ReframingCivilRights:
TheMontgomeryBusBoycott
FromCrossCulturalSolidarity.com
ByLynnBurnett
RosaParkswasborninAlabama,in1913,shortlybeforetheoutbreakofWorldWar
I.Whenshewasonlyafewyearsold,herfatherabandonedthefamilytomove
northforabetterlife.LittleRosaandhermothermovedinwithhergrandparents,
whohadbothbeenslaves.Shegrewespeciallyclosetohergrandfather,whowas
thesonofaslavewomanandaslaveowner.Rosasaidthattheslavewoman
probablyhadalotofwhiteancestryherself,becausehergrandfather’sAfrican
ancestrywasnotvisibleatall:heappearedwhite.
Still,heralmosttotallywhitegrandfatherwasaslave.Whilestillalittleboy,anew
ownertookpossessionofhim,beathimmercilessly,andeventriedtostarvehim.
Becauseofthis,Rosasaidthathergrandfatherdeveloped“averyintense,passionate
hatredforwhitepeople.”Hewouldn’tlethisdaughtersworkinwhitehouses,and
wouldn’tlethisgrandchildrenplaywithwhitechildren.WhenevertherewasKu
KluxKlanactivitygoingon,Rosa’sgrandfatherwouldstayupallnightonthefront
porchwithhisrifle,practicallydaringthemtocomeontohisproperty.Rosawould
sometimesjoinhim.Shelaterexpressed,“IwantedtoseehimkillaKuKluxer.”
TheyoungRosamayhavelearnedfromhergrandfathertostandhergroundwhen
threatenedbywhitefolks.Whenshewasten,awhiteboythreatenedtohither.
Rosapickedupabrickanddaredhimto.Butwhenhergrandmotherheardabout
this,shescoldedRosaseverely,tellingherthatsheshouldneverretaliateevenif
whitepeoplehurther.Hergrandmotherwarnedthatifsheactedlikethat,she
wouldgetlynchedbeforesheevenhadachancetogrowup.Rosabegantosob,
feeling,inherownwords,thathergrandmotherhadtakenthesideofthe“hostile
whiteraceagainstme.”Shetoldhergrandmother,“Iwouldratherbelynchedthan
berunoverbythem.Theycouldgettheropereadyformeanytime.”
TheBeginningofRosa’sActivism
WhenRosawas18yearsold,shemetRaymondParks.Shewasimpressedbyhow
Raymond–likehergrandfather–refusedtobeintimidatedbywhitepeople.She
laterwrotethathewas“thefirstrealactivistIevermet.”Sherespectedhim,fellin
lovewithhim,andthetwoweresoonmarried.Theyearwas1932.
Raymond’sactivismplacedhiminconstantdanger.Heattendedsecretmeetingsat
night,andRosaoftenfearedthathewouldnotmakeithomealive.Becauseofthe
danger,Raymonddidn’twantRosatogetinvolved.Butwhenthemeetingswere
heldintheirownhouse,Rosawouldlistenin.Sherecalledthatthemenwould
spreadtheirgunsoutonthetableincasethepoliceortheKlanraidedthem.Inher
autobiography,shewrotethat“Therewasalittletableaboutthesizeofacardtable
thattheyweresittingaround.ThiswasthefirsttimeI’dseensofewmenwithso
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manyguns.”Shewrotethatthetablewas“socoveredwithguns,Idon’tknow
whereIwouldhaveputanyrefreshments.”
Rosabecamemoreinvolvedinactivismherselfin1943,whenshebecamethe
secretaryforthelocalbranchoftheNationalAssociationfortheAdvancementof
ColoredPeople–theNAACP–inMontgomery.Soon,shefoundherselfworking
withasmallgroupofthemostcommittedactivistsinthatcity.Rosaworked
especiallycloselywithamannamedE.D.Nixon,whoinspiredRosatojoinhimin
helpingAfricanAmericansregistertovote.Atthetime,onlythirty-oneoutof
thousandsofAfricanAmericanswereregisteredinMontgomery.Inorderto
register,AfricanAmericanswereforcedtoansweralonglistofquestionsaboutthe
lawthatweresotechnicalthatevenprofessionallawyersoftenfailedthetest.They
hadtopayasubstantial,oftenunaffordablefeetoregister.Theyalsohadtoidentify
theiremployer,whowasusuallywhiteandwouldoftenfirethemforregisteringto
vote.Andfinally,AfricanAmericanswhosuccessfullyregisteredwouldhavetheir
namesprintedinthenewspaper,turningthemintopotentialtargetsforviolent
whitesupremacists.
RosaParksovercamealltheseobstaclesherself,successfullyregisteringtovote.
SheworkedcloselywithNixontohelpotherblackfolksinMontgomerystudyfor
thetests,raisethemoneyforthefees,findnewjobsiftheywerefired,andgainthe
couragetopotentiallyfaceviolence.SheandE.D.Nixonalsosoughttousethelaw
againstwhiteswhoattackedorkilledblackpeopleorwhorapedblackwomen.
SuchcrimeswerecommonintheSouth,butalmostalwayswentunpunished.Asthe
localNAACPsecretary,Rosawoulddocumenttheseactsofviolence,travellingto
dangerousareastointerviewthesurvivors.SheandE.D.Nixonwouldthenusetheir
contactsintheNorthtopublicizetheviolenceoutsideoftheSouth,ensuringthatthe
crimes,althoughunpunished,werenotinvisible.
WhentheSupremeCourtdecisionBrownvs.BoardofEducationmadesegregated
schoolsillegalin1954,RosaParksandE.D.Nixonattemptedtodesegregatethe
schools.Duringthatyear,Rosaalsocreatedayouthgroupthattravelledthestate
raisingawareness,urgingvoterregistration,andevenexperimentingwith
disobeyingracistlaws.WhenRosaParksrefusedtogiveupherseatonthebusa
yearlater,onDecember1,1955,shehadbeenresistingracialoppressionforover
twodecades.
TheHistoryofBusinginMontgomery
RosaParkswashardlythefirstAfricanAmericantoresistsegregated
transportation.Infact,between1900and1906,aslawsenforcingsegregation
spreadacrosstheSouth,twenty-fiveSoutherncitiesstagedbusboycotts.Thefirst
Montgomerybusboycottoccurredin1900.Only,busesdidn’texistyet:itwas
streetcarsthatweresegregated.Althoughtherightsgainedfromthatfirst
Montgomeryboycottwerequicklylostagain,theresistancetosegregated
transportationcontinued.
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DuringWorldWarII,thefightagainstsegregatedbusingspreadacrosstheSouth
oncemore,asblackveteransdemandedequaltreatment.Theywerenotaboutto
diefightingthehorrendousracismoftheNazisinEurope,whilerefusingtofight
racismathome.Duringthewar,busesbecamefrequentscenesofconfrontation.
Unlikeothersegregatedspaces,suchasrestaurantsormovietheatres–where
AfricanAmericanswereoftennotallowedatall–busesforcedwhiteandblack
Americansintoextremelyclosequarters.WhenwhiteshumiliatedAfrican
Americansonbuses,thehumiliationwasmadegreaterbythefactthatsomany
peoplewerewatching.Andtherewasnowaytoescape:thebus,afterall,was
moving.Thetensiononthebuseswasincreasedevenfurtherbythefactthatbus
driversweregivenpolicepowersandcarriedgunsinordertoenforcesegregation.
Montgomerywasclosetotwoairforcebases,whichbroughtblackservicemenfrom
acrossthecountrytothecity.Duringthewar,whenoneoftheseservicemen
resistedtheordersofabusdriver,apolicemanwascalledandthemanwasshot.In
anotherinstance,ablackveteranrefusedtomovefromhisseat,andthebusdriver
shothimintheleg.Inathirdinstance,whenablackfemalearmylieutenantrefused
togiveupherseattowhitepassengers,policebeatherandtookhertojail.In1945,
duringthelastyearofthewar,twomembersoftheWomen’sArmyCorprefusedto
movefromtheirseatandwerebeatenbythedriver.Althoughresistanceto
segregatedtransportationhappenedinotherareasoftheSouthaswell,thefactthat
Montgomeryhadtwoairforcebasesmeantthatit“stoodattheepicenterofthe
guerillawaronbuses,”tousethewordsofthegreathistorianGlendaGilmore.
TheairforcebasesinMontgomerycontributedtoresistanceinanotherwayaswell:
thebaseswerenotsegregated.In1941,PresidentFranklinRoosevelthadordered
allmilitaryindustriestobedesegregatedinordertopreventamassivemarchon
Washington.Thismeantthat,eveninthemostracistpartsoftheSouth,blacksand
whitesworkedsidebysideonmilitarybases.InMontgomery,oneoutofevery
fourteencivilians–includingRosaParks–workedonthesedesegregatedbases
duringWorldWarII.Thebusesontheairforcebaseswerealsodesegregated,and
Rosawouldoftenridewithawhitewomanandherlittleboywhileonthebasebus.
Oncetheyboardedthecitybus,however,theywouldhavetostoptheir
conversationasRosawenttotheback.Mrs.Parkswrotethat“Youmightjustsay
Maxwell[airforcebase]openedmyeyesup.Itwasanalternativerealitytotheugly
policiesofJimCrow.”
ThefactthatsomanyAfricanAmericansinMontgomeryweretreatedequallywhile
ridingthebusesontheairforcebasesincreasedtheirresistancetothehumiliation
anddangertheyfacedwhenridingthecitybuses.DuringandafterWorldWarII,an
increasingamountofblackciviliansrefusedtogiveuptheirseatstowhites.They
wereusuallybeatenandarrested,andinonecase,whenawomantriedtotakethe
policetocourtforbeatingher,twopolicemenrapedherdaughterinretaliation.
RosaParkswouldhaveknownmanyofthesepeople,andastheNAACPsecretary,
wouldhavebeeninvolvedindocumentingtheircases.
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EventsLeadinguptotheBoycott
In1946,theorganizationresponsibleforlaunchingtheMontgomerybusboycott
wasfounded:theWomen’sPoliticalCouncil.Itsoonbecamethemostradical
organizationinthecity.AsJeanneTheoharis,authorofthepowerfulbookThe
RebelliousLifeofMrs.RosaParkswrites:“Bytheearly1950s,peopleknewtobring
theircomplaintsaboutbussegregationtotheWPC[Women’sPoliticalCouncil.]The
womenoftheorganization,threehundredstrongby1954,collectedpetitions,met
withcityofficials,wentdoortodoor,packedpublichearings,andgenerallymade
theiroutragearoundbussegregationpubliclyknown.”ThepresidentoftheCouncil,
JoAnnRobinson,describedtheorganizationas“‘womanpower,'organizedtocope
withanyinjustice,nomatterwhat.”
In1954,ayearandahalfbeforetheMontgomerybusboycott,JoAnnRobinsonsent
alettertothemayorofMontgomery,informinghimthataboycottwouldbe
organizedifconditionsonbuseswerenotimproved.Sheremindedhimthatthree
outoffourriderswereblack,andthatthebussystemwouldcollapsewithoutthe
financialsupportofblackriders.Thestruggleagainstsegregatedbusingescalated
in1954forareason:theSupremeCourtoutlawedsegregatedschoolsthatyear,
leadingmanyAfricanAmericanstofeelthatthetimewasrighttochallenge
segregationinotherareasaswell.
AstheWomen’sPoliticalCouncilbegantoplanforaboycott,theMontgomery
chapteroftheNAACPconsideredadifferentstrategyforfightingsegregatedbusing:
bychallengingitslegalityinthecourtoflaw,justastheyhadsuccessfullychallenged
thelegalityofsegregatedschools.Tochallengethesegregationlaws,theyfirst
neededsomeonetobearrestedforbreakingthoselaws.Then,insteadofpleading
guiltytobreakingthelaw,theNAACPlawyerswouldinsteadclaimthatthelawitself
wasunconstitutional.ThelocalcourtsintheSouth,ofcourse,wouldneveraccept
thisclaim…andso,theNAACPwouldappealthecasetohigherandhighercourts,
withtheultimategoaloftakingthecasetotheSupremeCourt.Withthisgoalin
mind,thelocalNAACP–includingRosaParksandherpoliticalpartnerE.D.Nixon–
waitedfortherightarresttobemade,whichwouldallowthemtobuildacase.
Soon,thedaughterofalocalministerwasarrestedforrefusingtomovefromher
seatonthebus,butherfatherwasuncomfortablewiththeNAACPbuildingabig
casearoundhisdaughter.Andso,RosaParksandE.D.Nixoncontinuedtowait.On
March2,1955,ahighschoolstudentnamedClaudetteColvinwasarrestedfor
refusingtomovefromherseat.Claudettehadrecentlywrittenapaperon
segregation.Asshelaterexplained,“WehadbeenstudyingtheConstitutioninMiss
Nesbitt’sclass.IknewIhadrights.”
Colvinandherparentssaidthattheywerewillingtobuildacasearoundherarrest,
evenifitmeantfacinglynchmobs.However,E.D.Nixondoubtedthattheyoung
Claudettecouldholdupunderthepressure.Movinghercasefromthelocalcourts
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intothestatecourts,andthenintothefederalcourtsanduptotheSupremeCourt
wouldtakemanymonths…monthsduringwhichthephonemightberingingall
nightwithdeaththreats,monthsduringwhichshewouldbeconstantlydemonized
inthelocalmedia.Itwasonethingtocourageouslyfaceasinglemomentofdanger,
andanothertowithstandmonthsandmonthsofconstant,intenseharassment.
Nixonfeltthattheyneededtobuildacasearoundsomeonewhohadproventhey
couldtoughitout.
ClaudettewasheartbrokenwhentheleadersofMontgomerydecidedthatshewas
notsuitabletobuildacasearound.Eventhosewhohadbelievedinherseemedto
turntheirbackswhenitwasdiscoveredthatshewaspregnant.Manypeople
believedthatbeingayoung,unwedmotherwasshameful,andbeganusingher
pregnancyasanexcusefornotsupportingher.ClaudettelaterwrotethatRosa
Parkswastheonlyonethathelpedherthroughthispainfultime.Parkssawgreat
leadershippotentialinColvin,andinvitedhertoattendtheNAACPYouthCouncil
meetings.WhenClaudettecouldn’tgetaridehomeafterthemeetings,shewould
sleepatRosaParkshouse.ParksmadeClaudettethesecretaryoftheYouthCouncil
andurgedotheryouthtofollowherexample.Someofthemdid,butwithnoarrests.
AlthoughClaudettehadhopedthatacasewouldbebuiltaroundher,andwas
deeplyhurtbytherejectionofMontgomery’sleaders,shetrustedthatifanyonewas
uptothetask,itwouldbeRosaParks.Asshelaterexpressed,“Therewasatime
whenIthoughtIwouldbethecenterpieceofthebuscase.Iwaseagertokeepgoing
incourt.Ihadwantedthemtokeepappealingmycase.Ihadenoughselfconfidencetokeepgoing.”However,“havingbeenwithRosaattheNAACP
meetings,Ithought,Well,maybeshe’stherightperson–she’sstrong.”
TheArrestofRosaParks
OnthemorningofDecember1,1955,RosaParkswenttowork.Duringhercoffee
break,shemetwiththepresidentofthelocalcollegetodiscussorganizingan
NAACPworkshop,andduringherlunchbreak,shemetwiththelawyerwho
handledClaudetteColvin’scase.Bytheendofherday,shewastired.Asshe
boardedthebustogohome,shewaslookingforwardtogettingsomerest.
RosaParksdidnotsitinthewhitesection.Shetookaseatinthemiddleofthebus.
However,thewhitesectioninthefrontsoonfilledup,andthebusdrivercalledout
fortheblackfolkssittinginthemiddletomovefurtherback.Whenheyelled,“You
allbettermakeitlightonyourselvesandletmehavethoseseats,”RosaParks
thoughttoherselfthatobeyingsuchorders“wasn’tmakingitlightonourselvesasa
people.”Inthatmoment,shethoughtabouttheNAACPYouthCouncilthatsheled,
laterexplainingthat“anopportunitywasbeinggiventometodowhatIhadasked
ofothers.”Itwastimeforhertobecome“anexampleofwhatIwaspreaching.”
WhenRosaParksrefusedtomove,thebusdriverwalkedbacktoherandasked:
“Areyougoingtostandup?”RosaParkslookedhimstraightintheeyeandsaid,
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“No.”Shecalmlyexplainedtohimthatshewasequaltoanyotherperson.Hethen
toldher,“Well,I’mgoingtohaveyouarrested.”Herresponsewassimply,“Youmay
dothat.”Parksunderstoodtherisks.Otherblackwomenhadbeenbeaten,raped,
andevenkilledafterpolicehadarrestedthemforrefusingtogiveuptheirseats.
Shelatersaid,“AsIsatthere,Itriednottothinkaboutwhatmighthappen.Iknew
thatanythingwaspossible.”
WhileParkshadnotplannedtobearrested,sheexpectedthatthedaywouldcome.
Asshetoldanintervieweryearslater,“Ihadfeltforalongtime,thatifIwasever
toldtogetupsoawhitepersoncouldsit,thatIwouldrefusetodoso.”The
historianJeanneTheoharishaswrittenthaton“Thatevening,asshewaitedonthat
bus,therewasthunderinhersilence.”WithinthequietthunderofRosaParkswere
thoughtsofhowshecoulduseherarresttoorganizethecommunity.
OrganizingtheBoycott
WordofParksarrestquicklyspread.WhenE.D.Nixonreceivedthecall,heturned
tohiswifeandsaid,“IbelieveJimCrowdroppedinourlapjustwhatwearelooking
for.”NixonbelievedthatRosaParkswastheperfectpersontobuildacasearound.
WhereasNixonhaddoubtedClaudetteColvin,hewascertainthatRosaParkswas
unbreakable.Inhisownwords,“Ifthereever,everwasawomanwhowas
dedicatedtothecause,RosaParkswasthatwoman.”Shewasa“realfighter”who
wouldn’tbescaredoffbywhiteviolence.Asareligious,hardworking,anddignified
womanwhowaswidelyrespectedforheractivism,RosaParkswasalsotheperfect
symbolforpeopletoorganizearound.
E.D.NixonquicklybailedParksoutofjail.Thatevening,theydiscussedbuildinga
casearoundher,agreedthatthiswastheopportunitytheyhadbeenwaitingfor,and
thenwenttosleep.Butnoteveryonesleptthatnight.RosaParksandE.D.Nixon
haddecidedtobuildalegalcasearoundherarrest,notaboycott.Itwasthe
Women’sPoliticalCouncilthatdidthat,andJoAnnRobinsoninparticular.
RobinsonhadwantedtostageaboycottwhenClaudetteColvinwasarrested,but
hadwaitedtogeteveryone’ssupport.Thistime,shewasnotgoingtowait.
Robinson,aprofessoratAlabamaStateCollege,secretlymetwithhermosttrusted
studentsoncampusinthemiddleofthenight.Workinguntildawn,theyprintedout
fiftythousandnotificationsofabusboycotttobeheldthefollowingMonday,when
RosaParkswenttotrial.TheywereabletoworkquicklybecausetheWomen’s
PoliticalCouncilhadbeenplanningaboycottformonths,andwerejustwaitingfor
therighttimeandplace.TheCouncilhadplanneddistributionroutestoensurethat
eachofMontgomery’sfiftythousandblackcitizenswouldquicklyreceivewordof
theboycott.Withintwenty-fourhoursofRosaParks’arrest,tensofthousandsof
blackMontgomerianswouldreceivethismessage:
AnotherNegrowomanhasbeenarrestedandthrowninjailbecauseshe
refusedtogetupoutofherseatonthebusforawhiteperson…Ifwedonot
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dosomethingtostopthesearrests,theywillcontinue…Thenexttimeitmay
beyou,oryourdaughter,ormother…Weare,therefore,askingeveryNegro
tostayoffthebusesMonday.
However,simplydeliveringthemessagewasnotenough.Asuccessfulboycott
wouldrequiremoreextensiveorganizing,andnoonewasbetteratorganizingin
MontgomerythanE.D.Nixon.At3a.m.,asRobinsonwasprintingthenotifications,
shecalledNixontoinformhimofherplans.Nixonbelievedthattheboycottwould
bemademuchmoresuccessfulifalltheministersintownurgedtheircongregations
toparticipateonSunday.Andso,at3a.m.,Nixonbegantoconsiderhowtoorganize
theministers.
Nixonneededacentralmeetingplacefortheministerstogather,andDexterAvenue
BaptistChurch,locatedinthecentraltownsquare,cametomind.Theministerat
Dexterwasnewintown,whichcouldbehelpful.Manyoftheministerscompeted
forleadershiprolesanddistrustedeachother,butnoonehadanyreasontodistrust
thenewcomer.Hemightbetheperfectpersontoorganizetheministers.Nixonalso
believedthatthenewminister’sremarkablespeakingskillscouldinspireandunify
thecommunity.Forallofthesereasons,Nixoncalledthenewministeraround6
a.m.andaskedforhissupport.Thenewministerwas,ofcourse,Dr.MartinLuther
King,Jr.
Thatevening,nearlyfiftyministersgatheredatMartinLutherKing’schurchand
agreedtoendorsetheboycott.Eventsweremovingquickly:RosaParkshadbeen
arrestedonThursdayevening.ThankstoJoAnnRobinson,byFridayafternoon
mostblackMontgomeriansknewtheplansfortheboycott.OnFridayevening,the
ministersendorsedtheboycott.OnSunday,theyurgedtheircongregationstostay
offthebuses.AndonMonday,RosaParkswenttotrial,andtheMontgomerybus
boycott,destinedtoignitethecivilrightsmovement,began.
TheFirstDayoftheBoycott
OnMonday,December5,1955,AfricanAmericansinMontgomerystayedoffthe
buses.Whilethosewithcarsdrovepeopletowork,thousandswalkedmanymiles,
andsomeevenrodemules.Whateverittooktonotridethebuses,theydid.
AtRosaParks’trial,peoplefloodedthecourthouse,andhundredshadtostand
outside.Thetriallastedamerehalfhour:RosaParkswasfoundguiltyofbreaking
statesegregationlaws.TherulinggaveRosa’slawyer,FredGray,anopportunityto
puttheNAACP’splanintoaction:hechallengedthelawasunconstitutional.Oncea
lawwaschallengedasunconstitutional,itwassupposedtoimmediatelymoveoutof
thestatecourts,andintothefederalcourts,wherethejudgesrepresentedtheU.S.
governmentratherthanthestategovernment.Thehopewasthathigherandhigher
courtswoulddebatethecaseofRosaParks,withtheSupremeCourtmakingthe
finaldecision.Southernlawyers,however,wereabletopreventthisfrom
happening,butParks’lawyerlearnedfromhismistakes,andbuiltasecondcase…
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aroundtheteenager,ClaudetteColvin,whohadbeenabandonedearlierbythe
activistsofMontgomery.ItwasthecasebuiltaroundColvin,notParks,that
eventuallyreachedtheSupremeCourt,whichruledinfavorofColvin.Untilthat
rulingendedsegregatedbusinginMontgomery,theboycottcontinuedforalong
381days.
Theinitialplanhadbeenforasimpleone-dayboycott.Butinspiredbythesuccess
ofthemorning,leadersmetshortlyafterParks’trialandcreatedanorganization
thatcouldsustainaboycottthatcouldlastuntilthebusinglawswerechanged.The
organizationwascalledtheMontgomeryImprovementAssociation,andMartin
LutherKingwaselectedtobeitsleader.
Theleadersatthemeetingdecidedonthreedemandsfortheboycott.Believingthat
askingfortotaldesegregationwastooradicalforthecitytoagreeto,thefirst
demandwasforfirstcome,first-serveseating,withAfricanAmericanssittingfrom
thebacktowardsthefront,andwhitessittingfromthefronttowardstheback.With
thisplan,segregationwouldremain,butblackswouldnotbeforcedtostandnextto
emptyseatsreservedforwhites.
Theseconddemandwasforcourteoustreatment.Especiallyimportantwasthat
AfricanAmericansnotbeaskedtopayatthefront,andthenexitthebustoenter
throughtheback.Thispracticewasnotonlyhumiliating,butthebusesoftendrove
awaybeforethepayingcustomershadreentered.Thethirddemandwasforthe
hiringofblackbusdriversonprimarilyblackroutes.Thisdemandaimedtocreate
jobsforAfricanAmericans,whichwasanessentialdemand,giventhatmostAfrican
Americanscaredfarmoreabouteconomicequalitythanintegration.
NeitherRosaParksnorJoAnnRobinsonwerepresentatthismeeting.Despitethe
factthatthesetwowomenhadspentyearslayingthegroundworkforthismoment,
theywerelivinginapatriarchal,male-dominatedsocietythatviewedpublic
leadershipasaman’srole.WiththecreationoftheMontgomeryImprovement
Association,theministerstookoverthesepublicleadershiproles,despitethefact
thatRosaParksandJoAnnRobinsonhadfarmorepoliticalexperiencethan
virtuallyeveryminister.
However,therewereotherreasonsforwhyRosaParksandJoAnnRobinsondidnot
stepforwardintopublicleadershiproles.Robinsonhadtodownplayher
involvementinordertoprotectherjob.Shecouldalsosenseaspiritofrebellionin
theair,andfeltthatthebestwaytobuildapeacefulandsustainablemovementwas
tohavetheministersassumeleadership.InRobinson’swords,theseministerswere
abletogive“Christianguidancetoarebelliouspeople,”manyofwhomvaluedselfdefensemorethannonviolentresistance.
AsforRosaParks,thesuccessofthemovementdependedoncraftingapublicimage
ofherthateveryonecouldrallybehind,andthatnoonecouldattack.Andso,Rosa
waspresentedtothepublicasahardworking,goodChristianwomanwhodidn’t
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movefromherseatwhenorderedtobecauseshewassimplytootired.Thiswasa
safe,noncontroversialimagethatproducedsympathyandsupportfrompeopleall
overthecountry.However,therewereplentyofhardworking,goodChristianblack
womeninMontgomery.ItwasRosaParks’longhistoryofactivismthatgainedhera
speciallevelofrespectandallowedthecommunitytounanimouslysupporther.
Andyet,thewhiteandblackcommunitiesweresoseparatethatthewhite
communitywasunawareofthefactthatRosaParkswasaveteranactivist.Andfor
theboycotttobesuccessful,itwouldhavetostaythatway:Rosa’sactivismwould
becomeawell-keptsecret…asecretthat,fordecades,wentdowninthehistory
booksasreality.
TheWhiteResponse
Negotiationsbetweenblackleadersandwhitecityofficialsbrokedownquickly.
Twomeetingswereheldduringthefirstweekoftheboycott,withleadingwhite
supremacistsinvitedtothesecond.Theblackleadershiphadoriginallybelieved
thatcityofficialswouldbewillingtoconsidertheirmodestproposalforamore
politeformofsegregation,andforgoodreason:abusboycottinLouisianatwoyears
earlier,askingforsimilarterms,hadbeenwonwithinaweek.Afterthefailed
meetings,however,theblackleadershipbeganplanningforayearlongcampaign.
Thecityimmediatelymovedtocrippletheboycott,announcingthatblackcab
drivers,whohadpromisedtodriveAfricanAmericansforthesamepriceasthebus,
wouldreceivefinesiftheyreducedtheirfares.Withindays,theboycottcouldno
longerrelyoncabs.AdvicefromtheleadersoftheLouisianaboycotttwoyears
earlierallowedblackMontgomerianstoswiftlycreateamassivecar-poolingsystem,
withover200volunteerdriverspickingpeopleupfromfortycar-poolingstations.
TheMontgomeryImprovementAssociationwassooncoordinatingupto20,000
ridesperday.Policerespondedbyticketingcarsthatwere“overloaded.”
However,mostwhiteswerenotangeredbytheboycott.Manysimplydidn’tcare,
andsomeevensupportedit.Manyblackmaids,workinginwhitehousesandcaring
forwhitechildren,reportedthatthefamiliestheyworkedforgavethemdonations
tosupporttheboycott.Whitehousewivessometimespickeduptheirmaidssothey
wouldn’thavetowalktowork.Oneevenfiredhermaidafterdiscoveringthatshe
hadriddenthebus,tellingherthatifshedidn’tstandupforherpeople,shewasan
untrustworthyperson.Somewhitepeopledecidednottoridethebusthemselves.
ManywhiteMontgomerianspridedthemselvesasraciallyprogressiveandlooked
downonthemoreaggressivelyracistareasintheSouth.Theyavoidedanew
organization,calledtheWhiteCitizensCouncil,whichwasformedafterthepassage
ofBrownvs.BoardofEducation.TheCouncilwasthoughtofasaKuKluxKlanfor
businessmenandpoliticians.Itpressuredemployerstofireanyonewhofailedto
supportitsracistpolicies,pressuredinsuranceagenciestocancelinsurancepolicies
oncarsandhomes,andboycottedthebusinessesofanyonewhowasjudgedto
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supportracialequalityinanyway.TheCouncilwagedeconomicwarfareto
maintainwhitesupremacy,preferringittotheviolentmethodsoftheKuKluxKlan.
Whereasviolencecreatednegativeattention,economicretaliationusuallyremained
invisibletotheoutsideworld,makingitamoreeffectiveformofcontrol.
TheMontgomerybusboycottbecameanopportunityfortheWhiteCitizensCouncil
tospreaditsrootsintothecapitalofAlabama.Amonthintotheboycott,theyhelda
twelvehundredpersonrally,duringwhichthepolicecommissionerjoined.The
nextday,thelocalpaperexclaimedthat“Ineffect,theMontgomerypoliceforceis
nowanarmoftheWhiteCitizensCouncil.”Manyprominentcitizenssoonjoined,
includingthemayor.Whilethesewhiteleadersnevercalledforviolence,joiningthe
Councilsentaclearmessagetothegeneralpublicthatthemoreaggressivelyracist
behaviorthatwhiteMontgomerianstraditionallylookeddownonwasnow
acceptable.
Thingsbegantogetugly.Thekindofpositivestatementssomewhiteshad
originallymadeabouttheboycottnowledtoeconomicattacksfromtheWhite
CitizensCouncil.Onewhitewoman,afterpraisingthedeterminationoftheAfrican
Americancommunity,wasfired,beganreceivingthreateningphonecalls,andwould
heartappingonherwindowlateatnight.Herfriendsandcolleaguesbegan
avoidingher.Afterayearandahalfofisolationandintimidation,shetookherown
life.Withveryfewexceptions,sympatheticwhitepeopleplayeditsafeandkept
theirmouthsshut.
Meanwhile,blackcarpooldriversfoundtheirvehiclesvandalized,coveredinacid,
theirbrakescut,theirtanksfilledwithsugar.Nailswerescatteredacrossthe
streetsofblackneighborhoods.Carsfullofwhitesbeganhurlingfood,stones,and
balloonsfilledwithurineatAfricanAmericanswalkingtowork.Policecarsbegan
waitingnexttothecar-poolingstations,ticketingeachcarasitpulledintopickup
passengers,usuallyforcompletelyimaginaryinfractions.
Thecostoftheticketsandcarrepairssoonbecameoverwhelming.Iftheboycott
wastocontinueundertheseconditions,itwouldrequireoutsidefinancialsupport.
However,althoughnearlytwomonthsintoitsexistence,theboycotthadreceived
littleoutsideattention.Thatwouldsoonchangeaswhiteviolencecontinuedto
escalate,andwasmetbytheprofoundleadershipofMartinLutherKing.
TheSufferingofMartinLutherKing
Theticketingofcar-pooldriverssoonescalatedtoarrests.MartinLutherKingwas
oneofthefirsttobearrested…fordrivingfivemilesoverthespeedlimit.Aswhite
animosityincreased,Kinghadbegunreceivingdozensofdeaththreatsperday,and
asthepolicecartravelledfurtherandfurtheroutofthecity,hebegantotremblein
fearthathewasbeingtakentoalynchmob.Whenthecarinsteadpulleduptothe
jail,hewasrelieved.AfriendappearedwithinminutesandbailedKingout.
10
Whenhereturnedhome,hiswifeandnewbornchildweresleeping.Ashestood
lookingatthem,thephonerang.Thevoiceontheotherendtoldhim,“Ifyouaren’t
outofthistowninthreedays,we’regoingtoblowyourbrainsout.”Kingputthe
phonedownandtriedtosleep,buthefeltbrokenandfilledwithfear.Hedoubted
himself.Hehadneverwantedthis.Hehadgotteninvolvedintheboycottbecause
hethoughtitwouldonlylastafewweeks.Unabletosleep,hemadehimselfapotof
coffee.Helatersaidthatatthismoment,“Iwasreadytogiveup.Withmycupof
coffeesittinguntouchedbeforemeItriedtofigureoutawaytomoveoutofthe
picturewithoutappearingacoward.”
Isatthereandthoughtaboutabeautifullittledaughterwhohadjustbeen
born…Shewasthedarlingofmylife.I’dcomeinnightafternightandsee
thatlittlegentlesmile.AndIsatatthattablethinkingaboutthatlittlegirl
andthinkingaboutthefactthatshecouldbetakenawayfrommeatany
minute.AndIstartedthinkingaboutadedicated,devotedandloyalwife,
whowasoverthereasleep.Andshecouldbetakenfromme,orIcouldbe
takenfromher.AndIjustcouldn’ttakeitanylonger.
Kingbegantoprayoverhiscoffee:“Lord,ImustconfessthatI’mweaknow.I’m
faltering.I’mlosingmycourage.”Ashecontinuedtopray,hebeganto“hearan
innervoicesayingtome,‘MartinLuther,standupforrighteousness.Standupfor
justice.Standupfortruth.AndloIwillbewithyou,evenuntiltheendofthe
world.’”Fortherestofhislife,wheneverKingfeltthatdeathwasathisdoorstep,he
focusedonthismomentandfoundthestrengthtoovercomehisfear.
Dayslater,CorettaScottKingheardathumpoutsidetheirhomeandthenfootsteps
runningaway.Sherushedtothebackofthehouse,andwithinsecondsabomb
rippedthroughthefrontroom.Kingwasawayaddressingamassmeeting.When
hewastoldofthebombingofhishome,andthepossibledeathofhisfamily,he
shockedthecrowdwithhiscalmreaction,latercommentingthat“Myreligious
experienceafewnightsbeforehadgivenmethestrengthtofaceit.”
Hearrivedhometofindalarge,angrycrowdsurroundinghishouse.“AsIwalked
towardsthefrontporch,”helaterwrote,“Irealizedthatmanypeoplewerearmed.
Nonviolentresistancewasonthevergeofbeingtransformedintoviolence.”As
wordofthebombingspreadthecrowdgrewlargerandtheangerintensified.King
latersaidthathefearedthata“racewar”wouldbreakout.Steppingontohis
smolderingporchtoaddressthecrowd,heurgedthemtoremainpeacefulandto
notallowtheirangerattheassassinationattempttogrowintophysicalretaliation
againstwhites.“Brothersandsisters,”hesaid,“Don’tgetpanicky…don’tgetyour
weapons.IwantittobeknownthelengthandbreadthofthislandthatifIam
stopped,thismovementwillnotstop.”
However,evenasKingurgedhissistersandbrothersnottogettheirweapons,the
bombingconvincedhimthatitwastimetoarmhimself.Heappliedforahandgun
thenextdaybutwasdeniedapermit.Thatsameevening,abombwasthrownat
11
E.D.Nixon’shouse.KingcalledthegovernorofAlabamathenextdaytorequestthe
gunpermitfromhimdirectly,butthegovernortoldhimthatwasadecisiontobe
madebythelocalsheriff.
Itwasatthiscrucialpointintime,asKingwasbeginningtowrestlewithfacingan
increasinglyviolentsituationwithmethodsofnonviolence,thathewouldmeetthe
strategistandmentorwhowouldguidehimformanyyearstocome.
TheEntranceofBayardRustin
WhenMartinLutherKing’shomewasbombed,agroupofcivilrightsactivistsbased
inNewYorkCitysentsupport.TheywereworriedthatKingwouldnotbeableto
sustainapeacefulmovementinthefaceofrisingwhiteviolence.Thesituationfelt
especiallyseriousbecausetheyhadreceivedwordthatAfricanAmericanswere
smugglingweaponsintoMontgomery.Fearingapossibleracewar,thegroupsent
themostexperiencednonviolentactivistinthecountrytoexaminethesituationand
offeradvice.
HisnamewasBayardRustin.Rustinhadbeendedicatedtospreadingtheteachings
ofnonviolentresistancefortwodecadesbythetimetheMontgomerybusboycott
tookplace.Duringhisextensivetravels,hestagedhisownsit-insatrestaurants,
singlehandedlydesegregatingatleastone.Hewasoncebeatenbyfourpolice
officersforrefusingtomovefromthefrontofthebus,andwhenhewastakentojail
tobebeatsomemore,heinsteadguidedtheofficersintoacalmdiscussionandwas
released.Whileservingtwoyearsinprisonforrefusingmilitaryserviceduring
WorldWarII,hesuccessfullydesegregatedtheathleticsprogram,thedininghall,
andtheeducationprogramswithintheprison.
BayardRustinhadhelpedtofoundanumberoforganizationsdedicatedtothe
teachingsofMahatmaGandhi,andwasinvitedtoIndiashortlyafterGandhi’s
assassinationin1948.Gandhi’sdisciplesweredeeplyimpressedbyRustin.Inthe
chaosfollowingGandhi’sdeath,theybelievedthatRustin’sexpertisewouldhelp
keepthespiritofGandhialiveinIndia,andinvitedhimtospendayearthere.Rustin
wastemptedbytheinvitation,butunabletoaccept.HetravelledtoAfrica,speaking
withleadersofdecolonizationmovements,andofferingadviceonbuilding
nonviolentindependencestruggles.BythetimeBayardRustinwassenttoadvise
MartinLutherKing,hewasagloballyrecognizedleaderofnonviolentresistance.
WhenRustinvisitedKing,gunswerescatteredthroughoutthehouse.Rustinasked
ifhavinggunswascompatiblewiththephilosophyofnonviolence,andKingreplied
thatyes,itwas.Heintendedtoharmnooneandwouldonlyusethegunsinselfdefense.RustincautionedKing,tellinghim:“If,intheflowandheatofbattle,a
leadershouseisbombed,andheshootsback,thatisanencouragementtohis
followerstopickupguns.If,ontheotherhand,hehadnogunsaroundhim,and
theyallknowit,theywillrisetothenonviolentoccasion.”Thepointwasnotthat
King’sfollowersmightbeinspiredtoshootifKingstartedshooting:thepointwas
12
thatKing’sfollowersmightbeinspiredtoshootiftheythoughtthatshootingwas
evenapossibility.
RustintoldKingastorythatnight:whenhehadgonetoIndia,itbecamecleartohim
thatthemassesofIndiansdidnothaveadeepbeliefinnonviolence.Theywere
ordinarypeoplewhobelievedinthebasicrighttodefendthemselves.Manyalso
believedthatviolencewasjustifiedifusingviolencecouldsolveaproblem.
WhereasGandhiviewednonviolenceasawayoflifethatyoulivedandbreathedat
everymoment,mostIndiansvieweditasastrategytobeusedonlywhenitwas
effective.Thismeantthat,assoonasnonviolentresistancedidnotseemeffective,
thatmanyIndianswouldabandonit.
However,theydidn’tabandonitbecauseGandhi,byacceptingnonviolenceasa
completewayoflife,ensuredthathisfollowerswouldneverhavereasontodoubt
whatkindofactionhemighttake.Theycouldhavecompletefaiththathewould
alwaysrejectviolence.Inthisway,MahatmaGandhiturnedhimselfintoapowerful
symbolofnonviolencethatthepeopleofIndiacouldhavegreatfaithin…asymbol
thatcouldinspireamassmovement.IfKingwastobecomesuchasymbol,he
wouldhavetoadoptnonviolencenotonlyasastrategy,butasawayoflifeaswell.
KinghadbeeninspiredbyalectureonGandhiwhileincollege,andreportedly
purchasedhalfadozenbooksaboutthegreatIndianfreedomfighterafterwards.A
friendrememberedthatasagraduatestudent,Kingwouldstayuplateatnight
debatingwiththosewhobelievedthatviolencewasnecessarytooverthrow
oppressiveconditions.KinghadtransitionedsmoothlyfromstudyingGandhiin
collegetoputtingGandhi’steachingsintoaction,leadinganonviolentmovementfor
overtwomonthsbythetimeBayardRustinarrivedtocouncilhim.Andyet,Rustin
latersaid,“Thefactofthematteris,whenIgottoMontgomery,Kinghadvery
limitednotionsabouthowanonviolentprotestshouldbecarriedout.”Other
experiencednonviolentactivistsfeltsimilarly.Whenitcametothedetailsofhowto
buildamovement,Kinghadalottolearn.
RustindideverythinghecouldtosupportKing.HementoredKinginnonviolent
strategyandphilosophy.HehelpedtoshapeKing’simageinthemedia.He
introducedKingintothevastnetworkofnonviolentactiviststhathehadspent
twentyyearsbuilding.Duringtheboycott,BayardRustinwrotethefirstarticleever
publishedunderKing’sname.AndwhenKinglaterwroteabookaboutthe
Montgomerybusboycott,calledStrideTowardsFreedom,Rustinhadamajor
influenceonthebook.Andyet,thebooknevermentionsRustin:theinsightsthat
RustinhelpedMartinLutherKinggainwerepresentedasiftheycamedirectlyfrom
Kinghimself.AndthiswasexactlyasBayardRustinhadwanted:itturnedKinginto
amorepowerfulsymbol.
However,BayardRustinneededtostayinvisibleforanotherreason:hewasan
openlygaymanlivinginanagewhenmanypeopleconsideredhomosexualitytobe
immoral,orevencriminal.King’salliesworriedthatanyassociationwithRustin
13
wouldopenKinguptochargesthathewastakingadvicefrom“immoral”people,or
perhapsengagingin“immoral”practiceshimself.Kingignoredtheiradviceand
continuedtorelyonRustin.Rustinunderstoodthathissexualorientationwasa
threattothemovement,andmadehisvisittoMontgomeryasbriefaspossible,
doingmostofhisworkforKingfromNewYorkCity.Whenthetwomenneededto
talkpersonally,KingwouldmeetwithhimsecretlyoutsideofMontgomery.Rustin’s
invisibilitywouldnotlastforeverthough:in1963,despitetheprotestsofhis
colleagues,KinghiredBayardRustintoorganizethefamousMarchonWashington.
Thejobwasfartoobigtokeepasecret,andafteritsincrediblesuccess,Bayard
Rustinbecamethemostfamousopenlygaymaninthenation.
MassArrests
BayardRustinarrivedinMontgomeryattheperfecttime-February21,thedaythat
agrandjurycalledforthearrestofonehundredandfifteenboycottleaders.When
thepreviousintimidationhadfailedtostoptheboycott,thecitydugupanoldlaw
from1903thathadoutlawedboycottsinresponsetothestreetcarprotestsahalfcenturyearlier.RustincounseledtheMontgomeryleaderstonotallowthecityto
humiliatethemwithimagesofbeingarrestedanddraggedoffbypolice.They
shouldinsteaddressintheirfinestclothesandproudlypresentthemselvesatthe
jail.Theytookhisadvice,andahugecrowdgatheredoutside.InRustin’swords,the
blackcommunitywas“thrilledtoseetheirleaderssurrenderwithoutbeinghunted
down.”
ThemassarrestswereanincrediblemistakeonthepartofwhiteMontgomery:they
turnedtheboycottfromaprimarilylocalaffairintoaninternationalmedia
sensation.AlthoughthebombingofKing’shomehadgainedsignificantmedia
attention,majornewspapersliketheNewYorkTimesstillreliedonsouthern
reporting,whichwasobviouslybiased.Withthemassarrests,reportersfrom
aroundthecountryfloodedintoMontgomery,andtheboycottbecamefront-page
newsforthefirsttime.Alongwiththeoutsideattentioncamethedesperately
neededoutsidefinancialsupportthatallowedforthecontinuationoftheboycott.
WhiteMontgomery’seffortstodestroytheboycottbackfiredagainwhenMartin
LutherKingwasplacedontrial.AstreamofAfricanAmericanstooktothestand,
describingtheterrorstheyfacedonthebus.Onewomandescribedhowher
husband,aftergettingintoanargumentwithabusdriver,hadbeenshotandkilled
byapoliceofficer.Anotherwomandescribedhowherhusbandhadbeendragged
bythebuswhenhewasforcedtoenterthroughthebackdoor,whichclosedonhis
legashebegantoenterandthenspedaway.WhenMartinLutherKingwasfound
guiltyoforganizinganillegalboycott,hepostedbailandwalkedoutsidetoa
cheeringcrowd,tellingthem:“Wewillcontinuetoprotestinthesamespiritof
nonviolenceandpassiveresistance,usingtheweaponoflove.”Headlinesacrossthe
nationthefollowingdayportrayedKingnotasaguiltycriminal,butastheAmerican
Gandhi.
14
Thetidehadturned.Ithadtakenthreemonths,buttheworldwasnowwatching,
andithadtakenthesideoftheboycotters.Financialassistancepouredin,allowing
blackMontgomerianstomakeitthroughtheremainingninemonthsoftheboycott,
whichonlyendedwhentheSupremeCourtruledthatMontgomery’ssegregatedbus
practiceswereunconstitutional.
TheDevelopmentofKing’sPhilosophy
MartinLutherKing’searlyphilosophydevelopedoverthecourseofthe
Montgomerybusboycott,andisbeautifullyexpressedinhisfirstbook,Stride
TowardsFreedom:TheMontgomeryStory.Whilehisphilosophymaturedoverthe
years,StrideTowardsFreedomoffersanexcellentportrayalbothofKing’searly
philosophy,andoftheprinciplesthatwouldguidehimfortherestofhislife.
InStrideTowardsFreedom,Kingdescribesloveasarevolutionaryforce.Indefining
whatkindoflovewasrevolutionary,heturnedtotheancientGreeks,explainingthat
theyhaddifferenttermsfordifferentkindsoflove,suchaserosforromanticlove,or
philiafortheloveonehasforonesfriends.Revolutionarylove–thelovethatwas
necessaryfornonviolentresistance–wasagape:theloveforallhumanity.Unlike
erosorphilia,agapewasnotakindoflovethathopedforanythinginreturn,suchas
friendshiporromance.Itwasnotalovethatwasfocusedononesownself.Agape
wasalovethatdesiredthebestforallpeople,nearorfar,knownorunknown,
friendorenemy.Kingreferredtoitas“theloveofGodoperatinginthehuman
heart.”
Kingbelievedthislovewasrevolutionarybecausetrueloveofhumanitywouldnot
tolerateinjustice,andthusdemandedresistance…aresistance,however,thathurt
noone,thathealeddivisionsratherthanincreasedthem:anonviolentresistance.
Kingbelievedthatracismhadshatteredthehumancommunity,andwrotethat“…if
IrespondtohatewithareciprocalhateIdonothingbutintensifythecleavagein
brokencommunity.Icanonlyclosethegapinbrokencommunitybymeetinghate
withlove.”“Love,agape,istheonlycementthatcanholdthisbrokencommunity
together.WhenIamcommandedtolove,Iamcommandedtorestorecommunity,
toresistinjustice,andtomeettheneedsofmybrothers.”
Kingwrotethatwhereasotherformsofresistancecreatedwinnersandlosersand
pushedthesistersandbrothersinthehumancommunityfurtherapart,“The
aftermathofnonviolenceisthecreationofthebelovedcommunity.”Heemphasized
thatnonviolentresistance“doesnotseektodefeatorhumiliatetheopponent,butto
winhisfriendshipandunderstanding.”Itattacksforcesofevilratherthan“persons
whohappentobedoingevil.Itistheevilthatthenonviolentresisterseeksto
defeat,notthepersonsvictimizedbyevil.”
DuringtheMontgomerybusboycott,itwastheforcesofsegregationthatwere
underattack…notthewhitepeoplewhosupportedsegregation,whowere,inKing’s
words,peoplewhohadbeen“victimizedbyevil”bythefactthattheyhadbeen
15
raisedinasocietythatmadeitnearlyimpossibleforthemnottobecomeracist.In
ordertoemphasizethatthebusboycotthadnointentionofhurtingwhites,King
decidedtonotevenusetheterm“boycott”todescribetheMontgomerymovement.
Understandingthatmanypeopleassociatedthatwordwiththeeconomicretaliation
oftheWhiteCitizensCouncil,whichusedboycottstoharmAfricanAmericansand
theirsupporters,Kinginsteadspokeofnoncooperationwithevil.Theoutcomeof
noncooperationwithevildidnotinvolveanyonegettinghurt:theoutcomewas
justice.InthecaseoftheMontgomerybusboycott,thejustoutcomewasthe
desegregationofbuses.Whitepeoplemaynothavelikedit,butitdidn’thurtthem.
NonviolentresistancewasalsorevolutionarybecauseitcreatedwhatKingcalleda
“permanent,positivepeace,”ratherthana“negativepeace.”Ashetoldawhiteman
whoaccusedofhimofdestroyingthe“peacefulandharmoniousracerelations”in
Montgomery:“Sir,youhaveneverhadrealpeaceinMontgomery.Youhavehada
sortofnegativepeaceinwhichtheNegrotoooftenacceptedhisstateof
subordination.Butthisisnottruepeace.Truepeaceisnotmerelytheabsenceof
tension;itisthepresenceofjustice.ThetensionweseeinMontgomerytodayisthe
necessarytensionthatcomeswhentheoppressedriseupandstarttomoveforward
towardapermanent,positivepeace.”Negativepeacewascreatedwhenconflicts
werenotresolved,butpushedbeneaththesurfacewheretheycouldbeeasily
ignoredbythedominatingsideinaconflict.Itwasaformofpeacethatrequired
someone’sdefeatandsubordination.Nonviolentresistancewasabletocreatea
“permanent,positivepeace”becauseitdidnotsolveconflictsthroughdominating
anddefeatingpeople,butbyhealingbrokencommunity.
Nonviolentresistanceneededtoavoid“notonlyexternalphysicalviolencebutalso
internalviolenceofspirit.”Internalviolence,suchashatredoftheoppressor,was
alwaysatriskofturningintophysicalviolence.InKing’swords,overcoming
internalviolence“canonlybedonebyprojectingtheethicoflovetothecenterof
ourlives.”Itwasnoeasytasktohelpanoppressedcommunitykeeptheirfocuson
love,whenitwassonaturaltohatethosethathurtyou.Duringthemostdifficult
timesoftheboycott,Kingcalledformassivecommunitymeetingsonadailybasisin
ordertobringthepeopletogetherandkeeptheirenergyfocusedonthedignityand
righteousnessoftheircause.Allspeakerswereaskedtofocustheirwordson
nonviolenceandonloveinordertostrengthentheresolveoftheblackcommunity.
However,Kingemphasizedthatthelovetheyspokeof–ofagape–didnotmean
havingthewarmfeelingsassociatedwithotherkindsoflove.Inhiswords,“It
wouldbenonsensetourgementolovetheiroppressorsinanaffectionatesense.
Loveinthisconnectionmeansunderstanding.”Whatneededtobeunderstoodwas
thatitwasnotthenatureofwhitepeopletoberacistandoppressive,butthatthey
hadbeenbornintoasocietythatmadethemthatway,andthatthiscouldchange.It
wasthisunderstandingthatallowedAfricanAmericanstomanagethe“internal
violence”thatwasnaturallyfelttowardsonesoppressors,andtostaytruetothe
nonviolentresistancethatwouldeventuallyhealthebrokenhumancommunity.
16
King’smessagethatatrueloveofhumanitydemandednonviolentresistancemade
sensetomanywhitepeopleoutsideoftheSouth.Manyhadpreviouslyviewed
resistancetooppressionasaformofaggression,orassomethingthattheydidnot
needtobecomeinvolvedinbecausetheywerenotoppressedthemselves.More
importantly,King’ssteadfastfocusonusingthe“weaponoflove”toovercome
oppressionledmanywhiteAmericanstofeelasenseofshame…justasitwas
intendedto.InKing’swords,nonviolentresistanceworkedonlybecauseofits
power“toawakenasenseofmoralshameintheopponent.”Onlythepainful
emotionalpressureoffeelingshamehadthepowertoturnenemiesintofriends.
AlthoughKingoftenspokeofturningenemiesintofriends,heunderstoodthat
hardcoreenemieswereusuallysetintheirways.Thetruetargetofshamewas
ordinarywhiteAmericans.ItwasthroughforcingthemtofeelshamethatAfrican
Americanscouldgainabroadbaseofsupport…supportintheformoffinancial
donations,intheformofpositivemediaportrayals,intheformofpoliticalpressure
atthevotingpolls,andintheformofactivewhitealliesstrugglingsidebysidewith
blackAmericans.WhenKingwrotethat“hewhopassivelyacceptsevilisasmuch
involvedinitashewhohelpstoperpetrateit.Hewhoacceptsevilwithout
protestingagainstitisreallycooperatingwithit,”heframedresistanceto
oppressionasthenaturalactivityofalldecentpeople.Hismessageforcedmany
ordinarywhiteAmericanstowrestlewiththeirconscience,andtosupporttheblack
Americanfreedomstruggle.
RosaParksAftertheBoycott
AsforRosaParks,herstorywasnosimple,civilrightsfairytalewithaclean-cut
happyending.Sheandherhusbandbothlosttheirjobsovertheboycott.In
retaliationtotheiractivism,thelandlordraisedtheirrent,andtheyfoundit
impossibletomakeendsmeet.Theboycotthadtakenaserioustollontheirhealth:
RaymondParks,constantlyfearingforhiswife,sleptwithhisgun,suffereda
nervousbreakdown,andbegandrinkingheavily.RosaParkshadsufferedfrom
severesleeplessnessanddevelopedaheartcondition.Thiswastheharshrealityof
activism…astorythatwouldberepeatedthousandsandthousandsoftimesasthe
civilrightsmovementswepttheSouth.
Eightmonthsaftertheendoftheboycott,RosaandRaymondParksabandoned
MontgomeryandmovednorthtoDetroit.Althoughcontinuingtoliveinpoverty,
RosaPark’sactivismneverceased.InDetroitsheworkedonissuesofhousing
discriminationandpolicebrutality.ShesawMalcolmXdeliversomeofhismost
famousspeeches,including“MessagetotheGrassroots,”“TheBallotortheBullet,”
andwhatcametobeknownashis“LastMessage,”deliveredaweekbeforehis
death.Followingthatlasttalk,RosaandMalcolmfellintoalongconversation.His
househadjustbeenbombedandhestillsmelledofsmoke.
AlthoughRosaandMalcolmappearedsodifferentonthesurface,theyweresimilar
inmanywaysandenjoyedeachother’scompany.Parkslatersurprised
17
interviewersbytellingthemthatMalcolmXwashergreatesthero.Hispositionon
self-defenseremindedherofhergrandfather,andsheexpressedthatshefeltthat
Kingmaybeaskingtoomuchofblacks:“Weshouldn’tbeexpectednottoreactto
violence,”shetoldareporter.“It’sahumanreactionandthat’swhatweare,human
beings.”ShealsoadmiredMalcolm’sinternationalperspective.Likehim,she
viewedtheblackAmericanfreedomstruggleasjustonepartofthelarger,global
freedomstrugglesbeingwagedbycolonizedpeoplesduringthecivilrightsera.
AlthoughMartinLutherKingsharedthisperspectiveaswell,Parksmayhave
admiredthefactthatMalcolmXworkedtobuildsolidallianceswithracially
oppressedpeoplearoundtheworld.
In1964,RosaParksplayedanessentialroleintheelectionoftheblack
congressmanJohnConyers.Heimmediatelyhiredherontohisstaff,endingherlong
periodofpoverty.TheofficeofJohnConyersbecameahotbedofblackpolitical
activism,andbecausehewasofteninWashingtonD.C.,RosaParksplayedamajor
roleinrunningtheDetroitoffice.Shenotonlymetwiththemanypeoplewho
pouredintotheoffice,shetravelledalloverthecity,meetingwithpeopleatschools,
hospitals,seniorcitizenshomes,andcommunitymeetings.Shelistenedtowhatthe
peopleneededandreportedbacktothecongressman.
JustasRosahadsupportedyoungactivistsinMontgomeryintheyearsbeforethe
boycott,shebecameamajorsupporteroftheyoungpeoplewhobecameinvolvedin
thecivilrightsmovement.Shecherishedthe“BlackisBeautiful”culturethat
developedinthelate1960s,viewingitasanactofself-lovethatwasessentialnot
onlyforpersonalhappiness,butforeffectiveresistancetoinjustice.Shesupported
thecallsoftheyoungergenerationforBlackPower.Indeed,RosaParkshadlong
beenfamiliarwiththeessenceofBlackPower,aswasMartinLutherKing:atamass
meetingduringtheMontgomerybusboycott,Kinghadexplainedthat“…untilweas
aracelearntodevelopourpower,wewillgetnowhere.We’vegottogetpolitical
powerandeconomicpowerforourrace.”
Racialintegrationwasonlymeaningfulifitledtoanactualshareofpower,andthe
youngmilitantswhoRosaParkssupporteddidnotfeelthatthatwashappening.
RosaParkswascalmandsoft-spoken,butliketheyouth,shewasimpatient.As
historianJeanneTheohariswrites,her“impatiencewasrootedinatenderness
towardpeople’ssufferingthatmadeitimpossibleforherandmanyothersinthe
BlackPowermovementtoresteasyinthefaceofcontinuinginjustice.”
YoungblackmilitantsdidnotviewRosaParksasacivilrightsiconwhosedayhad
passed,butasafellowfreedomfighter.Theythrilledatbeingabletospendtime
withher.AlthoughParkswasportrayedtotheworldastheveryoppositeofthe
stereotypeoftheangry,blackmilitant,themilitantsthemselvesknewbetter.As
RosaParks’biographerJeanneTheohariswrites,“Inthepopularimagination,black
militantsdonotspeaksoftly,dressconservatively,attendchurchregularly,get
nervous,orworkbehindthescenes.Fundamentally,theyaretheoppositeofa
18
middle-agedseamstresswhospokesoftlyandslowly.Andyetthereweremany
militantslikeMrs.Parkswhodidjustthosethings."
AsoneofRosa’sfriendsputit:"She'squiet-thewaysteelisquiet."
Bibliography
D’Emilio,John.LostProphet:TheLifeandTimesofBayardRustin(Chicago:The
UniversityofChicagoPress,2003).
Garrow,DavidJ.BearingtheCross:MartinLutherKing,Jr.,andtheSouthern
ChristianLeadershipConference(NewYork:VintageBooks,1986).
Jackson,ThomasF.FromCivilRightstoHumanRights:MartinLutherKing,Jr.,and
theStruggleforEconomicJustice(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,
2007).
King,MartinLuther,Jr.StrideTowardFreedom:TheMontgomeryStory(NewYork:
HarperandBrothers,1958).
Parks,Rosa.MyStory(NewYork:PuffinBooks,1992).
Robinson,JoAnnGibson.TheMontgomeryBusBoycottandtheWomenWhoStarted
It(Knoxville:TheUniversityofTennesseePress,1987).
Theoharis,Jeanne.TheRebelliousLifeofMrs.RosaParks(Boston:BeaconPress,
2013).
19
Questions
1. ThinkingAboutConnectionsAcrossTime:Althoughslaveryhadbeendestroyed
fiftyyearsbeforethebirthofRosaParks,shewaspartofagenerationofAfrican
Americanswhoseeldershadoncebeenslaves.Howdoyouthinkbeingraised
amongstex-slavesmighthaveinfluencedtheperspectivesofyoungchildrenlike
RosaParks?
2. MakingConnectionsBetweenPastandPresent:RosaParks’grandfatherlooked
white,butbecausehehadAfricanancestry,hewasthoughtofasblack,andwas
thusmadeaslave.Backthen,thiswasknownasthe“onedrop”rule:evenifa
personwas99%white,iftheyhad“onedrop”ofAfricanancestry,theywere
definedasAfrican.Doyouthinkthatthiswayofdefining“white”and“black”still
existstoday,orhavethingschanged?
TheBeginningofRosa’sActivism
3. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhatstrategiesdidwhiteSouthernersusetoprevent
AfricanAmericansfromvoting?WhatstrategiesdidAfricanAmericans–like
RosaParksandE.D.Nixon–usetogainthevote?
TheHistoryofBusinginMontgomery
4. ThinkingAboutGlobalContext:WhydidWorldWarIImakeAfricanAmericans
evenmoredeterminedtofightfortheirfreedom?
5. ThinkingAboutLocalContext:HowdidthelocalcontextofMontgomery–
specifically,thefactthatithadtwoair-forcebases–contributetothatcitylater
stagingabusboycott?
EventsLeadingUptotheBoycott
6. ThinkingAboutNationalContext:InwhatwaydidtheSupremeCourtoutlawing
segregatedschoolsin1954contributetotheMontgomerybusboycottin1955?
7. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidE.D.NixonfeelthatClaudetteColvinwasnot
therightpersontobuildalegalcasearound?
OrganizingtheBoycott
8. ThinkingAboutStrategy:DescribetherolethatJoAnnRobinsonandthe
Women’sPoliticalCouncilplayedinstartingtheboycott,andwhytheywereable
tobesoeffective.
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9. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidE.D.Nixonthinkthattheministersneededto
beorganizedtomaketheboycottsuccessful?WhydidheofferMartinLuther
Kinganimportantroleinorganizingtheministers?
TheFirstDayoftheBoycott
10. ThinkingAboutStrategy:DescribethestrategyofRosaParks’lawyer.
11. ThinkingAboutGender:Whyweretheministers,ratherthanRosaParksandJo
AnnRobinson,chosentobecometheleadersoftheboycott?
12. ThinkingAboutPublicPresentation:DescribetheimageofRosaParksthatwas
presentedtothepublic,andwhythisimagewaschosen.
TheWhiteResponse
13. ThinkingAboutStrategy:DescribethestrategiesusedbytheWhiteCitizens
Councilstoenforceracialoppression,includingwhytheydisagreedwiththeKu
KluxKlan,andhowtheypreventedwhitepeoplefromhelpingAfrican
Americans.
TheEntranceofBayardRustin
14. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidBayardRustintellKingthatitwasimportant
thathedidn’tarmhimself,evenforprotection?AccordingtoRustin,whydid
Kingneedtoadoptnonviolenceasacompletewayoflife?
15. ThinkingAboutPublicPresentation:DescribetworeasonswhyBayardRustin,
despitebeingamajorinfluenceonMartinLutherKing,kepthisroleinvisibleto
thepublic.
MassArrests
16. ThinkingAboutStrategy:HowdidtheAfricanAmericancommunityprevent
themselvesfromlookinglike“guiltycriminals”totheeyesoftheworldwhen
theywerearrested?Whywerethemassarrestsamajorstrategicerroronthe
partofwhiteMontgomery?
TheDevelopmentofKing’sPhilosophy
17. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidMartinLutherKingbelievethatagapewasa
revolutionarykindoflove?
18. ImagineYouWereThere:ImagineyouwereinthecrowdslisteningtoMartin
LutherKingspeakingaboutrevolutionarylove.Howwouldyouhavereacted?
Wouldyouhaveagreedwithhim?Whyorwhynot?
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19. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidKingchoosetousetheterm“noncooperation
withevil,”insteadoftheterm“boycott”?Whatwaspositiveaboutoneterm,and
negativeabouttheother?
20. MakingConnectionsBetweenPastandPresent:WhatdidMartinLutherKing
meanby“negativepeace”and“positivepeace?”Doyouthink“negativepeace”
existsinyourcommunitytoday?Pleaseexplain.
21. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhatdidMartinLutherKingmeanby“internal
violenceofspirit?”WhydidtheMontgomerymovementneedtopreventthis
“internalviolence,”andhowdidtheypreventit?
22. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidMartinLutherKingfeelitwasimportantfor
whiteAmericanstofeelasenseofshame?
RosaParksAftertheBoycott
23. ThinkingAboutStrategy:InwhatwaysdidRosaParksdisagreewithMartin
LutherKing,andwhy?
24. ThinkingAboutPerspectives:WhatdidRosaParksthinkofthephrases“Blackis
Beautiful”and“BlackPower?”
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