Northeastern Political Science Association
The Skeptical Life in Hume's Political Thought
Author(s): Steven J. Wulf
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Polity, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Autumn, 2000), pp. 77-99
Published by: Palgrave Macmillan Journals
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Poity * VolumeXXXIl,NumberI * Fall2000
The Skeptical Life in
Hume's Political Thought*
StevenJ.Wulf
Yale University
conceived
is shapedbyan expansively
DavidHume'spolitical
skeptithought
of
a
is
a
life
rather
than
mere
cism.ForHume,"mitigated
skepticism" way
philoof
Itentailsnotonlyphilosophical
doubt,butalso a variety
sophicalconclusion.
and
commitments.
ethical,
political
Skepticsacquire
practical,
methodological,
a lifedevotedtophilosophy,
learnedconthesecommitments
byliving
reading,
in
a
modern
in
turn
and
business
versation, ordinary
society.
They
mayprofoundly
restricted
influence
political
practicein theirsocieties,
thoughinseverely
ways.
buttheywill
Hume'smitigated
maxims,
skeptics
practical
political
maydiscover
whattodo,butonlyinorderto
be loathtoacton them.Theywilltellpoliticians
conflict.
And
will
diminish
they
preferto live in liberalcommercial
political
them
while
howDespitetheselimitations,
republics,
onlydefending obliquely.
an
thinks
holds
in
modern
moral
ever,Hume
skepticism
important
place
mitigated
andpolitical
life.
candidate
inPolitical
StevenJ. Wulfis a doctoral
Scienceat YaleUniversity.
I. Introduction
DavidHumeis frequently
identified
as oneofthefirst
"scientific"
modern,
politThereisalsoan extensive
literature
icalphilosophers.'
thatreveals
himtobe a thorYetifHumeisindeeda skeptic,
howcouldhebe a political
sciskeptic.2
oughgoing
A skepticis someonewho doubtsthatourrational
entist?
and sensoryfaculties
*Theauthor
wouldliketothank
Steven
B. Smith,
theparticipants
inYale'sPolitical
ScienceResearch
andWriting
andthereferees
andeditors
ofPolity
fortheir
comments
on thispaper.He
Seminar,
helpful
wouldalsoliketothank
LauraP.Wulfforherpatience
andencouragement
itspreparation.
Please
during
notethatdiscussion
ofsecondary
onHumehasbeenlargely
literature
tothefootnotes
fortheease
relegated
ofnon-expert
readers.
Humespecialists
shouldconsult
thosenotes.
1. See Richard
H. Dees,"HumeandtheContexts
ofPolitics,"
Journal
oftheHistory
ofPhilosophy
30
"Political
ScienceandtheEnlightenment
ofEnthusiasm"
American
1992):219,242;andJamesFarr,
(April
Political
ScienceReview82 (March1988):52-54.
2. See Richard
H. Popkin,
"DavidHume:His Pyrrhonism
and HisCritique
ofPyrrhonism"
(1951)
inHume:A Collection
ofCritical
NY:Doubleday,
(Garden
1966);
reprinted
Essays,ed.V.C. Chappell
City,
DavidFateNorton,
DavidHume:Common-Sense
Princeton
Moralist,
(Princeton:
Skeptical
Metaphysician
"Hume'sSkepticism:
Natural
Instincts
andPhilosophical
Reflection"
Press,1982);Barry
Stroud,
University
inSkepticism
in theHistory
ofPhilosophy:
A Pan-American
H.
(1991)reprinted
Dialogue,ed. Richard
and Delirium
Kluwer,
1996);and DonaldW Livingston,
Popkin(Dordrect:
Philosophical
Melancholy
ofChicagoPress,1998).
(Chicago:
University
78 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
us withknowledge
arecapableoffurnishing
aboutGod,nature,
morality,
history,
or eventhemundanedetailsofdailylife.The potentially
radicalconsesociety,
areillustrated
whoclaimedthatthe
quencesofskepticism
byDiogenesLaertius,
ofElis"followed
in hisactualwayofliving,
[skeptical]
principles
skepticPyrrho
no precautions,
andtaking
as itcame,wagons,
avoiding
nothing
facing
everything
whatsoever
to hissensations."3
nothing
precipices,
dogs,and entrusting
Pyrrho
toaccedetothejudgments
ofreasonandeventheir
andhisfollowers
refused
own
senses.Notsurprisingly,
as futile,
and had littleto say
theyviewedphilosophy
aboutpolitics.4
Humeleavesmanyofhisreaders
withtheimpression
thatphilosophy
is useless
evenclaimsthatHume"involved
in
Letwin
andself-defeating.
Shirley
philosophy
from
whichithasnotmanagedtoescape."Amongthesedilemmas
are
dilemmas
innatural
toprovide
a certain
foundation
forknowledge
sciinability
philosophy's
Yet
Letwin
and
Hume's
comence,ethics,
politics.5
theology,
history,
exaggerates
Hisworkrepresents
ina
increating
thesedilemmas.
onlya singlemoment
plicity
in
the
Sixteenth
and
culmitradition
that
skeptical
emerged
Century onlyrecently
rationalism"-the
beliefthat
natedinwhatcouldbe called"thecrisisofWestern
can
reason
its
truths
and
never
be
discovered
because
subverts
enduring
meaning
him
from
Hume's
didn't
dissuade
ownefforts.'
Moreover,
philoskepticism
making
Thecrisisofreasonwas not
intopolitics
andothermatters.
sophicalinvestigations
crisisforDavidHume.
an irresolvable
obstacles
thatconfront
scientists
andphilosoGiven
theepistemological
political
how
Hume
instructive
to
examine
to
it
be
manages geton with
pherstoday, may
in
shadow
of
while
the
epistemological
politics
operating
uncertainty.
studying
hisskepticism
from
Humeprevents
thequestionof how or whether
However,
in
his
remains
Hume
was
the
rest
of
dispute.
longsupundermining
philosophy
skepticism
abandoning
bysimply
philosophy
posedto haveevadedhisyouthful
ofwriting
infavor
tomeanepistemology)
(understood
popularscreedson morals,
Hume'slater
worksas "on
Scholars
andeconomics.
longdismissed
politics,
history,
lowerintellectual
level"thanhisearly,
at a somewhat
thewholesustained
epistein
mological
Manyrecentstudieshaveexaminedtheroleofskepticism
works.7
as something
butstilltreatthatskepticism
Hume'slaterworksmoreseriously,
delimits
whatphithathethought
oras something
Hume"overcame"
onlylogically
2 Vols.(Cambridge:
CamTheHellenistic
eds.andtrans.,
3. A.A.LongandD. N.Sedley,
Philosophers,
thedoctrines
oftheearly
account
Press,1987),Vol.1: 13.Laertius'
Phyrrhonexaggerates
University
bridge
inantiquity.
thatwaspopular
a viewoftheskeptics
ists,butitillustrates
in theAncients,
ofSkepticism
ThePolitics
4. JohnChristian
Hume,and Kant
Laursen,
Montaigne,
(Leiden:E.J.Brill,
1992):8.
ofCertainty
ThePursuit
5. Shirley
RobinLetwin,
Press,1965):3.
University
(Cambridge:
Cambridge
ofReason:Recovering
theHumanSciences
DavidHumeandtheProblem
6. See JohnW Danford,
Press,1990).
(NewHaven:YaleUniversity
ed.Hume'sMoralandPolitical
7. Henry
(NewYork:
Hafner,
1948),pp.xi-ii.
Aiken,
Philosophy
StevenJ.Wulf 79
losophycan be expectedto accomplish.'These studiespointto significant
theroleskepticism
inHume'swritings,
butoverlook
moments
playsinhisthought.9
oftheroleof
toa better
Itis hopedthatthisessaywillcontribute
understanding
inHume'sphilosophy
therelationship
betweenhisskepbyexamining
skepticism
ofhispolitical
Thisessaywillarguethat
ticismandseveralcomponents
thought.
a uniqueunderstanding
togetonwithpolitical
Humetried
philosophy
bydevising
This
entails
bothphilosophical
ofphilosophical
skepticism
"mitigated"
skepticism."'
Humebelievedthata lifedevotedto
doubtand a peculiarskeptical
disposition.
andordinary
learnedconversation,
businessinstills
reading,
skeptical
philosophy,
a wayoflifeforHume,andnot
is therefore
thisdisposition
inpeople.Skepticism
Itscharacteristic
andactivia philosophical
doctrine.
methods,
disposition,
merely
inseverely
to political
restricted
tiesarealso "relevant"
life,though
ways.Hume's
will
discover
but
maxims, they be loathto
practical
political
skeptics
may
mitigated
whattodo,butonlyinordertodiminish
acton them.Theywilltellpoliticians
politAndtheywillbe inclinedto defendliberalcommercial
ical conflict.
republics
Yetdespitetheselimitations,
butonlyobliquely.
Humesupposed
againstcriticism,
ofReason:10;Letwin,
DavidHumeandtheProblem
ThePursuit
ofCertainty:
86.
8. See Danford,
mostnotably
thosebyPopkin,
andStroud,
9. Therearea fewexcellent
whichmeticstudies,
Norton,
howHume'sskepticism
informs
therestofhisphilosophy.
Yetthosestudies
examine
devotelittle
ulously
inHume'spolitical
alsodo notexplainthecomplexrelaattention
totheroleofskepticism
thought;
they
Hume'sskepticism,
hisempirical
hisclassical
andhissymbetween
"maxims,"
moralism,
political
tionship
Yetitisessential
tounderstand
therelationship
forliberal
commercial
republics.
pathy
amongthesecomifonewishestomakesenseofthecomponents
ofhispolitical
themselves.
Thefewstudies
ponents
thought
inHume'spolitical
mischaracterize
thatdofocusontheroleofskepticism
Hume'sapproach
topolwritings
therelationship
between
hisskepticism
iticsbecausetheymischaracterize
andthedisparate
components
"DavidHumeandPolitical
ofhispolitical
See Geoffrey
Marshall,
QuarSkepticism,"
thought.
Philosophical
4 (1954);andLaursen,
ofSkepticism:
ThePolitics
164.DonaldLivingston's
Philosophical
terly
Melancholy
onthisrelationship.
andDelirium
istheonlyexisting
workthattouches
Thepresent
withessaywaswritten
as itwassubmitted
forpublication
outthebenefit
ofLivingston's
before
bookbecame
analysis,
Livingston's
viewstheHumeanterrain
ina verydifferent
andconsequently
Somenoteshavenevermanner.
available,
wherethisessaytouches
onorclasheswithLivingston's
theless
beenaddedtoindicate
arguments.
to accurately
10. Itis difficult
labelHume'sbrandofskepticism.
havefrequently
Scholars
debated
or an Academic,
in thesensethathisphilosophy
whether
Humeis a Pyrrhonist
resembles
one ofthe
ancient
schoolsthatborethosenames.(See Popkin,
"DavidHume:HisPyrrhonism
andHis
philosophical
ofSkepticism:
ofPyrrhonism":
ThePolitics
"Howto
89; Laursen,
159,163;andYvesMichaud,
Critique
Becomea Moderate
Hume'sWayOutofPyrrhonism,"
HumeStudies7 (April1985):42-44.)As
Skeptic:
tothisessay,I willhereafter
thesedistinctions
areunimportant
useHume'sterm,
to
"mitigated
skepticism,"
refer
to hisrecommended
method
anddisposition
would
(see sectionII). Livingston
empirical-skeptical
thisclassification,
thatHumeis notan empiricist
(1) becausehe is a skeptic,
(2) because
dispute
arguing
andscientific
commitments
hedoesnotsharethesocial,political,
associated
withempiricism,
historically
and(3) becausetheterm
theimportance
ofepistemology
inHume'sthought.
(Liv"empiricist"
exaggerates
andDelirium:
Thefirst
that
3-7,11-13).
Philosophical
ingston,
Melancholy
argument
wrongly
presupposes
allempiricists
Thesecondcommits
a genetic
aredogmatic.
damning
fallacy,
usageofa philocontemporary
term
historical
Thethird
becauseoftheterm's
a current
sophical
baggage.
goestoofarincombatting
philoHume'sepistemological
it.Humedoeshavean epistefoible,
sophical
thought
bydismissing
downplaying
he has muchmorethanthat).Calling
Humean empiricist
is accurate,
and itis also
(although
mology
todistinguish
Humefrom
suchas F H. Bradley
andMichael
Oakeshott.
necessary
non-empiricist
skeptics
80 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
roleinpolitical
thatskepticism
canplayanimportant
andevenshowus howto
life,
achievethegoodlifeanda goodsociety.
therefore
informs
at leastfourrelatedcomponents
of
skepticism"
"Mitigated
Hume'spolitical
hisattempts
toquellparty
Hume'spolitical
maxims,
strife,
philosophy.
forliberal
hisfondness
commercial
andhisunderstanding
ofthegoodlife
republics,
ofmitigated
areunited
thread
Thiscommon
thread
allows
skepticism.
bya common
atoncebotha skeptical
anda political
Humetoremain
scientist.
philosopher
II. MitigatedSkepticismas Method,Disposition,
and Wayof Life
therelationship
In orderto understand
betweenHume'sskepticism
and his
one
must
his
Hume
ostensipolitical
thought,
beginbyunderstandingskepticism.
a "scienceofman"following
theempirical
methodBacon
blysoughttoestablish
sciences(T,xvi-xvii)."
HumebeginshisTreatise
recommended
forthenatural
of
thatall knowledge
mustbe obtainedthrough
HumanNaturebyclaiming
either
orthemental
ofthoseimpressions
(T,xvi,4, 10).
impressions
manipulation
sensory
in
inperceived
turn
must
be
drawn
from
observed
General
patterns
principles
phenomena.Inordertodeducegeneral
scientific
abouta classofphenomprinciples
ofthatclassofphenomena.
AsHumelater
ena,we mustobservemanyinstances
beliefs
due
to
the
mind's
for
we
form
predeliction whatithas
explains,
general
most
often
One
must
therefore
basethe"scienceofman"
(Enq,57).
experienced
in
one observes humanbehavior
on therecurrent
(T, 18).
patterns
toinfer
thatitisimpossible
scientific
lawsfrom
observed
Humeargues,
however,
scientific
lawstobe descriptions
ofthenecessary
succesHe understands
patterns.
Yetthenecessity
ofthesecausalrelations
cannever
sionofcausesandtheir
effects.'2
we canimagine
thatanygiven
effect
existwithbe observed
ordemonstrated:
might
Humeconcludes
thatthepursuit
ofscientific
outitscause,orviceversa.'3
knowledge
Ifwe cannotknowthatthecausalpatterns
we observeinthepast
mustbe elusive.
we cannotdemonstrate
thatthesamecauseswillcontinue
to
obtainbynecessity,
abbreviations:
11. References
toDavidHume'sworksarecitedinthetextusingthefollowing
2d.edition,
Clarendon
T A Treatise
ed. L.A.Selby-Bigge.
ofHumanNature,
(Oxford:
rev.P.H. Nidditch
Press,1978).
HumanUnderstanding
andconcerning
thePrinciples
ofMorals,
ed.L.A.SelbyEnq Enquiries
concerning
Clarendon
Press,1975).
rev.P.H. Nidditch
(Oxford:
Bigge.3rdedition,
andLiterary,
ed.EugeneF.Miller
E Essays,Moral,
Fund,1985).
Political,
(Indianapolis:
Liberty
heunderstood
thescopeof"science"
in
considered
a forebear
ofpositivism,
12.WhileHumeisoften
terms.
classical
toassertthatflames
causeheatbecause,inour
we might
be tempted
13. Forexample,
necessarily
a coldflame,
onethatabsorbsheat
do (T,73,79,87).Yetwecancertainly
imagine
experience,
they
always
morethana prejudice
isinfactnothing
thanproducing
rather
it.Whatwe callthelawofcauseandeffect
that
causalrelationships.
Humewouldconclude
witnessed
recurrent
andconstant
we acquirefrom
having
tobe hotwhentouched
we learntoexpectflames
alwaysare(T,98-105).
justbecausethey
StevenJ.Wulf 81
todevelopthe
innoposition
Wearetherefore
inthefuture.
thesameeffects
produce
Morescientific
thatconstitute
causalgeneralizations
ofnecessary
kinds
knowledge.
is
called
into
even
that
out
Hume
question
by
commonplace
knowledge
over,
points
assumethatoursensory
Whilewe normally
faculties.
ofoursensory
theuncertainty
of
thedubiousness
arecausedbytheobjectstheyappeartorepresent,
impressions
as those
causationsuggeststhatour sensesmust"convey[our] impressions
thattheobjectswe
Ourbelief
andillusion."
existences,
bya kindoffallacy
[objects']
ofourpastperthan
the
more
on
based
exist
is
consistency
nothing
perceive
really
of
in
the
our
belief
with
reality objects(T,199-204).
ceptions
thepresupposiundermine
on howthesephilosophical
reasonings
Reflecting
oftheworld,
sense
our
common
and
the
sciences
tionsof both
understanding
subverts
it
acts
alone
when
Humedespairsthat"theunderstanding,
... entirely
either
in
andleavesnotthelowestdegreeofevidence anyproposition, inphiitself,
thatwe neednotfearcompletely
losophyorcommonlife."He argues,however,
ourhabitsandinstincts
tophilosophical
compelus
skepticism;
losingourbearings
from
hisown
Heobserves
toaccepttheworldas itappearsandtoactaccordingly.
hissensesas muchas Pyrrho
can neverdistrust
thatthephilosopher
experience
from
cannothelpbutflinch
was said to havedone. Evencommitted
skeptics
thatHumeis
curs.Hencethecommonconclusion
oncoming
wagonsandsnarling
to acceptthebeliefsof
he supposesthatour naturalinclination
a "naturalist":
socialinteraclifeofmundaneoccupations,
"commonlife"-anunphilosophical
studies-willrescueus fromskeptical
paralysis.
tion,and perhapsunabstruse
as
"delirium"
Humeconcludeshisaccountofskeptical
philosophy
bydescribing
with
the
to
alternative
if
a
useless,
religious
imagination
safe,
indulging
merely
(T,268-72).
superstition
belief
bothunreflective
Humeportrays
In hislaterwritings,
however,
religious
He
writes
of
moral
and
as
sources
andskeptically
political
danger.
pronephilosophy
butmayalsoserve
andfatiguing,"
isnotmerely
that"abstruse"
"painful
philosophy
In
its
less
and
tostrengthen
forms,
philosophy
thoroughgoing
superstition bigotry.
those
It
also
radicalize
into
biases
elevate
principles.may
high-minded
political
may
In
conclusions
most
extreme
them
to
their
11).
logical
(Enq,
bydrawing
principles
irrationalism
radical
itsmostthoroughgoing
form,
promotes
skepticism,
philosophy
inclination
reason.Becausenatural
theclaimsofmoderate
prebyundermining
the
a
ventsus from
life, onlypracticable
skeptical
wayoflifethatsurlivingradically
which
ofcommonsenseisthelifeofabjectsuperstition,
criticism
vivesskepticism's
irrationalist
rationalist
or
reason
promotes
thereby
Philosophy
altogether.'4
rejects
commonsense.
extremism
bydelegitimizing
political
radical
isinherthatHumethinks
readsHumeinBurkean
14. Livingston
terms,
philosophy
suggesting
andDelirium:
however,
31). Danford,
arguesthatHumesees
(Philosophical
Melancholy
ently
dangerous
toreligious,
rather
thanphilosophical,
initsroleas a handmaiden
as mostthreatening
superstiphilosophy
ofReason:182-184).
titon
(DavidHumeandtheProblem
82 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
Hume'sworriesabout the politicaldangersposed by skepticism
are well
addressed
thefactthatHume'sresponse
studies.
tothesedanHowever,
byexisting
informed
is largely
gersis substantially
by skepticism
ignoredin theliterature
hispolitics.
Scholars
themoralandpolitical
explain
addressing
typically
arguments
inthelasttwobooksofHume'sTreatise
tothepsychology
presented
bypointing
inthefirst
ofhabitdescribed
book.'"Thisisunderstandable,
giventhatHume'ssoluinboththeTreatise
tionto radicalskepticism
andtheEnquiries
is torecommend
life"andrelying
to "common
on customorhabitforguidance.
Yetthere
returning
is reasontothink
Humeintended
hisskepticism
tobe morethanjusta hurdle
one
mustvaultbefore
on
with
or
an
untraversable
where
getting
philosophy,
boundary
endsandtheunexamined
lifebegins.Humewrites
thatwhilethedogphilosophy
maticphilosopher
"isa character,
whichis commonly
inthe
butlittle
acceptable
world... themereignorant
isstillmoredespised."
ForHume,theappropriate
kind
ofcommonlifeis notone ofunreflective
but
rather
one
informed
a
habit,
by phithatis "just."
losophy
Whatis thenatureofthis"just"philosophy?
Humemakesthisclearin the
where
he
recommends
"a
more
oracademicalphiEnquiries,
skepticism
mitigated
as
a
"durable
both
and
useful"
alternative
to
andradicalskeplosophy"
dogmatism
He
nature
habit
ticism
that
and
an
roleinmiti(Enq,161). explains
play important
This
does
not
that
he
views "mitigated"
mean,however,
gatingskepticism.
as simply
a subspeciesofhabit.Barry
Stroudargues(I think
skepticism
persuathatHume'smitigated
"isnotjusta passing
mood;itcanbe a way
skepticism
sively)
of. . . excessive[Pyrrhonic
oflife"thatrequires
both"thestartling
effects
skeptiinclinations"
whichtamethoseeffects.'6
cism]"and the"natural
Indeed,Hume
issupposedtoliebetween"
writes
that"themostperfect
character
theextremes
of
abstruse
and untutored
Thischaracter
an equal
"retain[s]
philosophy
ignorance.
inconversation
andtasteforbooks,company,
andbusiness;
that
ability
preserving
discernment
anddelicacy
whicharisefrom
andinbusiness,
thatpropoliteletters;
15.See Aiken,
Hume'sMoraland Political
Mostcommentators
who do payheedto
Philosophy.
andcommon
lifeto"naturalize"
Hume'sskepticism
usehiscomments
aboutnatural
Humeout
inclination
ofDavidHume[London:
ThePhilosophy
ofhisskepticism
(See Norman
Macmillan,
19411)
KempSmith,
on morals,
andeconomics
areunphilosophical.
Marshall
orsuggest
thathiswritings
politics,
Geoffrey
sugDiscourses
revealhimtobe a "philosopher
turned
economist"
political
newly
geststhatHume'sPolitical
oneofHume'smostinsightful
commentaLetwin,
("DavidHumeandPolitical
247).Shirley
Skepticism":
inthesimplest
from
thefield
writes
hehadcreated
that"Humesolvestheproblem
fashion,
tors,
byretiring
andhistorian"
ofCertainty:
andturning
(DavidHumeandtheProb(ThePursuit
3).JohnDanford
essayist
ofradicalskepticism,
butdoesn't
lemofReason)addresses
Hume'sviewson thepolitical
implications
EvenJohnChristian
Laursen
relatethoseviewstoHume'sownmitigated
(The
skeptical
political
project.
theinfluence
ofHume'sskepticism
onhispolitics,
ofSkepticism),
whoexplicitly
seekstoexamine
Politics
togettohistheory
ofhabit
andcustom,
andusesthis,
rather
thanhismitusesHume'sskepticism
primarily
toexplainhispolitical
on Hume's"Politics
ofManners
and
Laursen's
chapter
writings.
igatedskepticism,
discussion
ofHume'sskepticism,
intended
tostemfrom
Laursen's
Opinion,"
preceding
though
presumably
22below).
thatskepticism.
mentions
(Seefootnote
barely
16. Stroud,
125.
"Hume'sSkepticism,"
StevenJ.Wulf 83
whicharethenatural
ofa justphilosophy"
result
(Enq,8). Hence
bityandaccuracy
isgrounded
inthecommonpursuits
thebestlifeisonewherephilosophical
activity
thanabandonedinfavor
ofa lifeofunreflective
habit.Butwhydoes
oflife,rather
in a lifedevotedto literature,
Humerecommend
philosophical
activity
grounding
inreference
Hisrecommendation
can be understood
andbusiness?
conversation,
thathe thinksmitigated
a particular
to two features
skepticism
requires:first,
and
a
second,
particular
disposition.
methodology;
Inordertounderstand
Hume'srecommended
onemustreturn
to
methodology,
hisexplanation
ofbeliefs
aboutcausation.
Humearguesthatwe haveno certain
thatwe onlybelievesomephebasisforrecognizing
causalevents.He concludes
becausewe haveexperienced
nomenacauseotherphenomena
the"constant
conlatter
of
the
former
the
This
our
that
beliefs
(T, 102).
junction"
preceding
suggests
havenoverifiable
be basedonmerely
coincidental
foundations;
theymight
patterns
inourexperiences.
YetHume'saccountofourbeliefs
is notintended
to convince
us thattheyare groundless.
He seeksonlyto showthatwe cannothavecertain
and otherprinciples
causation
thatseemto governexperiknowledge
regarding
Humeallowsfora kindofpractical
inourbeliefs.
encedphenomena."
reliability
he
insists
that
and
constant
cannotbe known
Although
causality other
phenomena
as certainly
as "demonstrative"
as can principles
ofarith(i.e.a priori)
knowledge,
hearguesthattheydo merit
meticandgeometry,
thetitle
whentheyareso
"proof"
constant
thatwe literally
cannothelpbutbelievein them(exceptin therare
moments
whenwe canmaintain
an abstract
doubt)(Enq,56n).We
philosophical
maximthateffects
their
causes,because
relyontheempirical
alwaysproceedfrom
we experience
thattheyalwayshaveon innumerable
eventhough
we
occasions,
cannotdemonstrate
thattheynevercanorneverwilldo otherwise.
Humeextends
thepossibility
ofsuchmaximsnotonlyto epistemological
and
butalsotonatural
science,morals,
metaphysical
principles,
theology,
history,
polithathe thinks
can be investigated
tics,andothersubjects
empirically
(Enq,164-5).
Farfrom"dropping"
to pursueotherfields
ofknowledge,
then,Hume
philosophy
triestoresumehisphilosophical
withan essentially
method
investigations
positivist
fordiscovering
reliableknowledge.
He believesthismethodenables
practically
to promulgate
maximsbasedon patterns
philosophers
empirical
theyobservein
andsociety:
nature
itfollows
fromHume'spsychological
maximthatwhenthese
aresufficiently
we cannothelpbutbelievein generalizations
consistent,
patterns
aboutthem.
17.AsShirley
hassuggested,
Letwin
Humeprobably
tousehisaccountofcausation
to
onlyintends
hisidealist
attack
whoaccounted
forideasthat
couldnotbe derived
from
predecessors,
experience
bysupthoseideasinourminds(ThePursuit
ofCertainty:
41,50). Humeremarks
posingthatGodhadimplanted
that"tohaverecourse
totheveracity
inordertoprovetheveracity
ofthesupreme
ofoursenses,is
Being,
a veryunexpected
circuit"
surely
making
(Enq,153).ForHume,itisalsoa dangerous
circuit,
givenhissusoftheusesreligion
makesofphilosophy
picions
(Enq,11).
84 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
Hume'stheory
reliesona fairly
naivepositivism.
Humeseemstohave
obviously
believedthatscientific
research
was simply
a matter
ofexposing
oneselfto phetheaid ofhypotheses.
Humerecognizes
thathis
nomena,without
Nevertheless,
method
is limited
inthreeimportant
allphilosophical
mustbe
ways:First,
inquiries
limited
to "suchsubjectsas are bestadaptedto thenarrowcapacity
ofhuman
thatwe
(Enq,162).Wecan onlyknowaboutcausalrelationships
understanding"
Thispermits
canobserve.
aboutobserved
but
making
generalizations
phenomena,
rulesoutmaking
inferences
their
"ultimate
causes"(Enq,30).Forexamregarding
the acceleration
of falling
ple, philosophers
mayproposemaximsdescribing
themetaphysical
ordivine
causes
objects,buttheyhaveno basisfordetermining
acceleration.
because
these
maxims
are
of
Second,
underlying
onlygeneralizations
whathas happenedin thepast,rather
thanlawsgoverning
whatmustalways
cannotbe ruledout.'8Thisis notsimply
to saythatwe can
happen,exceptions
neverbe surethatourmaximsarecorrect;
unlike
scientific
laws,Hume'smaxims
even
when
be
said
to
remain
true
counterfactuals
thephilosomay
appear.Third,
must
limit
his
to
He
cannot
discover
maxims
inquiries patterned
pher
phenomena.
or
occurrences
in
a
class
of
unique,patternless,exceptional
governing
phenomena.
Hence"itis thechiefbusinessof philosophers
to regardthegeneralcourseof
rather
thantheexceptions
(E,254).Philosophers
things,"
maypointoutexceptions
to theirmaxims,
buttheycannotexplainthoseexceptions
unlesstheexceptions
form
a pattern.
themselves
ThusfarHume'smethod
seemonlymarginally
moreskeptical
thanthat
might
his
more
ofhispositivist
heirs.
Yet method
is much
informed
thoroughly
byskeptiofempirical
cismthanhisrulesgoverning
thediscovery
maximswouldsuggest.
a wayto overcomeradicalskepticism,
WhileHumerecommends
he does not
Inaddition
tothepositivist
elements
ofhismethod,
Hume
"abandon"skepticism.
toadopta particular
toward
their
He
alsoexpectsphilosophers
disposition
subjects.
willbe formed
a lifedevotedto bothphilothatthisdisposition
through
suggests
andeveryday
business.IntheEnquiries,
he announces
thatpracsophicalactivity
ofradically
canhavea salutary
influence
on
twovarieties
skeptical
philosophy
ticing
of one's philosophical
and thequality
He
bothone's disposition
investigations.
is dangerous,
"Cartesian"
"thisspeciesofskeptiwritesthatalthough
skepticism
ofphilosotothestudy
... is a necessary
cism,whenmoremoderate
preparative
inourjudgments,
a properimpartiality
andweaningourmind
phy,bypreserving
whichwe mayhaveimbibedfromeducation
or rash
fromall thoseprejudices,
form
of"Pyrrhonist"
is
skepticism
opinion"(Enq,150).Heclaimsthata moderated
of human
on the"strange
infirmities
becausereflection
also sociallybeneficial
shadeofbluebutone could
Humeasserts
thata manwhohasexperienced
18. Forexample,
every
seen.Humeconcedesthatthisviolates
his
shade"from
whathehasalready
an ideaofthe"missing
derive
haveobserved.
Buthestates
that"this
instance
thatpeoplecanonlyhaveideasofphenomena
maxim
they
thatforitalonewe shouldalterourgeneral
maxim"
thatit... doesnotmerit
isso singular,
(Enq,21).
StevenJ.Wulf 85
... wouldnaturally
andreserve,
inspire
[people]withmoremodesty
understanding
anddiminish
... their
prejudice
against
antagonists"
(Enq,161).Whileskepticism
from
itundermines
reasonsforrefraining
thedisposition
hostilities,
maynotprovide
toengageinthem.
ifone is toacquirean
socialenvironment
is also important
Thephilosopher's
BothHume'srecommended
method
andhis
philosophical
disposition.
appropriate
thepilosopher
toleada lifedevoted
recommended
tolearning,
disposition
require
andeveryday
hisrecommended
business.
Hume
conversation,
method,
Regarding
thatphilosophers
to
believesthattheempirical
evidence
use
can
ought
only"be
incommonLifeand Conversation"
(E, 535). He oftenadmitsbooksas a
found,
buthe neverallowsthatgoodphilosophy
sourceofempirical
can be
evidence,
in
its
are
"shut
when
and
and
excluded
practitioners
practiced
up Colleges Cells,
fromtheWorldand goodCompany"
(T, 270;E, 535). He assumesthatpersonal
from
business
andgoodcompany
willprovide
observations
thephilosostemming
of
his
He
also
thinks
with
most
that
this
environment
has
a salutary
pher
evidence.'9
him
effect
of
on thephilosopher's
the
and
fanaticism,
delirium,
disposition,
curing
from
errors
thatresult
abstract
to
their
most
ridiculous
concluprinciples
chasing
sions.He concludes
from
hisownexperience
thatoncethephilosopher
tearshiminbusiness
hisworkandimmerses
selfawayfrom
himself
andgoodcompany,
he
willsee how exorbitant
and unnatural
hisspeculative
conclusions
had been (T,
inthecompany
mustimmerse
himself
and
269).ForHume,then,thephilosopher
inordertoacquiretheevidence
as wellas study,
businessofdailylife,
anddisposiforpracticing
a justphilosophy.
tionappropriate
Itshouldnowbe clearwhatHumemeanswhenherecommends
grounding
phiincommonlife.He is notsimply
thatphilosophers
follow
losophy
recommending
inpracticing
their
inclinations
natural
orthattheygetonwithordinary
philosophy,
businessandleavephilosophy
behind.Noris he suggesting
thatphilosophy
alone
theresources
toovercome
contains
delirium.20
He is recommending
philosophical
19. Livingston
thatforHume,"impressions
goesevenfurther,
arguing
perceived
bypassionate
agents
inculture
areshapedbygeneral
andconventions"
rules,
customs,
judgments,
(Philosophical
Melancholy
and Delirium:
Humeappearstobe morenaively
thanthissuggests.
He thinks
16).However,
empiricist
custom
anddisposition
willguidethetruephilosopher's
useofempirical
buthedoesnotsuppose
maxims,
thatthey
shouldcolorthecontent
ofthephilosopher's
forHumea philosopher's
Indeed,
knowledge.
judgmentisunclouded
orinterpretation.
Itisradically
unsituated.
(anddubiously)
(Seethe
passion,
byinterest,
preceding
paragraph).
20. DonGarrett
tobothscienceandskeptical
arephiloarguesthatHume'scommitments
philosophy
HeshowsthatHume'smostradically
reconcilable.
conclusions
aredescriptions
ofcogsophically
skeptical
nitive
rather
thannecessary
commitments.
He further
showsthatHumecan
psychology
epistemological
avoidsuchcommitments,
becauseradical
erodesitsownfoundations
as well
reasonably
skepticism
equally
as itdoesthefoundations
ofdogmatic
claims.[DonGarrett,
and Commitment
inHume'sPhiCognition
Oxford
Garrett's
is a reconstrucPress,1997),ch. 10].However,
losophy(NewYork:
University
argument
tionrather
thanan historical
as thisessayhasshown,Hume'sownwayoutoftheskeptical
interpretation;
dilemma
andconcludes
withanempirical
account
ofcognitive
Itistherefore
selfpresupposes
psychology.
butonlybecauseitis circular.
on theotherhand,downplays
Hume'sscientific
consistent,
(Livingston,
86 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
thatphilosophers
a verypeculiar
kindofmitigated
thatavoids
practice
skepticism
itsmostradically
conclusions
to heart;seeksonlyto generalize
skeptical
taking
whatpeopleobserveinconversation,
andliterature;
is situated
inpolite
business,
andistempered
aimsanda disposition
moderated
a life
society;
bymodest
through
devotedtobusinessandsocialinteraction.
Theserecommendations
the
regarding
character
andsocialoccupations
havesignificant
philosopher's
development
politicalramifications,
as willbe showninsections
IVandV below.Themoreobvious
ofmitigated
forpolitics,
towhichI willturnfirst,
concern
consequences
skepticism
how theskepticalphilosopher
discovers
and utilizes"generalmaxims"about
observed
inpolitical
life.
phenomena
III. Maximsof PoliticalScience
Hume'spolitical
iswidelydiscussedintheexisting
literaempiricism
scholarly
Yetthe relationship
betweenhis skepticism
and his empirical
ture."2
political
inhisEssays,is rarely
whicharemostclearly
examined.22
This
maxims,
presented
is notsurprising,
the
of
his
recommended
methodgiven seemingincompatibility
Indeed,in one of his
ologicalcautionwithsweepingpoliticalgeneralizations.
Hume
writes
that
he
is
to
entertain
a
thattheworldisstill
"apt...
suspicion,
essays
inpolitics"
tooyoungtofixmanygeneral
in
truths
Yet
other
(E,87).
essayshe promaximsconcerning
themeansofbalancing
nouncesanddefends
mixedconstitutheadvantages
of liberty
and
tions,thecauses and dangersof political
parties,
trade
the
balance
of
and
the
restrictions,
trade,publicdebt,
consequences
luxury,
ofhightaxes(E, 42-5,54-72,268-80,308-65).Inhisessay,"ThatPolitics
maybe
intheTreatise
is self-understanding,
thatHume'smainconcern
rather
empiricism
althogether,
suggesting
andDelirium:
a foundation
forscientific
claims.
SeePhilosophical
thancreating
12-14.)
Melancholy
ofPolitics";
21. See Aiken,
Hume'sMoralandPolitical
Dees,"HumeandtheContexts
Farr,
Philosophy;
ofEnthusiasm."
"Political
ScienceandtheEnglightenment
tendto focuson theaccounts
ofjustice,
22. Evenwriters
whofocuson Hume'spolitical
skepticism
intheTreatise,
whichcanbe indirectly
derived
described
from
andpolitical
skepticism
property,
obligation
whoexplain
Hume's
account
ofhabitandcustom.
Marshall
criticizes
others
Hume'spsychological
through
ina seriesof"easysteps"from
hispsychology,
buthedoesn'tsubstantively
thisaccount
challenge
politics
makesa number
ofintriguing
on
observations
249-52).Laursen
("DavidHumeandPolitical
Skepticism":
andalludestotheEssays,buthe tooneglects
Hume'sempirical
inHume'sHistory
ofEngland,
material
theissuesraisedintheTreatise
Hume'sother
works.
Andhe
andmostly
seekstoinform
maxims
through
thetheory
ofhabit,
herecognizes
theimportance
ofskeptooonlygetsatHume'spolitics
although
through
ofSkepticism:
ofthattheory
YetHume'spolitical
tracts
inHume'sdevelopment
ticism
169-70).
(ThePolitics
inhisearlier
oftheempirical-skeptical
method
he describes
intheEssaysaremuchmorerepresentative
inthoseworks.
Hume'saccounts
ofjustice,
andpolitical
discussions
worksthanarethepolitical
property,
intheTreatise
werenodoubtinformed
andtheEnquiries
buthisarguobservation,
byempirical
obligation
as consequences
ofhistheory
ofhabit.Somescholars
have
mentsinthoseworksarelargely
presented
havenotbeenconon Hume'sempirical
butforthemostpartthey
moreclosely
focused
maxims,
political
areinformed
See Letwin,
howthosemaxims
cernedwithexamining
skepticism.
byHume'sphilosophical
"TheEmpiricism
ofHume'sPolitical
International
PhiloofCertainty;
Robert
ThePursuit
J.Roth,
Theory,"
31 (December
1991).
sophicalQuarterly
StevenJ.Wulf 87
Reducedto a Science,"he evenassertsthat"so greatis theforceoflaws,and of
and so littledependencehave theyon the
formsof government,
particular
almostas generalandcertain
ofmen,thatconsequences
humours
andtempers
sciences
themathematical
as
which
from
deduced
be
sometimes
them,
any
may
us" (E, 16).
afford
in
assertions
can be understood
conflicting
WhyHumemakestheseseemingly
him
to
Just
as
this
termsofhismitigated
propose
skepticism
permits
skepticism.
and moralphilosomaximsin epistemology,
metaphysics,
psychology,
empirical
maxims.
whichhecanconcoctempirical
a method
itprovides
political
through
phy,
ofthosemaximsbycircumscribing
theapplication
Yetatthesametimeitrestricts
towardthe
a cautiousdisposition
and byinstilling
therangeoftheirconclusions
andutilized.
meansbywhichthesemaximsarediscovered
political
providesHumewitha methodforgenerating
skepticism
Mitigated
ofevidence
withmoderate
an empirical
maxims
skepticism
analysis
bycombining
Forexample,Hume
ofthatanalysis.
of theconclusions
thereliability
regarding
in political
hismaximbasedon recurrent
oftenproposesa political
happenings
cases. Hume's
to a narrowrangeofsimilar
itsapplication
and thenlimits
tory,
and
thehistory
ofBritain,
drawnfrom
arelargely
maxims
parties
political
regarding
Humeismorewillissues(E,54-72).However,
areappliedsolelytoBritish
political
ingto proposesweepingpoliticalmaximswhenhe suspectsthatthecircumForexample,he
he observesare universal.
forthepatterns
stancesresponsible
incountries,
ofcommerce
theriseandprogress
proposesboldmaximsregarding
orthe
isdriven
showsthisphenomenon
becausehethinks
by"avarice,
experience
desireforgain[whichis] an universal
passion,whichoperatesat all times,inall
places"(E, 112-5).
limits
onwhat
Humesupposesthatmitigated
skepticism
imposesevenbroader
notdrawn
all conclusions
one maygetoutofpolitical
philosophy
byprohibiting
infields
He rulesoutallmerely
a priori
observation.
from
investigations
empirical
anddeniesthat"ourreason,unassisted
besidesmathematics,
[can]
byexperience,
and
matter
of
real
existence
everdrawinferences
fact"
27).
(Enq,
concerning
when
hisfrom
idle
about
refrain
should
therefore
politics
speculation
Philosophers
For
evidence.
scant
or personalexperience
toricaldocuments
empirical
provide
of
human
are
so
the
revolutions
Hume
that
because
slow,
progress
example,
argues
"itmust
relative
tothoseslowcycles,
ofwhichwe areawareso short
andthehistory
to
its
at
stillbe uncertain,
[mankind
is]
whether, present,
advancing pointofperwe
cannot
thence
from
or
fection, declining iti[:]
presuppose
anydecayinhuman
of
whether
is progressing
Hume
believes
this
nature"
(E, 378).
humanity
question
butheconcludes
thatthedataprovided
be solvedempirically,
couldinprinciple
by
aretoosketchy.
history
eventhemostdurable
caution
toward
Humerecommends
a skeptic's
Moreover,
method
mustallowfor
because(as we haveseen)hisempirical
maxims,
political
towellCustoms"
is aboutexceptions
Hisessay"OfSomeRemarkable
exceptions.
88 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
established
Humearguesthatthetumultuous
maxims.
nature
ofancient
Athenian
theAthenians
to prosecute
forinstigating
government
required
demagogues
unjust
whichviolates
theotherwise
sensible
maxim
that"after
a motion
was
laws,a practice
wasvotedandapproved
inwhichthelegislative
made,which
bythatassembly
power
islodged,
whomadethemotion
themember
mustforeverbe exempted
from
future
trial
orenquiry."
Humeexempts
British
themaxim,
"that
Likewise,
pressgangsfrom
a power... whengranted
is notso dangerous
to
bylawtoan eminent
magistrate,
as an authority
.which
he
from
violence
and
Hume
liberty,
acquires
usurpation."
..,
doesso becausehethinks
tomanthenavy,
pressgangsarenecessary
yetlegalizing
themwouldseta terrible
for"ministerial
367-74).
(E,
precedent
tyranny"
WhileHumeacknowledges
theseexceptions,
he thinks
theydo notinanyway
affect
thelegitimacy
ofthemaxims
violate.
he thinks
Nevertheless,
they
theyconfirm
themitigated
own
"that
all
in
maxims
maxim,
skeptics'
general
politics
ought
withgreatcaution;andthatirregular
to be established
andextraordinary
appearancesarefrequently
discovered"
(E,266).
ofcautionpointstoanother
Thisrecommendation
ofHume'smitrequirement
maxims:
it
not
theskeptic's
political
concerning
igatedskepticism
onlyrequires
researchmethods,
it also instills
a cautiousdisposition
themeans
concerning
which
are
maxims
disseminated
and
acted
Hume
thatin
through
upon.
suggests
the
must
be
cautious
not
with
to
the
politics, philosopher
potential
only
regard
in proposing
errors
involved
butalso withregardto theways
maxims,
political
He worriesthatphilosophy
thosemaximsmayinfluence
can
political
practice.
whenittransforms
becomedangerous
biasesintoideological
people'spreexisting
intheTreatise,
Heexpresses
thisconcern
wherehearguesthatwhilethe
principles.
doctrine
ofpassivepolitical
obedienceis absurd,
onemustnevertheless
be scrupulousin adducing
theappropriate
conditions
forrebellion
because"thecommon
and'tisonlyincasesofgrievous
rulerequires
andoppression,
submission;
tyranny
cantakeplace"(E, 562,554).IntheEssays,he further
thattheexception
explains
theexception
toobedienceintoa maximgovwhyoneshouldavoidtransforming
orcausist]notbe better
whenrebellion
is permissible:
"would[a preacher
erning
in inculcating
thegeneraldoctrine,
thanin displaying
the particular
employed
buttoomuchinclined,
ofourselves,
toembrace
whichweare,perhaps,
exceptions,
andextend?"
(E,491).
whatHumeis recommending
As Letwin
hasargued,
hereis notphilosophical
butrather
occasionaldiscreet
silence."Humewas notaskinganyman
mendacity,
ofhispublicacts
tobetray
hisconvictions,
butonlytoconsider
theconsequences
In theHistory,
forexample,Humearguesthatthecommon
and utterances."
underCharlesI thatphilosophers
shouldhaveremained
peoplewereso unruly
ofresistance.
Similar
silentregarding
theright
motives
mayexplainwhy
cautiously
thepossibility
ofgeneral
Humesometimes
expresses
greatskepticism
regarding
AsLetwin
he expresses
maximsinpolitical
orlesser
philosophy.
suggests,
greater
maximdepending
aboutthereliability
ofpolitical
onwhether
degreesofoptimism
StevenJ.Wulf 89
a givenmaximwouldbe benignordangerous
he thinks
undergiven
promulgating
circumstances.'
withpolitical
maximsreveals
Hume'scautionwhendealing
thatthedisposition
formitigated
is notsimply
intellectual
cautionagainst
he recommends
skepticism
thesocialconseoferror,
thepossibility
butalso emotional
trepidation
regarding
Hisworries
thepractical
effects
of
activity.
concerning
quencesof philosophical
andhisefforts
topromote
thekindof
doctrines,
particular
philosophical
espousing
doctrines
thatwouldhavea salutary
rather
thana destructive
effect
on political
life,
kindofinfluence
thatHumethinks
can have
skepticism
pointtoanother
mitigated
on politics:
moderation.
IV. Moderationin Politics
ofhismitigated
intwodifferHumeconceives
as moderating
skepticism
politics
entways:(1) bymoderating
discourse
and
thedisposi(2)
political
bymoderating
actors.Itis evident
thathe aimsto moderate
tionsofpolitical
discourse
political
In
his
own
"Of
the
Coalition
of
he
that
Parties," reports hisintent
through
writings.
inwriting
twoprevious
was
to
all
insult
andtriumph
essays
"prevent unreasonable
oftheoneparty
overtheother,
toencourage
moderate
to
find
theproper
opinions,
inalldisputes,
each[party]
medium
topersuade
thatitsantagonist
be
maypossibly
in theright,
and to keepa balanceof praiseand blame,whichwe
sometimes
bestowon either
side"(E,494).He suggests
thatotherpolitical
philosophers
ought
this
rather
to adopt strategy
thanproviding
intellectual
fodder
forone party
or
too,
who haveembraceda
another;
indeed,he assertsthatthephrase"philosophers
interms"
(E,469).
party"
mayposea "contradiction
thismoderating
reflects
thedisposition
Humeascribesto mitiClearly
strategy
Humeiscautious
aboutadvancing
hisownpolitical
and
maxims,
gatedskepticism.
claimsto enterpartisan
debateonlyinordertodeflate
thedogmatic
of
principles
IntheEnquiries,
he broadly
assertsthatonlyphilosophers
are
philosophers.
party
toadjudicate
somepolitical
issues,becausetheyarefreeofprejudice;
qualified
yet
he further
assertsthatonlythemitigated
servesto
skeptic's
styleof philosophy
remove
one'sprejudices.
thedisposition
herecommends
totheadjuFurthermore,
intheEssaysreflects
thecircumspect
manner
heearlier
attribdicating
philosopher
utestothemitigated
andreserve,
andsuspense,
are... theonly
"hesitation,
skeptic:
he brings
sentiments
to [an]essayortrial"(E,507;Enq,161).Hume'srecommendationthatphilosophers
moderate
shouldtherefore
be understood
tomean
politics
thatmitigated
shouldservethisfunction.
Humethinks
skeptics
mitigated
skepticism
shouldinfuse
itself
intopolitical
discourse
themiddleground
between
byseeking
radicalphilosophy
andtheunreflective
sensibilities
ofcommonlife.
potentially
23. Letwin,
pp. 106-8.
90 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
ofdeflating
Theclearest
exampleofHume'sstrategy
dogmatic
political
princiand "OfPassiveObediContract"
plescan be foundinhisessays"OftheOriginal
twoconflicting
"theone party,
ence."ThereHumeidentifies
parties:
up
bytracing
itso sacredandinviolate,
thatitmustbe little
totheDEITY,[render]
government
... totouchorinvadeit.... Theotherparty,
lessthansacrilege
byfounding
govon theconsentofthePEOPLE,supposethatthereis a kindof
ernment
altogether
havetacitly
reserved
thepowerofresisting
contract,
bywhichthesubjects
original
totheTories
thesovereign."
Humeattributes
theseprinciples
andWhigs.
ofspeculative
arejust;though
He concedesthat"boththesesystems
principles
the
That
both
the
schemes
ofpractical
notinthesense,intended
And,
by parties:
in
in
not
the
to
which
each
are
extremes,
though
party,
consequences prudent;
has
endeavored
to
them"
466
to
the
[italics
(E,
other,
commonly
carry
opposition
He offers
somesuperficial
omitted]).
examplesofhoweachoftheparties'
princithat
thebulkoftwoessaystodemonstrating
butthendevotes
plescouldbe correct,
In
"Of
the
he
attacks
the
bothare essentially
Contract,"
Original
Whig's
wrong.
is almostinvariably
thatpolitical
theories
socialcontract
obligation
byobserving
andthatnostatecouldstand
onhabitual
deference
tocustomary
founded
authority,
In"OfPassiveObedience,"
he
ofitssubjects.
ifunanimous
wererequired
consent
ofabsolutedeference
to customary
on a principle
criticizes
theTories'insistence
areonlylegitimized
thatgovernments
provide
bytheutility
they
authority
byarguing
to
serve
thecommongood,
where
fail
Hearguesthat
totheir
governments
subjects.
rebellion
increase
theutility
ofgovernment,
wouldlikely
andwhererebellion
may
areright
toa certain
he suggests
thatbothparties
be justified
(E,469-92).Inshort,
demandtolerance
fortheworst
thattheir
theories
either
butnottotheextent
extent,
butundemocratic
useful
tounsettle
orthreaten
governments.
tyrants
in
strife
canbe found
formoderating
Another
party
exampleofHume'sstrategy
Humewrites
thattheWhigsandTories
ofGreatBritain."
hisessay,"OftheParties
Round-Head
and
so muchas their
inprinciple,
butdo notdiffer
differ
nearly
greatly
"theTORIES,as men,
He writesthatunliketheCavaliers,
Cavalier
predecessors.
toarbiwereenemies
andalsoas ENGLISHMEN,
wereenemiestooppression;
they
thanthe
a greater
TheWhigs,inturn,
degreeofliberty
onlypreferred
trary
power."
theHouseofHanover,
theToriesinsupporting
from
andwhiletheydiffered
Tories;
as such.Humeconcludesthat"a TORY...
themonarchy
theydidnotchallenge
without
... tobe a loverofmonarchy,
liberty;
abandoning
though
maybe defined
tobe a loveroflibAsa WHIGmaybe defined
STUART.
ofthefamily
anda partizan
inthe
anda friend
to thesettlement
without
monarchy;
renouncing
ertythough
line"(E,65,70-1[italics
PROTESTANT
omitted]).
out
strife
inwriting
theseessayswas toquellparty
Hume'sstrategy
bypointing
inprinciple.
Humeclaimsthatbothparwerenotirreconcilable
thatthetwoparties
in theirpreferences
differ
tiesaremotivated
theymerely
bythesameprinciples;
inhisessays,"OftheProtesHe adoptsa similar
strategy
amongthoseprinciples.
and"ThatPolitics
tantSuccession"
essay,
maybe Reducedtoa Science."Inthefirst
StevenJ.Wulf 91
anddisadvantages
oftheStuart
andHanover
therespective
he reviews
advantages
totheBritish
throne.
hisobservations
ontheseheads,
successions
Having
cataloged
areallowedon bothsides;
anddisadvantages
that"theseadvantages
heconcludes
ofargument
orreasoning."
He then
at least,byeveryonewhois atallsusceptible
mixture
of
and
to
remind
that
this
readers
advantages
disadvantages
ought
suggests
in
a
which
is
either
ever
that"there
deliberation,
occurs,
choice,
any
purely
scarcely
and
and
or
evil....
the
Hesitation,
reserve,
therefore,
are,
suspense,
good, purely
to
or
trial"
In
the
this
sentiments
(E,
506-7).
[the
philosopher]
brings
essay
only
a similar
lessonafter
boththeinflated
secondessay,heproposes
praiseand
refuting
lesson
scornraineduponHoraceWalpole.Herehedrawsa moreexplicitly
political
the
and
the
of
the
therelative
between
fallaciousness
from
parties,
prinagreement
ifitbe possible,
"letus therefore
differences:
ciplesthatleadthemto extreme
try,
withregard
totheparfrom
theforegoing
todrawa lessonofmoderation
doctrine,
which
is
at
divided"
into
our
(E,27).
ties,
country present
ofmoderating
TheseessaysmakeHume'sintention
discourse
evident,
political
not
whether
Hume
thinks
he
and
other
canor
do
clarify
mitigated
skeptics
yetthey
On
actors
what
to
do.
the
shouldmoderate
one
hand,
politics
bytelling
political
merits
oftheHanover
andStuart
Humeasserts
thattherelative
successions
areso
that"itbelongs... toa philosopher
alone,whois
distributed,
complexandevenly
the
inthescale,andassigntoeachofthem
toputall circumstances
ofneither
party,
GiventhatHume'sstrategy
istocastall political
itsproper
dispoiseandinfluence."
suppose,thiswould
putesas beingmorecomplexandbalancedthantheparties
therightful
arbiter
ofallpolitical
seemtomakethephilosopher
disputes.
YetHume'sfrequently
ofphilosophers
otherwise.
expressed
suspicion
suggests
ofmitigated
Evenhis"just"philosophy
is ill-suited
to rendering
skepticism
political
as thekindof philosopher
decisions.Humeidentifies
who reasons
onlyhimself
whendescribing
reluctance
howhewouldresolve
yetevenheexpresses
great
justly,
thesuccession
issue.Indeed,he presents
hisownargument
as an exampleofhow
a philosopher
rather
thanas a practicable
he
recommendation:
oughtto think,
hishopethat"thefollowing
will. . . showthe
reflections
beginsbyexpressing
ifnottheunderstanding
ofa philosopher"
he insinuates
(E,507).Moreover,
temper,
thatjudgment
andexperience
arewhatis mostessential
to political
(E,
leadership
wouldhavemoreexperience
of
124).Itstandsto reasonthatseasonedpoliticians
theintricacies
thanall butthemostpolitically
ofgovernance
activephilosophers.
AndHumeneversuggests
thatphilosophers
arefittorule.Infact,
heportrays
them
atsomedistance
as working
from
affairs
ofthemit(E, 10).Hisdescription
political
in commonlifeis alwaysrestricted
to businessand
igatedskeptic's
engagement
henever
mentions
office.
Atmost,hedescribes
company;
political
justphilosophers
as mediators,
rather
thanleaders.Inhisownworkatleast,Humeonlyseekstoclarissuesandshowreasonswhypoliticians
shouldactmoderately
ifypolitical
(E,494).
Humerecognizes
thatpoliticians
arenotlikely
to harken
to philosoMoreover,
he observesthatphilosophical
areoften
First,
phers'recommendations.
principles
92 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
masksforpolitical
actors'interests
andambitions
thatdo
(E,62).Principles
simply
notjustify
thepursuit
ofthoseambitions
willgo unheeded.
Second,Humedespairs
thatpoliticians
willneverbehaveso reasonably
thattheymight
makeconcessions
to theiradversaries.
"Suchmoderation
is notto be expectedinparty-men
ofany
kind"(E,45). Yettheessaysdescribed
inthissectionshowthatHumethought
his
couldhavesomeimpacton political
in hisday.Hisexplicit
arguments
practices
hisessayson socialcontract
andpassiveobediencewas
purposeinwriting
theory
tomoderate
Asimilar
discourse.
can
be
inferred
from
thefrequent
political
purpose
revisions
he
made
to
his
texts.
For
Hume
totherise
prudential
example,
responded
ofradicalWilkesite
in
his
1742
republicanismEnglandbyrevising
essay"OfEloHume's
later
versions
of
this
subordinate
its
quence."
essay
republican
sympathies
infavor
ofan ideology
ofpoliteness.24
latereditions
ofHume'sessay"Of
Similarly,
theLiberty
ofthePress"laygreater
stresson thepotential
toorderposed
dangers
the
the
and
and
omit
a
section
that
bothas essenby press
people,
large
portrays
Hume
further
in
the
that
tially
benign(E, 13,604-5).
suggests
History philosophers
shouldnotmention
thegrounds
forrebellion
atall.Theseprecautions
indicate
that
forHume,philosophers
can havea negative
on political
influence
discourse
and
who
are
to
radicalism.
But
practice
byinciting
people
already
predisposed political
not
do
indicate
how
the
can
moderation.
they
skeptic promote
mitigated
political
Humebelieves
thatthemitigated
cannoteffectively
dictate
Perhaps
skeptic
political decisionsto politicians,
butcan havea moreindirect
influence
on political
behavior
others
howtothink
morephilosophically.
Humesuggests
in
byshowing
theEnquiries
thatthephilosopher's
influence
is precisely
ofthissort."Thougha
frombusiness,
thegeniusofphilosophy,
ifcarefully
philosopher
mayliveremote
cultivated
mustgradually
diffuse
itself
thewholesociety,
and
byseveral,
throughout
bestowa similar
correctness
on everyartandcalling.Thepolitician
willacquire
inthesubdividing
andsubtlety,
andbalancing
ofpower;thelawyer
greater
foresight
moremethod
andfiner
inhisreasonings;
andthegeneral
moreregularprinciples
andmorecautioninhisplansandoperations"
ityinhisdiscipline,
(Enq,10).Yetin
theTreatise
Humearguesthatmerespeculation
can neverdirectly
influence
the
will.Howthencanpracticing
moderate
actions?
philosophy
people'spolitical
Onewayisthrough
theinfluence
thatstudying
hasonpeople'scharphilosophy
acters.IntheEssays,Humewrites
that"serious
tothesciencesandliberal
attention
arts"can moldone'scharacter.
Thisattention
andhumanizes
"softens
thetemper
studiesmustmortify
... thepassionsofinterest
andambi[because]speculative
ofallthedecention,andmust,atthesametime,give[a man]a greater
sensibility
ciesanddutiesoflife."Thuseducation
mentoviewing
acclimates
matters
from
a
disinterested
ismorethanjustformal
(E,170).ForHume,thiseducation
perspective
24. AdamPotkay,
intheAgeofHume,"
"Classical
andPolite
StudEloquence
Style
Eighteenth-Century
ies 25 (Fall1991):50.
StevenJ.Wulf 93
Itis a result
ofthesamekindoflifethathethinks
shouldground
schooling.
skeptia lifedivided
cal philosophy:
between
socialdiscourse,
andstudy.
business,
History
thatcanhavetheseeffects.
is one exampleofthekindofstudies
Humewrites
that
businessalonemaynotimprove
as itencourages
virtue,
peopletoviewothers
only
inrelation
totheir
owninterests;
abstruse
virtue
failstoimprove
too,as
philosophy
itistoocoldtomovethemind;butthestudy
ofhistory
becauseits
virtue,
improves
andwriters
readers
"aresufficiently
interested
inthecharacters
andevents,
tohave
a lively
sentiment
ofblameorpraise;and,atthesametime,
havenoparticular
interestorconcerntopervert
their
Hence
a
for
disinjudgment."
theyacquire capacity
terested
(E,568).
judgment
Humeviewsmitigated
as another
kindofstudy
thatcan encourage
skepticism
virtue.
As we haveseen,he supposesthata properly
and moderated
grounded
can
affect
one's
character
the
skeptical
philosophy
by mortifying passionsand
a
more
disinterested
He
thatwhenmitigated
instilling
perspective.25suggests
skepticismis combined
withotherstudies,
suchas history,
andpolitics,
itcan
poetry,
also revealhowonemight
thegoodlife.Humeconcedesthata personwho
attain
is notalready
inclined
tovirtue
cannotaspireto havethekindofcharacter
necesa frame
ofmind...
saryforthebestkindoflife."Whereoneisbornofso perverse
as tohavenorelish
forvirtue
andhumanity
... sucha onemustbe allowedentirely
nor
in
Humearguesthat
incurable, isthereanyremedy philosophy."
Nevertheless,
canshowpeoplehowtomoldthemselves
intothekindsofcharacters
philosophy
whichhe approves:
let
theydesire."Leta manproposethemodelofa character,
himbe wellacquainted
withthoseparticulars,
inwhichhisowncharacter
deviates
andbendhismind,bycontinual
from
thevices,towards
thevirtues;
and I
effort,
doubtnotbut,intime,hewillfind,
inhistemper,
an alteration
forthebetter."
Those
disinclined
tovirtue
canneverbe convinced
tobe virtuous
Butthose
byphilosophy.
whoare inclined
tovirtue,
though
theymaynotfully
possessit,canbecomemore
virtuous
whenguidedbyphilosophy
(E, 169-70).
Thissuggests
thatforHume,thepolitician
canacquireforesight,
thelawyer
finer
andthegeneral
andcaution
ifthey
arewelleducated
inhistory,
principles,
regularity
and otherbranchesof liberallearning.
Of
politics,
skeptical
poetry,
philosophy,
effects
ofphilosophy
and otherstudiespresuppose
certain
course,thesesalutary
socialandpolitical
Thebusiness,
andstudies
preconditions.
company,
presupposed
in particular
kindsof
byHume'snotionof"commonlife"can onlybe cultivated
societies.
a republic
ofletters,
andfreedom
commerce,
wealth,
leisure,
Theyrequire
ofa sortthatHumediscovered
intheliberal
commercial
thatwereemergrepublics
in
his
own
in
time.
Yet
the
conditions
found
in
suchrepublics,
ing
presupposing
Humewas notmerely
the
conditions
of
his
own
time
for
Muchof
taking
granted.
hisphilosophy
canbe explained
interms
ofhisrejection
ofthepoor,barren,
xeno-
25. See section
II.
94 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
inhisyouth,
Scotland
thathe experienced
infavor
ofthe
phobic,andsuperstitious
moresophisticated,
andliberal
Scotland
thathewitnessed
over
wealthy,
emerging
thecourseofhislife.26
ofmitigated
as a
Indeed,Hume'sendorsement
skepticism,
ina liberal
thatcanonlythrive
commercial
republic,
philosophy
oughttobe viewed
ofliberal
as a subtleendorsement
commercial
republics.
V. Defense of Liberal CommercialRepublics
inat
Hume'sconception
ofmitigated
suchan endorsement
skepticism
implies
leasttwoways.First,
itsuggests
aremorelikely
thatliberalcommercial
republics
in
thanotherregimes
to instill
thedisposition
formitigated
appropriate
skeptics
citizens.
their
middle-class
thatthoseregimes
aremorelikely
to
Second,itsuggests
enabletheir
citizens
as itisdefined
toachievethegoodlife,
bymitigated
skepticism.
Intheseroundabout
Hume
substantial
reasonsforthosewhofollow
ways,
provides
hisrecommendations
commercial
as he did.
tochoosetoliveina liberal
republic,
commercial
can
their
citizens
with
Theideathatliberal
anedurepublics provide
common
reveals
a
thread
several
of
cationinmitigated
skepticism
running
through
sectiondescribed
Hume'sargument
thatmitigated
Hume'sessays.Thepreceding
in political
moderation
discourse
and behavior.
Itfurther
skeptics
oughtto instill
instill
that
in
Hume's
can
moderation
view,philosophers only
indirectly,
argued
their
contributions
tolearning
andpoliteconversation.
Thepolitical
implithrough
becomeapparent
ifoneconsiders
Hume'sargument
that
cationsofthisstipulation
thrive
and politeconversation
bestin liberalcommercial
It
republics.
learning
commercial
societies
thelearning,
busistandsto reasonthatifliberal
encourage
to producemitithatHumesuggests
arenecessary
ness,and politeconversation
shouldbe modthosewhobelievepolitics
andmoderate
politicians,
gatedskeptics
toliveinliberal
commercial
wouldprefer
eratedbymitigated
skepticism
republics.
the
thatliberal
commercial
SeveralofHume'sessayssuggest
republics
provide
In"Of
forpromoting
andpoliteconversation.
bestenvironment
business,
learning,
"itis
oftheArtsandSciences,"
Humeproposesthemaxim,
theRiseandProgress
fortheartsandsciencestoarise,atfirst,
amonganypeopleunlessthat
impossible
He reasonsthatwherethereare
ofa freegovernment."
peopleenjoytheblessing
for
oranyfoundation
no limits
toarbitrary
rule,thereis no law,security,
property,
"thenecessity
ofrestraining
themagofa republic,
Atthebirth
however,
learning.
inorderto preserve
mustat lastappear,andgiveriseto lawsand
istrates,
liberty,
Fromsecurity
Andfrom
statutes.... Fromlawarisessecurity:
curiosity
curiosity:
Theartsandsciencesmusttherefore
first
developina liberal
republic.
knowledge."
whentheyareengaged
canbestencourage
liberal
Moreover,
learning
republics
is morefavorable
to theriseof
Humewrites,
commerce.
in extensive
"nothing
19.
ofCertainty:
26. Letwin,
ThePursuit
StevenJ.Wulf 95
ofneighboring
andindependent
andlearning,
thana number
constates,
politeness
Theemulation,
whichnaturally
and policy.
arises
nectedtogether
bycommerce
is an obvioussourceofimprovement.
ButwhatI
states,
amongthoseneighboring
on isthestop,whichsuchlimited
territories
wouldchiefly
insist
givebothtopower
Humethinks
and to authority."
thispointis bestillustrated
by thedistinction
GreeceandmodernEuropeon the
betweenChinaon theone hand,andancient
forceand
other.Thegeographic
political
expanseoftheChinesestatepermitted
of
rule
the
commercial
InGreece
to
popularopinion
exchange.
throughout range
of
and
ideas
took
over
andEuropefrequent
an
areaconplace
exchanges goods
nor
Hume
trolled
neither
a
a
thinks
this
indicates
by
singlesovereign singlepublic.
aremostlikely
toflourish
thatlearning
andletters
commercial
states
amongsmall,
(E, 115-21).
AsJohnChristian
Laursenhas pointed
do notprevent
out,theseobservations
Humefromsupposing
that"civilized
monarchies"
obtain
might
good lawsand
Hume
in
his
France
trade.
that
had
learned
the
of
flourishing
argues
day
advantages
rule
of
He
even
commerce
and
the
law.
the
that
courtier
sociprotecting
suggests
etiesofcivilized
monarchies
the"polite
arts"better
thando thecommerpromote
ofrepublics,
cialsocieties
becausetheformer
a manto "render
himself
encourage
orcivility,"
whilethelatter
makeit"necessary
agreeable,byhiswit,complaisance,
fora mantomakehimself
orknowledge"
useful,
(E, 126).
byhisindustry,
capacity,
ThisleadsLaursentoconcludethatHumeis moresympathetic
tocourtier
society
thanto liberalcommercial
LaursenconcludesthatHume'sskepticism
republics.
a preference
forthekindofpolitesociety
oncefoundinabsolutist
France.27
implies
Humeis certainly
an ambivalent
he maintains
that
Nevertheless,
republican.
evencivilized
willdiscourage
monarchies
thecommercial
culture
thathe thinks
In"OfCivilLiberty,"
mustundergird
hewrites
that"commerce
... is
politesociety.
absolutegovernments,
notbecauseitistherelesssecure,
apttodecayin [civilized]
butbecauseitis lesshonourable."
Thisis so because"a subordination
ofranksis
to thesupport
ofmonarchy.
andplace,mustbe
Birth,
titles,
absolutely
necessary
honoured
aboveindustry
andriches.
Andwhilethesenotions
alltheconprevail,
siderable
willbe tempted
traders
tothrow
inordertopurchase
commerce,
uptheir
someoftheseemployments"
(E,93).
Hume'spreference
forcommercial
overcourtier
isalsoevident
in
society
society
hisrejection
ofthecourtly
virtues
ofaristocratic
honorandmartial
in
favor
of
glory,
moreprofane
concernswithindustry,
and socialutility.
In his essay,"Of
plenty,
Refinement
intheArts,"
hesaysthisofsocieties
thathonorcourtly
indolence
above
commercial
"Intimeswhenindustry
andtheartsflourish,
menarekeptin
pursuits:
menbothof
perpetual
occupation....Banishthoseartsfrom
society,
youdeprive
actionand of pleasure."He suggests
thatanti-commercial
cannotbe
snobbery
27. Laursen,
ThePolitics
ofSkepticism:
175-76.
96 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
ofcourtly
manners.
Itis onlyinthepresence
of
compensated
bythedevelopment
inthemechanical
andrefinements
arts"thattheliberal
artsflourish.
"The
"industry
andpoliticians,
renowned
sameage,whichproduces
greatphilosophers
generals
weaversandship-carpenters"
aboundswithskillful
andpoets,usually
(E,270-1).
forthecommercial
andprofessional
classesisfurther
evinced
Hume'srespect
by
ofLife,"
wherehewrites
thatmenwhofillthemidStation
hisessay"OftheMiddle
themostnumerous
RankofMen,thatcanbe suppos'dsusdlingsocialranks"form
in
ofPhilosophy."
He arguesthataristocrats
aretoothoroughly
immersed
ceptible
withscroungtoreason,whilethepooraretoopre-occupied
pleasuretohearken
Themiddling
oflifetoengageinlearning.
are
ranks,
however,
ingforthenecessities
fellows
as
a
and
virtuous
services
to
their
madehabitually
rendering
by
friendly
their
constant
ofbusiness,
and theyacquirewisdomand ability
matter
through
(E,446-9).
industry
ofmodern
thecultural
achievements
Humeiswilling
torecognize
monarchies,
and professional
rankscouldbe found,buthe
wheremenof thecommercial
aremorereliablenestsforthekindof
believesthatliberalcommercial
republics
ofchoosing
His
to thedilemma
that
fosters
skepticism. solution
society
mitigated
istosupport
themixedconstitution
thathe
andrepublicanism
betweenmonarchy
thisconstitution
as one inwhich
inBritain.
Yethe describes
thinks
haddeveloped
of
... though
witha greatmixture
"therepublican
prevails
partofthegovernment
of
element's
domination
so
he
the
Moreover, approves
long
republican
monarchy."
remains
mixed(E, 12).Consequently,
as theconstitution
skepgiventhemitigated
andHume'sdescription
kindofpolitical
fora particular
tics'preference
character,
itwould
thatproducethatcharacter,
andsocialinstitutions
ofthekindofpolitical
inphiinpolitics
andmitigated
seemthatthosedisposedtomoderation
skepticism
so long
toother
sortsofregimes,
commercial
liberal
wouldprefer
republics
losophy
constitutional
restraints.
retain
as thoserepublics
a secondwayinwhichhisconception
Hume'saccountofthegoodlifesuggests
Humeexamines
commercial
liberal
commends
ofmitigated
republics.
skepticism
"TheStoic,""ThePlatonist,"
thegoodlifeinfourrelated
essays,"TheEpicurean,"
three
Hemodelsthefirst
and"TheSkeptic."
essaysonwhathetakestobe thethree
is devotedto "eleganceand
ofthegoodlife.TheEpicurean
maininterpretations
and
to"contemplation,
andthePlatonist
andvirtue,"
theStoicto"action
pleasure;"
Hume'smitdevotion"
(E, 138,146,155).Thefourth
essaydescribes
philosophical
ofthe
three
tothefirst
conception
essaysandtheskeptic's
response
skeptical
igated
itis an accountofthegoodlifethatis mostcompatible
goodlife.Notsurprisingly,
commercial
withHume'saccountoflifeina liberal
republic.
heattributes
totheotherthree
an assumption
Humecriticizes
In"TheSkeptic,"
ofthegoodlifeis bestforallpeople.
accounts
thateachoftheir
ethical"schools,"
and
ofbeauty
inthesentiments
is a considerable
He observes
that"there
diversity
andhumour,
andthateducation,
vary
custom,
frequently
caprice,
worth,
prejudice,
cannotimpelus tochangetheobjects
ourtasteofthiskind."Becausephilosophy
StevenJ.Wulf 97
toprescribe
itisuselessforphilosophers
a singleconception
ofthe
ofourpassions,
hasaccustomed
themtoseeking
goodlifetoallpeople.Wheremen'supbringing
oreternal
ofvirtue
truth
can onlyleadthemawayfrom
thepursuit
what
pleasure,
theusualmethodof hismitigated
makesthemhappiest.
skepticism,
Following
thenotion
thatphilosophy
canproduce
a universally
then,Humerejects
applicable
forthegoodlife(E, 163).
anda priori
prescription
Humereasonsthatonecancompareconceptions
ofthegoodlife
Nevertheless,
interms
oftheir
oftheempirical
likelihood
He concludes
achievement.
from
what
of
the
hetakestobe common
that
the
life
that
he
attribexperience
conception good
He observes
is mostreadily
achieved.
utesto "theSkeptic"
that"somepassionsor
in
of
not
the
their
are
so
orconstant
as others,
inclinations, enjoyment
objects,
steady
norconveysuch durablepleasureand satisfaction.
for
devotion,
Philosophical
a
like
the
enthusiasm
of
is
the
effect
of
instance,
poet,
[which]
transitory
highspirits
Asforthelifeofpleasure,
cannotlongactuatethemind."
"where
thetemper
isthe
bestdisposed
toanyenjoyment,
theobjectisoften
found
the
[because] paswanting
contribute
notso muchtohappiness,
as those
sions,whichpursueexternal
objects,
whichrestinourselves."
Humeconcludes
thatthebestlifeisonethatisconstant
and
is notdependent
on circumstances
thatone cannotreadily
control.
"Thehappiest
ofmindisthevirtuous;
orinother
thatwhichleadstoactionand
words,
disposition
us sensible
tothesocialpassions,
renders
steelstheheartagainst
the
employment,
assaultsoffortune,
reducestheaffections
toa justmoderation,
makesourthoughts
an entertainment
tous,andinclines
us rather
tothepleasures
ofsociety
andconthantothoseofthesenses"(E, 168).Humedescribes
versation
thislifeprimarily
as
onefilled
withactivity,
butallowsforthepleasures
ofphilosophy
whenthemindis
thatourthoughts
canprovide
so long
disposedtothem.He suggests
entertainment,
as we areinclined
to thepleasures
ofbusinessandconversation
too.Humesuplikephilosophy
canbe enjoyed
whenitisgrounded
posesthatan inconstant
activity
ina lifeofmoreconstant
likebusiness
activities
andcompany.
Undertheseconditionphilosophy
canbe "tosometempers
... oneofthemostamusing
[occupations]
inwhichlifecouldpossibly
be employed"
(E, 180).
MarieMartin
has shownthatHume'sskeptical
ofthegoodlifeis
conception
theStoics.She pointsto thesimilarity
borrowed
from
ofthevirtues
Hume
largely
often
mentions
tothosecataloged
andreports
thatHumewas "schooled
byCicero,
intheclassical
moraltradition
withCiceronian
humanism."28
How[and]enamored
also notesthatHume'sconception
ofvirtue
differs
inimportant
ever,Martin
ways
from
thatoftheStoics.Shepointsto Hume'spraiseof"benevolent"
as an
virtues
to theCiceronian
addition
that"thevirtuous
and
important
catalog."Humewrites
28. Marie
A. Martin,
"Humeas Classical
International
24 (SeptemMoralist,"
Philosophical
Quarterly
ber1994):323-324.
29. Marie
A. Martin,
"Humeon HumanExcellence,"
HumeStudies
8 (November
1992),389.
98 THE SKEPTICALLIFE IN HUME'SPOLITICALTHOUGHT
inthehandsofthestemandaustere
suffered
tender
Stoics.
Sentiments...
mightily"
thevainglorious
as herejects
ofcourtier
herejects
the
(E,539).Just
pursuits
society,
virtues
and glory.
ancientobsessionwithmasculine
"We mayobserve,thatthe
werealmostin perpetual
ancientrepublics
of theirmartial
effect
war,a natural
He laments
thatthis"barbarity
... musthavebanished
merchant
and
spirit."
every
manufacturer"
toattack
honorin
(E,404,419).Hedoesnotintend,
however,
merely
thenameofluxury,
as didMandeville.
Humewrites,
"exalted
undaunted
capacity,
totheenvy
success;thesemayonlyexposea heroorpoliticians
prosperous
courage,
ofthepublic."
"assoonas thepraises
andill-will
areaddedofhumane
Nevertheless,
oflenity,
wheninstances
aredisplayed
or friendship;
and beneficent;
tenderness,
or
the
voice
of
is
and
itself
silent,
envy
approbation applause"(E, 176).
joins general
Humedoesnotintend
todisparage
and
He onlyinsists
thattheybe
courage honor.
forglory.
combined
withbeneficence
rather
thanwitha bloodlust
Theessential
difference
betweenthemitigated
andtheancientStoics,
skeptic
how
can
be
found
in
Hume's
account
of
the
lifeis achieved.
best
Martin
however,
writesthatHumedepartsfromtheStoicsmostsignificantly
in thattheStoics
and philosophical
"assumethatphilosophical
happiness,
guarantees
knowledge
Martin
that
Hume's
incontrast,
skeptic,
guarantees
unhappiness."
argues
ignorance
ofthetypeoflifeyoushouldlead,thetypeofperson
"deniesthattheknowledge
hasanypowertochangeortransform
youshouldbe tobe happy,
youintothatsort
ForHume,character
of
ofperson.""30
is largely
the
kind
education
and
shapedby
in
If
are
one
life.
to
achieve
the
life
as
best
Hume
institutions experiences
people
lifeofmoderate
defines
it-thatis,ifpeoplearetoachievethemitigated
skeptic's
ofvirtuous
actioninbusinessandsociallife--they
andtheexpression
philosophy
a particular
kindofeducation.
mustreceive
Thisessayhas shownthatHumeviewsa commonlifesteepedin business,
as thekindofeducation
bestsuitedtomitigated
andconversation
skeptilearning,
shownthat,
to Hume,living
ina liberal
commercial
cism.Ithasfurther
according
Itwouldseemtofollow
thatforHume,libbestpromotes
theseactivities.
republic
wherepeoplehavethegreatest
aretheregimes
chance
eralcommercial
republics
as mitigated
recommends
a particular
of living
thegood life.Insofar
skepticism
recommends
liberal
commercial
ofliving,
manner
then,itsubtly
republics.
VI. Conclusion
inthisessayrevealthatHume'spolitreached
Takenas a whole,theconclusions
ofskepticism.
Thisdebt
is deeplyindebted
toa uniqueunderstanding
icalthought
ina sensethat
overlooked
is probably
becauseHumeusestheterm"skepticism"
Hume's"mitigated
is far
readers.
skepticism"
mayseemunusualtocontemporary
Moralist":
328-29.
30. Martin,
"Humeas Classical
StevenJ.Wulf 99
morethanjustan epistemological
stanceortheinescapable
outcomeofan arguofcharacter,
a character
isencouraged
ment.Itis a form
whosedisposition
by,but
Itis also a wayof life,a life
notwhollydependent
on, philosophical
argument.
devoted
tostudy,
andordinary
business.
itisa wayoflifethat
conversation,
Finally,
one towardparticular
notonlypredisposes
andsocialarrangements,
but
political
indeedpresupposes
thosearrangements.
andincludes
Forthesakeofclarity,
thisessayhasdiscussed
Hume'sviewsonpolitical
science,
best
the
best
and
the
life
as
distinct
matters.
It
should
be
political
practice,
regime,
that
these
of
Hume's
elements
are
now,
however,
apparent
by
thought indelibly
intertwined.
Hume'sconclusions
aboutthebestlife,
thebestregime,
andtheskepto moderate
tic'sinclination
are
based
on common
political
practice ostensibly
observations
rather
thana priori
Hume
advances
his
moral
andpolitical
reasoning.
maximsby appealingto "manyobviousinstances"
drawnfromhistory
and
in
commonexperience
he
on
relies
as
(though practice frequently
speculation well)
is inHume'sviewessential
tothedevel(E, 160).Theskeptic's
wayoflife,inturn,
the
of
and
disinterestedness
skeptical
disposition,
personalexperience,
opment
whichare themselves
essential
to theproperformulation
of moraland political
in
life
a
liberal
maxims.
commercial
thefinancial,
republic
Finally,
provides
literary,
in whichpolitical
and socialenvironment
scienceand theskeptical
wayof life
becomepossibleforsignificant
numbers
ofpeople.
Thisis nottosaythatHumeviewsthevarious
elements
ofhismitigated
skepticismas strict
forone another.
Thatwouldinvolve
himintoo many
prerequisites
circular
Hisaccountoftheconnections
betweenthoseeleobviously
arguments.
thattheydevelopintandem,
mentssuggests
rather
thanlogically.
For
historically
Humemitigated
is an inextricably
intertwined
admixture
ofdisparate
skepticism
andpolitical
inhis
commitments
thatemerged
beliefs,
behaviors,
circumstances,
owntime.Itisas mucha product
ofmodernity
as ofphilosophy.