•
"
a: caroline Prentis, 19(9), 95; Alice
JniYersiry Press, 1954), 85.
rience,· 406.
!,
On a spring morning in 1890, four
Ihousand Kansas farmers., some of whom
bad driven their leams as far as forty
miles, galhered in a grove of trees near
Olathe, Kansas., to hear a speech by
Populist orator Mary Elizabeth Lease. The
crowd cheered her on as she altaek;ed the
railroa(h, Wall Street Banken>, and
govemmem land policy.' In the summer
of 1890, Lease repealed the Olathe scene
several limes in many different Kansas
lowns. [n various slales of the West and
South, as Populism look hold in thaI
political sea5On, women were an important
70.
part
of the
uprising.
They
saw
an
opportuniry to participate in the debate on
the imponant economic and social issues
lienee," 406.
~,
WOMEN IN POPUUSM, 188&-1892
by Lawrence F- Roberts
72; Richmond, KonsaJ: A Land of
'Jkrior Lift (Lawrence, 1'5: Journal
ience,· 393.
lia; J.B. Lippincott Company, 1969),
of the pcrioo, and participate they did.
Through writing, speaking, and publishing
they played a significant part in the
development and articulation of the
political philos.aphy that resulted in the
creation of the People's (PopUlist) Party.
PopUlism grew OUt of the farmcn>'
alliances created afLer the Civil War to
meel a depression in agriCUlture. Poor
crops and a world surplUS of rommooitics
compounded the farmea' economic
problems. Convinced oC the need for a
Change in gCNcrnmcntal policy many
Carmen>
supported
the
short·lived
Greenback-Labor pany in 1880. The
Greenback appeal called for a substamial
increase in the amoum of paper money
which had been virtually eliminlltcd in
favor of gold after the Civil War. Dut a
lack of support for the new organization
prompted farmers, primarily in the South
and West, to dcsert direct political Elelion
and seek united economic action.
This decision found exprc~ion in lhc
creation of fannen>' alliances. These
alliances represented the farmen>' response
to the economic and social ronditiOM of
the perioo, when nearly eighty percent of
all Americans lived in a rural seUing and
over forty percenl of the nation's labor
Corce enrged in agriculture as a
livelihocx1. Increasingly large numbers of
the farm population found that the
economic conditions of the day worked
against them. A shortage of cirCUlating
currency and its correlate, high imeresl
rates, allraeted particular allention. The
alliances had two main goals: to
disseminate
agricultural
infonnation
pertaining LO new seeds, fertilizen>, and
farming techniques; and second, to
combine resources to purchase fann
implements and supplies, in bulk, at
wholesale prices. This, Ihey argued, would
rcduce the east to the individual fanner.
In addition, by pooling their crops and
manufaeturers,
selling directly 10
wholesalers, and retailers they hoped to
realize a greater net profit.
Initially the alliances rejected the idea
of entering politics. In 1889, S.B.
Alexander, President of the Slate Alliance
of North Carolina, declared thElt lhe
farmers' Alliance would refrain from
political activity.) The NaJiorfl11 Economist,
official ne"l'l'lipaper or the National
farmen>' Alliance and Industrial Union
(N.fA & I.U.), echoed this sentiment
declaring in an editorial, "a third political
party ....ill nOI be formed by these
organizations."" Co-operative efforts of
self-hclp, howevt':r, met defeat when
Carmcn> found bankcrs rcfusing to extend
credit to alliance stores, and manuraclurcn>
and mcrchants unwilling to sell directly to
16
alliance purehasing agents. Faced with
these problems, the a]\iilnce members
gradually turned La political action \0
accomplish their goals. In Mil}' 1891, their
activity culminated in the official creation
of the People's Party DO the nalionallevel.
In various slale.'i women played an
important role in the shift 10 political
actIVIty. Although one-founh of the
alliance membership reportedly were
women, they did nOL consider the
organization a woman's movement. S
Women were a major flletor in the work
force of the l880s. but their political rights
on the Slale and national level verged on
nonexistence. The 1880 census Identified
7,670,000 AmeriC<lns as c:lrning a
liveliho:xl from agriculture. Women
aceounted for almost 600,000 of thal
number, anll 35,000 listed lhemsel\'c1' as
farmers and planlers.6 Many or these
.....omen enguged in political aetivity und
l:njoyed a high level of participation in
bOlh Allianee and Populist progmms.
From the OUI.<;et the u!lill;"Jees
admitted women members. Any white
citizen over sixteen years of age, of gexxl
moral eharaeler, and who believed in u
Supreme
Being,
could
JOin
the
organization. Both mt'n and women
received the same secret word.~ and ritual
associated with membcrship.7 Whilt' .',ome
female members initially were hesitant to
speak out publicly, their self-doubt qUickly
faded. The ranks included such women as
Evangeline Usher, eorrespondenl for the
ProgreHil·e Fann.., of Ruleigtl, North
Carolina, whO declared in a September
1&N anicle: "r feel like I must intrude
again and us I am quile independenl of all
disfavor, I do not c.1.re whether you like
the inlrusion or nOl:,8 Bellie Gay of
Te;o;as, with ttle death of her hustland in
1880, inherited a farm to run. a mortgage
to payoff, and a child to rilbc. 9 Yet. she
still found time to work on ~half of lhe
Alliance. Sophia Hurden of Soulh D<ll:olu
also ran a farm and pmticip<lted in the
Alliance. A contemporary described her
farm and slock as well kept and elosed b'j
saying that nshe ploughed [] man's stim
and then drove eight miles to deliver a
lecture on the capabilities of woman.~ In
addition, Sophia Harden served as
secretary of (he South Dakota State
Farmers' Alliance. 10
Women such as Usher, Gay, Harden
and the thousands of other women
involved in agriculture saw the Alliance as
a means 01 salvation. "The Alliance has
come 10 redeem ","'oman from her
enslaved condition and pl:lce her in her
proper sphere," Gay \Wole, "she is
admined mto the organi7..ation as the
equal of her brother...: ll Allianees
rrovided women an opponumt)' 10
panieipute in the debates of {he day and
10 help find solutions (0 the problems
confronting the farmers and Iaoort'rs.
Indeed, Captuin Darden, a North Carolina
Stllle Alliance lecturer, t1dmilled that the
mosl dyntlmie allianees eonltlincd women
who regularl)' 3nended meetings. 1Z But
women did much more than allend
meetings. Through tht'ir speaking, writing,
and holding of Allianee offices, they
exercised innuem:e al the iM3le and
national levels of the organizalion.
Dy 1891 a number of women spoke
OUI Ihrough AlJitlnee newspapers. Mary
Lease edited the U"io" Lahor Press in
Kansas in 1&18, co~founded the Pueblo
Colorado W.'orkman the next year, and in
1890. beeame the editor of [he Newlon
Kan.ws CorwntJner. 13 Annie Diggs served
<JS cdito[·in-charge of Alliance material in
lhe La.....,ence JtJunw./ (Kans.as) in lhe
1880s, and in 1890 became editor of the
Topeka Advocate, the official paper of the
Kans.,s State Furmcrs' Alliancc. t4 Anna
C. Wail filled the samt' role on the
Lincoln Beacon (Nebra~kn).15 In 1890,
Mrs. Murion Todd edited the Chicago
P.xpreJJ (Illinois); Fli7..abeth WardaU
as,sumed Ihe same position on the Huron
Dakota Ruralist, the house p<Jper of the
~i';·"
'":" 1:;':.
~:
"
·'.,..ii
;
/
17
IDee. A contemporary described tier
1 and ~locli: as well k.epi and closed by
I1g that "me ploughed a man's !Olinl
Ihen drove eight miles to deliver a
~re on the capabilities of woman." In
ition, Sophia Harden served as
etary of the South Dakota State
rners' A1liance. tO
Women such as Usher, Gay, Harden
the thousands of mher women
lived in agrieulture saw the Alliance as
'Il:8la of :IoaMltion. "11le Alliance ha...
)e
to redeem woman from her
laved eondilion and place her in her
per sphere," Gay wrme, "she i."
1iued into the organiulllon as the
at of her brotheL.. :!! Alliances
vided women an opportunity to
licipale in (he dcbmes of the day and
help fUld solulions 10 the problems
Iromin~ the farmers and laborers.
eed, Captain D<.Jrden, a Nonh carolina
Ie Alliance lecturer, admillcd thai the
;[ dynamic alliances contained women
l regularly aLlended meelings. 12 BUl
nen did much more .han attend
~lingS. Through lheir speaking, writing,
: holding of Alliance offices, they
rcised influence at the Slale and
ional levels of the organu..ation.
By 1891 a number of women spoke
through Alliance ncwspapers. Mary
lSe ediled the Ul1ion Labor Press in
1S3S in 1888, eo·founded lhe Pueblo
'orodo Workman lhe nexl year, and in
(l, became lhe editor of the Newton
uas Commol1er. 13 Annie Digg.~ M'(Ved
::ditor.in-charge of Alliance malerial in
!JJ~'rel1ce loumal (Kansas) in the
:OS, and in 1890 became editor of the
Jelen AdvocaJe, the offici<.ll p<.lper of lhe
'1sas State Farmers' A1liance. 14 Anna
Wait filled the !l<Imc role on the
coin Beacon (NehnJs!t.1J)15 In 1890,
~ Marion Tool.! edited \he Chicago
Il'eSS
(Illinois); Elizabelh WardaH
limed lhe same posllion on the lIurol1
Iwta Rurali.st, lhe house puper of lhe
Soulh Dakola State Farmers' Alliance. 16
Anna Lindsley and May Garvin owned and
edited lhe Stafford Alliance Herald
(Kansas).17
Newspapers owned and ediled by
women provided a variety of approaches
to the issues of the day. All argued lhe
merits of morc eireulating currency. public
ownership of transporlalion, and the evils
of bankers and absenlee landlords. The
issues of woman's suffrage and prohibition
cremed le;;..~ agreement. One of the mosl
outspokenly feminist, alliance papers was
Emma Pack's, Ff1J7tJrr'.J »-,fe (Kansas).
Pack's first edilion argucd, as Other
women would, lhal Ihe mo.~t pressing
domeslic issues of concern 10 women were
part of the broader economic and PJlitical
problems f<.lcing the nalion. Ine only way
women rould s.:riously affeet those is..~ues
was by voting for those who made lhe
decisions regMding such questions. tS By
lhe second i;;..~ue woman's suffrage
dominaled the paper's pages_ Contribulors
10 the Fanner's Wife, im:luJing Fmma
Pack and Fannie McCormick among
alhers, allempled to creme a 'v,'llman's
mO'iemenl~ wilhin the Alliance in 1891,
with the organi7-""lLion of lhe National
Women's Alliance (NWA) which lhey
hoped would unite women from lhe
nation's cilies llnd farms inlo one powerful
reform group.19 The NWA was ullimalely
unsuccessful in its allempt5 to creale a
woman's movemenl wilhin lhe Alliance, or
lo gaIn support for woman's SUffrage or
lemperance. Pack's paper and dediealed
prosuf[mge sland illustr3led lhe dh'ision
lhal exisled wllhin lhe mnks of women
and within the ranks of lhe Alliance and
Populism regarding lhe queslions of
woman's suffrage and prohibilion. 20
Despite lhese differences, Pack and the
comribulors 10 her paper, were one more
example of lhe aelive role of women in
a!:'king questions and profXlsing an~wers 1O
the imporlant poli!ieal and econDmie i.,,-,ues
facing the nallon. Women's involvemenl
with the preM provided a censure·free
pIal form from which they could forcefully
argue the meriLS of the issues mCl'>l critical
10lhem.
In addilion to (heir prominence in
local and slale nevr.;p..lpcrs farm women
also eonlribuled (0 the official national
the
National
Alliance
newspaper
Economist. The edilor informed readers
"[we do] not reserve a 'lea cup comer' or
a 'woman's department' for (our] lady
friends. [We] give lhem a fair field in
[our) b<'.st columfLS, and appreeiale every
word ... ."21 Women contributed regularly
to lhe Economist. Writing on such sUhjeets
as the currency ljuestion, tariffs, and land
legislalion. 22 When the People's Party
officially came into being in 1891, sarah
Emcry, a long lime supporter of the
Alliance, became lhe as..'\OCiate edilor of
Ihe official pany ne\liSparr, the St. Lou.is
He"" Fonlln (Missouri).2
Along ....11h lheir aelivities in lhe press,
by 1891 \l,omen held a vanery of official
posllions wilhin numerous slale alliances.
In Kansas and Indiana women were
eleeled vice-president of the Slale alliances.
The alliances In MichIgan, South Dakota.
and Texas elected women as slale
s.:crelaries. Ilhnois. Mis..;,ouri, Rorida,
North Cmolina, Kansa.~, Nebraska, and
Minnesola all hild women as slale and
county aih.lnce leclurers. 24 Women alse
accounted [or lwelve of the ninely-four
delegate5 to the November 17, 1891
meeling DJ" the Supreme Council (lhe
governing bcx.Jy of the N.FA & I.U.).
Fannie MeCorma::k served as chairwoman
or lhc Kansas delegation 211 lhm meeting
and women dclegates s.:rved on several
eommillees and imroouced resoluliofLS. 25
These
various
aelivilies
had
considerable impact. The press has always
ocen an imfXlnant agenl in polilical
socialiwtlon. Circulalion of the NtUiOfllJJ
F:conomisl alone exceeded lOO,OCKJ. 26
Leonidas L. Polk, president of rhe N.F.A
&
loU.,
slaled thal Ihe alliances'
18
newspapers and lecturers servcd as the
primary tool in the education and agitation
of the people.1,7 It has been argued \hal
Populism's greatC5t achievement was Ihe
political C1nd social education of the
nalion's citizens.'lll Elizabeth Higgins,
reminiscing on lhe period in her bOOk: Out
of /he West, echoed IhCR sentiments. She
wrote, ~People commenced to think who
had never thought before, and people
talked who had seldom spoken. They
discu~d income tax and single tax; IhC)'
lalKed of government ownership and the
abolition of private pro;wrty; fiat money
and the unity of labor." Reportlng on a
lecture by Mary Lease the Kansas
Commoner MOle, "her first speeCh made
so many converts thal {they] fonhwith
engaged \ner J to speak in Ihe opera house
again last Saturday nighl.,,30 Sarah Emery
achieved equally good results with her pen.
The ehairman of the Union LabOr Parly,
a precurwr of the People'S Pany Ihat had
eompeted in the t888 elections in K[Jn~s,
argued thal Emery's book, S"ven Finatlcial
COl1Spiracies, did more than any olher
piece of material to inform and arouse thc
farmers and laborers of Kansas. 3l OUl of
this ferment came the demands for rdorm
thaI ultimalely found their way into
alliance, and finally Populist nalional
plalform.~. lbe f<lct thal ".-omen bOlh
wrote for and helped to run several of the
major alliance ne'NSpapers, combined wilh
their positions as leeturers and officers
within the alliances gave them greater
influence lhan lheir numbers might
sugges!.
In the Kansas election of 1890 the
effons of the womcn bOre fruil. That
summer. the People's Party offiCially came
inlo being as a slale party. And in lhelr
first eleetion in November Ihe organization
won a m:ljority of lne sems in the lower
house of the Kansas legislature. 'Ibis gave
thcm the righl to selcct a United Statcs
senalor for Ihc slale. A right they
cxerci~d in 1891 Oy rephdng RepUblican
John J. Ingalls, an eighteen year veteran,
wilh William A PeITer, one of lhe first
People's Party senators to go to
Washington, Critics and supponers alike
recognized the impol'tance of women in
lhe movement. Victor Murdock., a
newspaper repol'ter of the day, argUed
lhal from Ihe oulSet women led the
as.'iault on the old pal'ties,32
While many women pal'tieipated in
lhe ]890 campaign, lhree women played a
key role, Annie Diggs served as ro-editor
of the Topeka AdvocaJe, the official
newspaper of the Kansas FarmeB'
AJllanee. in addition to giving many
leelures. A contemporary who attended
her speeches described her as very small,
barely five feel tal\, weighing less than 100
po'.Jnds, with ~a dangerous IOngue,"J) The
Kan~s People's Party asKed Diggs to
speaK at Ine first grand rally of the
campaign. 34 In addilion, Ihe party
designated her 10 be their official
respondent to the speeches of RepUblican
Sen<llor lngalls. She gave several SpeeChC5
in thai capaciJy during the 1890 campaign.
Unable 10 refule Digg.~' arguments the
opposition press engaged in personal
attacb.. The Salina Daily Republican
accused her of being unhappy with her
stalion in life. Di~s perhaps felt God had
made a mistaKe in maKing her a woman,
rather than a man, and she made it her
life WorK to correct the mist.aKe. As a
result, she road become a ""ery masculine
woman, rampant, rabid and furious. The
wild-eyed SibylS of the AJliance."3S
If Annie Diggs h<ld a "dangerous
tongue," Mary Elullbeth Lease was even
more effeelive. A dynamic personality,
Lease was in more demand than any Dlher
Populis! speuKer in Kan~s, (n the summer
of 1890 she gave over 160 speechC5,
earning Ihe sobriquet, "The Kansas
Pylhocss".36 Friends and foes alike atteMed
La her persuasive lectures. Full of power
and energy, she helped "solidiI}' and
cr)'stLllil,e" Ihe support of thOse alliance
~
•
19
n J. Ingalls, an eighLeeo year veteran,
1 William A PetTer, one of Ihe timt
lple'~
Party senators to go to
:sbin81oo. Crilics and suppocterr; alike
JgIlW:d !he importance of women in
movement Vietor Murdo;:k, a
ISp3per repcrler of Ihe day, argued
1 from Ihe outset women led tbe
~ult 00 the old panies.32
While many women p:lnicipated in
1890 campaign, three women played a
role. Annie Diggs served as co..edilOr
the TopelaJ Adl.'OCaJe, the official
..spaper
or
Ihe
Kansas
iance, in addition
Farmers'
to giving
many
:urcs.. A contemporary who alleoded
speeclles described her as very small,
ely five feet lall, weighing less than 100
mds, \\lith "a dangerous tongue:)) The
'l5a5
People's Party
as~ed
Diggs to
al:. a{ the firsl grand rally of the
1paign.J4 In addition, the party
ignsled her 10 be their official
iXJDdent 10 the speeches of Republican
lalar Ingalls. She gave several speeches
hat capacity during the 1890 campaign.
able La refule Diggs' arguments the
IO:loilion press engaged in personal
teks. The Salina Daily RepublicQJt
used her of bemg unhappy with her
ion in life. Diggs perhaps felt God had
de a mi.~tak.e in making her a woman,
let than a man, and she made it her
work LO correct the mislake. As a
JII, she had become a .....ery masculine
nan, rampanl, rabid and furious. The
l.eyed Sibyls of the Alliance."J5
If Annie Diggs had a "dangerous
gue," Mary Eliz.abeth Lease was even
re effcctive. A dynamic personaliry,
lSe was in more demand [han any orher
)ulist speak.er in Kansas. In the summer
1&Xl she gave over 160 speeches,
ning the SObriquet, "The Kansas
hocr.!i".J6 Friends and foes alike attested
her persuasive lectures. Full of power
I energy, she helped "solidify and
.talize" the support of those alliance
members who hesitated to baek. the
People's Party.)7 Lease "could recite the
multiplicalion table and set a crowd
hooting or hurrahing at her will," wrore
relXlMer and author William Allen
Whlte. 38 Tom McNeal, reporter for the
opposition TopelaJ Capital (Kansas),
echoed those sentiments. Lease was a
master at swaying an audience. "If she had
suggested that they proceed to hang the
neareit bank.er," McNeal wrote ... "tbe rope
would have been furnished.")9 Those
brave enough to ehallenge Lease in debate
usually regrelled it. J.W. Ayers, a Kansas
farmer, attempled 10 question her, but
after the firs[ exchange he was "knod..ed
out and whirling toward the door...40 F.A
McNeal, a Kansas Republican, simply
refused 10 debate Lease, and characterized
her as (he greatest orator he had ever
heard. 41
Sueh
ability
undoubtedly
prompted lhe decision by the Kansas
People's Party 10 ask Lease (0 address the
opening session of the Party's fi~t
convemion. 42
The third member of this group,
Sarah Emery, made a comribution of
equal imporlance. In 1887 Emery wrote
Seven FinQJtcio.l Conspiracies W1,ich Have
Enslaved tile AmericQJt People, a vehemeOl
atlack. on United States economic polic)'
since [he Civil War. Over 100,000 cople~
were in cirCUlation in 1890. Well-received
in the A.lliance press, the book was widel~
read and quoted by POpuliSI !>peak.crs.4
Alliance newspapers considercd Emery's
work their strongcst weapon in attracting
membe~ to tile People's Pany. [It) "seems
to have pierced the thick blubber of thc
Republican whale," one nev.'5paper slatcd.
"Judging from the rage, pain, and lerror of
the beast, his vimls have been touched_ H44
Contemporary s.:holars also lauded Ille
importance of the book. Willi"m D.P.
811."5, edilor of tile Encyclopedia of Social
Rf!Jonn (1898), a~rted lhat tile book.
contributed signifieanUy to financial
his(ory.4S Sarah Emery proved equally
effective on the lecture eireuit. Described
as a "force of superior intellect", she could
mak.e people "cry or cheer" with her
delivcry.46 Jooeph Darling, a Norton,
Kansas farmer, declared "her equal is I10t
living. 047
Mary E. Lease and sarah Emery
were controversial figures in lhe Alliance
and the People's Party. Lease, often
contradictory and inconsistent, was always
driven by humanitarian principles. 48 Emery
and Lease have been accused of saddling
lhe PopulisLs with the epitheLs of "nativist"
and "anti-Semitism" because of their
references to Sllylock., Roths.:hild, Jl:Ilri.5h
bankers, and British gold. 49 One wriler hali
assigned most of the re~ponsibility for the
nativism v.1thin the People's Party La those
Who favored woman's suffrage and
prohibition which, unsurprisingly, meant
moslly women. 5O Dismissing, however,
women who were pra;uffrage and
prolemperance as part or a radical fringe
elemcnt within the Alliance and the
Populist Parly discounts lhe significant
contributions of many of these same
women
to
lhe
articulation
and
development of Populism. Or, 10 refer [Q
their efforts as "adding color" [Q the
campaign betrays a bias concerning (heir
substantial
contributions
to
the
movemenL S1 Other s.:holars, by placing
the rhetorie of Lease and Emery, and of
the A.llianee and the Populisl Parry in
context have argued persuasively that the
words used and the lOne of delivery were
no diITcrent than tho.\C employed by lxXh
major political panics and in much of the
nation's literature and many of iLs
ncwspapt:rs.S2
Although Diggs, u:ase, and Emery
achieved more fame [han ma;l, many
olher women also participated in lhe
popUlist movement. In the summer of
1890 a iarge number of Kansas women
cngIlged in giving lectures, writing for and
running newspapers, and organizing rallies
that COntributed significantly to the
'0
political uprising that gripped Kansas. The
Winfield
American
NOl'lconjormiJ;l
(Kansa:s), reporting on the success of IWO
demon'itralions' in Em~ia,
announced "Mrs. Vickery with her
~mollSler
siSlers...in the allianee, have earned lhe
nonors quile a.<; mueh :l~ an" four times
tbe number of men.·5) Mrs. Fanny
MeCormack, People's Party candidate for
Slille Superintendent of Publie Imtrucliun,
campaigned throughout the stale.54 And
B"n II. Clover, plesklem of the Kansas
Farmers' Alliance, appointed ;J commillee
of five women to creale a group !O
educate and inform A1!i,Jnce members on
[he important i.\.~ues of Itc day.55 ben
the opp:JSilion newspaper [!'Ie Salina IXiily
Republican, recognized [he signiCleam role
women tayed
in
Ihe
1890
Knnr.as
ele:tion.5 If the Slale of Kansas served [a
leilj Ihe Farmers' Alliancr \0 Ihr n;lljpllrll
People's Parly, as some have sugge~ted,
recognillon must he given to the wom;:n
who hrlpcd le<iu lhr alliances anu the
People's Pany in Kansas. 57
The rae! lh<J{ wumen h:Jd Iimil;:d
in K.Jnsas aided thrir elTons.
They gained the right lo VOle in school
clce!lons in 18M, and in 1887. lhe
franchise was eXlended to munieipal
elections.58 Certainly some of lhol;<: in
leadership posilions within the AJhiln~e
and the People's Parly drew on lheir
ex~nenee in t~e suffrage mOyemenl :0
aid them in lhrir OIhrr eflorls. LikcWl5f'
many women in the alliances and in
PopUlism gained some poliLical experience
in v'ilrious prohihition campdigns between
lhe 18(1!s and the 1890s. In many (;lIses
though lhe mO~1 cmim:11l ....omen le;li.Jers
in the Allillnee ,md later the Populist Parly
made woman's sUffnlge amI prohibilion
subscf'ilen\ \0 the larger eeonomie and
poli'.ieat goals of the Alliance and the
People's Parry.59
The
women
invoh~d
111
lhe
mov'ement regarded their role as ~r[ecliY
logical. "Women arc citizens, and have life,
sUf~mge
hberty, and property to defend and
Iransmil... and therefore have' a righl 10
discuss all queslions that affect the welfare
or the home,~ wrOle Hattie Huntington.
'To be truly woma~ does not imply that
we shall be idiots.
This connection of
domesti~' and poliu,,;al wnccms enaoled
women
to
justily
their
fXllitical
panieip2tion and 10 maintain lhal they had
imporlanl funelions 10 pcriorm in the
home and the governmenL 61 Women read
AlUlI.,ee papers, attended meeting.~ and
kept
them:IC1Ye5
informed
on the
imporwnt L,,~ues o[ the day. Although they
lack.ed the righl o[ suffrage, many agree{!
with alli,mee Ireturer Mrs. W.E. D::Jvi~ that
it was their "dUlY to give good adviee to
our husbands and brothers; if lhey don't
lllke II that's their loss.,,62
Women, hCNr'ever, realized that poor
ehoiccs 31 Ihc on\.O\ hex '\liDrktd hiJflhhi~
on a:1 alike. Allie Marsh, correspondent
fur t~.e Raleigh Progreuive Fwmer (North
Carolina), st,lled in ,1 leelure that women
had no objection :0 the male monopoly of
the lranchise as long as thcy used it with
vigJlanee. 63 This gentle prodding even
carried over into ,.:mg. CIani M. Egan, in
a luni,;u \llleu, "Are You Gning \0 Vote
Anght". put Ihe question lhu~'
The ool\ct oox i~ mIghty,
It rules o'er all the land;
You hold lhe nations safely
Within yuur gLXX-l riglll ban(J;
Will you use the pDv.'er wisely,
And work with all your mighl
To !iave our glorious count!)'?
Are you going 10 vote arighcfA
The trouble one woman wrole, was that
"some men ean't see beyond their nose
l~icJ."U'i Another argued IhaI if men would
not 1i~len to common scn.l.t'. they should
be len "al home on elec!i\ln day 10 rock
Ihc babies, while the women go to lhe
polls lind work [or the good of the cause
in .... hleh they arc cn!lsted ..·(h
~-----,
•
21
ty, and property to defend and
;mil... and therefore have a right to
ISS
aU questions lhal arreCI Ihe welfare
home," wrote Hallie Huntington.
be truly woma~ doe~ nm imply that
ihaU be idiots.
Thi~ connection of
estic and political concerns enabled
len
to justify
their
political
dpation and to maintain that Ihey had
]c
:lr19nt functions 10 perform in the
e and the governrnem. 61 Women read
nee papers, at/ended meetings and
themselves informed on lhe
lI1ant is5.ues of the day. Allhough they
:d lhe righl of suffrage, many agreed
alliance leClurer Mrs. W.E. Davis that
IS their "duly 10 give good adviee to
husbands and brothers; if they don't
it that's their lo:s.s:62
Women, however, realized lhat poor
~ at the Ixtllot box worked hardships
'II alike. Allie Marsh, correspondent
1e Raleigh ProgrrHive Fanner (North
lina), slated in a lecture Ihal women
10 Objection 10 the male monopoly of
hmrhise as long as they u.sed il wilh
nce. 6J This gentle prcx:lding even
xl over inlo song. Clar<l M. Egan, in
led tilled, "Are You Going 10 VOle
ll", put the question thus:
The ballot box is mighty,
It rules o'er all the land;
You hold lhe nmions safety
Within your good righl hLlnd;
Will you use the power wisely,
And work wilh all your mighl
To save our glorious counlry?
'\Te you going 10 Vale arighl?M
:rouble one woman wrole, was that
~ men can'l see beyond Iheir nO".C
55 Another argued thai if men would
sten to common sense, Ihey should
1 "at home on election day to rock
abies, while lhe women go 10 the
and work: for the gOCld of the cause
ich lheyare enlisled:(,{,
To aid the "cause," womcn advocates
voiced some of Ihe earliest cail' for lhe
Alliances: to reject the traditional panics
and join in forming a third party on the
national level. One such appeal came from
Mary
Lease's
Colorado
Workmall:
"...farmers and laboring men will prooobly
learn, after a few more years of toil and
starvation, that one of the im!XlSSible
things in Ihis world is 10 oblam the repeal
of bad laM throogh the parties that
enaeled lhem.,,67 Merlmda Sisins, a
columni.'l for lhe Nmional Ecofwmi.'>'I,
made a similar suggestion for lhe creminn
of a lhird pany. If lhe farmers would only
heed the advi,e of an old woman, aml
enter the race they could "eleel e\"CfV
officer from prcsidem to con.l.table."QI
Wilhin a month Sisins clamored for action:
"...will you farmers and laborers unite
togelher al the ballol bolO, or will you wait
unlil there will be no remedy bul the
bayonel?"69 BCltic Gay C3Stlgaled mcn for
stiel::ing with the old panles and ch<lllenged
them 10 be indcpcndem. "Any man thut
will Soily stick to the old p<Jnies...is a
coward, and deservcs In be robbed for he
has lost his manhoo::L, she dec\<Ired. "Let
us have a peoples: president in 1892.... I
am with you; through the light be men,
and demand your rights in the union.',70
Despile the success in Kan;;as in
1890, lhe call for a People's Pany on the
nmional level mel defeat when the
Supreme Council of the Nation'll F<lTTllCrS'
Alliance Lind Industrial lInion (N.F.A &
LLJ.) mCl in Ocala, florida. on December
3 of thal year. Annie Diggs, and other
women lobbied 01 Ocain, but many in lhe
Alliance opposed forming a new.' party,
believing thm the entrance of the F3rmers'
Alliance inlo politics would CLiUSt: its
dOVr'nfall. 7t MOSI of lhc opposition
occurrt:d in lhe South, where loyall)' to the
Democratic Pony (a legae)' of the Civil
WLlr) remained strong. Digg~, however,
hM even failed to gain the ul1ilnimous
support of her fellow Kans.an~. The
chairman of thc Kansas delegation thoUghl
it premalure 10 la11:: about a national third
party.n However, those pressing for a new
political organization agreed at Ocala La
meel in Fcbruary of 1892 to reconsider
the question,
The compromise reOKhed at Ocala
soon faded. Unhappy with the Florida
meeting, the more radical members of lhe
Alliance called fur a reform convention to
meet in Cincinnati in May of L891, in
order to form a national third party.
Delegates 10 thai meeting inelnded lhe
editors of all Alliance new:'ipapcrs, several
as has becn mentioned above, were
women. Sarah Emery served on Doth the
Plulform Commillee and the Nalional
Commillee (the elOeeutive bo:Iy of the new
paTly}.73 Those opposed to forming a new
pulilie.al organization .o;cnt few delegales 10
lhe gathering, Indeed, the
South
conlribuled le.'i.'i than fOTly delegates, out
of 1,400 who allended. On the other
hand, :he KanSoils delegation numbered
400, who this time, united on lhe need for
a new puny.74 The May 1891 meeting
resulted in the official creuLion of a
national People's Party. In an effort 10
unite with Ihe Farmers' Alliance the
Cincinnati convention poslponed action on
a lime and place for a nmional nominaling
c,]fivenlion until after lhe N.F.I\. & tU.
met in Februal')' of 1892.75
However, lhe Farmers' Alliance
remuincd heSllant to join the People's
Pany. When lhe Supreme Couneil of the
N,F.A & LU, held its annULII meeting al
Indianapolis on November 17, 1891, tht:
agenda made no proVision to discuss a
third party. The ninety-four delegates did,
however, elect officer.' lhal favored the
People's Party,76 Prominent dclegotes
included Mary LeLlSC, Annie Diggs, S<lrah
Emery uml Uellie Gay, in addition 10 eighl
other women active in Alli.'lfice politics. n
With lhe election of officers favorable 10
11 new nLiliona] political org<lniza!ion,
everything seemed in order for a merger
22
of the Farmers' Alliance with the People's
Party when lhe Alliance mel in February
of 1892 in 51. Louis. Once again several
women served as delegates when the
N.FA & I.U. convened in St. Louis. In
addition, the delegatcil elcclw women to
convention offices and commil\ees. By
unanimous voice VOle they elected famous
5uffrageLLe Frances Willard as vice·
president of the meeling. 711 As wiLh many
conventions, some of the most important
battles
look
place
in
the credentials
comminee. 'That group made every effort
10 seal delegates favorable to joining the
Alliance to the People's Party. A key
member of the commillee, Mary Stevens
of Ohio, impr~d those who appeared
before Ihc group as being "the brightest
member of the body.-one who would have
her own way, or who would be supplied
with a perfeclly satisfaclOry rea'i(ln why."79
These delegates in turn selected a group
of fifteen, including Mary Lease and Mrs.
Deb~, a Texas doctor, to meet with the
~ecutive
Commiltee of the Peoplc's
Party.8lJ As a result of thaI meeting the
National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial
Union decided to actively support thc new
political party. The two groups announced
that on July 4, 1892 a national nominating
convcntion would be held in Omaha,
Nebraska. At last the Allianees had joined
the people's Party.
When the convention gathered in
Omaha, Ihe People'S Party nominated
James B. Weaver, a retired Union general
from Iowa, for presiden!. In recognitiOn
of her contributions to the cause, Mary
Elizaocth Lease rcceived the honor of
making Ihe seconding speech. S1 Having
made major contributions toward creating
the Populist Party, women now turned to
the task of helping thaI P.1rty win thc
election. Once again they picked up lheir
pens and prepared for the lecture
platform.
Women contributed the same energy
and intensity to the new cause Ihat had
marked their years in the Alliance
movement. Annie Diggs toured California,
speaking to thousandS in thirteen cities in
thirteen days.82 She also published scathing
articles in the press, attacking the old
patties' politiCS. Mindful that the
government'1 policies worked hardship on
both the farmer and the urban poor,
Diggs castigated the traditional parties fOl
the conditions in the cities of America.
ThCR policies, she charged, resulted in
thousands of unemployed and bore
responsibility for "the famine·pinched,
cmaciated babies, sweltering and ga~ping
in foul allcys, reeking with green slime,
fetid with the stcnch of offat, horrible with
vcrmin. ooSJ Mary Lease campaigned in
several slales of the South with
presidential nominee Weaver.84 Sarah
Emery returned to the lecture platform. In
various states the women involved in the
Alliances actively campaigned for the new
party. an Scptemocr 17, 1892, Mary
Lease wrote, "The united and emballled
hosts of organiZed labor will reseue the
perishing and send forth the sanitary angel
of justice with the naming sword of lioctty
to drive from our land the miasma of
poveny and sin... ."&5" Women, first in the
Alliances and then in the People's Patty,
had demonstrated that they, as well as
men, could wield thai sword wilh
considerable effectivencss.
Too often historians have seen only
Ihe unique••the name~ or Lease, Diggs,
and Emery are duly noted, as they should
be··bul to stop there is unfair to Ihe
thousands of WGmen who parlicipated in
Ihe alliances and the Populist Patty. II has
been argued that although women were
able 10 "express themselves within lhe
movemcnl...lhey and their concerns were
never fUlly integrated into it."86 S'Jeh a
view is 100 narrow. The inability to win
suppon for woman's suITrage and
prohibition on the national level does nm
indicatc a failure by women to achieve
thcir domeslic and political goals. It may
I
i
H
'
.
•
,
...;.-------------------------l'
23
::d their years in the Alliance
!Denl Annie Diggs toured california,
i.Dg to lhousands in thirteen citle/; in
:n ~ 82 She also pUblished scathing
s in the press, attacking the old
&'
poliLics. Mindful lhal the
llInent's poIicie5 worked hardship 011
the farmer and the urban p:lOr,
castigaled the traditional parties for
Jllditioos in the cities of America.
i policies, she charged, resulted in
1ncl, of unemployed and bore
lSibility for "the famine-pinched,
flled babies, swellering and gasping
II aJl~ reeking with green slime,
rrilh the stench of offal, horrible with
11.083 Mary lease campaigned in
II states of the South with
enlial nominee Weaver. 84 Sarah
indicate an unrealistic apectation of how
quickly such things could be accomplished
in a plUralistic democracy. As many have
noted much of what the Populist and
Feminist sought, including suffrage and
pmbibilion, came 10 pass a generation
laler.
Women played an important role in
Ihe Fanner's Alliance and the People's
Party. They attended meetings {indeed in
some local alliances women members
outnumbered
men),87
held
office,
pUblished and wrote for Alliance
newspapers, gave numerous speeches
urging reform, and in\lol\led themselves in
polilicking on all levels of the ALliances
and the Populi5t Party. ALthough a
NOlliS
, returned to the lecture platform. In
IS Wiles the women involved in the
res actively campaigned for the new
On september 17, tB92, Mary
wrole, '7he united and embattled
of organized labor will rescue the
,ing and send forlh the sanitary angel
lice with lbc naming sword of Uberty
ive from our land the miasma of
ty and sin...."85 Womcn, first in the
ces and then in the Pcople's Party,
lemonSU':ned that Ihey, as well as
could wield thai sword with
lerable elIectiveness.
:00 often historians have seen only
nique--the names of lease, Diggs,
:mery are duly noted, as they should
It to Stop there is unfair to the
mcls of women who participated in
lianees and the Populist Party. It has
argued that although women were
10 "o.press themselves within the
lIlent...lhey and Iheir concerns were
[ully integrated into il."86 Such a
is 100 narrow. The inability to win
111. [or woman's
SUffrage and
'ition on the national level does not
te a faiture by women to al;hieve
domestic and political goals. Il may
minority group in both movemeQls,
women were recognized, held positiOns of
importance, and
made a
pn'Iitive
contribution to both crusades. And much
of what Populism did accomplish had a
\lery real impact, dire~ and indirectly, on
(he lives of women.
Emerson Hough
lamcnting on the absence of women in
wrillen history wrote that the principal
figure of the American We5t had been
"the gaunt and sad-faced woman silting in
the fronl seal of the wagon."89 But he
complained, her story had yet to be told.
As historians fill in the partiCUlars, the
reatization emcrges that the influence and
in\lol\lement of women pcnneates the tale
of United Slales history.
1. Donald H. Eckroyd. "AIl AnaIr;.i5 and E\lalualion of Populist Political campaign
Speech Making in Kansas, 1890-1894", (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Iowa, 1949),
lL
2. U.S. Department of Interior, census office, [U.S.DJ.], Statistics of the Popu/aJion of
the United Siales al the Tenth Census, June 1, 1880: Population, l;xili; & 712
The Alliances were composed of several different group.-; that merged to fonn the
two primary groups, the National Farmers' ALliance and Industriat Union and the
National Farmers' Alliance. For general information see Nelson A Dunning, (ed.)
The Fannen' AllimTce and AgricullWal Digest (Washington: ALliance Publishing Co.,
1891); Raben C. McMalh Jr., Populist Vanguard (Chapel Hill: University of North
carolina Press, 1975); Lawrence Goodwyn, The Populist Moment, (New York., 1978);
John D. Hicb, The Populist Revolt, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1961).
3. Washington National Economisl, 14 March 1889.
4. Ibid., II January 1890.
5. McMath Jr., Populist Vanguard, 67.
6. U.S.D.I., Tenth CeflSw, l:776-801.
7. Washington National Econom.ist, 14 March 1889; Raleigh Progressive Farmer, 12 June
1888,
8. Raleigh Progressive Fanner, ciled by Julie Roy Jeffrey, "Women in the Southern
Farmers' Alliance: A Reconslruction of the Role and Status of Women in the Late
19th Century South," Feminist Studies, 3 (Fall 1975),77.
,
24
9. Annie L. Diggs, "Women
In
the Allian~e." Arenu. JUI)' 1892,6:170.
10. Leuer, Nellie C. lIall, tiled by W, SOO!! Morgan. lJislOf)' of lhe Wheel and AI/innee
and the Impending Revolwwn (Washington: Alhance Publishing Co., 1891),343.
11. Dunning, red.), Fannerr' Al/ian.ce, 309.
12. Raleigh hogressive Fanner, 25 February 1890.
13. Topekn AdmcaJe, 4 June 1890; Edward T. James, (ed.), Notable American Women.'
A Biographical DictiollllJ)l, 3 vals. (cambndge: Harvard University press, 1971), 2:381.
14.
Jamc.~,
(Cd.), No/able Am",;cd!l
Woltl~n,
1:48L.
15. Winfield Amt'ricdIl Nonconfonnisl, 27 NO'Iember 1890.
16. Diggs, "Women," AU1llJ, July 1892, 6:174; Huron Dakota Ruralisl, tiled by
Washington National Economist, U January 1891.
17. Winfield American Nonconjonnisl, 22 May 1890.
18. Marilyn Dell Brady, "Populism and Feminism in a Newspaper by and for Women of
lhe Kansas Farmers' Alliance, 1891-1894," Kansas History, 7(4) (Wmter 1984/5): 284.
19. Ibid.
20. Brady, "Populism and Feminism," &n.\·as History, 7(4) (Wimer 1984/5): 286; Wilda
M. Smith, "A Half Century of Struggle: Gaining Woman Suffrage in Kansas." Kimsw
His/ory, 4(2), (Summer 1981): 90.
21. Washingron NaJionaJ Economist, I October 1892.
22. For a representative sampling of anicles see: Topeka Advocafe, 20 February, 11 June
1890; Wwhingron NaJiona/ Economist, 8 March, 31 Muy, 19 July 1890; 24 January,
7 March, 27 June 1891.
23. James, (ed.),
NO/{lbll~
American Women, 1:582.
24. Wwhington National Economist, 13 June, 28 NO\Iember, 31 October 1891; Dig&$,
"Women," Arena, JUly 1892,6:172.
25. Washington National Economist, 2B November 1891.
26. Goodwyn, Populist Moment, 90.
27. Topeka AdvocaJe, 17 Deeembcr 1890.
,
•
,
25
W,
11.11y 1892,6:170.
In,
History 01 the Wheel and Alliance
28. O. Gene Clanton, /(J1JUas Populism (Lawrence: University Press of Kanw, 19(9),
233.
29. Elizabelh Higgin5, Qui of the Ww. (New Yorl<., 1902), 133-136.
liance PUblishing Co., 1891),343.
30. Newlon KLJnsas Comnwner, 2 November 1888.
31. Sarah E.V. Emery, Seven Fumllda/ Conspirade! l.f'hich HI1IJe Ensfa'>'fd lhe AmenrlJ/l
1es, (00.), Nalahle AmeriC'1J/l Women:
larvard Univershy press, 1971), 2:38L.
•
People, (Lansing. Michigan: Roben Smith and Co.. 1894), 105-107.
32. Topek4 AdvocaJe, 3 December 1890; SaliM Daily Republican, 29 January 1891;
Victor Murdock, Folks, (New York., 1921),99.
33. Eck.royd,
~Populi~\
POlitical campaign Speech
Mak.ing.~
1!6.
er 1890.
34. TopeluJ Advocate, 20 August 1890.
Huron Dalwla Ruralist, ciled by
"'1.
35. Salina Daily Republican. 3 Oclober 1890.
~.
36. William E. Connelley, Kansas and Kllmans. 5 vols. (Chicago: Lewis Publi~hing Co.,
1918) 2:\ 149; James, (ed.), NO/llbfe Ameriran Women, 2=.'l81.
n a Newspaper by and for Women of
11l! His/Of')', 7(4) (Wimer }9S415): 284.
37. Topeka AdvQ("we, 30 July lINO.
38. William Allen While. 1he Autobiography of William AUe" White, (New Yorl<.:
Macmillan, 1946), 218.
"Y,7(4) (Wimer 1984/5): 286; Wilda
~ Woman Surfrage in Kan!\as," Knnsas
39. T.A McNeal, U11t'fl Knruas Will Ymmg, (Nl:W York: M<lcmil1an, 1922),2.12.
40. Bumon free Lance, 22 March 1890, cited try Ecl<.royd,
m
JpekJlAdvocaJe, 20 February, 11 June
h, 31 May, 19 July 1890; 24 January,
"Popul~~l
Political Campaign
Speech Mal<.ing," 118.
41. Carlelon Bcals, The GreaJ Rel-'olt and l/J Leaders, (New Yorl<.: Abelard-Schuman,
19(8), I l
42. Topeka Adl'Orale, 20 August 1890.
November, 31 October 1891: Diggs,
43. Annie L. Diggs, 17Ie Siory of Jeny SimpJon, (WiChita, Kansas: Jane Simpson, 1908),
88.
44. NewlOn Kansas Commoner, 19 Oclober 1888.
r 1891.
45. Wilham D.P. Bliss, (ed.), The Encydopt'dia of Social Reform, (Nl:W Yorl<.: Arno Prcss,
1898), 1246.
46. Wmfield Ameriran No"confonni-<t, 9 OClaner 1890.
47. IbilJ., 16 OClober 1890.
26
48. Dorothy Rose Blumberg, "Mary Elizabeth
History, 1 (Spring 1978), 14.
~,
Populist Orator: A Profile," Knnsas
49. Walter T.K.. Nugent, The Tolerant Populists, (Chicago: Universiry of Chicago Press,
1963), 83.
50. Ibid., 121.
51. Clanton, Knnsas Populism, SO.
52. Pauline Adams and Emma S. Thorton, A Populist Af.foult: Sarah E. Van De Von
Emery 0" American Democracy 1862-1895, (DO'W'ling Green Slale UniversifY Popular
Press, 1982), 87-110.
53. Winfield American Nonconfomwl, 11 September 1890.
54. Topeka AdVOCale, 20 August 1890.
55. Ibid., 28 May 1890.
56. Salina Daily Republican, 3 December 1890.
57. Goodwyn, Populist Momenl, 135.
58. Smith,"A Half Century of Struggle," Knnsas History, (Winter: 1984/5),76.
59. Adams & Thorton, A Populist AssauJI, 72; Blumberg, "Mary E. ~, Populist
Orator," lWnsas History, (Spring 1978), 6; Smith, "A Half Century of Struggle,"
lWn.sas History, 4 (1981), 90; Clanton, lWn.sas Populism, 100.
60. Washington NalionaJ Economist, 6 June 1891.
61. Brady,
~Populism
and Feminism," Knnsas History, (Winter: 198415), 283.
62. Washingtoll NatwnnJ Economist, 12 July 1890.
63. Raleigh Progressive Farmer, 22 January 1889.
64. Leopold Vincent, (ed.), 11ieAlIiance and Labor Songster, (Indianapolis: Vincent Bros.
PUblishing Co., 1891), 55.
65. Raleigh Progressive Fanner, cited by Jeffrey, "Women in the Southern Farmers'
A1liance,~ Feminist Sludies, 3:80.
66. Topeka Advocale, 4 June 1890.
67. Pueblo Colorado Workman, ciled by Washington National Economist, 26 April 1890.
··---1
27
68. Washington NatinnaJ Economist, 13 December 1890.
e, Populist Orator: A Profile," Kmuas
69. Ibid., 3 January 1891.
:hicago: University of Cbicago Press,
70. Ibid., 14 Marcb 1891.
71. James, (ed.), Notable American Women, 1:481.
•,
fttlisl AsJaulf: Saroh E. Van De Vart
72 Wmhington NwiolUll EconomisT, 27 December 1890.
73. Winfield American Nonconfonni:;/, 11 December 1890; SL Louis Globe-Democrat, 20
May 1891.
JWling Green Stale University Popular
74. McMath, Populist Vanguard, 128; Nel<'lon Kansas Commoner, 28 May 1891.
:lee
1890.
75. Warhi"gton Nalional Economist, 30 May 1891; Goodwyn, Populist Momenl, 151.
76. McMath. Populisr Vanguard, 129.
77. Wa.fhingfo/l NQ/ionoJ Economist, W November 1891.
78. Ibid., 5 March 1892.
79. Ibid.
History, (Winler: 1984/5), 76.
Blumberg, "Mary E. l...ease, Populil;t
imitb, "A Half Century of Slruggle,·
r Populism, 100.
SO. 51. Louis Globl'.Democrar, 24, 25 February 1892; Warhington Narional ECDnOmLJ/,
5 Mar~h 1892.
81. Wa.fhington Narional Economisl, 16 July 1892.
82. Ibid., 17 september 1892
83. Ibid., 1 October 1892.
lory, (Wimer: 1984/5), 283.
I.
84. Ibid., 8, 15, 29 October 1892.
85. San Francisco Examiner, cited by Washington Nmional Economist, 17 september
1892.
"Songsler, (Indianapolis: Vincent Bros.
86. Brady, "Populism and Feminism," Kansar lIislOrj, (Wirl1er \98415),288.
" "Women in the SouLhern Fflrmers'
87. Douglas A Bakken,
HisLorical Society.
ron Narional EconomUt, 26 April 1890.
(~d.),
"Nebraska Farmers' Nliance Papers 1887-1901,"
N~braska
88. Clanton, Kansar POpljlisln, 232.
89. EmerMJn Hough, The Pa.Hing of {he Frontier, (New Haven: Yale Universily Press,
1918),93-94.