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Research article
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Evaluation of Geomorphic Resources: Past and Present Studies - A review
Prakasam.C1, Biplab Biswas2
1- Research Scholar, Department of Geography, The University of Burdwan,
Burdwan – 713104
2- Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, The University of Burdwan,
Burdwan – 713104
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Geomorphic resource analysis is very important for any type of planning, either country or
regional or micro level planning. Geomorphic study made by several peoples for different
application and, methodology from 4th Century B.C to today date but some draw back also
there. Present study divided into three categories fist one is deal with the evaluation previous
studies on importance of geomorphic resource analysis, second category is deal with the
pervious studies on the understanding of existing land use land cover analysis, and final part
will look studies for water stressed area identification and its importance on LULC of the
region. These studies made word wide and national level (Indian) and it advantage, draw
back of all previous studies, finally proposed a new method of geomorphic resource analysis
(Administrative approach), because this new approach is suitable for any type of government
planning (Agriculture, water harvesting, land use, drought, etc ).
Key Words: Geomorphic Resource, ASTER, landforms, Administrative approach
1. Introduction
Geomorphology is the study of landforms, their origin and distribution. It is a science that
deals with discovery and scientific experiments centered on expanding scales of concern in
both time and space (Hironi, 1991). The surface form study may be the main aspect of
Geomorphology, but almost all the anthropogenic activities and developments are determined
or modified to a great extent based on the surface morphology of any region. The spatial and
temporal distributions of human impacts on the landscape have been heterogeneous, and the
main geomorphic effects have been caused mostly by forest removal for grazing and by
cropping based on slope. Land Use Land Cover (LULC) of any region is directly modified by
the geomorphic condition of Earth’s surface form. LULC is further modified with the nature
and availability of water resources to any region.
In this present part of the discussion we would like to consider some part works on the close
interaction of morphometric conditions and the importance of water resources in shaping the
LULC of any region. The present analysis is divided into three parts. Fist part will deal with
the evaluation previous studies on importance of geomorphic resource analysis. Second part
will deal with the pervious studies on the understanding of existing land use land cover
analysis, and final part will look studies for water stressed area identification and its
importance on LULC of the region. Finally, we would like to critically assessed and conclude
the close interaction of these attributes. World wide studies and Indian studies are reviewed
in this present section.
2. Geomorphic Studies: A historical perspective
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From the ancient time to the present day, the landforms and their study have been the matter
of great interest for the researchers. Herodotus (4th Century B.C.), Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.),
Strobe (54 B.C. - A.D. 25), Seneca (1 B.C – A.D. 65) are some of the eminent names worth
to be mentioned as the ancient pioneers of landforms study.
The basic foundation of geomorphology was laid in America in the later half of 19th Century
by Major J.W. Powell, 1834-1902, Dutton 1841-1912 and Gilbert 1843-1918. Davis (1850–
1934) putted greater impact on the development of geomorphology than any one else. Of all
the contributions to geomorphology, Davis is remembered for introducing the concept of
‘Geomorphic Cycle’. According to this concept evolution of landscape is a systematic
sequence that enables one to recognize the stages of development of landforms. This
sequence is called by him as youth, maturity and old stages of development. These landforms
are explainable in terms of differences in geologic structures, geomorphic processes and the
stages of development. The complete analysis follows Chorley’s (1967) scheme of
morphometric study and topographic characteristics of drainage basin. However, impacts of
some other models (Horton, 1932; Langbein, 1947; Strahler, 1964) are also visible in
Chorley’s research, use of the classification system of river, as proposed by Horton spread
quite rapidly. He defined stream order and discussed the relation between the order of stream
and the number and length of stream. Powell’s studies of Unita Mountain emphasized the
importance of geologic structure in the classification of landforms. He also introduced the
concept of the limiting level to which the land-level would reduce and called it ‘base level’
(Garde, 2005). Col. George Greenwood earlier used this concept in Europe in 1857. Powell
recognized that the process of erosion, if carried undisturbed on land, would reduce it
eventually to a level little above sea level. He was able to correctly interpret that various
unconformities in rocks in the Grand Canyon, Colorado (U.S.A.) correspond to ancient
periods of land erosion (Garde, 2005). Nanshan (1987) provided the terms of geomorphic
entropy and surpass entropy, and took the terms as quantitative indices for growth stages and
stability. The development of drainage landforms were products of transport process of
ground objects which were eroded, transported and accumulated.
We can classify the major works of 19th century in the field of Fluvial Geomorphology in
flowing table.
Table 1: Showing the development of fluvial geomorphology in 19th Century
Phenomenon
River Sediment movement
Knickpoints
Meanders
Networks
Channel patterns
Overland flow erosion
Confluences
Rainsplash
Angle of repose
Angle of sliding friction
Frost heave
Authors
Fluvial
Gilbert
Lewis
Friedkin
Schumm
Schumm and Khan
Moss and Walker
Best
Noble and Morgan
Slopes
Year
Van Burkalow
Van Burkalow
Taber
1945
1945
1930
1914
1944
1945
1977a
1971
1978
1986
1983
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Drainage
Dye tracing and permeability
Leaching
Screes
Liquefaction
ISSN 0976 – 4380
Anderson and Burt
Anderson and Burt
Trudgill et al.
Statham
De Ploey
1977
1978
1984
1973
1971
Source: Andrew Goudie, et. Al., 1990
3. Development to Geomorphic Studies in India
In India, the geologists have to be given credit for initiating researches in geomorphology.
The geomorphological studies pertaining to the highlands of Chotanagpur, in general, have
been initiated by geologists and advanced geographers. Detailed geological pieces of
information have been recorded by eminent geologists notably Oldham (1893) and Fox
(1930, 1931, 1934).
At first Dunn (1939), interpreted the evolution of the four erosion surfaces in Chotanagpur
plateau. He propounded that uplifts were the root causes of the different erosional surfaces
and supported his next works in 1941, 1942. He was of the opinion that the different
erosional surfaces of the area are peniplains uplifted during the Himalayan movements.
Chatterji (1945) discussed some aspects of geomorphology of Ranchi Plateau. He (1946) had
traced the physiographic evaluation of Chotanagpur plateau. He contradicted the uplift theory
of Dunn and proposed a differential erosion theory for geomorphic interpretation of Pat
Region. Ahmad and Debi (1965) traced the evolution of scarps of Chotanagpur. Prasad
(1965) presented an excellent paper on the physical landscape of Chotanagpur. The article
with one map provided a detailed account of the regional units of Chotanagpur. Singh (1956)
was awarded Ph.D. degree by the London University on his seminal work on
geomorphological evolution of the highlands of Chotanagpur and the adjoining district in
Bihar. He (1957) traced the structure, stages of drainage and morphology of Chotanagpur
Highlands. Singh (1970) gave an excellent treatment of topography and towns in the
Chotanagar Highland by tracing the significance of rock and surface in the distribution of
urban settlements. Satpathi (1970, 1972 & 1973) presented a broad outline of geomorphology
of Singhbum through quantitative analysis of landform with particular reference to the Deo
River Basin, Singhbhum. Satpathi also (1975, 1976) discussed the landscape cycle of
Singhbhum and made an unique and systematic study of meander mechanisms, geometry of
meanders and sinuosity indices of major rivers of Singhbum. Prasad (1971) prepared a
bibliography on Geomorphology of Chotanagpur. He presented number of papers (1973,
1974, 1977, 1979, and 1980) which are considered as important contributions in the field of
geomorphology. Gupta (2004) has published a book on Geomorphology of Damodar Basin,
in this book he have done evolution of the drainage system, morphometric analysis and
models of landscape evolution.
Mache and Peshwa (1978) made an interesting photo-geological interpretation of the controls
on drainage in Gondwana and Bijawaras of the Son valley, Shahdol district, Madhya Pradesh.
Davi (2000) has published a book on River Basin Morphology. In this book she has done
several aspects of quantitative geomorphic analysis. It is well known that hydrologic
processes are influenced by geomorphic properties like slope, drainage density (Gregory et.
al. 1973). There exist some approaches quantifying these relations through drainage basin
parameters (Babar, 1998 and Singh, 1981) and model simulation like the unit hydrograph
(Bloschl et. al. 1995; Moore et. al., 1991 and Tarboton 1997). However, a general
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quantification of these effects is still a research task. Recent advances in the analysis of
landform morphometry through the availability of high resolution Digital Elevation Models
(DEMs), powerful Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques (Lawrence, 1985 and
Tarboton et. al., 1991) and Remote Sensing applications (Babar 2001, 2002a, b; Sharma et.
al., 1992 and Tiwari et. al., 1996) enhance the research efforts. With the advancement of the
knowledge and technology, the methodology of landform studies has been changed. The
changes are perceived even in studying the scale of landforms being examined. It is partly
because process and forms are best related and studied at smaller scales. The synoptic
coverage and high precision of remotely sensed data coupled with marked cost effectiveness
and time efficiency in data acquisition and analysis procedures have made geomorphological
mapping an extremely effective tool for management of natural resources and environment
(Srinivasan, 1988). Detailed geomorphological mapping is one of the principal means of
studying the morphology, genesis, distribution and age of forms, which in turn helps to
interpret the geomorphic history of any evolved landscape (Blarzcsynski, 1997).
Sophisticated GIS software makes the investigations of geographical processes and offers a
new approach to problems analysis. However, publications about geomorphologic problems
and processes easier solved by GIS software and database still come out occasionally
(Telbisz 1999). Kagna River Basin morphometry analysis has been done using remote
sensing and GIS techniques (Rudraiah et. al., 2008).
3.1 Water and Land Use Land Cover Study
Understanding the geomorphic influences on land use, land cover stream ecosystem requires
a properly scaled context of study (White and et.al 1985, Frissell et al. 1986, Allan et al.
1997). In the southern Appalachian Mountains, non-forested land use can be predicted by
landscape slope and elevation (Wear and et. al 1998). Agricultural practices may represent a
press disturbance to riparian and floodplain vegetation, in the sense that stream-side woody
vegetation is removed and growth is suppressed through tilling, mowing, or livestock activity
(National Research Council, 1992). As a result, the stream-riparian system exists in a humanmaintained steady-state. Other mechanisms of agricultural disturbance may include channel
redirection, floodplain tiling or ditching, and enhanced bank erosion by livestock activity
(National Research Council 1992).
3.2 Geomorphology and Land Use Land Cover Study
The significance of geomorphological research is indicated by the fact that an International
Organization of Geomorphologists has been formed. The first International
Geomorphological Conference, held at Manchester in 1985, was a major event, in which
specific emphasis was laid on the application of geomorphology in land use planning. Out of
25 sessions, half of the sessions were concerned with applied geomorphology. Therefore the
utility of geomorphology in planning especially in land use planning is beyond doubt (Hironi,
1991).
Land use planning has been carried out in different parts of our country. Pioneer studies in
this regard have been made by Vats (1983) of Central Arid Research Zone, Jodhpur,
Rajasthan; Sharma (1968) in the Lower Chambal Valley. Rai (1980) had done Land use and
soil erosion study around Shillong Region. Kumar et. al., (2009) published a paper on
importance of geomorphological mapping for urban planning and development for Korba
city, using remote sensing technology. National Research Council of India (1992) presented
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their research on the impact of agricultural activities as interpret of LULC on the
modification of the flood plain geomorphology and the equilibrium state of the river.
Land Use Land Cover dynamics is a result of complex interactions between several
biophysical and socio-economic conditions which may occur at various temporal and spatial
scales. The term land use is used to describe human actions to modify or convert natural land.
Land cover refers to the features which cover particular land area. Land use is a dynamic
phenomenon and the driving forces of changes in land use may be economic, technological,
demographic, scenic and or other factors. The variations in spatial distribution of different
land uses land cover may be attributed to climatic on the one hand and Geomorphological on
the other as well. According to Meyer, 1999 every parcel of land on the Earth’s surface is
unique in its land cover.
Most of the works on land use land cover analysis in India were initiated following Dudley
Stamps land use survey of U.K. in the beginning of 1940s. It was at the 1940 session of the
Indian Science Congress held at Madras that Prof. S.P. Chatterjee pointed out the necessity of
undertaking the land use survey in India on the District of 24 Parganas, Bengal in 1945.
Dayal (1947) prepared a thesis on agriculture geography of Bihar. He discussed the influence
of soil and climatic elements on land utilization, the pressure of population on land and the
nature of land utilization. Chatterjee (1952) undertook more detailed land utilization survey
in Howrah district and 1200 land use maps at the scale of 1:3690 covering 813 villages were
prepared. Rao (1947) has emphasized the techniques of soil survey for analysis of land use in
the Godavari Region. Roy (1968) documented rural land use pattern in Azamgarh. Models in
land utilization were well documented by Mandal (1980). Sustainable development initiative
was well documented by Singh (1996). Planning for sustainability on natural resources and
bio-energy was attempted by Maheshwari et. al. in 1996. Most of the researches were mainly
concentrated on the land use land cover mapping of the current time.
4. GIS and Remote Sensing for Geomorphic Study
Recently, the land use studies in India have changed form mere documentation to investigate
the cause and consequences of land use changes. Advancement of uses of remote sensing
techniques and Geographic Information System (GIS) has facilitated time series and multivariable analysis. Chattopadhyay (1985) while studying the deforestation in Kerala had
attempted to highlight these issues. George et. al., (2001) analyzed the land use in Kerala in
relation to population pressure.
In the last decades many efforts have been made in the development of satellite sensors
capable to produce data for digital elevation models generation. One of the first constellations
designed for this aim was the SPOT (Satellite Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre) one, by
CNES (Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales). The satellites (1-4) provided across-track stereo
images of 10 and 20m ground resolution. DEMs with sub-pixel accuracy were extracted and
used for the first GIS applications (Welch, 1990). Since then many new satellites have been
launched, carrying sensors that can achieve less then 1m ground resolution (Quickbird). The
largest parts of the sensors currently in use for the acquisition of images for DEM generation
flies along near polar (to increase the ground coverage) and near-circular orbits and acquire
along-track stereo images in a push broom mode (2). The main advantage of along-track
stereo geometry with respect to the across-track one is that the time delay between the stereo
images acquisition is smaller, reducing the land and cloud cover variations.
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The drainage characteristics of Wailapalli Basin and sub-basins were studied to describe and
evaluate their hydrological characteristics by analyzing topographical map and SRTM data.
Using SRTM data and GIS techniques is a quick, precise and inexpensive way for calculating
morphometric analysis. Hydrologic modelling studies have gained substantial progress due to
the recent advent of analysis techniques of digital elevation data. In this regard, geographic
information systems (GIS) offer potential resources for the application of such techniques,
particularly for large scale distributed terrain modelling. Most of the algorithms used to
analyse digital elevation models (DEM) work on regular grid DEM structure because of its
wide availability and the ease of its computer implementation and treatment. The basic
framework for grid DEM analysis in GIS is incorporated within ARC/INFO. This mainly
yields the delineation of flow paths and the extraction of river basins and their different
morphologic characteristics. However, there are two important scale features, namely, the
grid size and the threshold area used as a constraint to define channel sources, which may
influence the topographic analyses results and consequently the result of the hydrologie
model which uses them as input parameters. In general, the choice of the grid size is
constrained by the availability of accurate data and the computational requirements. For river
network extraction from DEM, the search for a criterion to determine the most appropriate
threshold area is not yet conclusive. This paper attempts to investigate these scale effects on a
distributed unit hydrograph model and a lumped géomorphologic instantaneous unit
hydrograph (IUH).
Identification of drainage networks within basins or sub-basins can be achieved using
traditional methods such as field observations and topographic maps or alternatively with
advanced methods using remote sensing and DEMs (Verstappen 1983 and Maidment 2002).
Whilst providing a first hand analysis, it is difficult to examine all drainage networks from
field observations due to their extent throughout rough terrain and/or vast areas. However,
they do not represent real drainage networks on the ground due to cartographic
generalizations and subjective judgment of the cartographers (Chorley and Mark 1983).
Furthermore, there are often numerous valleys, which are not cartographically marked as
fluvial channels despite their ability to collect and transport flow. For these reasons, these
first order streams, called ‘‘fingertip’’by Horton (1945) or ‘‘exterior links’’ by Shreve (1966)
should be included in drainage network studies. Many authors pointed this out in their studies
(Horton 1945; Melton 1957; Lubowe 1964; Krumbein and Shreve 1970; Mark 1983). In this
respect, DEMs can be used to extract the drainage networks which include all exterior links.
Digital elevation models (DEMs) are increasingly used for visual and mathematical analysis
of topography, landscape and landform, as well as modeling of surface processes (Millaresis
& et.al. 2000, Tucker et al. 2001). DEMs play also an important tool for the analysis of
glaciers and glaciated terrains (Baral & Gupta 1997). Bishop et al. (2001) used a DEM of
Nanga Parbat to map glaciers in the rough mountain terrain of the western Himalayas.
A DEM offers the most common method for extracting vital topographic information and
even enables the modeling of flow across topography, a controlling factor in distributed
models of landform processes. To accomplish this, the DEM must represent the terrain as
accurately as possible, since the accuracy of the DEM determines the reliability of the
geomorphometric analysis. Currently, the automatic generation of a DEM from remotely
sensed data with sub-pixel accuracy is possible (Krzystek 1995).
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The ASTER sensor offers simultaneous along-track stereo-pairs, which eliminate variations
caused by multi-date stereo data acquisition. Only some results have been published in peerreviewed literature about using ASTER data yet, mostly on simulated ASTER data (Abrams
and Hook 1995), or on the potential of using ASTER data in the future used ASTER data for
analyzing supraglacial lakes at Mt. Everest. Cheng et.al (2002) published ASTER DEMs for
Afghanistan.
Land use land cover analysis and change detection have been done on several places of the
world including our country India using remote sensing, GIS and other conventional method.
Different types of data including satellites and sensors have been used. But unfortunately
very few studies are there indicating the influence of geomorphology in shaping the land use
land cover of any region and how the changing geomorphology is moderating the nature and
growth of land use land cover of any region.
5. Conclusion
All the earliest geomorphologic studies made through drainage basin, catchment and
mountain area approaches but no one made the geomorphic by administrative approach.
Catchment and mountain area approaches of geomorphic study is made for dam constriction,
flood controlling and land slide studies purposes. Administrative approach of geomorphic
study is intended for the planning purpose. If any government or any other origination wants
to intimate any types of planning, they need to use this approach. The geomorphic resource
analysis, land use land cover analysis and water stress area identification and this
management through Administrative approach. Administration can only be able to implement
any planning. The Water stress study can be done through only geomorphic approach.
Geomorphic resource influences the land use, land cover, surface water resources of any
region and so for our study area.
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