MAJOR THEMES
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The legacy of Classical Rome in the Middle Ages
Tradition vs Innovation in Artistic Production
The relationship between religion, politics and art
Art and storytelling (the visual narrative)
The importance of patronage and audience
Cultural exchange and interaction
Four Tetrarchs (Constantinople, now Venice c. 300 CE). Porphyry statuary
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Changing face of the Roman Empire (divided into Eastern and Western halves by
Diocletian and ruled jointed by a Augustus-Caesar)
The sharing of power (the representation of equality and friendship) is conveyed through
the sameness of the figures (identical features, abstract qualities of power-authority,
symbolic of the remaining power of Rome)
Expensive materials (conveyed the power, might and authority of the Roman Empire
despite the new transitions to split power)
Arch of Constantine (Rome, c. 312-315 CE).
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Move from the realistic-verisimilitude of the earlier Roman traditions (material reality) to
the aggrandized and abstracted images of Constantine as well as his place within the
natural succession of successful Roman emperors [place in the heart of Rome]
Gift of the Senate for his success at the Milvian Bridge (c.312) it contained fragments of
sculpture from Trajan-Hadrian-Marcus Aurelius [legitimization of his place]
Differed from past efforts (the once tangible forms and the deep reliefs – occupied space
of Marcus Aurelius) the artists drilled deep shadows and highlights to allow light and
shadow to affect the visions of Constantine (flat, shallow relief and simplified
geometrically are given hierarchy by the frame)
Appears at the center of the composition (isolated physically and psychologically) and in
a state of benevolence (dispensing charity, receiving petitions, alms-giving)
Old St.Peter’s Basilica (Rome, c.360 CE)
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Patronization of Constantine it showed the utilitarian nature of early Christian churches
which utilized Roman public, secular buildings (basilica functioned as a meeting space
for the converts)
Basilica plan (central nave-aisles, perpendicular transept terminating in a square apse)
Situated as a patronage site for the veneration of holy relics (the bodies of the saints
that acted as an intermediary between the God and ordinary Christians) which were
augmented by the alterations of Gregory the Great (c.600) who raised the floor level of
the basilica in order to accommodate a circular chamber under the apse so that
parishioners could access the relics
The possession of the relics of St.Peter provided the apostolic authority needed for the
Pope (as Bishop of Rome) to claim leadership over the Christian
Palace Church of Charlemagne (Aachen-Germany, c. 800 CE) – Odo of Metz
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The Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne (crowned Augustus by the Pope during
Christmas of 800) appropriated the visual language of Constantine to legitimize his place
as the predecessor to the Roman Empire [intellectual and visual Renaissance of styles]
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Circular plan of the Aachen chapel took cues from Santa Costanza (Rome) - San Vitale
(Ravenna) which was flanked by basilica acted as the chapel and audience hall (visual
centrality in both secular and religious services) which provided porticoes to
accommodate 7000-8000 individuals
16-sided with an octagonal interior (clear delineation of component parts, between the
alternating rectangular and triangular bays) emphasized both the mass and height of the
structure
Utilized classical components of Roman origin (the marble columns that were
appropriated from Rome as spolia as well as the tesserae mosaics of the cloistered
vault that depicted Christ and the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse) as a means of
highlighting the visual-historical links of the Carolingians to the Roman Empire
Bronze railings (the first instance of full-scale casting in bronze since the Roman Empire)
which formed the barricades of the lower level gallery were a deliberate attempt of the
Carolingians to translate the ancient decorative techniques into the new language of
imperial majesty and socio-political unity
The Jelling Stone (Jutland-Denmark, c. 965-985)
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Christian conversion of the Vikings in the 10th century (a patchwork of Scandinavian
peoples) was forwarded by the King Harold Bluetooth represented in a synthesis of
traditional Scandinavian artistic traditions (the abstractions and interlacing of the Sutton
Hoo) and Christian iconography (depictions of the crucified Christ from the Resurrection)
Runic lettering (not Latin text) indicates that the stone monument is a testament to the
parents of Harold Bluetooth (Gorm-Thyri) and his own efforts in making the Danes a
Christian people
Syncretism (unification of disparate artistic traditions and Christian context)
Portal of Urnes Stave Church (Urnes-Sweden, c. 1050-1070)
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The synthesis of local architectural forms (the Stave Church) with the monumental
architecture required for the Christian congregations
Spolia (carved wooden wall panel influenced by advanced in the metallurgical styles of
Scandinavian metallurgy and goldware) which worked at Christianizing the subject
matter (interlacing and abstract combatant animals are taken to mean the conflict that
occurs between Good and Evil)
No contradiction between the religious iconography and visual-aesthetic forms
The Alfred Jewel (Southern England, Late 9th century CE)
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Underlined the socio-political and educational/religious efforts of Alfred the Great who
gathered renown scholars (Aachen School of Charlemagne) who worked upon the more
insular efforts of Lindesfarne
Gold, enamel and pearl (precious metals and materials conveying not only wealth but
also authority)
Central figure linked to a similar depiction of the Five Senses in the Fuller Brooch (c. 9th
century) and the importance of sight in the symbolic seeing of both the literal and
spiritual truth
Pointer/reader (Hebrew yad) linked to the very public and vocal act of reading in the
Middle Ages (the translation of the Bible into Old English, not Latin, which were then sent
to parish churches throughout England
o Old English inscription (Alfred ordered me to be made)
New Minster Charter – King Edgar Presents the Charter to Christ (Winchester, c. 966
CE)
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No center of power within Anglo-Saxon England (travelling monarchy based upon
centers of power, such as the monastic community at Winchester) but important to
convey the place and intricate relationship between ecclesiastical and secular powers
within positions of authority
Illuminated parchment codex/manuscript (Scriptorium of Winchester Cathedral)
Bishop Aethalwald and King Edgar (the secular and spiritual authorities) present the
foundational charter (legal document) of New Charter of Westminster to Christ
The prostrate Edgar (symmetrical and in a dynamic stance of veneration, in line with
Christ creating a dual register of the celestial and the secular) is flanked by both the
Virgin Mary and St. Peter
Importance of secular patronage (royal support for the foundation of the monastic
cathedral) and the atemporal authority of the Church (the limitations to power that must
be faced by all monarchs who are enthroned by the will of Christ)
New Minster Liber Vitae – King Canute and Queen Emma (Wincester, c.1020 CE)
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Depiction of the close relationship between the secular rulers of the Anglo-Saxon
kingdom and the spiritual realm of the New Minster as well as the legitimacy given to the
secular ruler through spiritual authorities (an angel places the crown upon the head of
King Canute)
Intercessional power of the monks (as prayers directed upwards on their part to both the
Virgin Mary and St.Peter would carry much headway in the resurrection after death)
Centrality of the large and colourful cross (perpetual presence of the patrons and a
depiction of their own dedication to the Minster at the very heart of the ritualized space of
the church, as the Liber Vitae would be displayed upon the altarpiece)
o Spiritual and physical-literal presence within the Minister
Interest in the precision of drafting and lineweights (active figures and linework) derived
from the copying of styles from the Utrecht Psalter (c. 820-855, sent to England in 1000
CE) showing a direct form of cultural exchange and emulation between the CarolingianNormans and the Anglo-Saxons
New Minster Liber Vitae – Heaven and Hell (Winchester, c.1020 CE)
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List of patron/donor names that had made contributions towards the financing of the
New Minster (visualization and the primacy of the donors in seeking the intercession of
the monastic members)
SPIRITUAL ECONOMY (alms-indulgences-atonements) shows the newly deceased
waiting to be judged upon the entrance to Heaven (an ordered city) or Hell (chaotic,
maelstrom, filled with terrifying demons that torment and drag the victims into a hell
mouth)
King Otto presents a Model of Magdeburg Cathedral to Christ (Northern Italy, c. 962973 CE)
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The Ottonian Dynasty (919-1024) sought to position themselves as the legitimate
successors to the Carolingian dynasty (inheritance of Louis the German, after the Treaty
of Verdun, 843)
Crowned by the Pope in Aachen (962) and founded many religious organizations
and communities, placing family members in prominent positions
o Transformed into the Archbishopric cathedral (religious and administrative)
40+ small carved (ivory) pieces depicting Otto I (with the help-intercession of angels and
patron saints) a small model of the Magdeburg Cathedral
o Obedience and subservience to Christ which would be read as a lesson in the
hierarchical division of society (Christ – Monarch – Nobility – Subjects)
Produced in Northern Italy (based on the Roman tradition of ivory carving, the Ivory
Triptych of Aerobindus, 4th century) after the marriage of Otto I to the Milanese princess
Adelaide it helped to visually marry the furthest reaches
o Audience and the power of the visual in relating both hierarchical socio-political
status and the might of the Emperor in cobbling together the resources of the
Ottonian realm
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Gero Crucifix (Cologne Cathedral-German, c. 970 CE)
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Commissioned by Gero (Archbishop of Cologne) as a result of this travels to the
Byzantine court to arrange the marriage of Otto II to the Princess Theophanu
One of the earliest and best preserved of the life-sized carved oak and gilded goldpolychrome and one of the oldest depictions of the Dead Christ (slumped head and
twisted body invokes the humanly suffering of Christ and not his Resurrection)
o Not seen in either Byzantine or Carolingian art, became standard iconography for
the depiction of the crucified Christ in Gothic Art
o Focus of the suffering and human nature of Christ (meditative exercise based on
the emotional intensity of the image)  Byzantine connection
Contained both a reliquary (housing the remains of a saint) but also for the storage of
the Eucharistic host (the literal and figural transfiguration of the body of Christ during
Mass)
Church of St.Michael (Hildesheim-Germany, c. 1010-1033 CE).
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The Ottonian adaptation and adoption of Carolingian basilicas (symmetrical transepts
which are given significant visual weight through the addition of towers, transepts and
turrets which create double vertical agents)
Simple architectural ornamentation (Lombard-Catalan masons) and the systematic
design based on bays punctuated by polychromatic masonry arches (3 for each transept
arm, 1 for the nave)
o Alteration of piers and columns (horizontal and vertical movements)
o Increasing complexity of the liturgy required double transepts
Bronze Doors of Bishop Bernward (St. Michael-Hildesheim, c. 1015 CE)
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Bishop Bernward (tutor to Otto III) attempted to replicate the commemorative carved
doors and columns witnessed in Rome during the coronation of Otto III
Use of the Roman lost-wax process (single casting and pouring rather than the multiple
casting of smaller sections nailed to a wooden doorframe) which combined Roman
techniques with Northern-Carolingian metallurgical traditions
o 16.5 feet in height
Complex and theologically sophisticated which combined both Old Testament and New
Testament scenes (mutually interdependent and justification for both the Fall of
Humanity and the Salvation of Christ) over nearly 16 narrative panels
Left-hand door contained 8 panels from Genesis (top-bottom) to Abel while the
right-hand side contains 8 panels from the Annunciation to post-Resurrection
(bottom-top) divided by a wide frame containing dedicatory inscriptions
o Linear narrative and horizontal comparison (ex. The naturalistic trees of the
Denial of Blame mirrors the crucifix in which Christ hangs on as well as the
Denial of Blame by Adam-Eve when faced with expulsion with the acceptance of
Christ before Pontius Pilate (THE REDEMPTION OF HUMANITY THROUGH
THE SUFFERING OF CHRIST)
Small lively figures (bits of plant and architecture) against uncluttered background akin to
the ink drawings of the Utrecht Psalter which shows human emotions and reactions
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Church of the Holy Wisdom - Hagia Sophia (Constantinople, c. 532 CE)
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Cohesive and unified Byzantine Empire which acted as the true successors (in terms of
artistic, political, religious and socio-cultural antecedents) to Classical Rome after the
establishment of Constantinople in the mid-4th century
Procopius (6th century historian) speaks of the mutli-sensory perception of the church by
its occupants as the dome appeared to be suspended by a golden chain above the
heads of the worshippers (flooded with Holy Light)
o Overwhelming sensory experience that evokes the grandeur of Christ and that of
the Byzantine Empire
o Constant shifting of gaze (perplexing, overwhelming, awing)
Circular dome supported by pendentives (squinches) which helped to transition from a
circular to a square plan and became the model of the Imperial Church (Aachen, c.800)
Apse Mosaic of the Virgin and Child – Hagia Sophia (Constantinople, c. 867)
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Monumental apse mosaic (ceremonial entrance to the Church)
Tesserae (marble, gold, precious metals) mosaics helped to delineate the wealth and
opulence of the Byzantine churches from the painted frescoes and architectural
embellishments of the Western church (somewhere between culture and painting)
Iconoclastic controversy within the Byzantine Church (worry that Eastern Christians were
revering the relics-images of the saints rather than the saints (idolatry) themselves which
led to the outlawing of physical depictions of religious figures  Islamic antecedents)
Not located in the landscape (free-floating) which attracted the light of the space and
followed the viewer reminding the viewer that God became manifest in the flesh through
the intercession of the Virgin Mary
o Theotokos (sensitivity to classical art portrayed in the idealized faces of Mary and
Jesus)
o Distance between the viewer and the tesserae allowed for the creation of larger
forms modelled in light which would dissolve into a sea of colours on closer
inspection
o Figures as intellectual (the image, beholder and zone between are all contained
within the same space)
o Liturgical emphasis (supported the preaching of the Bishop within the Hagia
Sophia)
Exterior and Interior – Churches of the Monastery of Hosios Loukas (Greece, c.1040)
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Increasingly complex and complicated liturgy (involving the use of iconostasis screen to
hide the clergy who would emerge with the Gospel-Host)
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Exterior treatment alternated courses of brick and stone to create a highly visual surface
(cloisonne decorative ornament) composed of zigzag, curved and saw-tooth brick
Greek Cross with Square(compact and centralized plan with vertical, rising spaces from
the marble revetment and tesserae mosaics in which the centralized dome played a
significant role in the decorative scheme  five (5) domed variety, quincunx)
o Contrast between the compressed spaces and open naos (light penetration)
which helps to compartmentalize and subdivide the spaces
Hierarchical placement of figures (highly elaborated interior spaces) in which the interior
of the church becomes a microcosm of the Christian universe
o Centralized dome (Christ Pantokrator – Christ the Almighty Ruler)
o Upper registers (Holy Figures – Virgin Mary, Angels)
o Lower pendentives (Life of Christ – Annunciation, Nativity, Presentation)
o Lowest register (Saints, Apostles, Prophets, Congregation)
Exterior and Interior Mosaics - Church of San Marco (Venice, c. 1063)
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Spoke of the mercantile relationship between Venice and Byzantium (importers of silk
products as well as other maritime trade connections) as well as the transmission of
painting techniques, mosaics, cloisonné enamel, gold work and ivory carving to the West
Copy of the Church of the Holy Apostles (Constantinople) with its 5 large domes and
repeated vaulting
o Combination of the centralized, Byzantine Greek-cross and the Western
longitudinal plan terminating in a hemi-circular apse
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12 century mosaics were literally the work of Byzantine mosaic artists who were
transplanted to Venice in order to teach local craftsman the art of the tesserae
production (the splendid cloth of gold tesserae acts as a backdrop for individual
iconographic scenes laid out in a similar register to the Byzantine examples.
Great Mosque of Cordoba (Cordoba-Spain, c.785-990)
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Expansion of the Umayyad dynasty of Abd al-Rahman into Al-Andalus into a strong
centralized government in Spain with a capital at Cordoba which allowed for a great
interplay between Muslim, Jewish and Christian subjects
No ritual-liturgical basis for the mosque (utilitarian function) where the faithful gathered
inside the prayer hall, facing Mecca which was indicated by a wall (qibla) marked out by
a small niche (mihrab) as well as a minaret which served as a place to call the faithful to
prayer
Square plan (prayer hall and courtyard)
Prayer Hall – Great Mosque of Cordoba (Cordoba, c.785) – Spolia columns
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Spolia used (salvaged from Roman and Visigothic buildings) to both time and labour
costs to delineate the endless rows of columns which seem to stretch away into infinity
o Created a distinct identity against the Jewish and Christian populations while still
appropriating artistic traditions and the palimpsest of the Christian past
o Physical integration into the pre-existing Christian culture
Addition of impost blocks and horseshoe arches to the columns helped to create a
uniform height from non-uniform spolia as well as support the timbered roof
o Stone voussoirs alternated with brick courses to give the polychromatic effect
o Alternating voussoirs, horseshoe arches, zigzag moldings and rolled corbels,
stalactites (corbels and squinches produced with marble, tile and plaster)
Mihrab – Great Mosque of Cordoba (Cordoba, c. 990) – Polylobed archways
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Hakim II (c. 961-968) added additional vaults as well as the elaboration of the mihrab as
well as the addition of stone vaulting and windows in the bay to light the quibla wall
Introduced interlacing, polylobed arches to form rigid screens without breaking the
repeating rhythm of the columns (pointed arches that were hidden by semicircular cusps
and moved upwards into parallel ribs which supported windows and miniature fluted
melon domes)
Utilized Byzantine mosaic artists (shared cultural exchange) to add decoration and visual
significance to the mihrab
Expression of both religious and cultural identity (local and Mediterranean-wide)
o Distinction of the mihrab coincided with increased interaction with the local
Christian populations, emulation of the visual dominance-decoration given to the
apse-altar
Pyxis of Al-Mughira (Cordoba, c. 968)
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Site of artistic and cultural interchange as well as the production of luxury goods (utilized
Islamic continuation of ivory carving knowledge, like that of the Carolingians to the
North)
Court patronage (particular item, of a personal nature used to hold aromatic perfumes)
as the pyxis was commissioned by the son of the Caliph
The ‘preciousness’ of the material indicated both its value and the stimulating sensory
(tactile) significance of an element that would have been handled often
Incredible level of detail (both elements of court-life [musicians, fanning attendants],
floral interlacing arabesques and natural scenes)  Room for the depiction of living
creatures
o Framework mimicked the intricacies of the polylobed arches (the tripartite folds
above the heads of the musicians)
o Creation of an artistic vocabulary that can be translated over a wide variety of
mediums (from plaster-marble to ivory)
Cross of Fernando and Sancha (Leon-Spain, c. 1063)
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Both intricately carved crucifix (gift to the San Isiodoro basilica of Leon) and a reliquary
Appreciation of small-scale, portable Muslim objects and the creation of Christian
workshops to both emulation and appropriate the Islamic works
o Inspiration and technical knowledge from Islamic traditions but differing
iconographic treatment (Crucified Christ and the Last Judgement, the Lamb of
God)
o First depiction of the Crucified Christ in the Iberian (Christ Redeemer whose jetblack eyes would look into the ‘souls’ of the observers as a reminder that the
events of the Last Judgement were made manifest through the observations of
the Christian before the eyes of Christ  judgement of past sins and atonements)
o Intricately carved (akin to the Pyxis of Al-Mughira) scenes
Unlike the emotive power of the Gero Crucifix (c.970) which depicted the humanity of the
slain Christ this cross speaks to the ‘defeat of Death’ which can only come about through
the interjection of the Resurrected Christ who would ensure the immortality of the
Christian soul
o Redemptive (highly ornamental) vs. Ascetic experience (simplified polychromatic)
Church of St.Martin du Canigou (Pyrenees-France, c. 11th century) – Stone barrel vault
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Emulation of the Classical Style (Roman monumental stone architectural components)
but keyed towards the rising prominence of monasticism [spiritual retreat from the
secular world]
o Ashlar masonry (finely dressed stonework)
o Foundation by Count-Abbot brothers showed the link between the spiritual and
secular worlds
Clear delineation of space through the use of bays (regular, geometric, scalar) as well as
the use of both compound piers (square) and columns (circular) as systems of support
for the barrel-vaulting system, supported by a transverse arch
o Ascetic style (stuccoed and bare masonry walls with little architectural sculpture)
Christ and the Apostles – Carved Lintel (St.Genis des Fontaines, France, c. 1020-1021)
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Carved marble lintel of Christ in Majesty (Maiestas Domini) flanked by both Angels and
Apostles whose images would remind the viewer of both the appearance and the
devotional relations of the local monks to that of Christ [public viewing portal]
o Abstraction of the garments and figures, squat and compact-shallow relief forms
to fit within the confines of the architectural background of the lintel
Inscription (In the 24th year of the reign of King Robert, William (the Abbot of St.Genis),
by the Grace of God Abbot, had this work commissioned in honor of St.Genesius)
o Prominence of both King Robert and Abbot William to the framed mandala of
Christ (the central figure and foci of attention) shows the importance of proximity
within the public monument
o Narrative and educational (didactic)
Speyer Cathedral (Speyer-Germany, c. 1081-1106) – Stone groin vault
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Salian Dynasty (1024-1125) built during the brief reconciliation between Pope and
Emperor
Direct opposition to the Gregorian Reforms (1073-1085) which showed both the
infallibility of the Pope as well as his own position as the supreme ecclesiastical authority
that was subject to no interference from lay powers
o Investiture Controvery – sought to remove all lay interference and involvement
from the placement (investiture) of ecclesiastical figures
Religious and secular power and authority of the Ottonians (architectural forms and
decorative schemes) which acted as an imperial challenge to the rest of the Christian
world  both in terms of scale and access to materials
o Direct challenge to the wealth and opulence of Cluny (c.909)
o Directly associated with the symmetrical weighting and grandeur of St.Michael
(Hildesheim, c.1010-1030) harkening back to the Carolingian-Ottonians
Groin vaults (double barrel-vaults) and a mixture of both columns and compound piers
while engaged arches (placed within the wall) hold up the transverse arches
o Articulation of the bays both in elevation (little interior decoration, white-washed
surfaces and plain stone architectural components
o Gallery and nave arcade
Apse Frescoes – Sant’Angelo in Formis (Formis-Italy, c. 1072-1100)
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Gregorian reforms under Abbot Desidarius (Abbot of Monte Cassino, Pope Victor III),
who offers the church of Sant’Angelo to the figure of Christ, imitating the imagery of
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Justinian-Otto I but showing the centrality and power of the Papacy over secular
authorities after the Gregorian reforms
o Conscious policy of introducing Byzantine craftsmen and reviving the arts
o Frescoes (paint on wet plaster) were the ‘poor relations’ of Byzantine mosaics but
still conveyed important ideological and spiritual messages to the lay peoples
attending the Mass
o Slightly pointed arches of the entrance narthex indicative of both Byzantine and
Islamic architectural forms (Sicily and Italian South) showing elements of cultural
borrowing
Christ in Majesty surrounded by four Evangelists (beasts), Byzantine angels and a
representation of Abbot Desidarius
o Otto I offering Magdeburg Cathedral to Christ (9th century) acts as a direct
comparison showing the transition of spiritual-secular authority from the spiritual
backing of lay investiture to the Pope as Christ’s Representative on Earth
Spolia used from the pagan Temple of Diana
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (Northern Spain, c. 1078)
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Importance of pilgrimage in the maintenance of the spiritual economy of the 11th and 12th
century (from France to Northern Spain) to bring worshippers in contact with holy relics
o More pilgrims = more donations (violence of the Italian peninsula and the Holy
Land turned the center of pilgrimage to France-Spain)
Bishop Teodemiro (9th century) discovered the body of St.James (original apostle to
Christ) which enabled Santiago to claim apostolic authority due to the possession of the
bones of the saint (holy relic)
Benedictine Plan (central nave with double aisle, radiating ambulatory chapels and
chapels within the transept) carved out a processional path which allowed large numbers
of pilgrims access to the holy shrines while still maintaining the programmatic needs of
the central nave
o Masonry (practicality and aesthetics) nave arcade and gallery supported a stone
barrel vaulted ceiling while the groin-vaulted aisles supported fully galleries (light)
covered by half-barrel vaults
o Compound piers and transverse arches help to divide the barrel vault into a
succession of rectangular bays
o Verticality enhanced by the engaged columns and stilted arches of the arcade
help to counter the heavy closing effects of the barrel vault
Reliquary Statue of St.Foy (St.Faith) (Church of Ste.Foy-Conque-France, c. 9th century)
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Composite object (wooden core wrapped in more precious metals and decorative gems
which were votive-donative offerings from worshippers)  Homage = Intercession by
St.Foy
Spiritual economy (material goods in exchange for spiritual intercession) located along
the Pilgrimage route from France to Santiago
Incorporation of historical objects (3rd century Roman head on a later core) shows a
clever use of spolia (authenticity) and an incorporation-integration into the wider
Christian narrative
Christ in Majesty (Church of Ste.Sernin-Toulouse, c. 1096) – Bernard Gelduinus
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Basilica of St.Sernin founded and established in order to take advantage of pilgrim traffic
that was passing through Toulouse, possessing similar elements to Santiago de
Compostella (radiating chapels in the ambulatory, double aisles)  Shared artisans
Located in the ambulatory of the Abbey of Ste.Sernin it was an attempt by sculptors to
make Christian history more understandable to common people through forceful
narrative
o Lacked the classical articulation of the body but mass and weight of the human
figure (secular athletes) with the heavy fabric folds indicated by double lines
o Low relief, simplified silouettes, reduction of three-dimensional forms to linear
patterns and the compression of figures
o Marble reliefs (Christ in Glory, giving blessings to the observer, Apostle-Angels
located within a mandala)
o Name linked to in-situ Altar (consecrated in 1096)
Reminder of the spiritual actions of attending Mass and fulfilling the obligations of a
faithful Christian life, under the watchful eyes of Christ
Cluny III (Cluny-France, c. 1088 under Abbot Hughes, consecrated in 1150)
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Destroyed during the French Revolution (as the hated symbol of the opulence and
wealth of the Catholic Church) it showed the increasing status of the Cluny monastery
since its establishment of the Benedictine reformative monastery in the 10th century (as
under the strict authority of the Pope only, reformed the liturgy  public celebration of the
Mass)
o Elaboration of the eastern transept (addition of a radiating ambulatory chapels
and shrines along the double transept aisles) as well as the addition of a galilee
(instrumental in providing space for the increasingly complex liturgical procession
and spectacle of the Mass taking place under the Benedictines)
Much of the excavation and interpretation of the structure was the result of KJ Conant
(20th century archaeologist and art historian)
Contained both secular and ecclesiastical building as well as the much enlarged
(additive) Abbey of Cluny III
o Competition with both the Salian Dynasty (Speyer Cathedral) and the Roman
Papacy (St. Peter’s Cathedral)
Relief Sculpture of Genesis-Creation-Temptation (St.Geminianus-Modena, c. 1100) –
Wiligelmo
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The decoration of church facades with bands of architectural sculpture (frieze) with
scenes depicting episodes from the New Testaments Genesis (Creation-Temptation)
o Reminder of the sinful and degenerative state of mankind that would be resolved
through entry into the cathedral (Christian didactic narrative)
o Architectural elements (colonnaded arcade) help to delineate the scenes of the
narrative
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Located in a liminal (transitional space) between the exterior and interior of the church
with a visually explicit and direct theological narrative (unlike the complex and layers
treatment by the Ottonians)
Exception narrative and architectural-compositional skills
o Exaggerated the Constantinian qualities of figural mass and stance within the
dense overall composition (unlike the figural, illusionistic figures of Hildesheim)
where the figures seem to be compressed into the overall panel (ponderous
figures)
Tympanum with the Last Judgement (Church of St. Lazarus-Autun, c. 1140) –
Gislebertus
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West portal (narrative tympanum) located in the lay entrance to the Abbey-Church
o Tympanum supported by the Lintel-Trumeau-Jambs which is then surrounded by
Voussoirs-Archivolts
Depiction of the Last Judgement (with the tympanum containing the central figure of the
Mandala Christ, seated on a throne of Judgement, separating the Saved-Damned)
o The Sacred Space of the interior of the church and the fact that behaviour on the
outside of the church affects the position of the dead within the resurrection
o The Order City of Heaven and the tortured state of the Damned
Inscription (Gislebertus Made This)
o Located within the liminal space of the lintel (under the feet of Christ, between
the Damned and the Saved) offering both prayer and remembrance for the soul
of the artist that he will be remembered in the Last Judgement by the votive
offering and the intercessional prayers of the clergy and congreation
Cloister Pier with Abbot Durandus (Abbey of St.Pierre-Moissac, c. 1100)
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Carved marble cloister pier
Monastic audience (private, contemplative, repeated viewings within the cloister) of the
Cluniac ‘daughter house’ (enclosed square with covered walkways and arcaded column)
o Frontal and symmetrical with the curved vestments repeating both the arch of
the frame and rectilinear forms of the pier
o Crisp and accurate (delicate graphic quality)
12 relief panels (with over 76 covered and highly carved capitals – architectural
sculpture) which depicts the posthumous image of Abbot Durandus [responsible for
merging the monastery with the Cluniac House] along with the other Apostle of Christ
o Preservation of both memory
o Apostolic Authority (identifies the institution within the sacred geography of the
Christian Church, Durandus is given proximity to the Apostles and therefore
Christ who are directly related to the ecclesiastical authority of the Papacy)
Tympanum with Apocalyptic Vision (Abbey of St.Pierre-Moissac, c. 1125-1130)
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Lay audience (public south portal, repeated viewings upon entry into the church) meant
to partake in the Apocalyptic Vision of the seated/enthroned Christ in Glory surrounded
by the Four Beasts (Evangelists) and the 24 Eldars [BOOK OF REVELATIONS]
o St.Peter-Paul and the Prophet Jeremiah (Old Testament support of the New
Testament) symbolically located in the jambs and trumeau
o Hieratic Scale (size determined by importance)
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Surface composition (shallow relief, ornamental patterns, jeweled borders and crowns,
foliated archivolts and lintels, exotic cusped jambs)
o Eastern heritage (contact with the Islamic world) of the Romanesque
o The simmering, glassy surface of the composition (which ties in the figures) show
the figural and illusionary nature of the vision
o The Medieval view of sensory visions (the keeping of the Mind’s Eye on Christ)
with the attention of all the figures, including the observer, drawn towards Christ
Tympanum with the Apostolic Mission (St. Mary Magdelene-Vezelay, c. 1130s)
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Site of the Call to the 2nd Crusade by the Cistercian Bernard of Clairvaux (mimicking the
calls of Pope Urban II at Clarement in 1096, preaching absolution to those who would
take up arms against the Turkish-Muslin infidel and open up the Holy Land-Jerusalem to
Christian occupation
o Pentecost and the Apostolic Mission of Christ (conversion of the pagan) with the
central figure of Christ introducing –transferring the Holy Spirit to the Apostles
(the wavy lines which are emanating from Christ)
o Voussoirs contain the Zodiac Symbols
o Archivolts contain depictions of ‘MONSTROUS’ pagan nations (CynocephaliPanotii) from the 13th century Ebstorf Map depicting the intercession of the
physical geography of the earth with the spiritual geography of both Christ’s life
on earth (centered on Jerusalem) and the Christian kingdom  Mapped on the
literal body of Christ
Narrative and theological comparison of the both the actions of the Apostles (the mission
to colonize and Christianize the Heathen World) and the Crusaders (those whose
mission it was to take the Word to the far reaches of the known world, where the
monstrous races dwelled
Abbey Church of Fontenay (Fontenay-France, c. 1130-1147)
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Disillusionment of Robert of Molesmes and Stephen Harding (as well as 10 followers) in
1098 with the worldly successes and ‘liberalism’ (association with the secular world in
terms of both economic and political clout) leading him to establish a break-away sect at
Citeaux
Bernard of Clairvaux (Burgundian nobleman) sought to establish the Cistercian order
(dedicated to a return to austerity, poverty, eremitic imitation of the Christ, and a return to
the original text of the Bible  apostolic authority)
o Independent (dedicated to manual labour and prayer)
o Church and Cloister as the focal point of the complex (included a rectory)
o Austere and unornamented church (single transept with no radiating chapelsshrines)
o Square apse (return to the original, simplified basilica of Old St.Peter) with no
additional galilee or double aisles to accommodate processions
o Focus on light to transcend the mundane world of the sensitive intellect (no
coloured glass)
Austere interpretation of Burgundian forms (pointed barrel vaults, rectangular sanctuary
which is flanked by square chapels)  excellent masonry and perfect, harmonious
proportions
o No figured pavements, narrative stained glass, elaborate liturgical vessels
Return to the singularity and purity of the Book (meditation of the Laws of God),
not the reading of the marble and marvelling at the wondrous decorations of the
Church
o Monastic, not lay audience (little in the way of helpful narrative)
Continuing reform of the monastery at the heart of Christianity (Cycle of Criticism)
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David Slaying Goliath-Citeaux Bible (Abbey of Citeuax, c. 1109)
Moralia of Gregory the Great (Abbey of Citeaux, c. 1111)
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Bible of Stephen Harding (passed on direct translation from the Old Testament and the
consolidation of ancient Hebrew writings)
o Meant to be recited daily (Psalms)
o Old Testament (David vs. The Lion, David and Samuel, David and Goliath)
Linked to the creation of the Cistertian Order by both Robert of Molesme and Stephen
Harding, along with 12 other disciples, as a means of removing themselves with the
secular bounds of the Benedictine Cluniacs
Return to meditation of the Christian texts (reinterpretation of Old Testament texts from
the original Hebrew) and the exegesis (critical explanation of the text and relation to
contemporaneous society)
o Return to the colourful, exaggerated and graphically vivid illuminated manuscript
style (return to Ottonian colours and excess)
o Little in the way of the promotion of austerity and the dominance of the text it was
similar to the Moissac cloister, the ‘corruption’ of the Cistercian austerity by the
lavish decorative arts of Cluny, the secular world.
Interpretation of Christ and the Christian text (exegesis)