Snow and Glacier Hydrology (Proceedings of the Kathmandu Symposium, November 1992).
IAHS Publ. no. 218,1993.
29
Nepal-Japan Cooperation In Research on
Glaciers and Climates of the Nepal Himalaya
K. HIGUCHI
College of International Studies, Chubu University, Kasugai, Aichi, 487 Japan
Abstract The Glaciological Expedition in Nepal (GEN) has been
continued by Japanese scientists since 1973 with the cooperation of His
Majesty's Government of Nepal. The main objectives of GEN are to
clarify such characteristics of glaciers in the Himalayas as the relations
between distribution and variation of glaciers and climatic conditions, and
also to obtain basic data for water resources development. In Phase I
(1973-1979), the role of the Asian summer monsoon in the glacier
regimen in Nepal was intensively studied. In particular, continuous
meteorological records at a station at 4420 m asl in Khumbu were
obtained for three and a half years, in addition to the observations of
glaciers. In Phase II (1981-1982), ice core studies and
hydrometeorological observations were carried out in Langtang Valley.
Hydrometeorological data have been obtained almost continuously in
Phase III (1985-1992). Through all phases, ground and aerial
observations were carried out on the distribution and variation of glaciers
in Nepal Himalaya. These results in the fields of glaciology,
meteorology, hydrology and geomorphology have been published as
about 140 papers.
INTRODUCTION
Glaciological and meteorological observations in the Nepal Himalaya have been
carried out as the "Glaciological Expedition in Nepal (GEN)" since 1973. The
main part of the project was supported by a grant-in-aid for International
Scientific Research Program from the Ministry of Education, Science and
Culture, Japanese Government (head investigator: Keiji Higuchi), with the kind
cooperation of His Majesty's Government of Nepal.
GEN is also a contribution of Japan to snow and ice projects in the
International Hydrological Decade (IHD: 1965-1974) and the International
Hydrological Programme (IHP: 1975-), coordinated by the International
Commission on Snow and Ice (ICSI).
Activities of GEN were initiated on the basis of experiences related to
glaciological studies by Japanese scientific and mountaineering expeditions to
K. Higuchi
30
Table 1 Prehistory.
1963
1964
1965
1967
1967
1968
1969-70
1969-71
1970, 72
1973
1973
West Nepal
Central Nepal
Central Nepal
East Nepal
Central Nepal
East Nepal
East Nepal
East Nepal
Central Nepal
East Nepal
Establishment of Data
Snow and Ice
Hokkaido Univ. (HU)
Takpu Himal
Kyoto Univ. (KU)
Annapurna
Dhaulagiri
Hokkaido Univ.
Kangchenjunga
Kyoto Univ.
Hokkaido Univ.
Hidden Valley
Kyoto Univ.
Rolwaling
Khumbu
Fushimi, Inoue
Khumbu
Nagoya Univ. (NU)
Iozawa
Langtang
Kangchenjunga
Kyoto Univ.
Center for Glacier Research in Japanese Society of
Nepal during the period from 1963 to 1973 as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1.
Preparatory data collection on the glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya was made
during the period from 1968 to 1973 mainly by a research group of the Water
Research Institute, Nagoya University and the Disaster Prevention Research
Institute, Kyoto University. On the basis of these activities, the Data Center for
Glacier Research was established in the Japanese Society of Snow and Ice. The
first GEN was dispatched by this Center.
Main objectives of GEN are to clarify the characteristics of Himalayan
glaciers in comparison to glaciers of the world, with special attention to the
relations between the distribution and variations of the glaciers and climatic
KHUMBU
«f-71
7 3 7 8
Mt. Sagannatha
( Chomo Lungaa )
He. Kangchenjunga
-67.73
Fig. 1 Observed areas and years in the Nepal Himalaya by Japanese
glaciologists.
Nepal-Japan cooperation in glacier and climate research
31
conditions, especially during the summer monsoon season; to obtain basic data
for the development of water resources in glacierized basins. The outline of
GEN will be described in this report.
OBSERVATIONS
Collaborative observations of GEN have been carried out by Japanese scientists
in the research fields of glaciology, meteorology, hydrology and
geomorphology with cooperation of hydrologists and meteorologists in His
Majesty's Government of Nepal. The Japanese side in GEN consisted of the
scientists in Nagoya University (Water Research Institute: the project office,
the author's previous affiliation), Kyoto University (Disaster Prevention
Research Institute), Hokkaido University (Institute of Low Temperature
Science) and other universities in Japan. The counterparts in Nepalese
organizations were the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (formerly
the Department of Irrigation, Hydrology and Meteorology), His Majesty's
Government of Nepal and the Department of Meteorology, Tribhuvan
University.
The activities and observed areas are summarized in Table 2 and Fig. 1.
The period of observations can be separated into three phases, namely, Phase I:
1973-1979, Phase II: 1981-1982 and Phase III: 1985-1992.
Phase I (1973-1979)
The observations in Phase I are divided as follows:
(a) Glaciological observations: mass balance, heat balance and glacier flow,
snow/ice temperature and water discharge.
(b) Meteorological observations: meteorological elements and heat balance at
the ground surface at Lhajung Station (4420 m asl in Khumbu), and
meteorological elements at temporary stations on the ground and glaciers.
(c) Traverse observations: distribution of glaciers as basic data for the glacier
inventory, recent variation of glaciers, geomorphology on the past
glaciation, local climates and ground photogrammetry.
(d) Flight observations: photography to obtain data for the glacier inventory,
and observations on air temperature and aerosols in the atmosphere.
In 1973 Lhajung Station was established by GEN for meteorological
observations and the base camp for glacier observations in Khumbu Himal.
This station was maintained until 1976; continuous meteorological records were
obtained for three and a half years, and these are the first data of a long period
at high altitude in the Nepal Himalaya.
In 1974, intensive observations were made in Khumbu Himal, East Nepal
and Hidden Valley on the north slope of the Dhaulagiri Range, West Nepal
during the summer monsoon season. The comparative studies were made on the
K. Higuchi
32
Table 2 Observations by GEN.
Phase I
Lhajung Met. St. 4420 m
1973
Khumbu
1974
Khumbu, Hinku , air photo
Hidden Valley "east-west" comparison
1975
1976
1978
1979
Phase
1981
1982
N U , KU, HU
ML Shrestha, MB Basnyat (DIHM),
NU,KU,HU, Ehime Univ. (EU), Tokyo
Metropolitan Univ. (TMU)
air photo
NU.HU
Dudh Kosi
air photo
SL Kayastha, A Shrestha (DIHM)
Khumbu,
Shorong, Hong "south-north" comparison NU, KU, EU, TMU
air photo "debris cover DD Mulmi, BP Upadhyay (TU)
Khumbu,
project", mass & heat
NU, KU, EU, TMU
Shorong,
balances, glacier
Hongu, Kali
fluctuation
Gandaki
mass balance
NU
Shorong
II
air photo, Boring Project DD Mulmi (TU)
Langtang
NU, HU, KU
Boring Project
DD Mulmi, KB Thapa (TU), Zheng B.
Langtang
(LIGG), NU, HU, KU, Toyama Univ.
Phase III
1985-86 Langtang
Glacier hydrology Project OMR Bajracharya (DIHM), NR
Tuladhar (TU), N U , H U , KU, Toyama
Univ., Kitami Inst, of Technol., Iwate
Univ.
Univ. of Tsukuba (UT)
1987
Langtang
glacier hydrology
1988
Langtang
1989
Langtang,
Shorong,
Khumbu
Langtang
hydrometeorology,
geomorphology
hydrometeorology,
glacier fluctuation
1990
1991
1992
1990-
RB Chand, SC Pradhan (DHM), HU,
KU, Niigata Univ., UT
B Rana (DHM), HU, KU
B Rana (DHM), HU, NU
hydrometeorology,
B Rana (DHM), HU
geomorphology
Langtang,
hydrometeorology,
HU, NU, Tokyo Univ. of Technol.
Shorong,
glacier-biology, glacier
(TUT), UT
Hongu, Khumbu fluctuation
hydrometeorology,
Langtang
SP Adhikary (DHM), HU, NU, TUT,
glacier-biology
UT
Observations by GLOF experts of Japan International Cooperation Agency (T
Yamada, HU: 90-92, T Kadota, NU: 92-94); in cooperation with Water and
Energy Commission Secretariat, HM Govt of Nepal
DIHM: Department of Irrigation, Hydrology and Meteorology
DHM : Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
TU : Tribhubàn University
LIGG: Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Geocryology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
characteristics of glaciers under different climates, as monsoonal precipitation
decreases from east to west in Nepal. In 1976, similar intensive observations
were carried out in Khumbu Himal and Shorong Himal (south from Khumbu)
Nepal-Japan cooperation in glacier and climate research
to compare the glaciers and climates due to the decrease of monsoonal
precipitation from south to north.
In 1978, two specific features of the Himalayan glaciers were intensively
observed. The first is glacier mass balance of the summer-accumulation type,
which is quite different from winter-accumulation type as found in Europe and
North America. On Himalayan glaciers, measurements of accumulation and
ablation are difficult, since most of those occur simultaneously during the
summer monsoon season. Methods to estimate each component of mass balance
and the characteristics of such glaciers were studied on Glacier AX010 in
Shorong Himal.
The second feature studied was supraglacial debris. Surface morphology,
distribution/grain sizes/types of the debris, ablation/heat exchange through the
debris cover and the late glaciation process were observed on Khumbu Glacier
on the south slope of Mt. Sagarmatha (Chomolungma).
Flight observations were carried out by charter flights of Pilatus Turbo
Porter at an altitude of 8000 m in 1974, 1975, 1976 and 1978 for a total 30
hours. A Boeing 727 was chartered on 23 December 1974 for a flight over
Khumbu-Hongu region at an altitude of 9900 m. These flights covered almost
all glacierized areas in Nepal, and in total about 13 000 photographs were
taken. These aerial photographs have been used as the data for the glacier
inventory and studies on the glacier variations by comparing with published
maps and glacier inventories in the past.
Phase II (1981-1982)
The observations in Phase II were concentrated on the ice coring project and
the other studies in Langtang Himal, Central Nepal as the follows:
(a) Drilling at Yala Glacier in order to obtain ice core samples: analyses of ice
cores for physical properties, oxygen isotope, gross beta activity, tritium,
chemical components, solid particles and micro-plants.
(b) Glaciological observations on Yala Glacier: mass balance, heat balance and
flow of the glacier, and micro-plants on the glacier.
(c) Geomorphological observations: glacier variations since the Little Ice Age
and ground photogrammetry.
(d) Sediment analyses of glacier lakes: geochemical components.
(e) Hydrometeorological observations: water discharge at three stations and
meteorological conditions in the glacier area.
(f) Flight observations: photography for the glacier inventory of Langtang
Himal.
The ice coring project at Yala Glacier was the first attempt in the
Himalayas to obtain the samples from the surface to the bottom of a glacier.
Drilling reached to die glacier bottom at a depth of 31 m in the ablation area
(5180 m asl) in 1981, and to the bottom at a depth of 60 m in the accumulation
area (5405 m asl) in 1982.
33
34
K. HiguchL
On the other hand, the role of glacier meltwater in discharge from
Langtang Valley basin was studied on the basis of data obtained by
comprehensive hydrometeorological observations, since glaciers are important
water resources in Nepal.
Phase III (1985-1992)
The main observation in Phase III was carried out in the research field of
hydrometeorology in Langtang Himal. It was initiated by a year-round
hydrometeorological observation in Langtang Valley in 1985-1986, on the basis
of similar observations in Phase II. The Base House for routine and field
observations was set up at Kyangchen (3920 m asl). A complete whole year
data set of water discharge, rainfall, snowfall and air temperature was obtained
from July 1985, including data of suspended materials in running water. Runoff
characteristics of three glacierized basins in Langtang Valley were compared.
In addition, observations were made in 1985-1986 on cumulus convection,
seasonal variation of the snowline, heat balance at snow and ground surfaces,
shallow snow/ice cores and glacio-biology.
The hydrometeorological data in Langtang valley have been recorded
almost continuously by die use of automatic instruments since 1985, and the
observations are continuing until present. Glaciohydrological observations such
as water permeability and superimposed ice formation of Yala Glacier were
made in 1987-1988.
Geomorphological observations on the past glaciation in Langtang Valley,
and glacio-biological observations related to glacier ablation processes in
Langtang and Shorong were carried out in the latter period of Phase III.
The ground resurvey of glacier variations from Phase I in Khumbu,
Hongu, Shorong were added in the latter period of Phase III. A remarkable
retreating trend was found at debris-free glaciers surveyed in 1989 and 1991
since the 1970s.
On the other hand, the importance of studies on glacier lake outburst
floods (GLOF) were recognized in relation to construction of waterpower plants
in Nepal. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has sent an expert of
glaciology to Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, His Majesty's
Government of Nepal. Members of GEN, T. Yamada (Inst, of Low
Temperature Science, Hokkaido Univ.: the leader for the field observations of
GEN 1987-1992) and T. Kadota (Water Research Inst., Nagoya Univ.: a
member of GEN 1989, 1991), have contributed to the GLOF project in
1990-1992 and 1992-1994, respectively, as the experts.
PUBLICATIONS
The results of GEN were compiled mainly in the following volumes.
Nepal-Japan cooperation in glacier and climate research
35
Phase I:
(a) Glaciers and climates of Nepal Himalayas. Seppyo (Journal of the Japanese
Society of Snow and Ice), vol. 38 Special Issue, 1976. (130 p: 23 papers
& 2 appendixes)
(b) Ibid. Part II. vol. 39 Special Issue, 1977. (67 p: 13 papers)
(c) Ibid. Part III. vol. 40 Special Issue, 1978. (84 p: 17 papers & 1 appendix)
(d) Ibid. Part IV. vol. 41 Special Issue, 1980. ( I l l p: 17 papers & 2
appendixes)
Phase II:
(e) Glacial studies in Langtang Valley. Publication No. 2, Data Center for
Glacier Research, Japanese Society of Snow and Ice, 1984. (136 p: 15
papers & 6 appendixes)
Phase III:
(f) Bulletin of Glacier Research, 5, 1987. (1-75, 115-128: 13 papers)
(g) Ibid. 7, 1989. (191-220: 4 papers)
In addition, as seen in the references in this paper, results obtained by
GEN were presented to international symposia or workshops, and published in
the IAHS publication series (Higuchi et al., 1980; Fushimi et al., 1980;
Higuchi et al, 1982; Nakawo & Takahashi, 1982; Fushimi et al, 1985;
Fukushima et al, 1991; Ohata, 1991; 5 papers in the present volume) and
others (Ageta & Higuchi, 1984; Ono, 1985; Nakawo et al, 1986; Watanabe
et al, 1986; Ageta & Kadota, 1992; Ohata, 1992). 10 other papers, which
were the results mainly in Phase III, were published in the Bulletin of Glacier
Research, 6 (1988), 8 (1990), 9 (1991) and 10 (1992), and 8 papers in other
journals.
The overall number of published papers related to GEN is 138 at present,
and the studies are still continuing.
Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to His
Majesty's Government of Nepal, Department of Irrigation, Hydrology and
Meteorology, Department of Hydrology and Meteorology and Tribhuvan
University for the special consideration and friendly cooperation over a long
period. GEN members are very much obliged to many people for their help in
Nepal.
REFERENCES
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summer-accumulation type glacier in the Nepal Himalaya. Geografiska Annaler 66A,
249-255.
Ageta, Y. & Kadota, T. (1992) Predictions of changes of glacier mass balance in the Nepal
36
K.
Higuchi
Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau: a case study of air temperature increase for three glaciers.
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Fukushima, Y., Watanabe, O. & Higuchi, K. (1991) Estimation of streamflow changeby global
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