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What Was the Scientific Revolution?


The
Scientific
Revolution
“Science” Before
the Scientific Revolution
on reasoning
Factors Leading to
the Scientific Revolution
universities
 Experimental method
or observation wasn’t
used at all
 Science in medieval
times
•

 Rise of
 Based almost entirely
•

A revolution in human understanding and knowledge
about the physical universe
17th century
Began with Kepler, Galileo
Ended with Newton
 Contact with
non-Western
nonsocieties
 The Renaissance
 Exploration
Alchemy
Astrology
A medieval alchemist
Rationalism
 Reason, not tradition, is the
source of all knowledge
 René Descartes (1596–1650)
 French philosopher and
mathematician
 Cogito ergo sum (“I think,
•The philosophy of
rationalism holds that all
knowledge comes from
reason.
therefore, I am”)
 Deductive reasoning
René Descartes
Descartes then came to his
famous conclusion,
conclusion, “Cogito
ergo sum,” which means “I
think, therefore, I am.”
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Francis Bacon and
the Scientific Method
Empiricism
 The belief that
experience is the only
true source of
knowledge
 Roger Bacon
 Shift toward
empiricism a hallmark
of the Scientific
Revolution
 Helped lead to the
development of the
scientific method
 1561–1626
 English philosopher and
empiricist
 Argued for experimental
methodology
 Inductive reasoning
 Scientific research should rely
on careful observation and
experimentation..
experimentation
Roger Bacon
His ideas about science
incorporated what is known as
inductive reasoning, which
involves using concrete facts to
come up with answers..
Bacon believed that all scientific
research should rely on careful
observation and experimentation
rather than simply relying on
one’s own thought and reasoning,
Activity: Creative Writing
 Write an essay explaining how early figures (like Sir
Francis Bacon) of the Scientific Revolution helped
develop modern science.
The data obtained should then be
recorded and analyzed according
to logic and reason, then used to
produce a testable hypothesis..
The Scientific Method
Roots of Scientific Thought: Aristotle
Science as a multiple-step process:
1. Observe an 2. Develop a
3. Test the
object or
theory that
theory with
phenomenon explains the
experiments
object or
phenomenon
 4th century BCE Greek
philosopher and scientist
 Wrote several scientific works
 His work laid the foundation
for scientific study through
the medieval era
 Gravity/Theory of falling
objects
 Astronomy: Crystal spheres
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Roots of Scientific Thought: Ptolemy
 2nd century CE Greek
astronomer,
mathematician, and
geographer
 The Almagest
(Syntaxis)
 Geocentric (earth(earthcentered) model of the
universe
 Motion of the planets
MOOSECENTRIC
Models of the Universe:
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric
Geocentric: the Earth is at the
center of the universe; all
heavenly bodies move around
the Earth
Heliocentric: the Sun
is at the center of the
universe; all heavenly
bodies move around
the Sun—
Sun—including the
Earth
Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543)
 Polish astronomer and
mathematician
 Commentariolus (1514)
 handwritten notebook of
observations in which he
laid out the foundations of
his heliocentric theories
 Concerning the
Revolutions of the Celestial
Spheres (1543)
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601)
 Danish astronomer
 Amassed accurate
astronomical data
 Theorized a system
distinct from both the
Ptolemaic and
Copernican ones
 Argued that the Moon
and Sun revolve
around the Earth
while other planets
revolve around the
Sun
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
 German astronomer and
mathematician
 Student of Tycho
 Didn’t agree with Tycho’s
interpretation of data
 Disagreed with Copernicus,
claiming that other bodies
moved in elliptical motion, as
opposed to circular motions
 Theorized three laws of
planetary motion using
Tycho’s data
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Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Galileo vs. the Catholic Church
 Italian mathematician,
astronomer
 “Father of Science”
 Telescopes and astronomical
discoveries
 Theory of falling objects;
disproved Aristotle
Galileo’s
telescopic
drawing of
the moon
 The church
condemned
heliocentric
conceptions of
the universe
 The Roman
Inquisition
 Galileo’s trial
 Galileo recants,
put under house
arrest
19th-century depiction of Galileo before the Inquisition tribunal
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
Legend holds that Newton
“discovered” gravity when an
apple fell on his head from a
nearby tree, although many
believed Newton—who loved to
tell stories—made the whole thing
up.
Developed the Universal Law of Gravitation
 English astronomer,
physicist, and mathematician
 Synthesized the works of
Copernicus, Kepler and
Galileo
 The Principia
 Universal law of Gravitation

The Principia presented a new
view of the world, one expressed
in entirely mechanical terms, with
Newton portraying the universe as
a large clock that operated by a
consistent set of rules.
states that everything with
mass in the universe attracts
everything else with mass
John Dalton
 John Dalton develops
the first scientific atomic
theory, which is
theory
sometimes called the
billiard ball model.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1.
2.
3.
4.
All matter is composed of tiny
particles called atoms which cannot
be subdivided.
The atoms of an element have
identical properties while the atoms
of different elements have other
properties.
Atoms combine in small whole
number ratios to form chemical
compounds.
Reactions involve reorganization of
atoms (combine, separate,
rearrange); the atoms themselves do
not change.
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Joseph Lister
Louis Pasteur
•



Pasteur discovered how
to remove bacteria
from different liquids.
Discovered that
heating materials will
kill bacteria within it →
pasteurization
Helped explain why
immunization works.
- Lister was known for using
antiseptics in hospitals.
–
–
using Pasteur's knowledge
about germs and their
origins, Lister would use
strong chemicals to kill
bacteria in operating
rooms.
antiseptics, as they would
later be called, prevented
the spread of infection
within hospitals.
Summary of Evolution Theory
Charles Darwin
 Proposed the origin of species resulting from natural
• Pioneered the
evolutionary theory
• Proponent of the
theory of natural
selection
selection:
selection




Organisms Produce Many Offspring
Competition for Food, Territory, Mates, etc.
Those With Best Traits Survive
Organisms Change Over Many Generations
 Time Frame: Millions of Years
The Significance of
the Scientific Revolution
Activity: Creative Writing
 Write a rhyme or song explaining how figures of the
Scientific Revolution helped develop modern science.
 Include each of the following figures in your rhyme
or song
Darwin
Newton
 Abandonment of ancient and medieval systems
 Development of the scientific method
 The Enlightenment
Pasteur
Galileo
Dalton
Lister
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What Was the Enlightenment?
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement
in Europe during the 18th century that led to
a whole new world view.
Enlightenment Principles
The Scientific Revolution
• Religion, tradition,
and superstition
limited
independent
thought
• Accept knowledge
based on
observation, logic,
and reason, not on
faith
• Scientific and
academic thought
should be secular
The Enlightenment
grew largely out of
the new methods and
discoveries achieved
in the Scientific
Revolution
The equatorial armillary, used for navigation on ships
A meeting of French Enlightenment thinkers
The French Salon and the
Philosophes
Activity: Creative Writing
 Write a rhyme or song explaining how figures of the
Scientific Revolution helped develop modern science.
 Include each of the following figures in your rhyme
or song
Darwin
Newton
Pasteur
Galileo
Dalton
Lister
• Madame de Pompadour
• Salons: gatherings for
aristocrats to discuss
new theories and ideas
• Philosophes: French
Enlightenment thinkers
who attended the salons
Madame de Pompadour
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The Encyclopédie
The Encyclopédie (continued)
Author of the Encyclopédie
• Major achievement of
• Denis Diderot and
the philosophes
• Begun in 1745;
completed in 1765
Jean Le Rond
d’Alembert
• Banned by the
Catholic Church
Frontspiece to the
Encyclopédie
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712–1778)
• Philosophized on the
nature of society and
government and wrote
the Social Contract.
• The Social Contract
•
Individuals forming a
society entered into a
“social compact” with one
another.
John Locke (1632–1704)
 Believed that all men were
equal.
 Believed that individuals
had natural rights, which
he defined as “life, liberty,
and estate.
Encyclopédie editor Denis Diderot
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
• Applied rational analysis to
the study of government
• Attacked the concept of
divine right, yet supported a
strong monarchy
• Believed that humans were
basically driven by passions
and needed to be kept in
check by a powerful ruler
Locke
(continued)
 Locke attacked the divine right of
kings and authoritarian
government.
 He promoted a constitutional
monarchy that derived its power
from the law and from the consent
of the people.
people
 He also believed that a
government’s responsibility was
to protect individual property
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Baron de Montesquieu
(1689–1755)
Montesquieu (continued)
• Separation of powers
• Identified three sorts of
governmental power
• Legislative
• Executive
• Judicial
• French noble and
political philosopher
• He is famous for his
theory of separation of
powers, which is
implemented in many
constitutions
throughout the world.
• The Spirit of the Laws
Frontspiece to The
Spirit of the Laws
Voltaire (1694–1778)
• Most famous philosophe
• Wrote plays, essays,
poetry, philosophy, and
books
• Attacked intolerance in
society, politics, and
religion.
• Championed social,
political, and religious
tolerance
Above all, Voltaire attacked
intolerance in society,
politics, and religion.
A famous quote usually
attributed to Voltaire states,
“I disapprove of what you
say, but I will defend to the
death your right to say it.”
Adam Smith (1727 – 1790)
Cesare Beccaria
 Father of Modern
Capitalism/Laissez
Capitalism/
Laissez--Faire
• Italian lawyer – opposed to
torture and other cruel
punishments.
• Believed punishments should
not be cruel or unjust.
• Advocated for fair trials and
equality of punishments .
• Opposed the death penalty.
Business activities that take place without
the interference of the government
 argued against the protection of home
industries by imposing tariffs
 Argued that in the long run it would be to
the nation’s advantage not to restrict
imports by tariffs.

 Government interference justified
only for the purpose of defense or to
extend or protect the rights and
liberties of citizens
 Wanted funding of public education.
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U.S. Government and Laws
 Our system of laws is a direct result of the ideas of the
Enlightenment:




LOCKE AND MONTESQUIEU
INFLUENCED THE AMERICAN
FOUNDING FATHERS AND THE
FRAMERS OF THE
CONSTITUTION MORE THAN
ANY OTHER PHILOSOPHERS.
Preamble to the Declaration of Independence: Natural Rights
Constitution: Separation of Powers
First Amendment: Free Speech and Freedom of Religion
Fourth to Eighth Amendments: Protections for the accused…
 No
unreasonable search and seizure
and Trial by Jury
 No Cruel and Unusual Punishments
 Due Process

Thomas Jefferson: Social Contract
 “A
little rebellion, now and then, is a good thing, and as necessary in
the political world as storms in the physical...It is a medicine
necessary for the sound health of government.”
Mary Wollstonecraft
Enlightenment and the Monarchy
 Enlightened despots = monarchs who embraced the
Enlightenment and allowed reform
• Women are born free & equal.
• Women can decide what is in
their own interest without
depending on their husbands.
• Equal education for girls &
boys is the only way women
can participate equally with
men.
 Wanted ONLY to strengthen own countries, did
NOT want to give up power
• A Vindication of the
Rights of Women
Maria Theresa (1740-1780)
• Habsburg ruler
• Central councils to
deal with problems
• Concerned with
welfare of peasants
 Extended authority of
royal bureaucracy over
that of nobilities to help
the peasants
Catherine the Great Activity
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
Read her biography.
Then try to imagine yourself as each one of the
following characters mentioned in her biography.
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







Peter III
A Nobel
A criminal
A serf
A member of the Cossacks
A student
A peasant
Write a sentence of stating what each person would
have thought of Catherine the Great's reforms
Write another sentence stating whether they would
have viewed her as an Enlightened Despot or Selfish
Ruler.
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The New Monarchs:
 Many philosophers believe the best form of
government is when the monarch respects the
peoples rights. These type of rulers became known
as the Enlightened Despots.
 Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia, believed
in this type of rule. He granted religious freedom,
reduced censorship, and improved education. He
called himself “the first servant of the state”.
 Joseph the II of Austria. Introduced legal
reforms and freedom of the press. He also allowed
freedom of worship. He abolished serfdom and
ordered peasants get paid for work with cash. The
nobles resisted his changes. After he died things
went back to the way they were before he ruled.
 Catherine the Great ruled Russia. She formed
a commission to review Russia’s laws. She allowed
religious freedom, religious toleration, and abolished
torture. She did not give the Serfs freedoms.
Using your notes, fill in the interactive graphic
organizer by describing how Enlightenment
ideas affected government
 Catherine expands the Russian Empire. In 2 wars
with the Ottomans she gained control of the North
Shore of the Black Sea. She expanded the
Empire into Poland. Russia became an
international power. During this time Britain had to
deal with colonial leaders in America who wanted to
cast off British rule and govern themselves
independently.
Deism
Deism (continued)
• Deists viewed God as the
• Deists believed in
“great watchmaker” whose
creation—the universe—
operated as smoothly as a fine
Swiss watch.
• Thomas Paine
• Benjamin Franklin
God but rejected
organized religion
• Morality could be
achieved by
following reason
rather than the
teachings of the
church
Lord Edward Herbert of Cherbury, founder of deism
Thomas Paine
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Art and Literature in the Age of
Reason
Reading During the Enlightenment
 Literacy:
 80% of men
 60% of women
 Baroque = grand and ornate style that preceded the
Enlightenment
 Two famous Baroque musicians = Bach and Handel
 Eventually leads to classical music with famous
composers like Mozart, Hadyn and Beethoven
 New style – more elegant and original
 Books were expensive (one day’s wages)
 Many readers for each book (20:1)
 Novels, plays, & other literature
 Journals, memoirs, “private lives”
 Philosophy, history, theology
 Newspapers & political pamphlets
“Must Read” Books of the Time
Bach
 organist and composer
 spent entire life in Germany
 while music director of Church
or Saint Thomas in Leipzig
composed Mass in B Minor
 got reputation of being one of
the greatest composers of all
time
 perfected baroque style
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Handel
• An 18th century Austrian
composer
• one of the great figures in the
history of music.
• A child prodigy, he began
composing music before he
was five.
• He was one of the leading
composers of the classic era.
• Three of his best-known
compositions are
• The Magic Flute
• Don Giovanni
• Marriage of Figaro.
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


1756 – 1791
Child prodigy
 Age 4 – Twinkle, Twinkle
 By age 12 had written a symphony,
oratorio, and an opera
 Spent most of his career in England.
 He was one of the greatest composers
of the Baroque era
 best known for his religious music.
 Composed Messiah.
 German-born composer
40th Symphony
Died poor in an unmarked grave
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 1732-1809
Joseph Haydn
 Austrian
 Europe leading composer
 Classical composer who spent
most of his adult life as
musical director for wealthy
Hungarian princes
 visits to England introduced
him to world of public
concerts rather than princely
patrons
 wrote The Creation and The
Seasons
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