Propaganda Techniques Within Nazi Germany
Author(s): Julius Yourman
Source: Journal of Educational Sociology, Vol. 13, No. 3, Education Under Nazism (Nov., 1939),
pp. 148-163
Published by: American Sociological Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2262307 .
Accessed: 24/03/2013 11:26
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
.
American Sociological Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Journal of Educational Sociology.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES WITHIN
NAZI GERMANY'
JULIUS YOURMAN
New YorkUniversity
ofa country
has
The extenttowhichthepropagandamachinery
orofa groupof
beenbroughtunderthecontrolofoneorganization
relatedorganizationsis a usefulmeasureof the degreeto which
has
absolutismdominatesit,and oftheextenttowhichdemocracy
been eliminated.FascistGermanyillustrates
how propagandais
used bothto bringa dictatorintopowerand to aid him in maintainingand extendingthatpower.In Germanythe propaganda
oftheNational
whichhelpedconvincethepeopleof theefficiency
Socialistsolutionforthecountry's
politicaland economicproblems
wasreinforced
byan armyofstormtroopsthatweakenedopposition
and dangerousthe
throughterrorism.
Suchmethodsmadedifficult
ofcompetingpropagandas.
promulgation
SincetheadventoftheNationalSocialiststhepoweroftheagenand coordinatedso thatall
ciesofpropagandahas beenintensified
avenuesof communication-press,
school,radio,motionpicture,
and eventhechurch-mustcarrybutone propagandato thepublic
mind,mustexpressone will, one voice,one opinion.Hence the
estabHider regimehas,in commonwithotherfascistcountries,
flowsfromthetop down; and
lisheda systemwhereinauthority
fromthepeoplecomesblind,instant,
obedience.In
unquestioning
the pages thatfollow,thepropagandawhich aided the National
Socialistsin winningsupport,whichhelpsthemkeep thesupport
ofa majority
ofthepeopletoday,is analyzedunderthesevencommonpropagandadevices.2
of theInsti'Based in largeparton PropagandaAnalysis,May I938; byspecialpermission
Drive,New YorkCity.
Inc., I32 Morningside
tuteforPropagandaAnalysis,
forPropagandaAnalysis.
'First suggestedin NovemberI937 News Letterof theInstitute
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PropagandaTechniqueswithinNazi Germany
I.
NAME
I49
CALLING
"Name calling"is a deviceto makeus forma judgmentwithout
examiningthe evidenceon whichit shouldbe based.Here the
appealsto ourhateand fear.
propagandist
taskoftheNationalSocialistswas todestroy
Inasmuchas thefirst
all tradeunionsas well as all liberaldemocratic
simultaneously
it was necessary
to make thepeoplebelievethatthese
institutions,
designedbymaliciouspersonsto
cleverly
inventions,
weredevilish
ruintheGermanpeople.This theysoughtto accomplishbyassertwere similarin
thattheseinstitutions
ing withendlessrepetition
structure
and mood to thoseof communism.They thenpainted
With
eventheskeptical.
in termsso luridas tohorrify
communism
people convincedthatcommunism(oftenused by the Nazis as
withtheWeimarRepublic)had beenforcedon them
synonymous
and "malicious"cabalof"alienenemies"tocreate
a
"degenerate"
by
theirmisery,
theycould thenrallyall good Germansaroundthe
Fuehrer,who promisedto protecthis peoplebywagingrelentless
war on these"enemiesof Germany."This picturewas widelyacin whichthe
ceptedand was supportedby a completemythology
wereheldtobe the
ordemocracy
and liberalism
Jews,communism,
major evil influencesfromwhich the National Socialistssaved
Germany.
as weak,insipid,vacillating,
temporizing,
"Liberals"areclassified
in
believe
the "stupid
or
to
"liberal"
be
a
To
and unprincipled.
is to
democracy"
by"Jewish-invented
doctrineofequality"fostered
"true
to
the
is opposed
"red.""Jewishdemocracy"
be a lily-livered
whichHitlerclaimsto have established.
democracy,"
wordswithfeelingand emotion
supercharge
Nazi propagandists
inordertogivethemgreaterforcein namecalling.The samesuperchargingis appliedto the"virtuewords"whichtheyemployin the
devices.Many of thesewords derivetheir
glittering-generalities
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
I50
TheJournalof EducationalSociology
ofhonesty,
decency,good workvirtuefromtheimmensereservoir
manship,good will, fineimagery,and richemotionalismof the
new meanings.
Germanpeople.Othersaregivensignificant
2. GLITTERING GENERALITIES
is a deviceby whichthe propagandist
"Glittering
generalities"
hisprogramwithvirtuebyuseof"virtuewords."Here
identifies
and brotherhood.
he appealsto ouremotionsoflove,generosity,
of thosewho controltheregimeis
Much thatis to theinterest
good" and "comradeliness."
praisedin termsof the "community
talkaboutsubjecting
all "narTo thesameend thereis considerable
to the "welfareof the community."
row" and "selfish"interests
aregivenadditional"virtue"
Suchwordsas "labor"and "sacrifice"
and dramaticawards.8
byceremonials
is thatconveyedbythewordvolk
The mostsweepinggenerality
(folkorpeople). The Volk,afterpurgingitselfof Jewishblood,is
to returnto thetrueGermanictraditionof the Middle Ages. To
tothistheorya "biologicalmythology"
hashad tobe
lendauthority
and is nowproclaimedbyprofessors
appointedto univerinvented,
and
sitychairsforthatpurpose.Thus, we see the card-stacking
an applicationof the glitdevicesused to strengthen
testimonial
device.The regimeutilizestheword "science"
tering-generalities
to sanctionpractices,policies,beliefs,and races which it wants
approved.From "science"it obtainedapprovalforthe destruction
ofall oppositionand ofall "Marxistliberalculture."
in appealingto specialgroups.
are effective
Othergeneralities
The farmers
have beenheartenedto endurethepoorreturnfrom
on thethemeofBlut und
theirtoilbya wholemagnificat,
written
Boden (blood and soil). Theyaretoldthattheyare"oftheglorious
peasantstate,"and each householderis giventhehonoredtitleof
Bauer,ifhe can provefreedomfromJewishbloodfromJanuaryi,
'This is one of themanyexamplesofhow twoor moreof thecommonpropagandadevices
deviceis combinedwith the
can be used in combination.
Here the glittering-generalities
devices.
band-wagonand transfer
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PropagandaTechniqueswithinNazi Germany
I5I
i8oo. "Bauerhonor"tieshim to theland and preventshim from
The flattery,
theinsignia,and
changinghisoccupationorresidence.
theverbalconsolationsofferedto workerson theland have their
to industrial
laborers.
parallelsin thoseoffered
betweentheGeneralArmyStaffand
The presentinternalconflict
illustrates
theinfluence
thenewlycreatedBrownShirtsstillfurther
ofappealingto specialgroups.SincetheearlydaysofBismarcktop
and
honorshave gone to the GeneralStaff;it is withbitterness
have
that
seen
their
the
usurped
by
party
priority
resentment they
willlead to theoverthrow
leaders.Manypredictthatthisanimosity
of Hitlerism.
3. TRANSFER
carriesoverthe
"Transfer"is a devicebywhichthepropagandist
authority,
sanction,and prestigeof somethingwe respectand
revereto somethinghe wouldhave us accept.
Somethingapproachingdeificationof ChancellorHitleris an
seek to
outstandingexampleof this device.Nazi propagandists
and totransfer
tohimthereligious
establishhimas a quasi divinity
feelingsof the German people; then to transferfromhim the
"divine" sanctionto the policies,practices,beliefs,and hatreds
referto
whichhe espouses.Some partyspokesmenand supporters
Hitlerin termslikethoseappliedto Christ.However,thepressure
exertedto forcetheacceptanceof theFuehreras a modernsavior
has been resistedby thosechurchleaderswho have recognizedin
withChristianity,
a conflict
a conflict
admitted
theNazi movement
by themoreoutspokenNationalSocialists.Despitethisopposition
Nazi leadershave had greatsuccessin capturingreligiousfeeling
Hitleras a divinityembodyingthetraditions
and in establishing
of theold Germanfolklore.
Pope Pius XI, in his encyclicalon Germany,March I4, I937,
stressed
thepointwhenhe wrote:
Venerable
Brethren,
ofthegrowing
abuseinspeechandwritBeware,
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
152
TheJournalof EducationalSociology
labelfora
ing,ofusingthethrice
holynameofGod as a meaningless
moreorlesscapricious
formofhumansearchandlonging.
oftheRomanCatholicChurchand ofProtestant
Whenmembers
influenced
by theattemptto transfer
churchesare not sufficiently
theirallegiancefromthechurchbeliefswhichtheyhaveheldto the
withthoseofthestate,moredirectmeansof
beliefs"coordinated"
and concentration
camps.
persuasionare used: intimidation
Baldurvon Schirach,Nazi youthleader,wrotefortheyouthof
Germanythisprayer:
AdolfHitler,we believein Thee.WithoutThee we wouldbe alone.
ThroughTheewe area people.Thouhastgivenusthegreatexperience
and
ofouryouth,
comradeship.
Thouhastlaiduponusthetask,theduty,
the
theresponsibility.
Thou hastgivenus ThyName (Hitlerjugend),
haseverpossessed.
We speakitwith
mostbelovedNamethatGermany
Thoucanstdependuponus,
reverence,
webearitwithfaithandloyalty.
The Youthis ThyName.
AdolfHitler,Leaderand Standard-Bearer.
ThyName is theYouth.Thou and theyoungmillionscan neverbe
sundered.'
The prestigeand authorityof God are used to sanctionthe
NationalSocialistparty,its foreignpolicyof militaryexpansion,'
and its domesticpolicyof bendingto its will labor,agriculture,
and all ideals,includingthoseofChristianity.
The Catholic
business,
though30,000,000
ofthe75,000,000
Church,inparticular,
isattacked,
Germanswere membersof the Church.Catholicismis said to
be competingwithNazism as a religionand educationalagency;
'Robert A. Brady,The Spiritand Structure
of GermanFascism(New York: The Viking
Press,I937), pp. I96-I97.
5 NoteHitler'sreference
in hisspeechat Linz, UpperAustria(The New YorkTimes,March
I3, I938),
to the takingof Austriaas a "divinecommission"and thisquotationfromhis
Viennaspeech(ibid.,AprilIO, I938): "I believeit was God's will to sendthisAustrianboy
to theReichand topermithimto returnas a maturemantoreunitethetwogreatsectionsof
rulersof thiscountry.
theGermanpeople.... WithinthreedaystheLord strucktheformer
Everything
thathas happenedmusthave been pre-ordained
by Divine Will." At Danzig
(Septemberi9, I939) HitlerproclaimedDivine supportof Germanconquestof Poland
(New YorkHerald-Tribune,
September20, I939):
"Withhorseand man and wagon,the
Lorddefeatedthem."
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PropagandaTechniqueswithinNazi Germany
153
it is "foreign,""international,"
"communistic,""Jewish,"and
"wealthy."
oftheindustrial
aremadetodiverttheattention
Attempts
worker
fromthe decliningpurchasingpower of his labor and fromthe
factsof his exploitation
by transferring
and
by songs,processions,
ritualsthefeelingsarousedin his breastto a senseofpridein the
"dignityoflabor."
Love of the home and motherhoodare similarlyexploitedto
encouragewomento accepttheformof livingwhichtheNational
Socialistprogramrequiresof them.Childrenare made responsive
to military
idealsby transferring
to theseidealsthechild'slove of
adventure.
For childrenthetransfer
devicemostfrequently
employedis the
symboloftheNazi hero-especiallyin hisroleofsoldier.Manliness
is identified
withthegloryof thepartyand is used as a meansof
encouragingin German boys an attitudeof superiority
toward
womenand a beliefin thedoctrine
ofmilitarism
and anti-Semitism.
Wordsand symbolsappertaining
towarhavebeenendowedwitha
glorioussenseto makewar appearheroicand thrilling.
Littlechildrenknowand givetheHitlersalute.Toy soldiers,
tanks,machine
guns,and simplified
battleinstructions
aboundeverywhere-symbolsto transfer
sanctionto thelateruse ofrealtanksand machine
guns.
4. TESTIMONIAL
The "testimonial"
is a deviceto makeus acceptanything
froma
patentmedicineor a cigarette
to a programofnationalpolicy.
From thefactthat"theFuehrerknowsthegoal and knowsthe
direction,"
itfollowsthathisis thesupremetestimonial.
No authorS. K. Padover,"Nazi ScapegoatNumber2," Forum,February1938; alsoinReader'sDigest,
FebruaryI939.
'Ralph Thurston,"Under the Nazi ChristmasTree," The New Republic,December25,
pp. 193-I94.
I935,
Educationas partof thepropagandaprogramis describedelsewherein
thisissue.
6
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
154
TheJournalof EducationalSociology
whichdoes notfollowfromor accordwith
ityand no adjustment
his can be right.No specialistknowsbetterthan he, no recommendationcan be betterthanhis.He can denyeventheauthority
of science.Only theconclusionsof "Germanscience"as approved
bytheFuehrermaybe accepted.When theconclusionsof science
a newsciencehastobe
do notaccordwithhiswishes,as in genetics,
invented(card stacking);itsprestigethenhas to be established
by
So also withthe arts.Only thatartwhichis aphis testimonial.'
as Germanartmaybe
provedbytheFuehrerand his subordinates
acceptedby theGermanpeople.9So also does he decreehow men
and womenshall live theirlives.The kind of lifewhichhas the
Fuehrer'sapprovalis thatwhichis surrendered
to thestate.In this
Hitleris thearbiter;hisapprovalis thesupremetestimonial.
5.
PLAIN FOLKS
laborleaders,business
"Plainfolks"is a deviceusedbypoliticians,
and educatorsto win ourconfidence
men,and evenbyministers
byappearingto be peoplelikeourselves-"justplainfolksamong
theneighbors."
At the same timethatthe Fuehreris canonized,an attemptis
himintoa "manofthepeople."In this,thepropmadetotransform
agandistsare greatlyassistedby his habits,forhe effects
ordinary
clothes,wearsno medalsotherthanhissimpleIronCross,eatsplain
foodand thatsparingly,
and leads a quiet,secludedlife.He is picturedas a man ofthepeoplemeetingplainfolksin theirordinary
walksoflife,enjoyingwiththemtheirsimpleworkand pleasures.
Hitlerhimselfmakesthesameappealtohispeople.He is no longer
a plainman buta commonsoldier.In his addressto theReichstag
:"
(September
i, 1939) he declared
Brady,op. cit.,"The New Nazi Sciences,"pp. 46-52.
9See Olin Downes in The New YorkTimes,April3, 1938:
". . . It remainsa factthatan
absolutedictatorship
of thesortnow practisedin suchextensive
areasof theworldoverseas
(Germany,
Italy,and Russia) is nothingbutdestructive
tocreativethoughtin anyfield."
Factsin Review,I: 6, p. 4. PublishedbytheGermanLibraryofInformation.
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PropagandaTechniqueswithinNazi Germany
155
amtodayas readyas I oncewastomakeevery
I myself
sacripersonal
fice.I expectno moreofanyGermanthanwhatI forfouryearswas
to do. Thereshallbe no privations
in Germany
voluntarily
prepared
endure.
whichI myself
willnotimmediately
Mywholelifefromnowon
stillmoreexclusively
tomypeople.I nowdo notwanttobeanybelongs
soldier
oftheGermanReich.I, therefore,
thingbutthefirst
againputon
whichoncehadbeenmostsacredanddearest
tome.It will
theuniform
ordeath.
betakenoffonlyafter
victory
servantgirlfeelthat
The simplestpeasantand themostuntutored
tothem.As he speaks,theyseemtorelivewith
he is talkingdirectly
him his terribleexperiencesin the war and his poverty-stricken
postwardays.Justas one ofthemostpowerfulappealsofthefigure
of Christforthepoorofall agesis his lowlyoriginand hisexpressionsof sympathy
forhumblepeople,so the National Socialists
attemptto capitalizeon Hitler'searlycareer.Jesus,a carpenter,
is theMessiahoftheChristian
world;Hitler,a housepainter,
is the
saviorof Germany.However,to judge bywhatHitlerhas written
in his book,Mein Kampf,he appearsto have littlesympathy
but
muchcontempt
forthebroadmasses.MiriamBeardsays:
... He (Hitler)willnotbe squeamish
abouthismethods:
"Whenever
peoplefight
fortheirexistence
all questions
ofhumanity
oresthetics
fall
awaytonothing."
Mercyis a vainillusion,
he informs
us onpage267of
theoriginal,
cutfromthetranslation,
"ina world. . . in whichForceis
forever
mistress
overtheweak"andinwhich"Naturedoesnotknow"it.
The realstingistakenfrom
his(Hitler's)remarks
onlabor.His intentionto"freeeconomic
lifefromtheinfluences
ofthemass"isomitted.
In thiscase,as in thatoftheotherpropagandadevicesdiscussed
in thispaper,theelementof misrepresentation
of factis considerable, althoughit is not alwayspredominant.
The devicewhich
playsthemostimportant
partin NationalSocialistpropagandais,
therefore,
"stackingthecards"foror againstbeliefsor factswhich
the National Socialistswish eitherto encourageor to suppress.
""Hitler Unexpurgated:DeletionsfromMein Kampf," in Pierrevan Paassen, editor,
Nazism: An Assaulton Civilization(New York: HarrisonSmithand RobertHaas, 1934),
pp. 268, 272.
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
156
TheJournalof EducationalSociology
6.
CARD STACKING
"Card stacking"is a devicein whichthepropagandist
employs
hisgroup,
all theartsofdeceptionto winoursupportforhimself,
nation,race,policy,practice,belief,or ideal. He stacksthecards
and overemphasis
to
againstthe truth.He uses underemphasis
dodge or evadefacts.
of factsworksin two ways.On the one
The misrepresentation
hand, thereis a rigorouslyenforcedcensorship,backed by an
elaboratespy systemand the constantthreatof concentration
camps.Bythismeanstheregimecan suppressfacts,preventdiscussion and expressionof discontentand opposition.This largely
fromGeraccountsforthe factthatmanyvisitorson returning
ofdiscontent.
On
manyreportthattheyhave heardno expression
theotherhand,theregimehas freedomto givepublicityto falsehoods. Hitler"2
approvessuch duplicityin Mein Kampf (deleted
fromtheEnglishtranslation)whenhe writes:
". . . Propaganda
forthetruth
so
... doesnothavetoseekobjectively
. .. butexclusively
hastoserveourinterests."
faras itfavors
an opponent
cansuggest:
"whenthatingenuity
It mustadoptevery
deviceofslander
theshimmer
of an
permits
fora singlemoment
everourpropaganda
for
appearance
ofrighton theotherside,it hasbeenlaida foundation
amonga peoplethatso
doubtin therightofourcause. . . especially
as theGerman!"
fromobjectivity-mania
suffers
The duplicityassociatedwith the Reichstagfireand the spirit
offoreign
in theannouncements
oftheresultant
"trial"is reflected
Treaties and pronouncements
are
policy fromWilhelmstrasse.
usefultoplacate,appease,orevendeoftenregardedas instruments
denialsofGermaninterceiveothergovernments.
Aftercategorical
ferencein Spain,official
recognition
was givenFranco,and Hitler
made thestatement
thatGermantroopswerein Spain notonlyto
"protect"herfrom"communism"but also to keep open forGermanyaccessto oresand otherraw materials.
' QuotedbyBeard, cit.,p. 269.
op.
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PropagandaTechniqueswithinNazi Germany
I57
In linewiththispolicywas thedestruction
of booksand papers
thatcontained"dangerousthoughts."
Publicand privatelibraries,
filesweresearchedfor"red,""combookstores,
offices,
and reference
whichincludestheworksof
munist,"
"Jewish"literature-literature
Helen Keller,SmileZola,MarcelProust,H. G. Wells,Thomasand
HeinrichMann, ArnoldSweign,AlbertEinstein,JacobWassermann,alongwithKarl Marx,FriedrichEngels,Lenin,and Stalin.
thecountry.
Suchbooksfedgreatfiresin publicsquaresthroughout
Quotationsfromsomeof theseworksweretakenout of theircontextand presentedto thepublicas examplesof how theseauthors
with"filth"and "lies."The
havebeen"poisoningthecommunity"
attacking"enemylies" are widelycirculatedas
"Aryan"treatises
substitutes;
butthoseattackingStalinand communismhave since
beensuppressed
as a resultoftheNazi-Russianpacts.
An analysisof parallel news reportsin Germanand foreign
use of card stackingby the
papersoffers
examplesof theeffective
Niemoeller'sreleasebythecourtwas
controlled
press.For instance,
bythesecretpolicewas not.Convictions
announcedbuthisrearrest
of Roman Catholicsfor"immoralpractices"werepublished;acquittalswere "playeddown." Althoughthe MinisterforChurch
Herr Hans Kerrl,announcedthatmorethaneightthouAffairs,
sand Catholicreligiousleaderswereor had been underarrest,he
did notpublishthe factthatonlyaboutforty-nine
had been conmanycrimesofindividualJews
victedofimmoralactions.Similarly,
arepublicized,butno publicity
is givento waysin whichGerman
No intimation,
forexample,is made
Jewshaveservedtheircountry.
of thefactthat12,000 Jewsdied forGermanyin theWorld War;
or that,despiteofficialdiscouragement,
the same
approximately
proportion
of Jewsas of gentilesservedin theGermanarmyand
navy.
13
3 For a summary
of statistics
see
relatingto thenumberand positionsof Jewsin Germany,
Schuman,op. cit.,pp. 3i6-3i8;
and MildredWertheimer,
"The Jewsin theThirdReich,"
Foreign Policy Association Reports, IX (I933),
pp. 174-i84. Accordingto Germancensus
figuresin I925, professingJudaistsconstituted
o.9 per cent of the total populationof
62,41o,6I9.
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
i58
TheJournalof EducationalSociology
In additionto influencing
the Germanpeople in the direction
desiredby the dictator,the falsehoodsinherentin card stacking
arousehatredswhichhave theeffect
ofrallyingthepeopleagainst
and dexterity
theNazi
thesupposedenemyorperil.Withdifficulty
Treaty.Nazis have never
presshas explainedtheGerman-Russian
communism"
opposedCommunismin Russia;only"international
ofpropaganda
is tobe resisted.
The superficiality
and inconsistency
is startlingly
statements.
illustratedin the followingcontrasting
The firstwas madebeforetheReichstagon February20, I938; the
ofRussian
secondwas madeat Danzig followingthefraternization
and Nazi soldiersat Brest-Litovsk
but eighteenmonthslater.
Thereisonlyonestatewithwhichwehaveneversought
closerelationI
shipsand withwhichwe do notwanttohaveanycloserelationships.
as uponthedestrucmeanSovietRussia.We mustlookuponBolshevism
tivequalities
ofhumannature
andwedo so evenmorethanbefore.
We havefounditin thebestinterests
tohavean
ofbothournations
whatitis andGermany
understanding
witheachother.
Russiaremains
willremainwhatitis.Butbothregimes
seeclearly
thatneither
theRussiannortheGermanregimes
evena singlemanforthe
wanttosacrifice
interests
oftheWestern
democracies.
The namecallinghas beenshifted
fromcommunismand Russia
to democracyand the"war-mongering
English."
7.
BAND WAGON
The "band wagon"is a deviceto make us followthe crowd,to
acceptthepropagandist's
programen masse.Here his themeis
"Everybody's
doingit."His techniquesrangefromthoseofmedicineshowto dramaticspectacle.
One of the greatunifyingprinciplesadoptedby the National
Socialistsis thatofhate.AmongthepassagesdeletedfromtheEng:'
lishversionofMeinKampf,Hitlerhas written
". . . Hateis morelasting
powerforthe
thandislike,
andthethrusting
" Beard,op. Cit.,p. 267.
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PropagandaTechniqueswithinNazi Germany
I59
mightiest
upheavals
onthisearthhasatalltimescomelessfrom
scientific
recognition
thanfroma fanaticism
thatfillsthesoulsofthemassesandin
a forward-driving
hysteria"
Hysterie).
(vorwaertsiagenden
In accordancewiththisprincipleJews,communists,
liberals,and
democratsbecameobjectsof hatredand scapegoatsthatcould be
madeto suffer
forthepeople'sdistress.
Unityis further
encouraged
bypatrioticdemonstrations.
Typicalin theseare giganticcrowds
ofpeople,massedranksof uniformed
troops,bandsplayingpatrioticand martialairs,voicesdeclaimingfroma hundredmechanical
mouths,ecstaticmarchers
carrying
flickering
torches,
theirresinous
smokeblendingintothedarkness,
flagsand swastikaseverywhere.
This is the National Socialistequivalentof "bread and circuses."
To bringall GermansupontheNationalSocialistbandwagon,the
partypropagandists
play continuously
upon the commonfears,
All propagandadehatreds,prejudices,
aspirations,
and traditions.
vicesculminatein thisone. Not to geton theGermanfascistband
wagon is the gravestheresy,tantamount
to treason.This largely
accountsforreportsof nearlyioo per cent"Yes" votesin all Nazi
plebiscites.
TO WHAT END ALL THIS PROPAGANDA?
Prophesiesarehazardous.We do notknowthefutureofGerman
Fascism.When Hitlerwrotehis book,Mein Kampf,he statedas
objectivesso manygoals whichsincehave been attainedthatthe
book is oftencalled the blueprintof GermanFascism.Hitlerhas
written:"A Statewhich. . . devotedly
fosters
itsbestracialelements
is boundone daytobecomeMasteroftheEarth(Herr derErde) .",
Physical,political,economic,and culturalexpansionis stillthe
majoractivity
oftheNationalSocialists.Hitler'sprogramis as impressiveas the Berlin-to-Bagdad
objectiveof the formerKaiser.
When expansioncouldbe obtainedwithoutfighting,
as in Austria
and Czecho-Slovakia,by merethreatof militaryattack,withac1
QuotedbyBeard,op.
Cit., p. 258.
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
i6o
TheJournal
ofEducational
Sociology
and
or approvalof politicians,
statesmen,
quiescence,
support,
to
therewas simplythepeacefulyielding
groupsin otherstates,
Whenwarwas necesor domination.
GermanFascistoccupation
intoPoland.
goose-stepped
sary,Germantroops
was subversive
or domination
then
suchoccupation
Preceding
to fascism
and to
to makethepeoplereceptive
openpropaganda
of thosegroupsand individuals,
high
including
winthesupport
fromGermanFascismand
whoexpectadvantages
publicofficials,
ofresistance.
thosewhohavebeenmadetofeartheconsequences
a wordofwarning:We mustguard
In thisconnection,
however,
offasthatGermanFascismoranyothervariety
againstassuming
cismarisesfrompropaganda
alone.GermanFascismcameinto
skillas a propabecauseofHitler'smasterful
beingnotprimarily
impoverishment,
ofunemployment,
gandist
butbecauseconditions
thatanyperweresuchinGermany
despair,
anger,
andresentment
appealing
could
salvation
interms
sufficiently
sonorgroupoffering
of
andeconomic
decisions
thepolitical
haveinfluenced
profoundly
theGermanpeople.Hitlerwas sufficiently
appealing.Withthe
and inofcertain
individuals
and theintrigues
financial
support
befascism
competencies
ofmenlikevonPapenandHindenburg,
and
nationalistic
comesa reality.The Germans,traditionally
crippled,
and dehumiliated,
arrogantly
proud,weredefeated,
first
madethemracially
gradedbytheWorldWar.Nazi ideology
andforceprovedtheirrightas a world
superior,
theNazi politics
"destiny."
Itwasa comagaintheir
interrupted
powerandrevealed
weakness,
frusgovernmental
binationof economicbreakdown,
tratedmorale,and propaganda
whichmadepre-NaziGermany
A similar
couldbringfascism
elsecombination
readyforfascism.
where.
except
hasno meaningand henceno effectiveness
Propaganda
in termsof lifeconditions
of people-theirneeds,fears,hatreds,
loves,aspirations,
Theseaffect
propaprejudices,
and traditions.
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PropagandaTechniqueswithinNazi Germany
i6i
ganda as much as propagandaaffects
people.'"National Socialist
propagandais basedon thehatreds,
and traditions
fears,aspirations,
oftheGermanpeople.That explainsitssuccess-that,together
with
thefactthatmostoftheGermanpeopleand doubtlessmanyofthe
Nazi propagandists
themselves
were unable to analyze,evaluate,
and appraisetheNazi propagandaand its possibleconsequences.
WhetherHitleror hisfellowNazis weresincereor insincere,
racketeersorhonestmen,is nota matterofprimeimportance.
What is
of importance
is thattheywon to theircausehonest,earnestmen
and womenwho in theirturnbecamezealousand effective
propagandistsforNational Socialism.Some of them,like Niemoeller,
cametoseethatNationalSocialism(GermanFascism)actuallywas
of the Germanyof theirhopes and aspirations;theredestructive
fore,theybrokewiththeNazis and losttheirliberty
or theirlives.
The processof suchdisillusionment
maybe slow or negligiblebecausetheregimehas a monopolyofpropaganda.
Card stackingmustbe usedconstantly
bytheNationalSocialists
to preventGermansand therestof theworldfromknowingsignificantfactsaboutGermanFascism.In thisconnection,
notethe
proposalby Dr. Otto Dietrich,"Reich presschief,forpressnonaggressionpacts,providingfor governmental
controlof printed
and spokenwords in all nationsnegotiatingsuch treatieswith
Germany.
Once theGermanFascistsobtainpoweroveranothernation,we
see pressureexerted,as in Austria,Sudetenland,Slovakia,and
Poland,tobringthepressand all channelsofcommunication
under
totalitarian
control,and to silenceall critics.In orderto save their
livesand positions,
someeditors,
writers,
clergymen,
teachers,
business men,farmers,
and others,who mightbe adverselycritical,
yieldto pressure.By so doingtheybecomepartof thetotalitarian
16See WilliamGrahamSumner,Folkways(Boston:Ginnand Company,1906), ChapterI.
17See The New YorkTimes,March8, I938.
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
i62
TheJournal
Sociology
ofEducational
toitspressure
tosilence
lendthemselves
system-they
propaganda
are reCourageouseducators
teachers,
and clergymen.
editors,
fromtheir
editors
posts,independent
movedfromtheirteaching
fromtheirpulpits."8
andpriests
clergymen
andforthright
desks,
offascist
athomeandabroadhas
The effectiveness
propaganda
the
arediscovering
on thedefensive.They
placedthedemocracies
withintheirown
spreadofNazi propaganda
deliberate
extensive
aredisseminatin thiscountry
borders.19
(Some8ooorganizations
the
withtheirprinciples,
To beconsistent
propaganda.)
ingfascist
byforce
ofideasandfeelings
democracies
cannothalttheinvasion
onlybyeducation
themselves
orbylegislation.
Theymayprotect
in educationfor
interest
and reason.Thus,we findincreasing
(All publicschoolsin NewYorkCitynowteachtolertolerance.'
of Schools,and
an orderof theSuperintendent
ance,following
topropaganda-i5,ooopupilsin 6oo schools,
manyteachresistance
teaching
Analysis
forPropaganda
useInstitute
and3,000teachers,
their
freehaveemphasized
newspapers
MostAmerican
materials.)
as "theconnewspapers
to dictators'
in all reports
dom,referring
numbegan.Increasing
trolled
warcensorships
press"longbefore
'See The New YorkTimes,March28, I938, foran accountof Edward Y. Hartshorne's
of theNazi dictatorship
on Germaneducation,in whichhe showsthatof
studyof theeffect
who have been dismissedby the NationalSocialistsalmost9oo were
the i,684 professors
releasedforbeingJewish,Catholic,or "politicallyunreliable,"and more than700 others
weredismissedforno knowncause.
'' "The Attackon Democracy,"Instituteof PropagandaAnalysisNews Letter,JanuaryI,
I939.
' AlvinJohnson,"The RisingTide of Anti-Semitism,"
Survey Graphic, February1939,
especiallypp. II 3-1 I 6.
FatherCoughlin,His "Facts" and Arguments(New York: The GeneralJewishCouncil,
'939).
JoachimJoesten,
Ratsin theLarder(New York: G. P. Putnam'sSons, I939). Nazi propaganda and intriguein Denmark.
Reports.
The Dies Committee
JohnL. Spivak,SecretArmies:The New TechniqueofNazi Warfare(New York: Modern
Age Books,1939).
ComEducationAssociation
Adventures
in Intercultural
Education(New York:Progressive
mission,1938).
UnitedStatesOfficeof Educationand
Immigrants
All-AmericansAll, radio broadcasts,
EducationAssociation.
Commissionon Intercultural
Education,Progressive
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
PropagandaTechniqueswithinNazi Germany
i63
plays,and forumsare
bersofpopularmagazines,motionpictures,
propaganda.
patterns
to
Nazi
resistance
developingsimilar
in invading
Recentlythe democracieshave takentheoffensive,
apparently
Germanywithradionewsreportsand interpretations,
30, I939, page22)reTimemagazine(January
withsomesuccess.
portsan earlyattempt:
up totheequivalent
... NBC's 25-kilowatt
W3XL,itspowerstepped
has sentin the
beamantennae,
ofsomeI5o kilowatts
bya directional
an hourofnews,
receivers
direction
ofGermany's
5,000,oooshort-wave
musicandAmericana....
mainly
themediumtoreceive
The cheapPeople'sradiosaredesigned
BroadButthepopularBritish
Germanbroadcasts.
waveband
domestic
and
newsperiodsare frequently
medium-wave
castingCorporation's
onPeople'sradios.
easilyreceived
is Moscow
mostgallingintruder
bands,Germany's
In theshort-wave
meanstheGestapohasnotyetuncovered,
which,
bysomeunderground
almostas soonas it
itbacktoGermany
getsGermannewsandbroadcasts
efforts,
manyGermans
happens.
In spiteofall theReich'scounteracting
cananddo learnwhatgoeson.
among
Company'sstationsintersperse
The BritishBroadcasting
newsbroadcaststo Germanyaccountsof thenames,location,and
physicalconditionof Germanprisonersin England.Even fearof
Nazi penaltiesdoes notkeep Germanmothersfromlistening.
The battleof propagandasis underway.Planes dropleafletsas
as thoseofarmies.
well as bombs2';radioinvasionsareas important
Can theNazi structure
ideas,
survivethesecontactswithdiffering
social
of
thinkinginwithcleverhostilepropagandas?The history
undermines
dicatesthata freesearchfortruthand facteventually
and falselogic.'
a systemofmysticism
and thendestroys
and British
:' Britishplanesdroppedmillionsof copiesof theWhitePaper overGermany,
weekof
WhiteBook in thefirst
werebombardedwitha retaliatory
citiesand thecountryside
thepresentwar.
Sons,
ofSocial Thought(New York: CharlesScribner's
2 Cf.WalterG. Beach,The Growth
I 939).
This content downloaded from 132.198.30.174 on Sun, 24 Mar 2013 11:26:04 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions