG-7 Overview: INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDISATION: 2004’ (Martínez,
2004)
The timbre descriptor used for sustained harmonic sounds amalgamates the above Spectral
timbral low-level descriptors (LLD) with a log attack time descriptor. The percussive instrument
descriptor combines the Timbral Temporal LLD with a spectral centroid descriptor.
Comparisons between descriptions using either set of descriptors are done with an experimentally
derived scaled distance metric. Within four detailed possible classes of musical instrument sounds,
as outlined in Table 2-III, two classes are well detailed. At this point, harmonic, coherent,
sustained sounds (space 1) and non-sustained, percussive sounds (space 3) are represented. The
application oriented description schemes related with musical instrument timbre within the
audio section of the MPEG-7 standard relied on studies in to musical perception and
55
psychophysics that attempted to establish what features of a specified musical tone differentiate it
from tones at identical loudness and pitch. The scheme relies on the low-level descriptors which
are direct correspondents within systems of signal processing. The Timbre tools describe
perceptual features of “monophonic, non-mixed, non-layered instrument sounds' (Martínez,
2004). This conditions a clear limit on the categories of signal that can be described. The variety
of conceivable signals is initially limited to tones produced by musical instrument, this is
additionally restricted to be from a solo instrument playing an isolated note. The note must be
either secluded from its neighbours or segmented in a temporal stream. At this stage the
instrumental note is labelled with a token specifying that it is appropriate for timbre description.
Ensuing from the initial qualifiers, four classes of musical instrumental sounds can be described:
•
Non-sustained sounds: sustained, harmonic
•
Coherent sounds: sustained, non-harmonic
•
Coherent sounds
•
Sustained non-coherent sounds
Currently the standard clusters only two of these classes of sounds to create perceptual spaces
where the sounds are compared for their low level timbral descriptors. By determining the class
of musical tone that the signal belongs to allows a decision on the seven potential low-level
temporal and spectral features which are to be used. The two descriptors pertinent to sustained,
harmonic, coherent sounds are the harmonic spectral centroid and log attack time, The physical
features of an audio signal that acts as a proxies for the perceptual features observed as attack and
brightness, then generate a physical measure that concludes with an approximation of perceptual
comparison.
Table 2-III Similarity spaces
Space
Number
Sounds
Characteristics
Examples
(Manjunath, 2002)
I
Harmonic
Sounds
1.Sustained
2.Harmonic
3. Coherent
Violin. flute, ...
2
4. Sustained
5.Nonharmonic
6. Coherent
Bell. triangle
3
Percussive
Sounds
7. NonSustained
4
8. Sustained
Snare, calves
Cymbals, white
56
2.7 Summary of literature
Musical Literature
Although migration theories of Austronesian musical instruments have been offered on the
strength of linguistic data (Merven McLean) and Material Culture evidence (Roger Blench)
neither of these take into concentration the tone preferences used in this culture. In a paper by
Roger Blench entitled ‘Musical aspects of Austronesian culture presented at the European
Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists 10th International Conference in London 2004’,
He notes that
“The nose flute is found in Taiwan among the Paiwan and Rukai and is found throughout the
Austronesian area, all the way to New Zealand. The Taiwanese instrument is a double-flute, with a
drone-pipe and a melody-pipe with four finger holes, ... Beyond Taiwan, all nose-flutes seem to have
had single pipes only. However, in many regions, Sulawesi for example, paired duct-flutes are
morphologically identical to those in Taiwan although played through the mouth. Morphologically
similar flutes, now played only by mouth, are found extensively on smaller Indonesian islands, notably
Flores mapped the distribution of nose-flutes in the Pacific as a whole. In Polynesia they gradually
evolved into a vessel-flutes rather like an ocarina. This suggests a specifically Austronesian instrument
with a Taiwan to New Zealand distribution. (Blench, Musical aspects of Austronesian culture,
2004)
The first concern points to the catalogue of nose flutes which does not mention The Amis nose
flute has three to four holes for each pipe or literature mentioning various nose pipes used by the
Northern tribes. Secondly, there is a Paiwan flute that is used exclusively used for being played
with the mouth. Lastly the Māori Nguru has been comprehensively disputed as a nose flute by
McClean and others. On the broader subject of the expansion of Austronesian musical
instruments Bench offers.
57
“Following their departure from Taiwan they seem to have undergone a cultural explosion, for many
new instruments were developed and were carried as the Austronesian people themselves moved south
and began the peopling of Indonesia” (Blench, 2006, p. 10)
The would places it in the context of the ‘cultural package’
offered by Jarred Diamond
appearing in Taiwan around the late Palaeolithic Tapenkeng culture of 6,500 to 5,000 years ago
along with the appearance of Cord-marked pottery and emerging agriculture cultivation. The
expansion carried with it pottery, stone tools, and domesticated animals appeared around 3000
B.C. in the Philippines, around 2500 B.C. on the Indonesian islands of Celebes and North
Borneo and Timor, around 2000 B.C. on Java and Sumatra, and around 1600 B.C. in the New
Guinea region. (Diamond J. , 1997, p. 340).
Signal processing Literature
A fundamental issue in this area of research is the amount of timbre perception studies that have
been conducted using Western Orchestral instruments, or digital synthesis of their sounds, for
stimuli than that of non-Western instruments. Western instruments as far back as ancient Greece
are acknowledged as displaying a harmonic spectra that exhibits a mostly harmonic relationships
between partials, while countless instruments outside of the western cultural sphere exhibit
considerable departures from these harmonic relationships in their spectra. Conclusions
fashioned on studies conducted with instruments with an inherent harmonic spectra may not
inevitably coincide with instrument producing sounds of an inharmonic spectra. Secondly, the
Gouyon, Leman method for extract techniques by climbing up an abstraction ladder to more
meaningful levels, uses three main levels of abstraction, where different types of features with
different meanings are extracted, climbing these levels by extracting features eventually becomes
more meaningful and less abstract. The low-level features are computed from data in a direct way,
which is easy for computers, but are very difficult for instant human understanding. High level
features, such as mood and genre, which are natural for humans, are far too difficult for in
computing. Comprehensive analysis of the low level techniques applied to a data set of musical
58
instruments, belonging to a culture of the same genetic and linguistic background, could aid
methods of music information retrieval to further comprehend higher level features.
59
Chapter 3: Materials and methods
3.1 Data Selection
The data set of instruments was judged on the basis of the commonality shared by both the
cultures, similar techniques in the method of production and anthropology of technology,
ceremonial or religious use, place in myth and history, documented historical evidence and
modern usage. Instruments which use metal technology are almost certainly not present in the
first wave of Austronesian expansion. On chronological grounds, the type of bronze technology
required to make them had not been developed by the putative period of early expansion (3800
BP). And in Taiwan the first evidence of metallurgy was found in Shin Shan Lan where the site
was dated to around two thousand years ago. This immediately excluded instruments such as the
Zithers, bells and multi-prong Jews harp which uses metallic components in their construction,
although this doesn’t exclude the fact that these components could have been replaced by other
materials.
Table 3-I Indigenous Musical Instruments from Taiwan and New Zealand
Taiwan
New Zealand
Idiophone
Hong-Hong: Jew's harp
Dur Dur: Pestle Ensemble
Ki-papa: Percussion stick
Bells
Leg Xylophone
Pahu: Wooden Gong
Pakuru: Percussion rod
Rorie: Jews harp
Membranophones
N/A
N/A
Bakararo:
double pipe nose flute, with
drone
Gulalay:
double pipe mouth flute, with
drone
Amis flute:
double pipe flute, no drone
Ing Chon De:
single pipe mouth flute
Headhunting Flute:
Koauau: One pipe mouth flute
Nguru:
One pipe mouth/Note flute
Tetere: Leaf trumpet
Putara: Wooden Trumpet
Putatara: Wooden Trumpet
Aerophones
60
single pipe mouth flute
Chordophones
Latuk: Mouth Bow
Banhir Latuk: Zither
Ku: Mouth Bow
Both cultures created a wide assortment of wind instruments, which include trumpets and flutes.
In Taiwan, flutes are predominantly fashioned from bamboo, with the obvious exception of New
Zealand where there is no native form of bamboo so materials such as bone, wood and whale
tooth were subsisted. The assortment of flutes are as diverse in their forms as in their functions,
both side-blown, transverse flute, end-blown vertical and nose blown flutes are all present. It was
for this reason Aerophones were chosen to provide the data set for this project based on the fact
that they are the sole confirmed instrument shared by the southern aboriginal groups of Taiwan
and the Māori of New Zealand. Instruments such as the mouth bow also are shared but
conformation of in existing in New Zealand is sketchy at best. Other sound producing
instruments that could be considered to have mutual ownership would be the Jews harp and, in
the most extreme of considerations, the collection of wooden percussion instruments, but
neither of these two instruments hold any considerable place in the myth or history of both
peoples and are most certainly not used in their modern day societies. For the reason of having a
confirmed use at the time of colonization, having amble evidence of a place in the myth and
history of each culture, and being somewhat relevant in the modern societies of the cultures,
flutes were chosen to provide the data set for analysis.
The sample set for Taiwan’s flutes was further narrowed to focus primarily on the Southern and
Eastern parts of the country, which has been historically inhabited by the Paiwan, Amis, Bunun,
Rukai and Puma tribes. Though the Paiwan and Amis are now the most renowned for their flute
production and performance abilities, there seems to be no general consciences as to other tribes
not inventing or borrowing a flute culture of their own. There are numerous historical
documents and modern media recordings pointing to evidence of flutes existing in other tribes
including the Rukai, Thao, Bunun, Atayal and Tsou (see page 28). The selection for New
Zealand was governed by abundant supporting historical documentation and the modern
popularity of the Koauau, which is somewhat comparable with the modern renaissance in the
double pipe nose flute of Taiwan’s aboriginal culture. The volume of historical audio recordings
61
and playing techniques was also considered which eliminated flutes such as the Nguru due to
unconfirmed methods of being played through the nose or mouth, which would seriously alter
the measurable timbre of the instrument.
Playing techniques and technical descriptions
Koauau
Conventional playing techniques of producing sound from the Koauau are to press the players
lips against the edge of the instrument, thus directing a stream of air angled to the corner
creating a vortex down the length of instrument. Three notes are immediately playable, with
further notes possibly by either partially closing the finger holes, or partially/completely stopping
the end of the instrument, melody is improvised in a legato style with extended phrasing and
elaborate use of crescendo and decrescendo dynamics. The manufacturing material is commonly
bone, wood or clay. Dimension are obtained by placing the material against the right hand held
in a ‘L’ shape, the eventual length of the instrument is governed by the length from the underside
of the thumb to the tip of the index finger, the evidential finger hole positions are governed by
the joints between the phalanx bone 20.
Figure 3-1 Koauau one pipe mouth blown flute
20
Interview conducted in Tauranga, New Zealand with Maori musician Grant Ranui. 5th January 2011
62
Bakararo - Rukai Double Pipe Nose Flute
Conventional techniques of producing sound from the Bakararo double nose pipe is to press the
pipes to both nostrils and produce a gentle and direct stream of air creating vibrations to exciting
the air contained within both pipes. In one pipe the player can change the pitch of the sound
produced by opening and closing finger holes in the pipe there by effectively changing the length
of the resonator, and with it the corresponding resonant frequency, the other pipe serves as a
drone note remaining at a constant pitch. Bamboo (Bambusa dolichomerithalla Hayata) is the
preferred construction material for flutes, typically growing at 2-4cm in diameter with nodes 3060cm apart. The length of the pipe is measured by three spans of the outstretched thumb to the
tip of the index finger, the hole placement is positioned by the width of four adjacent fingers
then at intervals measured by the length between knuckles, finally the mouth top holes
positioned under the width of the index finger. Melodies are a mixture of scared, secular and
improvisational, typically employing standard and harmonics intervals, standard and harmonic
trill techniques, glissandi and micro-intervals, with elaborate use of crescendo and decrescendo
dynamics through the sustain 21.
Figure 3-2 Rukai double pipe nose blown flute
21
Interview conducted at Dasa village with Paiwan tribal elder and musician Pavava Lung. 24th March 2010
63
Truku head hunting flute
The Truku headhunting flute is a mouth flute consisting of four finger holes with a notch hole
placed in the upper third of the reverse side. Melodies are played with extended glissandi
typically employing standard intervals and sustained crescendo and decrescendo dynamics. The
exact manufacturing details of this instrument are not apparent at this point.
Figure 3-3 Truku head hunting one pipe mouth blown flute
Philippine Karareng Guinaang nose flute
The Karareng Guinaang nose flute is a solo instrument used by unmarried men and women and
not considered scared or used in any religious or social ceremonies in Guinaang. It is made from
‘ánes’ bamboo, identified for its narrow diameter and a relatively long distance between nodes. A
section is cut between nodes of 45-90cm long, with diameter of approximately 1.3cm. The nose
end is cut flush with the node with a hole burned through the centre and the opposite node
burned open. The finger holes are governed by the central point of the pipe located for the
thumb hole, the lower end of the flute divided in half and the third quarter divided in three for
the three finger holes. The instrument is sounded by placing the upper end against one nostril
and with sideways pressure blocking air from passing through the other, harmonics are produced
by varying the positioning of the flute against the nostril. Melodies are improvised with each
person developing an individual style. Fingering is changed quickly and evenly, each note having
the same value. The end of each melodic line (approximately equivalent to one exhaled breath) is
normally rounded off by an embellishment on open notes an octave apart (Reid, 1961).
64
Figure 3-4 Philippine Karareng one pipe nose blown flute
Thai Wot circular panpipe
The Wot (Vot) is a circular panpipe used in the traditional Morlam music of Laos and the Isan
region of north eastern Thailand. The instrument consists of six to nine bamboo tubes about 7
to 18 centimetres long, clustered around a tapering piece of bamboo 28 centimetres long. Each
tube is closed at the tail end and cut off at an angle at the upper (which is open), with a rounded
lump of beeswax or, more commonly, Khisut (a black insect product, pliable in warm weather),
to guide the downward blown air pressure over the ends of the tube. The musician holds the
instrument by the handle, or between the hands, and rotates to channel air into different
columns producing different pitches (Miller, p. 171).
Figure 3-5 Thai circular mouth blown panpipe
Classical western flute
The classical western flute is a transverse metallic instrument which is closed at the blown end
and sounded by blowing a stream of air over the embouchure hole. The flute has sixteen circular
tone holes which are closed by the finger tips directly or indirectly by keys. The holes are closed
65
or opened to produce high and low sounds. The direction and intensity of the air vortex
dramatically affects the pitch, timbre, and dynamics. This flute is pitched at concert C and has a
range of about three and a half octaves.
Figure 3-6 Classical western flute mouth blown flute
Irish Penny whistle
A fipple flute made of brass tubing with a plastic fipple mouthpiece. The modern penny whistle
is indigenous to the British Isles, particularly England where factory-made "tin whistles" were
produced by Robert Clarke from (1840–1882) in Manchester. Traditional music from Ireland
and Scotland is by far the most common music to play on the tin whistle, and comprises the vast
majority of published scores suitable for whistle players. The notes are selected by opening or
closing finger holes, with all holes closed, the whistle generates the tonic, successively opening
holes from the bottom upward produces the remaining notes in sequence, notes outside of the
principal major key is possible either by partially covering the highest open finger hole or by
covering some holes while leaving higher ones uncovered. Traditional playing uses a number of
ornaments to embellish the music, most playing is legato with ornaments to create breaks
between notes, rather than tongued.
Indian Bansuri
The Bansuri is a single tube with six to seven finger holes typically about 25 to 40cm in length,
the flute is intricately linked with Hindu history, mythology and the pastoral tradition. The thinwalled bamboo (Pseudostachyum polymorphum)is used for its uniform circular cross section and
long internodes, then seasoned to with resin to strengthen. A cork stopper is inserted to block
one end, next to which the blowing hole is burnt, the type of bamboo is notoriously fibrous
66
meaning holes must be burnt as opposed to drilling which is prone to splitting. The approximate
positions of the finger holes are calculated by measuring the bamboo shaft's inner and outer
diameters then steeped in a solution of antiseptic oils, cleaned and dried. The musician often
performs in a sitting crossed-legged position, with the index, middle, and ring fingers of both
hands are usually used to finger the six holed Bansuri, for the seven holed Bansuri, the little
finger of the lower hand is usually employed. The length of the column is varied by closing or
leaving open, a varying number of holes, half-holing is employed to play flat notes, octaves are
varied by manipulating one's embouchure and controlling the blowing strength.
Figure 3-7 Bansuri
3.2 Recording methodology
The M-Audio Fast Track USB was
employed to convert the live audio
signal
direct
to
.wav
Figure 3-8 Frequency response curve of the M-Audio Nova cardioid
Microphone
(PCM)
/stereo/44 100Hz/16 bit digital
audio.
The
audio
signal
was
captured via the XLR microphone
input of -2.2dBu signal-to-noise
ratio and dynamic range at 100dB
(a-weighted), frequency response of
20Hz - 20kHz, +/-0.2dB @ 48kHz, variable gain 50dB and total harmonic distortion plus noise
0.005% (-86dB) @ -1dBFS. Monitoring of the signal was via the interfaces stereo RCA outputs
67
with +2.0dBV maximum output, 100dB (a-weighted) signal-to-noise ratio, 100dB (a-weighted)
dynamic range and THD+N of 0.004% ( -88dB) @ -1dBFS, frequency response: 20Hz - 20kHz,
+/- 0.2dB @ 48kHz. The audio was converted into electrical signal via the M-Audio Nova large
capsule Cardioid unidirectional condenser microphone (see Figure 3-VII), with preamp topology
Class-A FE, a frequency response of 20Hz – 18kHz, sensitivity at 16mV/Pa (-36dBV), Max. SPL
for 0.5% THD: 128dB, the equivalent noise level 14dB (a-weighted), output Impedance: 200½
and load impedance: >1,000½ (Figure 3-VII Frequency response curve of the M-Audio Nova
cardioid Microphone). phantom power was derived from the M-Audio fully balanced high
impedance (100K) XLR input preamp, with a frequency response of 5 Hz to 50 kHz, +0, -3 dB,
microphone gain set to 30 dB and input impedance 1 K ohm. The musician played one crotchet
note at 80 beats per minute, with 'soft, 'medium' and 'loud' dynamics on each instruments,
allowing for over-blowing to pronounce any harmonic overtones, any evidence of clipping was
immediately discarded. The raw digital audio files of each flute performance was loaded into
Steinberg’s ‘Wavelab’ audio editing and mastering suite version 6.1 and stored into files for each
flute, these were then cut into individual notes of 'soft' 'medium' and 'loud' samples then
normalize to a level of 0.0db. Each sample was finally saved as a Wave (.wav) pulse-code
modulation 44,100 Hz, 16bit mono file.
Figure 3-9 Recording equipment setup
68
3.3 Analysis and clustering
The classifier implementation uses MATLAB 22 built-in function for spectrogram calculation
dividing the signal of each sample into windows via the Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT)
in order to perform a Fourier transform on each window and returning a vector of frequencies
and vector of times at which the spectrogram is computed and a matrix representing the Power
Spectral Density (PSD) of each segment. Classifiers are taken from the MIRtoolbox (Olivier,
2007) a MATLAB toolbox for extraction, statistical analysis, segmentation and clustering of
musical features. The classifiers are initiated by calling the ‘mirspectrum’ function which in turn
calls the MATLAB Fast Fourier Transform function. Parameters specifications can be called to
limit the range of frequencies taken into consideration by either applying a low or high end band
filter, or by assigning a specified rage of Hz, by default, zero-padding is performed by default in
order to ensure that the length of the audio waveform is a power of 2. Restrictions can also be
applied to the level of dB, keeping only the highest energy over a range of the assigned level of dB.
The high-frequency energy is then handled by the ‘mirbrightness’ function cut-off frequency
which measures the amount of energy above that frequency, with a default value of 1500 Hz.
“Mirroughness” deals with sensory dissonance related to the beating phenomenon caused by a pair
of sinusoids occupying positions of close frequency. An estimation of the total roughness is
available by computing the peaks of the spectrum, and taking the average of all the dissonance
between all possible pairs of peaks. Finally “mircentroid” which returns the centroid of the data
which provides an important and useful description of the shape of distribution, the geometric
centre (centroid) of the distribution provides a measure of central tendency for the random
variable.
Variance is then used to measure of how far the set of numbers lie from the mean and clustered
through K-Means methodology, which uses the specified collection of ten samples in order to
group them into one of three ‘k’ Number of Clusters initiated by: a) creating ‘k’ different clusters.
The given sample set is first randomly distributed between these ‘k’ different clusters. b)
22
MATLAB is a high-level technical numerical computing environment allowing for matrix manipulations, plotting
of functions and data and implementation of algorithms. Developed by MathWorks
69
calculating the measurement of distances between each of the samples, within a given cluster, to
their respective cluster centroid. c) assignment to a cluster (k ¢ ) that records the shortest distance
from a sample to the cluster (k ¢ ) centroid. The Euclidean distance type is used for its “natural”
and intuitive way of computing distance between two samples, taking into account the difference
between two samples directly, based on the magnitude of changes in the sample levels.
The order of operators called is then as follows: Miraudio which is concerned with loading the
audio files from the database. Mirframe enacts decomposition of each short-term window along
the temporal signal in order to take into account the dynamic evolution of the audio sample.
Mirfilterbank performs decomposition of the audio file through a bank of filters, the
transformation models the process of human perception corresponding to the distribution of
frequencies into critical bands in the cochlea. Mirspectrum computes the spectrum of the audio
signal showing the distribution of the energy along the frequencies. Mirbrightness calculates the
spectral brightness, which is calculated by the amount of spectral energy corresponding to
frequencies higher than a given cut-off threshold. Mirroughness calculates the peaks of the
spectrum by evaluating the average of all the dissonance between all pairs of peaks. Mircentroid
which returns the geometric centre of distribution. And finally, the K-Means algorithm which
provides the definitive clustering of the audio dataset.
Figure 3-10: MATLAB flowchart Interconnections
70
Chapter 4: Results and Analysis
The following chapter displays the results for the test performed on relevant datasets, the table
below acts as a key for the short hand used for file name convention, result analysis and in the
appendix.
S,M,L
Refers to the air pressure applied to the flute as well as the performance style, with ‘S’ being the
soft, ‘M’ being moderate and ‘L’ being forte, a moderate performance sounds the ideal
harmonics for each flute, ‘S’ and ‘L’ are either under or overblown producing largely unwanted
harmonics.
1,2,3…
Refers to the notes (and usually finger holes) of the flute, ordered from lowest pitch to highest
*Hz
Refers to Hertz of the fundamental frequency 1f, in cases of over blown samples the strongest
frequency is taken as the fundamental.
C4, C#5…
Refers to the approximate pitch of the western twelve-tone equal temperament
Consonance
Perfect fourths, fifths. Major and minor thirds, sixths.
Dissonance
All seconds and sevenths
4.1 Rukai Bakararo
A-1: 1 second sample set
This initial series of tests acts as a collaboration using a single instrument in order to understand
the cluster grouping. In this test Group 1 clusters 1S 530Hz(C5) and 5L 830Hz(G#5) with both
pipes sounding in unison and approximately a 5th apart when overblown producing tonal
consonance with a clear harmonic structure. Group 2 clusters 2L 820Hz(G#5), 3L 830Hz(G#5),
3S 530Hz(G5.) and 4M 680Hz(F5) which all exhibit dissonant intervals with complex
inharmonic structure. Group 3 clusters 2L 820Hz(G#5), 3L 830Hz(G#5), 3S 530Hz(G5) and
4M 680Hz(F5) similar to Group 1 with consonant tones of approximately an octave, 5th and
4th intervals. Group 4 clusters 2M 830Hz(G#5), 2S 530Hz(G5) and 3M 820Hz(G#5) with
complex harmonic structures of dissonant intervals.
71
A-2: Rukai Bakararo Pipe1 10 sample set
Group 1 clusters 1L 830Hz(G#5) and 1L 830Hz(G#5) Group 2 clusters 2L 910Hz(A#5), 2M
610Hz(D#5), 3M 670Hz(E5), 4M 370Hz(F#4) and 5M 410Hz(G#4) which are all moderate
performance samples exhibiting strong 1f, 2f, 3f harmonics with the exception 2L which exhibits
slightly overblow harmonics. Group 3 clusters 3L 680Hz(F5) which exhibits the largest
overblown harmonics of the set. Group 4 clusters 1st Single pipe 4L 740Hz(F#5) and 1st Single
pipe 5L 820Hz(G#5) which exhibit somewhat less noticeably overblown harmonics.
Rukai Bakararo Pipe2 2 sample set
This set consists of the drone pipe played forte with overblow harmonics based at approx. 840Hz
(G#5) and moderate at 550Hz (C#5), the limited samples of this set required no tests.
A3: Rukai Bakararo full sample set
This full set of Rukai Bakararo samples clusters Group 1 as 2M 830Hz(G#5), 2S 530Hz(G5)
and 3M 820Hz(G#5) double pipe samples all exhibiting strong dissonant intervals of a complex
inharmonic structures. Group 2 clusters 2L 820Hz(G#5), 3L 830Hz(G#5), 3S 530Hz(G5) and
4M 680Hz(F5), all double pipe samples but considerably less dissonant than samples in cluster 1.
Group 3 clusters 1st single pipe 1M 550Hz(C#5), 1st single pipe 2L 910Hz(A#5), 1st single pipe
2M 610Hz(D#5), 1st single pipe 3L 680Hz(F5), 1st single pipe 3M 670Hz (E5), 1st single pipe
4L 740Hz(F#5), 1st single pipe 4M 370Hz(F#4) and 1st single pipe 5L 820Hz(G#5). all single
pipe samples with strong 2f, 3f, 4f and no noticeably overblow harmonics. Group 4 clusters the
remainder of the set into single and double pipe sample of consonant tones approximately of
octave, 5th and 4th intervals.
72
4.2 Complete dataset
B-1: Full sample set, four clusters i
Group 1
Rukai Bakararo 11.9% of group (66.7% of subset), Rukai Bakararo Pipe1 11.9% (100% of
subset), Rukai Bakararo Pipe2 2.4% (100% of subset), Rukai Gurare 3.6% (16.7% of subset),
Paiwan Gurare 8.3% (38.9% of subset), Irish 16.7% (100% of subset), Indonesian 7% (75% of
subset), Amis 7% (100% of subset), Thailand 9.5% (80% of subset), Western 4.8% (80% of
subset), British Museum Bone flute 8.3% (100% of subset).
Group 2
Rukai Bakararo 2.7% (6.7% of subset), Rukai Gurare 40.5% (83.3% of subset), Paiwan Gurare
24.3% (50% of subset), Truku 5.4% (20% of subset), Indonesian Truku 5.4% (25% of subset),
Philippine 2.7% (14.3% of subset), Thailand 5.4% (20% of subset), Western 2.7% (40% of
subset), Koauau-TV 10.8% (33.3% of subset),
Group 3
Truku 29.6% (80% of subset), Koauau 18.5% (100% of subset), Philippines 22.2% (85.7% of
subset), Koauau TV 29.6% (66.6% of subset)
Group 4
Rukai Bakararo 66.7% (26.7% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 33.3% (11.1% of subset)
Analysis
The full dataset selects Group1 as a relatively solid grouping of strong fundamentals with solid
harmonics even when played an octave above a standard pitch. The Rukai Bakararo collection is
represented almost in entirely with double and single pipe samples. The Irish flute is represented
in its totality along with the remaining flutes, with the exceptions of the Truku, Philippine and
Koauau flutes. Group2 again clusters strong fundamentals with solid harmonics, both Paiwan
and Rukai Gurare’s dominate the cluster with the higher end notes of the remaining instruments.
Group3 is a very dominate clustering of Truku, Koauau (GR), Koauau (TV) and Philippine
73
flutes, all with a strong fundamental and clear harmonic structure. Group4 clusters all double
pipe flutes playing dissonant intervals with complex wave forms.
B2: Complete dataset Full samples 5 Clusters
Group1:
Rukai Bakararo Pipe1 24.3% (60% of subset), Rukai Bakararo Pipe1 27% (100%), Paiwan
Gurare 5.4 % (11.1 of subset), Indian 16.2% (85.7% of subset), Irish 13.5% (35.7% of subset),
Western 2.7% (20% of subset), British Museum Bone flute 10.8% (57.1 of subset)
Group2:
Truku Headhunting 11.1% (10% of subset), Koauau 22.2% (60% of subset), Philippine 22.2%
(28.6% of subset), Koauau (TV) 44.4% (80% of subset)
Group3:
Rukai Bakararo 9.3% (6.7% of subset), Rukai Bakararo Pipe2/1D 3.7% (10% of subset), Rukai
Gurare 5.6% (50% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 12.9% (5.6% of subset), Indian 1.9% (14.3), Irish
16.7 (7.1% of subset), Indonesian 11.1 % (12.5% of subset), Small Amis 11.1% (16.7% of
subset), Thailand 16.7% (10% of subset), Western 5.6% 20% of (subset), British Museum Bone
flute 5.6% (14.2% of subset)
Group4:
Rukai Bakararo 2.8% (6.7% of subset), Rukai Gurare 41.7% (83.3% of subset), Paiwan Gurare
25% (50% of subset), Truku Headhunting 5.6% (20% of subset), Indonesian 5.6% (25% of
subset), Philippine 2.8% (14.2% of subset), Thailand 2.8% (10% of subset), Western 2.8%
(20% of subset), Koauau TV 11.1% (33.3% of subset).
Group5:
Truku Headhunting 33.3% (70% of subset), Koauau 16.7% (60% of subset), Philippine 22.2%
(57.1% of subset), Koauau TV 22.2% (33.3% of subset)
74
Analysis
Group1 clusters the double pipe Rukai Bakararo of largely consonant intervals and single pipe
samples, overblown samples of the Paiwan Gurare and Irish and Western classical flutes are also
included in this cluster. The Indian flute samples of 1-7 are also all included thought its possible
this clustering has been skewed by the abnormally high frequencies of the British Museum Bone
flute. Group2 clusters the top end notes of the Truku Headhunting, Koauau (GR), Philippine
and Koauau (TV), this is due to either the higher notes of these instruments of a degree of
overblowing accenting the higher harmonic partials. Group3 contains an assortment of ten of the
possible fourteen flutes with soft, moderate and overblown notes, no generalisations can be made
from this cluster. Group4 clusters the most stable harmonics of single pipe instruments and
consonant intervals of the double pipe instruments. The dominant samples of the group belong
to the Paiwan and Rukai Gurare with the curious inclusion of the Koauau (NZ). Group5 holds
the most coherent cluster of this dataset, containing the clearest samples with the strongest
fundamental frequency and least complex wave form patterns. ii
4.3 Complete dataset, 1 second
Four Clusters
Group 1
Paiwan Gurare 8.8% (16.7% of subset), Indian 17.6% (85.7% of subset), Irish 38.2% (92.8% of
subset), Small Amis 14.7% (83.3% of subset), Philippine 2.9% (14.2% of subset), Western
2.9% (20% of subset), British Museum Bone flute 14.7% (71.4% of subset)
Group 2
Rukai Bakararo 1.8% (6.7% of subset), Rukai Bakararo Pipe2/1D 1.8% (50% of subset), Rukai
Gurare 14.3% (44.4% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 21.4% (66.7% of subset), Truku Headhunting
10.7% (60% of subset), Irish 1.8% (7.1% of subset), Koauau 5.4% (60% of subset), Indonesian
3.6% (25% of subset), Philippine 8.9% (71.4% of subset), Thailand 8.9% (50% of subset),
Western 5.3% (60% of subset), Koauau TV 16.1% (75% of subset), British Museum Bone flute
1.8% (14.2% of subset)
75
Group 3
Rukai Bakararo 17.2% (66.7 of subset), Rukai Bakararo Pipe1/1SP 17.2% (100% of subset),
Rukai Bakararo Pipe2/1D 1.7% (50% of subset), Rukai Gurare 19% (61.1%), Truku
Headhunting 6.9% 40% of (subset), Indian 1.7% (14.2%of subset), Koauau 3.4% (40% of
subset), Indonesian 10.3% (75% of subset), Small Amis 1.7% (16.7% of subset), Philippine
3.4% (28.6% of subset), Thailand 8.6% (50% of subset), Western 1.7% (20% of subset),
Koauau TV 5.2% (25% of subset), British Museum Bone flute 1.7% (14.2% of subset)
Group 4
Rukai Bakararo 66.7% (26.7% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 33.3% (11.1% of subset)
Analysis
Group1 is clustered by relatively high frequency harmonics with exception of the Paiwan Gurare
1M_700F5, 3M_880HzA5 and 5M_530HzC5 which are natural harmonics of the fundamental
and serve to accent these. Group2 is a fairly diverse cluster which appears to be centred around
consonant intervals with strong 1f, 2f and 3f harmonics. The inclusion of the upper Thailand
notes and the British Museum Bone flute seem to be somewhat contradictory to the majority of
the cluster. Group3 is a solid cluster exhibiting pure harmonics of the fundamental in both
double and single pipe flutes, the cluster seems to be largely centred around the strong 1f, 2f and
3f harmonics of the Rukai Gurare, Truku, Koauau and Indonesian flutes. As in Group2 the
inclusion of British Museum Bone flute 1150HzD6 seems misplaced. Group4 is dominated by
the multiple frequencies produced by the double pipe Bakararo and Gurare flutes. iii
4.4: Bakararo pipe1,2 and British samples removed
1second samples, four clusters
Group 1
Paiwan Gurare 9.7% (16.7% of subset), Indian 22.6% (100% of subset), Irish 41.9% (92.9% of
subset), Amis 16.1% (83.3% of subset), Thailand 3.2% (10% of subset), Western 6.5% (40%
of subset)
76
Group 2
Rukai Bakararo 66.7% (26.7% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 33.3% (11.1% of subset)
Group 3
Rukai Bakararo 14.3% (73.3% of subset), Rukai Gurare 22% (94.4% of subset), Truku 10.4%
(80% of subset), Koauau 6.5% (100% of subset), Indonesian 10.4% (100% of subset), Amis
1.3% (16.7% of subset), Philippine 9.1% (100% of subset), Thailand 7.8% (60% of subset),
Western 2.6% (40% of subset), Koauau TV 13% (83.3% of subset)
Group 4
Rukai Gurare 4.8% (5.6% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 52.4% (61.1% of subset), Truku 9.5%
(20% of subset), Irish 4.8% (7.1% of subset), Thailand 14.2% (30% of subset), Western 4.8%
(20% of subset), Koauau TV 9.5% (16.7% of subset)
Group1 is a reasonably constant clustering of moderate Paiwan Gurare Indian, Amis, Thailand
and Western samples with the only exception being Irish moderate and loud samples, with the
Irish loud samples being a curious addition due to their extremity of complex wave forms due to
the overblown nature of the notes. Group2 clusters both double pipe Rukai and Paiwan
instruments of somewhat dissonant nature. Group3 is an extremely large cluster apparently based
around smooth harmonic wave forms with strong fundamentals. Group4 seems to be based
around the loud and soft overblown Paiwan Gurare samples with what appears to be the soft and
loud samples of the Koauau and headhunting flutes, this cluster also includes the top end of
notes from the Thailand flute. iv
D2: Results dataset without Bakararo pipe1,2 and British samples removed
1second, 5 Clusters
Group 1
Paiwan Gurare 9.7% (16.7% of subset), Indian 22.6% (100 of subset), Irish 41.9% (92.9% of
subset), Amis 16.1% (83.3% of subset), Thailand 3.2% (10 of subset), Western 6.5% (40% of
subset)
77
Group 2
Rukai Bakararo 40% (26.7% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 40% (22.2% of subset), Thailand 20%
(20% of subset)
Group 3
Rukai Bakararo 12.1% (53.3 of subset), Rukai Gurare 24.2% (88.9% of subset), Paiwan Gurare
1.5% (5.6% of subset), Truku 9% (60% of subset), Koauau 7.6% (100% of subset), Indonesian
10.6% 87.5% of subset, Amis 1.5% (16.7% of subset), Philippine 9% (85.7% of subset),
Thailand 9% (60% of subset), Western 3% (40% of subset), Koauau TV 12.1% (66.7% of
subset)
Group 4
Rukai Bakararo 100% (20% of subset)
Group 5
Rukai Gurare 48% (66.7% of subset), Truku 16% (40% of subset), Irish 4% (7.1% of subset),
Indonesian 4% (12.5% of subset), Philippine 4% (14.3% of subset), Thailand 4% (10% of
subset), Western 4% (20% of subset), Koauau TV 16% (80% of subset)
Analysis
Group1 clusters majority moderately played Paiwan Gurare, Indian, Amis and Irish flutes, with
the addition of the loud overblown Irish samples, the 3rd and 4th moderate western sample and
5th moderate Thailand samples are also included in this cluster. Group2 clusters Rukai Bakararo
the loud 2nd and 3rd samples along with the moderate 4th and soft second samples. The 4th and
6th moderate and soft Paiwan Gurare are clustered despite being approximately an octave
interval apart, and the Moderate 9th and 10th samples of the Thailand flute are included
representing the top end of the instruments capability. Group3 is the largest cluster grouping the
extreme ends in both Hertz and Decibels of the Rukai Bakararo, all samples of the Rukai Gurare
with exception of the 2nd moderate, a fairly broad selection of the Truku Headhunting and both
Koauau grouping, and complete Indonesian, Philippine and Thailand moderate samples, this
cluster largely skews the results making it difficult to reach any conclusions about this set of
results. Group4 clusters Rukai Bakararo 2nd and third moderate which are almost identical in
78
timbre and probably causing a heavy weighting around this cluster to the exclusion of all other
samples, the 2nd soft Rukai Bakararo samples is also included though shows harmonic signs of
playing outside its natural register. Group5 is an extremely diverse cluster leaving no easily
identifiable conclusions to the results. v
4.5: Pipe1Pipe2 British removed 100-5000Hz band filter
A-1: 1sec samples, 4 Clusters
Group 1
Rukai Bakararo 8.7% (53.3% of subset), Rukai Gurare 16.3% (83.3% of subset), Paiwan Gurare
4.3% (22.2% of subset), Truku 6.5% (60% of subset), Indian 7.6% (100% subset), Irish 13%
(85.7% of subset), Koauau 5.4% (100% of subset), Indonesian 7.6% (87.5% of subset), Amis
6.5% (100% of subset), Philippine 6.5% (85.7% of subset), Thailand 7.6% (70% of subset),
Western 4.3% (80% of subset), Koauau TV 5.4% (41.7% of subset)
Group 2
Rukai Bakararo 100% (20% of database)
Group 3
Rukai Bakararo 40% (26.7% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 40% (22.2% of subset), Thailand 20%
(20% of subset)
Group 4
Rukai Gurare 10% (16.7% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 33.3% (55.6% of subset), Truku 13.3%
(40% of subset), Irish 6.7% (14.3% of subset), Indonesian 3.3% (12.5% of subset), Philippine
3.3% (14.3% of subset), Thailand 3.3% (10% of subset), Western 3.3% (20% of subset),
Koauau TV 23.3% (58.3% of subset)
Analysis
Group1 contains the largest majority of samples and represents every flute used in the dataset, it
seems to have no preference towards consonant or dissonant intervals, nor between strong
79
harmonic or complex wave forms. Group2 contains only strong octave and fifth intervals of the
Rukai Bakararo dual pipes. Group3 clusters fairly inharmonic dissonant intervals of the Paiwan
Gurare and Rukai Bakararo dual pipes. Group4 clusters a generalised remainder of the samples
found in Group1. A five cluster division of the same dataset produced similar results with the
majority of samples falling in either group 1 or group 4, Group 2 contains solely Rukai Bakararo,
group 3 and 5 cluster the consonant and dissonant intervals of the Paiwan and Rukai Bakararo
samples respectively. vi
A2: Results dataset, British, Pipe1,2 and overblown samples removed
1sec moderate, four clusters
Group1 with the exception of Rukai Bakararo 530HzG5 all of the samples in this cluster exhibit
complex harmonic wave forms. Group2 is a large cluster with a fairly strong coherency, all
samples in this cluster could be said to exhibit a strong fundamental frequency with clear 2nd
and 3rd harmonic partials. With exception of Thailand 1180HzD6 and 1420HzF6. Group3
samples have considerably higher end frequencies of the fundamental when compared to group 2,
where Group4 displays considerably closer harmonics based on the fundamental. Group4
displays considerably closer harmonics based on the fundamental. vii
A3: Results dataset, British, Pipe1,2 and overblown samples removed
1sec moderate, fourteen group Clusters
Group1
Irish 60% (21.4% of subset), Thailand 20% (10% of subset), Western 20% (20% of subset)
Group2
Truku 25% (10% of subset), Indonesian 25% (12.5% of subset), Philippine 25% (14.3% of
subset), Thailand 25% (10% of subset)
Group3
80
Rukai Gurare 14.3% (11.1% of subset), Truku 21.4 (30% of subset), Koauau 14.3% (40% of
subset), Indonesian 7.1% (12.5% of subset), Philippine 7.1% (14.3% of subset), Thailand
14.3% (20% of subset), Koauau TV 21.4% (25% of subset)
Group4
Paiwan Gurare 100% (11.1% of subset)
Group5
Koauau Grant 18.6% (60% of subset), Philippine 18.8% (42.9% of subset), Thailand 6.3%
(10% of subset), Koauau TV 56.3% (75% of subset)
Group6
Indian 80% (14.3% of subset), Irish 20% (7.1% of subset)
Group7
Thailand 100% (10% of subset)
Group8
Rukai Bakararo 23.1% (20% of subset), Rukai Gurare 30.8% (22.2% of subset), Truku 7.7%
(10% of subset), Indonesian 23.1% (37.5 of subset), Philippine 7.7% (14.2% of subset),
Thailand 7.7% (10% of subset)
Group9
Philippine 50% (14.3% of subset), Western 50% (20% of subset)
Group10
Paiwan Gurare 20% (11.1% of subset), Irish 20% (14.3% of subset), Amis 50% (83.3% of
subset), Western 10% (20% of subset)
Group11
Indonesian 37.5% (38% of subset), Amis 12.5% (16.7% of subset), Thailand 25% (20% of
subset), Western 25% (40% of subset)
81
Group12
Paiwan Gurare 20% (5.6% of subset), Indian 60% (42.9% of subset), Irish 20% (7.1% of subset)
Group13
Rukai Bakararo/S/1 - 3S__530HzG5
Group14
Rukai Bakararo/S/1 - 2S_530HzG5
Analysis
Group1 is dominated by the Irish flute with the Thailand and Western flutes of similar register.
Group2 appears to be a diverse grouping with Truku Headhunting 730Hz(F#5) and Indonesian
(740HzF#5) sharing similar fundamental frequencies 740HzF#5, with the Philippines
470Hz(A#4) being at both extremes of the spectrum. Group3 is dominated by Truku
Headhunting 600Hz_D5, 560Hz_E5, 810Hz_G#5 and Koauau TV 850HzG#5, 860HzA5 and
860HzA5, while Rukai Gurare 500HzB4, 560HzC#5 and Koauau (GR) 900HzA5, 920HzBb5
share similar feature, the addition of the Thailand 540HzC#5 and 590HzD5 seem oddly
misplaced. Group4 is a strong cluster of Paiwan Gurare 960HzB5 and 1050HzC6 both
displaying complex harmonics at the top end of their register. Group5 shows a clear grouping
but highlights possible concern with two of the three instruments being played by the same
player. Group6 has a strong Indian grouping with the inclusion of Irish 600HzD5 which is at
the extreme low end of the instruments register. Group7 contains only the high end notes of the
Thailand flute. Group8 demonstrates a fairly coherent grouping of instruments playing in
middle register, grouping only consonant Rukai Bakararo samples with middle register Rukai
Gurare samples, the inclusion of the Indonesian samples also appear to be related to the
harmonics of the tonic note. Group9 has selected the two samples of the data set that display the
most complex and overblown characteristics. Group10 again clusters complex wave forms with
high fundamentals. Group11 seems to be based around the top end notes of the Indonesian
flutes with the rest of the samples exhibiting the most complex wave forms of their groups.
Group12 is a very diverse cluster which appear to share little harmonic similarities. Group13 and
82
Group14 select only Rukai Bakararo 530HzG5 and 530HzG5 which are strongly consonant and
dissonant respectively. viii
4.6 Brightness roughness features removed
1sec samples, four group clusters, British Pipe1Pipe2 and all overblown samples removed
Group 1
Rukai Bakararo 20% (6.7% of subset), Paiwan Gurare 40% (11.1% of subset), Thailand 40%
(20% of subset)
Group 2
Truku 10.5% (40% of subset), Koauau 7.9% (60% of subset), Indonesian 10.5% (50% of
subset), Amis 2.6% (16.7% of subset), Philippine 15.8% (85.7% of subset), Thailand 13.1%
(50% of subset), Western 7.9% (60% of subset), Koauau TV 31.6% (100% of subset)
Group 3
Paiwan Gurare 12% (16.7% of subset), Indian 28% (100% of subset), Irish 28% (50% of
subset), Amis 20% (83.3% of subset), Thailand 4% (10% of subset), Western 8% (40% of
subset)
Group 4
Rukai Bakararo 20% (26.7% of subset), Rukai Gurare 30% (33.3% of subset), Truku 5% (10%
of subset), Koauau 10% (40% of subset), Indonesian 20% (50% of subset), Philippine 5%
(14.2% of subset), Thailand 10% (20% of subset)
Analysis
This test was designed as a supplemental experiment to further understand spectrum and
centroid features Group1 clustered all high end frequencies with consonant intervals of the
Paiwan Gurare. Group2 selected in an opposing cluster to Group1 by way of harmonics much
closer to the first second and third harmonics, and appears to be strongly centred on the
fundamental frequency. Group3 has clustered similar to group1 with much higher end
harmonics, this group also included the most dissonant of Paiwan Gurare samples. Group4 is
similar in clustering to group3. ix
83
Chapter 5: Conclusion
Summary of research results
Conclusion founded on the initial area of research concerning the organology of aboriginal
musical instruments from Taiwan and New Zealand highlight two main factors, the first being
the abundant quantity of Aerophones catalogued for each culture, this classification is further
expanded by the vast assorted and variety of flutes and quasi-flute models. While the New
Zealand Austronesian database doesn’t exhibit the cylindrical diversity found in its Taiwanese
equivalent, which includes use of single and double pipe, drone and multi-holed combinations, it
does show extensive use of deviation within a basic form. Playing techniques used in both
cultures appear to have little in common, the nose flute techniques employed in divisions of the
Taiwan dataset requires air pressure to the cylindrical resonant cavity with a considerable reduced
pressure than that of the Maori equivalents, this is further disconnected by the Māori nose flute
being highly disputed by leading researches in Maori ethnomusicology. Furthermore, the
manufacturing, production techniques and materials employed in each set flutes samples appear
to share no commonalities with the exception that the placement of finger holes which are
governed by the manufactures individual digit ratio, this unit of measurement is found
universally and can be no indication of relationships in production techniques. If there is a
relationship to be found in these two sets of instruments it is to be found exclusively in the
timbral identity produced by the Koauau of the Maori and the Headhunting flutes used
predominately in the Northern Taiwan aboriginal cultures. This conclusion can be drawn
confidently due to the analysis of sonic signatures exhibited by each sets spectrum, centroid,
brightness and roughness features which recurred constantly in identical k-means clusters.
Another secondary finding in regards to the organology of Austronesian speaking Taiwan and
New Zealand is the absolute lack of Membranophones used by both cultures (Table 3-I
Indigenous Musical Instruments from Taiwan and New Zealand). Surprisingly, an instrument
category that is generally considered to be an essential component of Polynesian material culture
and ethnomusicology appears to be completely absent in both New Zealand and Taiwan. The
84
issue of the deficiency in drums, and percussion in general, is a possible subject of further enquiry
for studies in Austronesian Ethnomusicology and could assist in the understanding of musical
migration routes though the pacific.
Selected instruments from both cultures were both confirmed in the historical literature and in
current aboriginal society. The acquisition of these Austronesian (and non-Austronesian)
instruments, along with the musicians and instructors necessary demonstrate playing techniques
was essentially a successful endeavour. Field work in both countries provided an acceptable
database with which harmonic analysis could be performed as well as instruction on performance
techniques with which further samples could be recorded. The acquisition of historical
recordings which could have for validation, or dispute, of the modern harmonic signature was
not achieved. While this was not essential to the principal concepts of this research, it would have
strengthened the data by confirming the timbre produced by modern and historical recordings
exhibited a similar timbral signature.
With regard to the principal concern of this research, the results clearly placed both Rukai and
Paiwan double pipe flutes in the same cluster due to their unique sonic signature of emphasising
1f, 2f, 3f and for overblown dynamics samples, 4f of the fundamental. Likewise, when not
vibrating in sympathy with the fundamental, the dissonant inharmonic intervals create an
extremely complex waveform. It is possible the unique harmonic structure produced by double
pipes influences the results in favour of extreme consonance and dissonance effect, though the
continuity in placement of single pipe metallic instruments indicates towards accurate clustering
procedures. With Truku, Maori and Philippine flutes constantly appearing in the similar clusters
can be further understood as a relationship shared in the harmonic structure of this set of samples
though this could not be absolutely assured without additional evidence to eliminate a clustering
preference of simple harmonic vs. complex wave structure. While conclusions of the analysis and
results can noticeably point to the assumption that Truku and Maori flutes clearly share a
harmonic relationship unique with in this dataset, the inclusion of the Philippine flute within the
same cluster may be seen as dubious, this is largely due to the lack of assurance in regards to the
playing techniques employed for this instrument. Until such time as a musician familiar with this
85
instrument can confirm the playing techniques employed on this instrument, and therefore the
timbre emitted, it would be prudent to question its inclusion within the database.
Contributions and limitations
In the course of investigating existing research pertaining to this study it became evident that
no inquiry has dealt with the matter of harmonic analysis in regards to musical migration and
cultural timbral preference. If this notion is indeed accurate it would signify this research as a
preliminary investigation into an additional area of cultural musical comparisons, that would
leave this research as being less of a contribution to Anthropology or Ethnomusicology and more
of an investigation into the current state of musical digital processing and the abilities of music
retrieval. From this stand point it could be said that this subject is ill-defined and still in it’s
infancy as a conclusive science, that being the case, it would take substantial advancements in
audio recognition in order to make decisive conclusions on timbral preference which would be
absolutely necessary due to the subject of tonal identification being far too subjective for human
identification and therefor impossible for any study to make a generalized conclusion on timbral
groupings while being judged by an independent human source.
Several areas of concern were apparent immediately in the early analysis stages of this project, the
first being the overall quality of the recorded audio samples, this was caused largely by the lack of
equipment available and can only be rectified by assess to professional equipment and a
standardised acoustic environment. The complications with this became noticeable when analysis
of recordings performed in the same environment, certain rooms exhibited sympathetic
resonance with particular notes of particular instruments, this was most apparent in samples of
overblown and slurred notes which were distorted with reverberation. The second, though
somewhat less crucial issue was the overall performance, in ideal situation would be to have an
individual musician perform on all instruments, as some of the instruments in this collection are
considered sacred, it proved to be difficult to obtain for extended rehearsal and recording. The
third issue was complete confidence in the features used for analysis and clustering, this needs an
86
extensive research in order to confirm a solid grouping for each instrument, though confidence in
this could not be reached without addressing the initial recording concerns.
Access to instruments, museum collections, musicians and experts was achieved in both countries,
though this was somewhat a simpler procedure in New Zealand, could be largely attributed to
authority and administration responsible for the archiving and promotion of each respective
culture. Superfluously, as an ultimate consequence of the field work required for analysis, the
assemblage of audio recordings acts as the solitary contribution of digital archiving to the
Aboriginal musical instruments database currently in Taiwan. This lack of digital quality
recordings available in this area made it impossible to utilize existing data from both sets needed
for comparison, and it is anticipated that the dataset produced by this study will be available for
future researchers interested in the topic and a systematic archiving of Taiwanese instruments
made possible in the near future.
In issues pertaining to the analysis and recognition of monophonic audio files, it is clear the
further research is necessary when dealing with such closely related instruments. As existing
research deals with instrument samples taken from independent categories of musical
instruments it would be necessary to perform extensive testing on closely related instruments
with negligible differences in timbre in order to guarantee confidence in such a closely related
dataset as the one used in this research. The emerging field of Music Information Recognition is
going to prove to be significant and considerable beneficial in this area, advance in the features
responsible for automated timbre identification will allow for the systematic classification of
closely related instruments and as a result will strengthen confidence in results drawn from future
datasets.
Orientation of future research
As with any scientifically based experiment, it is difficult not to have preconceived concepts of
the final outcome of the results. Upon preliminary investigations into this research, I had never
been exposed to the tones or timbre produced by either Māori or Taiwan aboriginal flutes, this
87
was despite previously living in both countries prior to initiating research. Upon preparatory for
field work in Taiwan in late 2009 I was introduced to a numerous variations of double nose and
mouth flutes of the southern tribes, upon returning to New Zealand in Christmas of 2010 I was
likewise introduced numerous versions of Māori instruments which was most predominantly
various models of the basic Koauau form. It became apparent from these sample sets that neither
instruments had an obviously strong correlation in timbre, techniques or otherwise. It wasn’t
until returning to Taiwan in 2011 that I was introduced to the headhunting flute of the Truku
tribe, I was immediately struck by the similarity in sound to the Koauau, not only in timbre, but
also in performance techniques regardless of both instruments employing completely unrelated
playing techniques employed to produce sound from the instrument. The fact that the Koauau
and Turku flutes constantly appeared in the same clusters gives increased enthusiasm to the
features used in the analysis of this research, and to the possibility of computer aided
ethnomusicology, although at no stage was there a clear cut distinction between Austronesian
and non-Austronesian instruments, it is my belief that without a controlled and concise dataset it
would be impossible to state comprehensively timbral relationships in any audio datasets.
The next stage of this research will take these concerns into consideration, and, as a result, will
require greater planning into the collection of audio samples, both in field research and in
controlled environmental recordings, this is absolutely necessary in order to guarantee the
validity of final results and conclusions drawn. Another enhancing factor to this study will be the
overall quantity of samples which needs to be extended to include a comprehensive
representation of all Austronesian cultures, the logistical implementations of this may not be
immediately plausible though the current state of digital archiving in Polynesian
ethnomusicology gives reason for optimism. This would allow for the realisation of clustering
within an entire linguistic family and highlight defining factors found as well as grouping
divisions found within. Though the initial research appears to look promising, the concept of
realising a timbral preference within a specific linguistic or genetic family could not be achieved
without further research into the audio features relevant in audio signal processing, and an
extended authentic collection of audio samples.
88
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Research in Asiatic Music (Tōyō Ongaku Gakkai).
Tapsell, P. (2009, Mar 16). Tūtānekai’s flute. Retrieved November 2, 2010, from Te Ara - the
Encyclopedia of New Zealand: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/te-arawa/3/2
Tasman, A. (2006, April). Abel Janszoon Tasman's Journal. Retrieved October 2010, from
http://gutenberg.net.au: http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks06/0600571h.html
Terrell, J. (1986). Prehistory in the Pacific Islands. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tregear, E. (1904). The Maori Race. Wanganui: Archibald Dudingston Willis.
Tregear, E. (1904). The Maori Race; page 66. Wanganui, New Zealand: Archibald Dudingston
Willis.
Tregear, E. (1904). The Maori Race; page 67. Wanganui: Archibald Dudingston Willis.
Tseng, J. M. (2008). 排 灣 族 鼻 笛 文 化 之 民 族 誌 調 查 - 平 和 排 灣 的 個 案 研 究 : An
Ethnographical Result on the Nose Flute Culture of Paiwan - a Case Study of Pinghe
Paiwanese. Taipei: National Chengchi University.
Tseng, J.-M. (2008). An Ethnographical Result on the Nose Flute Culture of Paiwan - a Case.
National Chengchi University.
White, J. (n.d.). Informant member of the Ngapuhi tribe, noted by Jhon White. Te Ao Hou The
Maori Magazine No. 51.
Williams, &. W. (1965). Audiometry: principles and practices. Committee on Conservation of
Hearing (p. Page 55). American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngolog.
93
Wu, N.-Y. (n.d.). he Digital Information Value-Added Program of Professor Hsu Tsang-Houei's
Folklore Music. http://collab.teldap.tw/: National Taiwan Normal University.
國立臺灣史前文化博物館, (. M. (n.d.). 第四章
文化多元性： 泰雅族、太魯閣族
(Chapter IV Cultural Diversity: Atayal, Taroko). Retrieved May 2011, from 國立臺灣史
前文化博物館 (National Museum of Prehistory): http://beta.nmp.gov.tw/main/07/73/3-2/2-16/5.pdf
弓
琴
Mouth
Bow.
(n.d.).
http://www.hudong.com.
Retrieved
from
http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E5%BC%93%E7%90%B4
94
Appendix
i
Results complete dataset, full samples 4 Clusters
95
Group 1
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1M_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3L__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4L__740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4M_680HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5M_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 2L_910HzA#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 2M_610HzD#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 3L_680HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 3M_670HzE5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 4L_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 4M_370HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 5L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 5M_410HzG#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe2/1D - 1L_840HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe2/1D - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 2L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 2S_790HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5L_1080HzC#6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6L_1060HzC6.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 1L_1220HzG#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 2L_350HzE6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 3L_1500HzF#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 4L_1600HzG6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 5L_1740HzA6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 6L_1030HzC6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 7L_1170HzD6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 1M_440HzA4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 2M_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 5M_800HzG5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 7M_1180HzD6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 8M_1420HzF6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
Group 2
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5L_830HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1L_1040HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1M_680HzF5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2L_1120HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2M_760HzF#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3L_840HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3M_830HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4L_920HzA#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4M_900HzA5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5L_1000HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5M_970HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6L_1100HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1S_670HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4S_480HzB4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5S_1050HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6S_600HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1L_570HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1S_570Hz_D5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 3M_540HzC#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 6M_740HzF#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 3M_590HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 4M_710HzF5.wav'
'12 - Western/12 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 0M_780HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 1M_850HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 2S_860HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 3S_910HzA#5.wav'
Group3
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2L_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2M_570Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2S_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 5L_840Hz_G#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3L_900HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3M_920HzBb5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3S_920HzBb5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
Group4
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2M__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3M__820HzG#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
96
ii
Results complete dataset, full samples 5 Clusters
97
Group 1
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2M__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3L__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3M__820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4M_680HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 2L_910HzA#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 2M_610HzD#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 3L_680HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 3M_670HzE5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 4L_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 4M_370HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 5L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 5M_410HzG#4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 1L_1220HzG#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 6L_1030HzC6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'12 - Western/12 - 4M_Hz.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1150HzD6.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1230HzEb6.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1460HzF#6.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1910HzB6.wav'
Group 2
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3L_900HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3S_920HzBb5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 2S_430HzA4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 4S_540HzC#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 0S__760HzF#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 2L_910HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 2M_900HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 3M_950HzA#5.wav'
Group 4
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5L_830HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1L_1040HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1M_680HzF5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2L_1120HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2M_760HzF#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3L_840HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3M_830HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4L_920HzA#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4M_900HzA5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5L_1000HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5M_970HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6L_1100HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1S_670HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4S_480HzB4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5S_1050HzC6.wav'
Group 3
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1M_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4L__740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5M_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe2/1D - 1L_840HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe2/1D - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 2L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 2S_790HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5L_1080HzC#6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6L_1060HzC6.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 2L_350HzE6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 3L_1500HzF#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 4L_1600HzG6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 5L_1740HzA6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 7L_1170HzD6.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 1M_440HzA4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 2M_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 4M_710HzF5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 5M_800HzG5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 7M_1180HzD6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 8M_1420HzF6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
'12 - Western/12 - 2M_680HzF5.wav'
'12 - Western/12 - 3M_720HzF#5.wav'
'12 - Western/12 - 5M_Hz.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-990HzB5.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1290HzE6.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1850HzBb6.wav'
Group 5
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2L_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2M_570Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2S_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 5L_840Hz_G#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3M_920HzBb5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 3S_470HzA#4.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 0L_800HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 1L_890HzF5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 1S_840HzG#5.wav'
98
iii
Results complete dataset, full samples 5 Clusters
99
Group 1
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 1L_1220HzG#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 2L_350HzE6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 3L_1500HzF#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 5L_1740HzA6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 6L_1030HzC6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 7L_1170HzD6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'12 - Western/12 - 3M_720HzF#5.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1230HzEb6.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1290HzE6.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1460HzF#6.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1850HzBb6.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1910HzB6.wav'
Group 2
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3L__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe2/1D - 1L_840HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1L_1040HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2L_1120HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2M_760HzF#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3L_840HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4L_920HzA#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5L_1000HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6L_1100HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1S_670HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 2L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 2S_790HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4S_480HzB4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5L_1080HzC#6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5S_1050HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6L_1060HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6S_600HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1L_570HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1S_570Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2M_570Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2S_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 5L_840Hz_G#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 4L_1600HzG6.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3M_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 6M_740HzF#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 2S_430HzA4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 3S_470HzA#4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 4S_540HzC#5.wav'
Group 3
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1M_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4L__740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4M_680HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5M_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 2L_910HzA#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 2M_610HzD#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 3L_680HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 3M_670HzE5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 4L_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 4M_370HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 5L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe1/1SP - 5M_410HzG#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro Pipe2/1D - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1M_680HzF5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3M_830HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4M_900HzA5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5M_970HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3S_700HzF5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2L_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3L_900HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3S_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 3M_540HzC#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 1M_440HzA4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 2M_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 3M_590HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 5M_800HzG5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'12 - Western/12 - 4M_Hz.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 0M_780HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 1M_850HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 2S_860HzA5.wav'
'15 - British Museum Bone flute/15-1150HzD6.wav'
Group 4
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2M__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3M__820HzG#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
100
iv
Results dataset without Bakuraro pipe1,2 and British samples, 1second, 4 Clusters
101
Group 1
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 1L_1220HzG#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 2L_350HzE6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 3L_1500HzF#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 5L_1740HzA6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 6L_1030HzC6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 7L_1170HzD6.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 5M_800HzG5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 3M_720HzF#5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 4M_Hz.wav'
Group 2
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 2L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 2M__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 3M__820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
Group 4
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 2M_760HzF#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 1L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 2L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 3L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 4L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 5L_1080HzC#6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 6L_1060HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 1S_670HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 1S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 2S_790HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 4S_480HzB4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 6S_600HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/L/4 - 1L_570HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/S/4 - 1S_570Hz_D5.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 4L_1600HzG6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 7M_1180HzD6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/L/13 - 1L_890HzF5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/L/13 - 3L_972HzB5.wav'
Group 3
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 3L__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 4L__740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 5L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 1M_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 4M_680HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 5M_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 1L_1040HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 2L_1120HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 3L_840HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 4L_920HzA#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 5L_1000HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 6L_1100HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 1M_680HzF5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 3M_830HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 4M_900HzA5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 5M_970HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 3S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 5S_1050HzC6.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/L/4 - 2L_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/L/4 - 5L_840Hz_G#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 2M_570Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/S/4 - 2S_600Hz_D5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/L/7 - 3L_900HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 3M_920HzBb5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/S/7 - 3S_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 3M_540HzC#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 6M_740HzF#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 2S_430HzA4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 3S_470HzA#4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 4S_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 1M_440HzA4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 2M_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 3M_590HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 4M_710HzF5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 8M_1420HzF6.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 2M_680HzF5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 5M_Hz.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/L/13 - 0L_800HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/L/13 - 2L_910HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 0M_780HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 1M_850HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 2M_900HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 3M_950HzA#5.wav'
102
v
Results dataset without Bakuraro pipe1,2 and British samples, 1second, 4 Clusters
103
Group 1
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 1L_1220HzG#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 2L_350HzE6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 3L_1500HzF#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 5L_1740HzA6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 6L_1030HzC6.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 7L_1170HzD6.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 5M_800HzG5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 3M_720HzF#5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 4M_Hz.wav'
Group2
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 2L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 3L__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 4M_680HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 4S_480HzB4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 6S_600HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
Group 4
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 2M__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 3M__820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
Group 5
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 3L_840HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 2M_760HzF#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 1L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 2L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 3L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 4L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 5L_1080HzC#6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/L/3 - 6L_1060HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 1S_670HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 1S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 2S_790HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 5S_1050HzC6.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/L/4 - 1L_570HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 2M_570Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/S/4 - 1S_570Hz_D5.wav'
'6 - Irish/L/6 - 4L_1600HzG6.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 6M_740HzF#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 3S_470HzA#4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 7M_1180HzD6.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/L/13 - 0L_800HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/L/13 - 1L_890HzF5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/L/13 - 2L_910HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/L/13 - 3L_972HzB5.wav'
Group3
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 4L__740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/L/1 - 5L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 1M_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/M/1 - 5M_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 1L_1040HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 2L_1120HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 4L_920HzA#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 5L_1000HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/L/2 - 6L_1100HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 1M_680HzF5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 3M_830HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 4M_900HzA5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 5M_970HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/M/2 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/S/3 - 3S_700HzF5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/L/4 - 2L_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/L/4 - 5L_840Hz_G#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/S/4 - 2S_600Hz_D5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/L/7 - 3L_900HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 3M_920HzBb5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/S/7 - 3S_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 3M_540HzC#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 2S_430HzA4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 4S_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 1M_440HzA4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 2M_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 3M_590HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 4M_710HzF5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 8M_1420HzF6.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 2M_680HzF5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 5M_Hz.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 0M_780HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 1M_850HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 2M_900HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 3M_950HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 0S__760HzF#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 1S_840HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 2S_860HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 3S_910HzA#5.wav'
104
vi
105
Results dataset, British, Pipe1,2 and overblown samples removed, 1sec samples, 4 Clusters
106
Group 1
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1M_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4L__740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5L_830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5M_740HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1L_1040HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1M_680HzF5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2L_1120HzC#6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3M_830HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4L_920HzA#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4M_900HzA5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5L_1000HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5M_970HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2L_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2S_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 5L_840Hz_G#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'5 - Indian/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 1L_1220HzG#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 2L_350HzE6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 3L_1500HzF#6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 5L_1740HzA6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 6L_1030HzC6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3L_900HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3M_920HzBb5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/7 - 3S_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 3M_540HzC#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
Group2
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2M__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3M__820HzG#5.wav'
Group 3
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3L__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4M_680HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4S_480HzB4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6S_600HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
Group 4
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 2M_760HzF#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 3L_840HzG#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/2 - 6L_1100HzC#6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1S_670HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 1S_700HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 2L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 2S_790HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 3L_1780HzA6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4L_1420HzF6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5L_1080HzC#6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 5S_1050HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6L_1060HzC6.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1L_570HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 1S_570Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 2M_570Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 4L_1600HzG6.wav'
'6 - Irish/6 - 7L_1170HzD6.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/8 - 6M_740HzF#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/10 - 3S_470HzA#4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 7M_1180HzD6.wav'
'12 - Western/12 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 0L_800HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 1L_890HzF5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 1S_840HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 2L_910HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 2M_900HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 3L_972HzB5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/13 - 3M_950HzA#5.wav'
Group 5
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 2L_820HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3L__830HzG#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/1 - 4M_680HzF5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 4S_480HzB4.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/3 - 6S_600HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
107
vii
Results dataset, British, Pipe1,2 and overblown samples removed, 1sec samples, 4 Clusters
Group 1
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
Group 2
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 2M_600Hz_D5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 4M_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 6M_740HzF#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 2S_430HzA4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 3S_470HzA#4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 4S_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 3M_590HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 4M_710HzF5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 7M_1180HzD6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 8M_1420HzF6.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 2M_680HzF5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 5M_810HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 0M__760HzF#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 0M_780HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 1M_840HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 1M_850HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 2M_860HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 2M_900HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 3M_910HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 3M_950HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 0S__760HzF#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 1S_840HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 2S_860HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 3S_910HzA#5.wav'
Group 3
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 5M_800HzG5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 3M_720HzF#5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 4M_770HzG5.wav'
Group 4
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 3M_900HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 5M_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 3M_540HzC#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 1M_440HzA4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 2M_540HzC#5.wav'
108
viii
Results dataset Pipe1,2 and overblown samples removed, 1sec moderate, 14 group Clusters
Group 1
Group 7
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
Group 8
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 5M_800HzG5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 4M_770HzG5.wav'
Group 2
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 6M_740HzF#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 3S_470HzA#4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 7M_1180HzD6.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
Group 3
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 3M_540HzC#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 2M_600Hz_D5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 1M_440HzA4.wav'
Group 9
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 3M_900HzA5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 5M_920HzBb5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
Group 10
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 2M_540HzC#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 3M_590HzD5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 1M_850HzG#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 2M_860HzA5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 2S_860HzA5.wav'
Group 4
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
Group 5
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 3M_720HzF#5.wav'
Group 11
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 4M_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 2S_430HzA4.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 4S_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 4M_710HzF5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 8M_1420HzF6.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 0M__760HzF#5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 2M_680HzF5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 0M_780HzG5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 5M_810HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 1M_840HzG#5.wav'
Group 12
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 2M_900HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 3M_910HzA#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 3M_950HzA#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 0S__760HzF#5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 1S_840HzG#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 3S_910HzA#5.wav'
Group 6
Group 13
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
Group 14
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
109
ix
Results dataset -Brightness roughness features removed, British Pipe1Pipe2 and all overblown samples removed, 1sec samples, 4 group
Clusters
Group 1
Group 3
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 3M_880HzA5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 6M_1050HzC6.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 4M_960HzB5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 4M_590HzD5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 5M_530HzC5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 5M_660HzE5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 4M_800HzG5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 7M_820HzG#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 6M_980HzB5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 1M_760HzF#5.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 2M_840HzG#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 6M_1070HzC6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 7M_1180HzD6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 4M_990HzB5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 8M_1420HzF6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 5M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 9M_1590HzG6.wav'
'9 - Small Amis/M/9 - 6M_1250HzD#6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 10M_1810HzA6.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 5M_800HzG5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 2M_680HzF5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 3M_720HzF#5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 5M_810HzG#5.wav'
Group 2
Group 4
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 1S_530HzC5.wav'
'3 - Paiwan Gurare/M/3 - 1M_700F5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 2S_530HzG5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 1M_520HzC5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 3S__530HzG5.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 2M_580HzD5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 4S__360HzF#4.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 3M_650HzE5.wav'
'1 - Ruki Bakuraro/S/1 - 5S_410HzG#4.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 4M_700HzF5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 5M_760HzF#5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 2S_380HzF#4.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 6M_860HzA5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 3S_420HzG#4.wav'
'5 - Indian/M/5 - 7M_980HzB5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 4S_460HzA#4.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 5S_500HzB4.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 2M_870HzE5.wav'
'2 - Rukai Gurare/S/2 - 6S_560HzC#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 3M_740HzF#5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 1M_550HzC#5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 5M_900HzA5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 2M_600Hz_D5.wav'
'6 - Irish/M/6 - 7M_1120HzC#6.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 3M_560Hz_E5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 1S_340HzF4.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 4M_730Hz_F#5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 1M_600HzD5.wav'
'4 - Truku Headhunting/M/4 - 5M_810Hz_G#5.wav'
'12 - Western/M/12 - 4M_770HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 1M_790HzG5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 2M_880HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 3M_900HzA5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 4M_920HzBb5.wav'
'7 - Koauau Grant/M/7 - 5M_920HzBb5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 1M_430HzA4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 2M_500HzB4.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 3M_540HzC#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 6M_740HzF#5.wav'
'8 - Indonesian/M/8 - 8M_430HzA4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 1M_700HzF5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 2M_850HzG#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/M/10 - 3M_930HzA#5.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 2S_430HzA4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 3S_470HzA#4.wav'
'10 - Philippines TV/S/10 - 4S_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 1M_440HzA4.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 2M_540HzC#5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 3M_590HzD5.wav'
'11 - Thailand/M/11 - 4M_710HzF5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 0M__760HzF#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 0M_780HzG5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 1M_840HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 1M_850HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 2M_860HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 2M_900HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 3M_910HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/M/13 - 3M_950HzA#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 0S__760HzF#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 1S_840HzG#5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 2S_860HzA5.wav'
'13 - Koauau TV/S/13 - 3S_910HzA#5.wav'
110
x Timbre MATLAB code
clear, clc;
cd wavsrc;
Audio = miraudio('Folders');
cd ../
WavName = get(Audio, 'Name');
WavName = WavName';
Spectrum = mirspectrum(Audio);
Spectrum = mirgetdata(Spectrum);
Spectrum = Spectrum';
SpectrumMean = Feature(Spectrum, 'Mean', 30);
Brightness = mirbrightness(Audio, 'Frame');
Brightness = mirgetdata(Brightness);
Brightness = Brightness';
BrightnessMean = Feature(Brightness, 'Mean', 10);
Centroid = mircentroid(Audio, 'Frame');
Centroid = mirgetdata(Centroid);
Centroid = Centroid';
CentroidMean = Feature(Centroid, 'Mean', 10);
CentroidVar = Feature(Centroid, 'Var', 10);
Roughness = mirroughness(Audio);
Roughness = mirgetdata(Roughness);
Roughness = Roughness';
RoughnessMean = Feature(Roughness, 'Mean', 10);
WavFeature = [SpectrumMean BrightnessMean CentroidMean RoughnessMean];
%Check NaN values
for i = 1 : length(WavFeature(:, 1))
for j = 1 : length(WavFeature(1, :))
if(isnan(WavFeature(i, j)))
WavFeature(i, j) = 0;
end
end
end
clear i j
%End Check
%Kmeans
Group = 4;
IDX = kmeans(WavFeature, Group);
%End Kmeans
%Group
for g = 1 : Group
pt = 1;
for f = 1 : length(WavName)
111
if(g == IDX(f, 1))
eval(['Group', int2str(g), '{', int2str(pt), ',1}',
WavName{f, 1};']);
pt = pt + 1;
end
end
end
clear pt f IDX
%End Group
'=
WavName
for g = 1 : Group
eval(['Group', int2str(g)]);
end
clear g Group
xi
Function MATLAB code
function output = Feature(Data, Type, Number)
if(iscell(Data))
output = zeros(length(Data), Number);
for i = 1 : length(Data)
temp = Data{i, 1}';
DataSection = zeros(1, Number);
for n = 1 : Number-1
DataSection(1, n) = fix(length(temp)/Number);
end
DataSection(1, end) = fix(length(temp)/Number) +
mod(length(temp), Number);
temp = mat2cell(temp, 1, DataSection);
switch Type
case 'Mean'
for n = 1 :
temp{1,
end
case 'Var'
for n = 1 :
temp{1,
end
end
Number
n} = mean(temp{1, n});
Number
n} = var(temp{1, n});
output(i, :) = cell2mat(temp);
end
else
output = zeros(length(Data(:, 1)), Number);
for i = 1 : length(Data(:, 1))
temp = Data(i, :);
DataSection = zeros(1, Number);
for n = 1 : Number-1
DataSection(1, n) = fix(length(temp)/Number);
end
112
DataSection(1, end) = fix(length(temp)/Number) +
mod(length(temp), Number);
temp = mat2cell(temp, 1, DataSection);
switch Type
case 'Mean'
for n = 1 :
temp{1,
end
case 'Var'
for n = 1 :
temp{1,
end
end
Number
n} = mean(temp{1, n});
Number
n} = var(temp{1, n});
output(i, :) = cell2mat(temp);
end
end
end
xii
Separate MATLAB code
function output = Separate(Data, Section)
[Row, Column] = size(Data);
Row = ones(Row, 1);
DataSection = zeros(1, Section);
for i = 1 : Section-1
DataSection(1, i) = fix(Column/Section);
end
DataSection(1, end) = fix(Column/Section) + mod(Column, Section);
Data = mat2cell(Data, Row, DataSection);
output = Data;
end
113