July 2014–June 2015
Number 56
ISSN 1026 2881
Journal of the African Elephant, African Rhino
and Asian Rhino Specialist Groups
July 2014 - June 2015
SpecieS
Survival
commiSSion
1
Chair reports / Rapports des Presidénts
1
African Elephant Specialist Group report/
Rapport du Groupe des Spécialistes des
Eléphants d’Afrique
Managing Editor
Suzannah Goss
Section Editors
Deborah Gibson – African Elephants
Kees Rookmaaker – African and Asian Rhinos
Editorial Board
Julian Blanc
Holly T Dublin
Richard Emslie
Mike Knight
Esmond Martin
Benson Okita-Ouma
Robert Olivier
Tara Daniel
Bibhab K Talukdar
Lucy Vigne
Holly T Dublin
10
40
Asian Rhino Specialist Group report / Rapport
du Groupe des Spécialistes Rhinocéros
d’Asie
Bibhab K Talukdar
44
Research
44
Retrospective versus prospective designs
for studies of crop-raiding by elephants in
Kakum, Ghana
Richard FW Barnes, Emmanuel Danquah,
Emmanuel M Hema, Umaru-Farouk Dubiure,
Mildred Manford, Awo Nandjui, Yaw Boafo
Address all correspondences, including
enquiries about subscription, to
Reproduction of this publication for educational
or other non-commercial purposes is authorized
without written permission from the copyright
holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.
African Rhino Specialist Group report /
Rapport du Groupe des Spécialistes des
Rhinocéros d’Afrique
Mike Knight
Design and Layout
Suzannah Goss and Digital Hub
The Managing Editor, Pachyderm
PO Box 68200 – 00200
Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254 20 249 3561/65
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.iucn.org/african_elephant
http://pachydermjournal.org
No. 56
51
Assessing perceived and documented crop
damage in a Tanzanian village impacted by
human-elephant conflict
Rebekah R Hoffmeier-Karimi and Bruce A
Schulte
Cover caption: Thandi and her six month old calf (‘Thembi’ that
means hope in isiXhosa) in Shamwari Game Reserve, South
Africa. Thandi survived a brutal attack by poachers, defacing
her and destroying her horn growth plate. Only through skilful
veterinary work and innovative skin grafts did she survive.
Credit: Daniel Haesslich/Kariega Reserve
Journal of the African Elephant,
African Rhino and
July 2014 - June 2015
61
No. 56
Asian Rhino Specialist Groups
Habitat utilisation of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) on
Willem Pretorius Game Reserve, Free-State Province, South Africa
Herman Jordaan, Leslie R Brown and Kerry Slater
Colour Plates 1-16, pp. i-viii; French captions to colour plates p. ix
72
The role of man, hand-raised black rhinos and elephants on woody
vegetation, Matusadona National Park, Zimbabwe
Never Muboko
82
Monitoring of Javan Rhino Population in Ujung Kulon National Park
Mohamad Haryono, Ujang Mamat Rahmat, Muhiban Daryan, Agung
Suci Raharja, Aom Muhtarom, AsepYayus Firdaus, Ai Rohaeti, Irma
Subchiyatin, Amila Nugraheni, Kurnia Oktalina Khairani and Kartina
87
Management
87
Repelling elephants with chilli pepper gas dispenser: field tests and
practical use in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013
Sébastien Le Bel
97
Lessons learned in the implementation of endangered species specific
strategies: Midterm Review of the Kenya Black Rhino Strategy (20122016)
Martin Mulama, Patrick Omondi, Charles Musyoki, Cedric Khayale, Linus
Kariuki and Robert Ndetei
102
Field Notes
102
Black rhino population dynamics and the hidden cost of poaching at Solio
Game Reserve, central Kenya
Felix Patton
105
Movement patterns and resource needs of Kamuku elephants along
migration routes in Nigeria
Tajudeen O Amusa, Johnson A Ogunjobi, Ibrahim J Fxentirimam and
Kikwashi A Garba
Journal of the African Elephant,
African Rhino and
July 2014 - June 2015
112
No. 56
Asian Rhino Specialist Groups
Integration of injured individuals into herds of African savannah elephants
(Loxodonta africana): field observations from Kenya and Botswana
Frank E Zachos and Kate Evans
114
Birth of a wild white rhino calf at Ziwa Rhino Sanctuary, Uganda
Felix Patton and Angie Genade
117
ETIS update
117
Progress in implementing the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS) /
Avancement dans la mise en oevre du Système d’Information sur le Trafic
des Eléphants (ETIS)
Tom Milliken
122
Review
122
China faces a conservation challenge: the expanding elephant and
mammoth ivory trade in Beijing and Shanghai
Daniel Stiles
127
Obituaries
127
Ian Player
Clive Walker and Peter Hitchins
128
Theresa Warth
Tracey Bridges
130
Guidelines for contributors
Journal of the African Elephant,
African Rhino and
July 2014 - June 2015
No. 56
Asian Rhino Specialist Groups
Donate to Pachyderm
To support the continued publication of Pachyderm and its contribution to the conservation and management
of African elephants, African rhinos and Asian rhinos, please click http://goo.gl/P2Czvk to donate. Indicate
Pachyderm
Acknowledgements
The production of this issue of Pachyderm was possible through contributions from a number of organizations
and individuals. In particular, we would like to thank the following:
Anna Merz
Rhino Trust
Views expressed in Pachyderm are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN, the
European Union, the Species Survival Commission or any of the three Specialist Groups responsible for producing
Pachyderm (the African Elephant Specialist Group, the African Rhino Specialist Group and the Asian Rhino Specialist
Group).
African Elephant Specialist Group report
CHAIR REPORTS
African Elephant Specialist Group report
Rapport du Groupe des Specialistes des Eléphants d’Afrique
Holly T Dublin, Chair/Président
IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist Group, PO Box 68200 – 00200, Nairobi, Kenya
email: [email protected]
It has been a period of significant and rapid
transitioning for our Secretariat, and since my last
Chair Report we have welcomed two new staff
As part of our response to the current situation
for Africa’s elephants, we have made a concerted
effort to accelerate our momentum toward
enhancing the African Elephant Database to
better monitor and communicate the status of the
Cela a été une période de transition importante et rapide
pour notre Secrétariat, et depuis mon dernier rapport de
Présidente, nous avons accueilli deux nouveaux membres
Dans le cadre de notre réponse à la situation actuelle
des éléphants d’Afrique, nous avons fait un effort concerté
pour accélérer notre élan envers l’amélioration de la Base
heureuse d’annoncer que l’année passée a vu des progrès
avons continué à rester engagés dans des conversations
à travers le continent en ce qui concerne la gestion et la
to stay engaged in conversations across the
continent regarding managing and planning for
elephant populations, the economics of ivory trade
dynamics, and the role of communities in helping
hiatus since the last issue of Pachyderm, this report
will not only review our progress this past year
but also connect this progress to the vision for the
Tracking the Status of Africa’s
Elephants
de la dynamique du commerce de l’ivoire, et le rôle des
collectivités dans la lutte contre le commerce illégal de
dernier numéro de Pachyderme, ce rapport ne n’examinera
pas seulement nos progrès cette année passée, mais
Suivi de la situation des éléphants
d’Afrique
Les préoccupations actuelles pour la conservation des
The current conservation concerns for African
connected to many sources of information about
local, sub-regional, and continental happenings
connectés à de nombreuses sources d’informations sur
les événements et les tendances locales, sous-régionales
et continentales, et non pas les moindres ce sont les
from survey reports and in places where no other
autre information n’est disponible, les communications
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
1
Dublin
information is available, personal communications
personnelles des experts ayant la plus grande connaissance
This information results from, as well as informs
our engagement in various dialogues with a
range of stakeholders seeking to understand and
address the multi-faceted and inter-related threats
engagement dans divers dialogues et aussi nous aide
à dialoguer avec de nombreuses parties prenantes qui
cherchent à comprendre et à traiter les menaces multiples
Malheureusement, une grande partie des informations
Unfortunately, much of the information
available from 2014 indicates that the Specialist
in situ
conservation, continue to have a complex challenge
facing us given some precipitous declines in key
that Eastern Africa experienced real declines since
the publication of our last status report in 2007 (see
the reduction of the Selous population, Tanzania’s
2014 survey results indicate additional declines in
Spécialistes, ainsi que tous les autres qui promeuvent
la conservation in situ, continuent à être confrontés à
que l’Afrique de l’Est avait connu une baisse réelle depuis
la publication de notre dernier rapport de situation en
la réduction de la population de Selous, les résultats du
recensementde la Tanzanie en 2014 indiquent des baisses
Mozambique, une histoire similaire s’est déroulée avec
a similar story has unfolded with its largest
elephants since the 2011 survey in the African
Elephant Database, with other populations in the
Also in Southern Africa, the Sebungwe region,
one of the Zimbabwe’s four main populations
of elephants, has lost approximately 75% of its
elephants in less than ten years, over 11,000
elephants in a country-wide population of about
These examples highlight how dynamic
and volatile the situation for African elephants
remains, though we are still awaiting further
data from 2014 before publishing new totals at
Indeed, Sebungwe reveals the importance of
looking beyond country and sub-regional totals to
understand the local context, as other populations
in Zimbabwe have not experienced comparable
poaching crisis will require a suite of interventions,
from focusing on law enforcement and working
with local communities to national planning and
baisse de plus de 7,000 éléphants dans la Base de Données
de l’Eléphant d’Afrique par rapport au recensement de
2011, avec d’autres populations de la partie septentrionale
dans la région de Sebungwe, l’une des quatre principales
populations d’éléphants du Zimbabwe a perdu environ
75% de ses éléphants en moins de dix ans, plus de 11000
éléphants dans une population d’environ 80 000 à l’échelle
Ces exemples montrent combien la situation reste
dynamique et volatile pour les éléphants d’Afrique, même
si nous attendons encore d’autres données à partir de 2014,
avant de publier de nouveaux totaux au niveau national,
l’importance de regarder au-delà des totaux nationaux et
sous-régionaux pour comprendre le contexte local, car
d’autres populations au Zimbabwe n’ont pas connu de
à la crise actuelle du braconnage nécessitera une série
d’interventions, allant de la concentration sur l’application
de la loi et le travail avec les communautés locales à la
Bien que nos programmes partenaires, MIKE et ETIS,
Though our partner programmes, MIKE and
ETIS, do not indicate an escalation of illegal killing
illégal, nous avons de fortes indications, y compris à partir
de l’exemple des populations ci-dessus, que le braconnage
including from the example populations above,
révèle que malgré le fait que la proportion globale des
of 2014 data reveals that though the overall
et comparable au cours des trois dernières années, de 2012
2
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Elephant Specialist Group report
à 2014, contrairement au pic de 2011, le taux reste non
remained lower and comparable in the past three
years, 2012-2014, in contrast to the peak in 2011,
an update later in this issue, also showed a peak
Ce que nous savons est que, bien que de nombreuses
populations maintiennent leur nombre ou sont même en
plein essor au niveau du site, de nombreuses populations
are sustaining their numbers or even thriving at the
placées pour mettre en œuvre des réponses de gestion et
are well positioned to inform management and
and comprehensive, while also recognizing the
medium to long-term threats to elephant survival
across the continent, particularly through rapidly
expanding land transformation leading to extensive
The African Elephant Database
in providing continent-wide data on elephant
have responded to our vision to update this data
more frequently, make the website more userfriendly, integrate additional spatial data layers
to enable both deeper and broader analyses, and
position had been vacant since former Database
moved on after the publication of the African
wealth of technical knowledge to this position
to help improve the website and the AED upon
with Chris Thouless, Chair of the Data Review
et complètes, tout en reconnaissant également les menaces
à long terme pour la survie des éléphants à travers le
continent, en particulier par l’expansion rapide de la
transformation des terres conduisant à une perte et une
La Base de Données de l’Eléphant
d’Afrique
précédent dans la provision des données à l’échelle
En conséquence, les donateurs ont répondu à notre
de rendre le site facile à utiliser, d’intégrer des couches
supplémentaires de données spatiales pour permettre des
analyses plus approfondies et plus larges, et d’envisager
nous avons accueilli un gestionnaire de base de données
depuis que l’ancien gestionnaire de base de données et
la publication du Rapport de la Situation de l’Eléphant
connaissances techniques à ce poste pour aider à améliorer
en étroite collaboration avec Chris Thouless, Président du
identify the priorities for making the AED more
translate their goals into improved functionality
are grateful to many donors who are supporting
our short and medium-term work to improve the
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
nous sommes reconnaissants à de nombreux donateurs qui
3
Dublin
This effort will be supported by a relationship
with a wonderfully savvy technical team within
soutiennent notre travail à court et à moyen terme pour
Cet effort sera soutenu par une relation avec une
équipe technique merveilleusement avertie au sein de
happy to complete negotiations and sign a
Memorandum of Understanding with Vulcan this
de terminer les négociations et de signer un protocole
primary functions of this MOU is to streamline
the receipt of survey reports from this 20-country
undertaking so that we can present the latest data
d’accord est de rationaliser la réception des rapports des
puissions présenter les données les plus récentes dans notre
Vulcan’s Technical Advisory Team to represent
l’équipe technique consultative de Vulcan pour représenter
the process for presenting and analyzing data
from these surveys and integrating the numbers
l’établissement du processus visant à présenter et analyser
des données de ces recensements et à intégrer les chiffres
best design and enhance our database with the
These technical and strategic discussions
have published provisional updates online, with an
updated set of numbers and a range map presented
on the AED website in March 2013, featuring data
published another provisional update of numbers,
featuring data from surveys collected through the
façon d’améliorer la conception de notre base de données
Ces discussions techniques et stratégiques viennent tous
ensemble alors que nous préparons le premier Rapport de
un ensemble actualisé des chiffres et une carte de l’habitat
présentée sur le site de la BDEA en mars 2013, avec les
A summary of this data (see centre pages
‘African Elephant Population Estimates’: Plate
Un résumé de ces données (Plaque 1; voir au
and as stated on the website, this decline appears to
be a genuine reduction in a number of populations
Central Africa’s estimates from surveys do not
continentaux, et comme indiqué sur le site web, ce déclin
semble être une véritable réduction d’un certain nombre
de populations comptées en utilisant des techniques
the inclusion of previously unsurveyed areas, as
centrale émanant des recensements ne démontrent pas
from 2006 to 2013 likely indicates true reductions
zones auparavant non recensées, car beaucoup de gens
croient que des baisses importantes ont eu lieu dans cette
l’Est entre 2006 et 2013 indique probablement de réelles
Africa’s relatively smaller changes from 2006
2015 data will be key to better understanding
4
de savoir si les changements relativement plus petits
en Afrique australe entre 2006 et 2013 peuvent être de
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Elephant Specialist Group report
primarily due to increases in estimates in the Parc
éléments clés pour une meilleure compréhension de ces
were employed instead of the aerial surveys that
recensements en Afrique de l’Ouest entre 2006 et 2013
sont principalement attribuables à l’augmentation des
data in anticipation of preparing the next status
report in advance of the 17th Conference of the
Parties to CITES in 2016, and we will explore
in our country and sub-regional narratives the
context of surveyed areas, new surveys, and
other information to attempt to distinguish where
declines or increases in numbers are most likely
des études au sol ont été utilisées à la place des études
CITES
de chiffres captent le plus probablement les véritables
de 2014 et 2015 en prévision de la préparation du prochain
Rapport de la situation avant la 17ème Conférence des
Parties à la CITES en 2016, et nous allons explorer les
récits sous-régionaux, le contexte des zones étudiées, de
nouvelles études, et d’autres informations pour tenter
It seems a long time ago that the 65th Standing
CITES
Skinner, our then Programme Officer, and I
Il semble que cela fait longtemps depuis que la 65ème
réunion du Comité permanent de la CITES a eu lieu
African elephants, which was part of a larger
Diane Skinner, notre chargé de programme, et moi
des éléphants d’Afrique, qui faisait partie d’un effort
pdf, and summarized the provisional estimates
that were available on the AED website at that
recognized need for improved monitoring of the
status of elephant populations to better understand
estimations provisoires qui étaient disponibles sur le site
parlais de la nécessité largement reconnue d’améliorer le
and initiatives currently under way to secure
populations under threat from poaching and to
As a follow up in late August, Diane circulated
French and English translations of a summary of
One focus of this report was providing an update
programmes et des initiatives en cours pour sécuriser les
populations menacées par le braconnage et pour mieux
distribué des traductions en français et en anglais d’un
and I am pleased to share that CITES now hosts
a website with the most up-to-date information
parties of “secondary concern” and those that are
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
de dire que la CITES a maintenant un site web ayant
les informations les plus actualisées sur ce processus, y
5
Dublin
we will help to compile a comprehensive report
that examines our respective data about the illegal
avec nos collègues de MIKE et d’ETIS, nous aiderons
à faire un rapport complet qui examine nos données
respectives sur la chaîne illégale de l’ivoire, allant des
nous continuerons à intégrer nos analyses chaque fois
African Elephant Meeting in
Kasane
In March 2015, Tara and I traveled to Kasane to
the African Elephant Meeting convened by the
Réunion sur l’éléphant d’Afrique à
Kasane
En mars 2015, Tara et moi nous sommes allées à Kasane
à la réunion sur l’éléphant d’Afrique organisée par le
which followed on from the London conference
Both of these gatherings followed on from the
and reported on in Pachyderm
gathering built on that momentum within a broader
framework that considered illegal wildlife trade
across a broader array of species, and both streams
of interest converged in Kasane with the meetings
The African Elephant Meeting followed
up on the progress made on the 14 Urgent
Measures agreed upon at the African Elephant
Summit; I presented the latest data on African
and Tom Milliken presented the same for MIKE
à la deuxième Conférence sur le Commerce illicite des
espèces sauvages, qui faisait suite à la conférence de
Londres organisée par le gouvernement du Royaumeavec le gouvernement du Botswana en décembre 2013 et
rapporté dans le numéro 54 de Pachyderme
Londres s’est fondée sur cette lancée dans un cadre plus
large qui considérait le commerce illégal des espèces
sauvages d’un plus grand nombre d’espèces, et les deux
centres d’intérêt ont convergé à Kasanelors des réunions
La réunion sur l’éléphant d’Afrique a fait le suivi sur
les progrès réalisés concernant les 14 mesures urgentes
convenues lors du Sommet sur l’éléphant d’Afrique;
asked to facilitate the sessions where countries
role in the organisation of this gathering, we did
provide technical advice on the agenda, andI took
advantage of the occasion to provide context to
rassemblement, nous avons fourni des conseils techniques
I was also privileged to contribute ideas to serve
en contexte les progrès signalés et mettre en lumière les
Chair committees supporting the preparations
followed on 25 March, including the drafting of
et des Amis de la présidence qui appuyaient les
préparatifs à la Conférence sur le commerce illégal de
la faune qui a suivi le 25 mars, y compris la rédaction
6
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Elephant Specialist Group report
ways forward for combatting illegal wildlife trade
avait été conçue comme un addenda à la Déclaration de
Communities and Illegal Wildlife
Trade
CEESP/SSC Sustainable Use and Livelihoods
prévus pour lutter contre le commerce illégal de toutes
Communautés et le commerce illicite
des espèces sauvages
symposium “Beyond Enforcement: Communities,
governance, incentives and sustainable use in
members, provided key insights about effectively
addressing illegal wildlife trade in the short and
gouvernance, incitations et utilisation durable dans la lutte
rencontre et l’exposé de politique qui en résulte, partagés
of change and concluded that efforts and policies
that do not fully recognize the role communities
can play in combating illegal trade are likely to
réunion a élaboré une théorie détaillée de changement et a
conclu que les efforts et les politiques qui ne reconnaissent
commodity, investing our time and attention in
better understanding and managing these crucial
relationships will be key to curbing illegal killing
dans la lutte contre le commerce illégal sont susceptibles
conservation d’une espèce associée à une marchandise
Through continued collaboration with SULi,
the International Institute for Environment and
countries, through a series of proposed workshops
et notre attention pour mieux comprendre et gérer ces
relations cruciales sera la clé de la lutte contre l’abattage
International pour l’Environnement et le Développement
et le Bureau régional pour l’Afrique orientale et australe
membership appraised of these discussions and I
hope they will develop into actionable programs
Pachyderm
As you will have noted, this issue of Pachyderm
necessary as the Editorial Board considered the
Pachyderm production procedure and how to
position the production of Pachyderm on a more
of continuous support to Pachyderm
Secretariat, given the current demands with regard
to many of the issues outlined above and as a result
of the perennial shortage of funding to support
staff time, our extensive inputs and support for
Pachyderm
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Pachyderme
Comme vous l’aurez remarqué, ce numéro de Pachyderme
était nécessaire alors que le Comité de rédaction examinait
la procédure de production de Pachyderme et considérait
de deux décennies de soutien continu à Pachyderme par le
par rapport aux questions évoquées ci-dessus et à la suite
7
Dublin
The Editorial Board agreed with me that the
only way forward was to hire a Managing Editor
to take overall responsibility for the production of
Pachyderm
Editor, was appointed following an Editorial
Board meeting in March 2015 and charged with
the combined editing functions and management
production process for this issue and has also
offered to play a role in fundraising, as we have
not fully funded the next issue of Pachyderm, Issue
oversight regarding Pachyderm’s overall look,
Throughout the process of undertaking this
necessary hiatus, though, I was reminded of how
much Pachyderm has meant and continues to
le temps du personnel, notrecontribution considérable à
Pachyderme
Le comité de rédaction s’est mis d’accord avec moi
que la seule façon de progresser était d’embaucher un
rédacteur en chef qui prendrait la responsabilité globale
de la production de Pachyderme
nouvelle rédactrice en chef, a été nommée à la suite d’une
réunion du Comité de rédaction en mars 2015 et elle a été
Suzannah a dirigé tout le processus de production pour ce
la collecte de fonds, car nous n’avons pas entièrement
Pachyderme
Le Comité de rédaction continuera à assurer la supervision
en ce qui concerne l’aspect global de Pachyderme, son
Tout au long de cette lacune nécessaire, cependant, on
m’a rappelé combien Pachyderme était important et ce
qu’il continue à représenter à notre lectorat, y compris
we discontinue Pachyderm, but instead questions
message qui suggérait que nous cessions la production
de Pachyderme, mais plutôt des questions suivantes ont
the concern and interest expressed, and I feel it
is important to reply to the many generous offers
important de répondre aux nombreuses offres généreuses
can continue to support the quality of Pachyderm
through encouraging pertinent submissions
addressing the latest issues in elephant and
rhino management and conservation; serving as
a reviewer for manuscripts within your area of
expertise; sharing articles with your colleagues to
ensure that insights and lessons are applied where
appropriate; and reaching out to us with your ideas
for funding, distribution, or other promotion of
Pachyderme en encourageant les soumissions pertinentes
qui abordent les toutes dernières questions portant sur la
gestion et la conservation des éléphants et des rhinocéros;
en servant en tant que critique pour les manuscrits dans
votre domaine d’expertise; en partageant des articles
et les leçons soient appliquées le cas échéant; et en
Conclusion
This is an important time for the conservation
and management of African elephants across
Veuillez contacter notre rédactrice en chef directement à
Conclusion
C’est un moment important pour la conservation et la
gestion des éléphants d’Afrique à travers leur habitat, et
areas of our work this past year, and did not, in
fact could not, fully capture the depth or breadth
of our engagement, I trust this report provides a
8
principaux domaines de notre travail cette année passée et
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Elephant Specialist Group report
As we continue to build our Secretariat team
and explore the most important areas of focus for
friends and readership to continue to provide your
securing a future for African elephants is long
and laden with challenges, making the time and
effort contributed by our volunteer members all
que ce rapport donne une idée claire de notre dévouement
Alors que nous continuons à renforcer notre équipe au
Secrétariat et d’explorer les domaines d’intérêt les plus
nos membres, nos partenaires, nos amis et nos lecteurs
de continuer à être patientset de donner votre feedback
temps et l’effort apportés par nos membres bénévoles
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
9
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Rapport du Groupe des Spécialistes des Rhinocéros d’Afrique
Mike Knight, Chair/Président
Park Planning and Development, South African National Parks, PO Box 76693, and Centre for African
Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth 6031, South Africa
email: [email protected]
Poaching Update
Mise à jour sur le braconnage
about 591 rhinos have been lost in 2015 (‘Updated
Les chiffres continentaux actualisés sur le braconnage
indiquent qu’on a perdu environ 591 rhinocéros en 2015
une simple extrapolation aux données de 2015 pour estimer
has also been applied to 2015 data to estimate
cours des années précédentes, il y a souvent eu un pic
In previous years there has often been a spike in
poaching towards the end of the year, so readers
should be aware that these simple extrapolations
may end up underestimating final poaching
l’année pour 2014 dans la dernière édition de Pachyderme
Pachyderm
braconnage total en 2015 peut dépasser le total de l’année
are already suggesting total poaching in 2015 may
(deuxième plus grand Etat de l’aire de répartition des
Cependant, les autorités ont agi rapidement pour écorner
have moved swiftly to dehorn many of their
internal investigations are also ongoing, some
senior MET managers have also been transferred
outre, alors que les enquêtes internes se pour suivent,
certains cadres supérieurs du Ministère du Tourisme et de
l’Environnement ont également été transférés loin du Parc
Poaching remains highest in absolute terms
Le braconnage reste le plus élevé en termes absolus en
there are some reports of some progress in the
Même s’il y a quelques progrès dans la lutte contre le
braconnage dans le Parc national Kruger (à la suite de
la décision de mettre en place une Zone de Protection
Intensive dans la zone principale de concentration des
(following the move to set up an IPZ in the main
pour les cinq premiers mois de 2015 (3,29 rhinocéros par
After the welcomed drop in poaching in
Zimbabwe since 2011 it appears that once again
Après la chute du braconnage au Zimbabwe depuis
2011, il semble qu’une fois de plus le braconnage
Encouragingly Kenya has reported a drop
10
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
in poaching in the second half of 2014 and also
continue, but as experience has shown elsewhere
there can be no room for complacency anywhere
Responses, meetings and
initiatives to address poaching
I report below on a plethora of international and
regional meetings that have taken place during
the reporting period with the aim of elevating
awareness of international illegal wildlife trade
to combat poaching and the organised transnational
USAID meeting, Nairobi, Kenya,
April 2014.
Il est encourageant de signaler une baisse du braconnage
au Kenya dans la seconde moitié de 2014 et également
cette tendance pourra se poursuivre, mais l’expérience
ailleurs nous montre que nous ne pouvons pas nous en
satisfaire compte tenu de la demande actuelle pour les
Réunions et initiatives pour faire face
au braconnage
internationales et régionales qui ont eu lieu au cours de
la période du rapport dans le but d’élever la prise de
conscience concernant le commerce international illégal
de la faune aux niveaux les plus élevés; et décider de la
meilleure façon de lutter contre le braconnage et les groupes
criminels organisés transnationaux et internationaux qui
workshop that set priority actions for combating
Réunion de l’USAID à Nairobi au
Kenya en avril 2014
key themes
discussed in detail included law enforcement,
biological status of key species, awareness and
Cet atelier était organisé par l’USAID en partenariat avec
to rhinos, emphasis was placed on strengthening
the capacity of wildlife crime investigators and
principaux thèmes abordés en détail comprenaient la mise
en application de la loi, la situation biologique des espèces
clés, la sensibilisation et la gestion communautaire des
intelligence gathering and operationalising the
mis l’accent sur le renforcement de capacité des enquêteurs
de la criminalité de la faune et des agents qui luttent contre
formal linkages to other international forensic
institutions were prioritized under the theme on
La collaboration transfrontalière, le renforcement de
la collecte du renseignement, l’opérationnalisation du
United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), June 2014.
the Environment Assembly adopted a resolution to
international cooperation, zero tolerance towards
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
des liens formels avec d’autres établissements médicolégaux internationaux ont été privilégiés sous le thème
Programme des Nations Unies pour
l’Environnement (PNUE), juin 2014
A sa 6ème
l’environnement a adopté une résolution pour traiter le
11
Knight
une plus grande coopération internationale, une tolérance
zéro enversle commerce illicite de la faune sauvage et elle
a également promula nécessité d’envisager des moyens
de subsistance alternatifs pour les personnes les plus
African Rhino Range States
meeting, Kruger National Park,
South Africa, September 2014
South Africa through the Department of
rhino range state meeting in Skukuza from 30
September–
African states, nine rhino range states (Botswana,
une évaluation de l’ampleur du commerce illicite de la
Réunion des Etats de l’aire de
répartition du Rhinocéros d’Afrique
au Parc national Kruger en Afrique du
Sud en septembre 2014
L’Afrique du Sud, par le biais du Département des
Affaires Environnementales, a organisé une réunion des
Etats de l’aire de répartition de rhinocéros d’Afrique à
relating to interventions implemented to secure
populations and ensure rhino’s long-term
conservation (lessons learnt; priority actions to
be implemented; identify key areas of cooperation;
and develop a framework action plan for the
africains y ont participé, neuf Etats de l’aire de répartition
de rhinocéros (Afrique du Sud, Botswana, Malawi,
developed at the meeting and it was recommended
relatives à des interventions mises en œuvre pour sécuriser
les populations des rhinocéros et assurer leur conservation
à long terme (leçons apprises, actions prioritaires à
World Parks Congress, Sydney,
Australia, November 2014
The rhino and elephant poaching crisis was
discussed in numerous meetings, side events
and panel discussions at the 6th International
protected areas management and protection; but
not in isolation of enhancing local livelihoods and
coopération, et élaboration d’un plan-cadre d’action pour
été élaboré lors de la réunion et il a été recommandé que
Congrès mondial des Parcs à Sydney
en Australie en novembre 2014
La crise du braconnage des rhinocéros et des éléphants
a été discutée dans de nombreuses réunions, événements
parallèles et les débats au 6ème Congrès Mondial des
Parcs de l’Union Internationale pour la Conservation de
gestion et la protection des aires protégées; mais pas dans
locaux et valoriser la faune sauvage dans le but de
réduire le commerce illégal de la faune et les menaces
12
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
‘Beyond Enforcement:
Communities, governance,
incentives and sustainable use
in combating wildlife crime’
meeting, Johannesburg, February
2015
«Au-delà de la lutte contre la fraude:
les communautés, la gouvernance,
les motivations et l’utilisation durable
dans la lutte contre la criminalité de la
faune » Réunion à Johannesburg en
février 2015
International Institute of Environment and
moyens de subsistance de la CSE/ la Commission des
politiques environnementales, économiques et sociales
Environment, the ARC Centre of Excellence for
the above meeting to examine community led
approaches to combating international wildlife
crime that have all too often been overlooked
by the international community when looking at
l’Environnement, le Centre ARC d’Excellence pour
les Décisions Environnementales, l’Université du
réunion ci-dessus pour examiner les approches conduites
par les communautés pour lutter contre la criminalité
internationale de la faune qui ont trop souvent été
négligées par la communauté internationale qui cherche
including researchers, community representatives,
Delegates clearly recognised there was a
need for greater attention to be given to creating
as they remain the most exposed to the ravages
76 personnes provenant des cinq continents, dont les
chercheurs, les représentants communautaires, les
responsables gouvernementaux, les agences onusiennes
Les délégués ont clairement reconnu qu’il fallait
accorder une plus grande attention à la création des moyens
de subsistance durables et s’assurer que les populations
also recommended to governments, international
le commerce illégal de la faune car ces populations restent
support for community rights and responsibilities
listen more to community voices and to strengthen
partnerships towards developing sustainable
options; as well as appreciating the need to build
knowledge and understanding of the motivations
The outputs from this meeting fed directly into
and the symposium recommendations see https://
gouvernements, aux organisations internationales et
droits et les responsabilités communautaires dans la lutte
urgent d’écouter davantage les voix des communautés
et de renforcer les partenariats vers l’élaboration des
solutions durables ainsi que d’apprécier la nécessité
de renforcer les connaissances et la compréhension
des motivations, des moteurs, de la dynamique et des
key-force-in-tackling-wildlife-crime
de cette réunion ont contribué directement à la réunion de
amples informations et les recommandations complètes
Community-led-solutions-key-force-in-tackling-wildlifecrime
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
13
Knight
International Conference on
the Illegal Wildlife Trade (IWT)
in Kasane, Botswana, 25 March
2015
The meeting reviewed progress and achievements
Conférence internationale sur le
commerce illégal de la faune à Kasane
au Botswana, le 25 mars 2015
La réunion a examiné les progrès et les réalisations depuis
la Conférence de 2014 sur le commerce illégal de la faune
in London and aimed to build on progress and
international non-government organisations also
London were not represented at Kasane (such as
certains pays qui avaient participé à Londres n’étaient
participé pour la première fois, y compris l’Afrique du Sud
– conservatrice des plus grandes populations de rhinocéros
South Africa - the custodian of the world’s largest
Indonesia – the stronghold of the last remaining
Unfortunately India, the country with the largest
greater one-horned rhino and tiger populations
grandes populations de grands rhinocéros unicornes et de
provided comments on earlier possible draft
de texte de déclaration possible à être examiné par la
on the four themes from the London meeting,
namely: Eradicating the market for illegal wildlife
products; Ensuring effective legal frameworks
and deterrents; Strengthening law enforcement
and; Sustainable livelihoods and economic
de la réunion de Londres, à savoir: Eradiquer les marchés
pour les produits illicites de la faune; Assurer des cadres
l’application des lois et; Les moyens desubsistance durables
formulé 15 engagements mieux alignés pour l’action sur
des questions telles que la réduction de la demande, les
15 better aligned commitments for action on issues
such as demand reduction, legal frameworks and
deterrents, tougher law enforcement, sustainable
plus stricte de la loi, les moyens de subsistance durables
There was a call for the need to monitor the
effectiveness of demand reduction strategies and
collating a portfolio of demand reduction good
de collationner un portefeuille de bonnes pratiques de
Un appel a été lancé pour la nécessité de surveiller
développer des partenariats plus étroits avec les entreprises
closer partnerships with business to reduce illegal
There was greater commitment to enhancing
regional wildlife enforcement networks, and more
14
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
effective links to international groupings such as
Importantly, there was greater realisation at
the Kasane meeting for the crucial role played by
local peoples and the need to create sustainable
L’on a constaté un plus grand engagement à
renforcer les réseaux régionaux de protection de la
internationaux tels que le Consortium international de
lutte contre la criminalité de la faune pour combattre
Surtout, il y avait une plus grande réalisation à
populations locales et la nécessité de créer des
Un appel a été lancé à l’Assemblée générale de
The GEF/UNEP South African
rhino project
on, among others, information sharing and analysis
for more effective law enforcement among national
Le projet du FEM/PNUE sur le
rhinocéros en Afrique du Sud
sur l’échange d’information et l’analyse pour une
Pretoria to boost their capacity to process rhino
s’y limiter, l’utilisation des techniques de médecine
fonds ont été canalisés vers le laboratoire de génétique
vétérinaire de l’Université de Pretoria pour renforcer
trailers have been delivered to key rhino parks/
inform and increase the awareness of magistrates
En outre des remorques spécialisées en médecine
légale ont été livrés aux autorités dans les parcs clés de
Southern African Development
Community (SADC) Law
Enforcement and Anti-Poaching
Strategy: 2015-2020
emerged from the SADC Regional Consultative
Sustainable trade and use of natural resources,
Prevention and Coordination Unit, to facilitate the
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
et à sensibiliser les magistrats et les procureurs sur les
La mise en application de la
loi et la stratégie contre le
braconnage de la Communauté
pour le Développement de l’Afrique
Australe (SADC): 2015-2020
émergé de l’atelier consultatif régional de la SADC
Minimisation de la criminalité de la faune et du
15
Knight
IUCN regional programme in
eastern and southern Africa
en place d’une Unité régionale de coordination et de
in eastern & southern Africa convened an
and Commissions from across the region, as well
Programme régional de l’UICN en
Afrique orientale et australe
a set of programmatic priorities and came up
Afrique orientale et australe a organisé une réunion
and equitable governance of nature’s use; and
Deploying nature-based solutions to global
Membership, Commissions and Secretariat as well
as Strategic Partners by September 2015, before
its endorsement during the Regional Conservation
African Strategy on Combating
Illegal Exploitation and Illegal
Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora in
Africa, May 2015
The above strategy developed out of the African
and Fauna in Africa, 27-30 April 2015 in Brazzaville
et des commissions de toute la région, ainsi que le
en œuvre régionale dans chacun des trois secteurs du
équitable dans l’utilisation de la nature; et un Déploiement
septembre 2015 avant son approbation lors du Forum
Stratégie africaine sur la lutte contre
l’exploitation et le commerce illicites
de la faune et de la flore naturelles en
Afrique; mai 2015
arises from concerns of the unsustainable use of
La stratégie ci-dessus a été développée à partir de la
décision de l’Union africaine (décision du Conseil
in recent years and its undermining of sustainable
development, peace, security, rule of law and
sur l’exploitation et le commerce illicites de la faune et
international commitments and declarations made
in relation to the challenges posed by illegal
wildlife trade, a rise in security and governance
concerns and the need to take action on both the
prevent, combat and eradicate illegal exploitation
16
Elle découle des préoccupations sur l’utilisation non
l’augmentation du commerce illicite de la faune depuis
quelques années et ses effets négatifs sur le développement
durable, la paix, la sécurité, la primauté du droit et la
les engagements et déclarations internationaux faits en
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
faune, des préoccupations sur la sécurité et la gouvernance
et la nécessité de prendre des mesures concernant l’offre
and enhance regional, inter-regional cooperation;
to reduce demand, supply and transit of illegal
niveau d’engagement politique pour empêcher, combattre
et éliminer l’exploitation et le commerce illicites de la faune
participatory approach with economic development
and community livelihoods through sustainable
and eliminate the economic, security and stability
avec les Etats consommateurs pour réduire la demande,
l’approvisionnement et le transit des produits illégaux de
Increase the capacity of source and transit states
participative avec le développement économique et les
moyens de subsistance de la communauté par le biais de
RESG/Interpol ECWG meeting in
Swaziland
A meeting of the southern African Rhino and
In an encouraging show of high level political
by the Acting Prime Minister (Deputy Prime
The Swaziland Minister of Tourism was also
about the tardy submission of what appeared to be
an inadequate Mozambican Rhino and Elephant
Member countries present also re-iterated
Réduire, prévenir et éliminer l’impact de la criminalité
de la faune sur l’économie, la sécurité et la stabilité;
des Etats d’origine et de transit de détecter des produits
Réunion du Groupe sur la Sécurité
du rhinocéros et de l’éléphant et
le Groupe de travail d’Interpol sur
le Crime de l’environnement au
Swaziland
Les délégués ont qui ont participé venaient du Swaziland,
Cette occasion a fait preuve d’une volonté politique et
d’un soutien de haut niveau encourageants, car la réunion
should be sought to help enhance the effectiveness
Alors que beaucoup de choses discutées lors de la
to enable regular attendance at meetings by
representatives of member agencies and Interpol
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
qui semblait être un plan d’action mozambicain inadéquat
17
Knight
currently limiting regular attendance of their
is undesirable at this time of escalating continental
in line with subsequent recommendation 7 of the
Kasane conference declaration to “Support the
strengthening … of regional wildlife enforcement
networks, by working to secure political will and
resources to develop and enable them to become
fully operational, and by ICCWC taking a leading
role in promoting cooperation across the network
of regional wildlife enforcement networks.”
I would like to congratulate Renatus Kusamba
locale de facto existante de réseau d’application de la
participation régulière aux réunions par les représentants
des organismes membres et des Bureaux nationaux
un problème limitant actuellement la fréquentation
Potter and Mike Melanzi were also elected as the
Inventorising national stockpile
of ivory and rhino horn
Kenya is to start to inventorise its national stockpile
ultérieure 7 de la déclaration Kasane de « soutenir le
renforcement ... des réseaux régionaux de protection de
la faune, en travaillant pour obtenir la volonté politique et
les ressources à les mettre en valeur et leur permettre de
devenir pleinement opérationnels, et l’ICCWC en jouant
un rôle de premier plan pour promouvoir la coopération
à travers les réseaux régionaux de lutte contre la fraude . »
scheduled to be completed in August 2015 for
gazetting by the Minister for Environment and
CITES
During the reporting period CITES 65th Standing
Inventorier la réserve nationale des
cornes de rhinocéros et de l’ivoire
Le Kenya a commencé à inventorier son stock national
meeting, and together with the CITES Secretariat
recommendations for the Standing Committee to
et des ressources naturelles comme l’exige la loi de 2013
this meeting please see the postcript in the Chair’s
report in Pachyderm
CITES
be in contact with the Chair of the CITES Rhino
Au cours de la période du rapport, la 65ème réunion
London where the situation in Mozambique was
18
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
to collect much of the data needed to produce
updated continental statistics and information for
sur le Rhinocéros travaillait entre les sessions avant la
réunion et, en collaboration avec le Secrétariat de la
CITES, au cours de la réunion pour préparer une série
combinée de recommandations à l’examen du Comité
réunion, veuillez voir le Postscript dans mon rapport du
président dans le dernier numéro de Pachyderme
the event of a rhino proposal/s being put forward
South Africa Committee of
Inquiry
The CoI consists of 21 members (including the
nécessaires pour produire des statistiques continentales
actualisées et des informations pour le rapport mandaté
diversity of professions and organisations to provide
CoI has also sought input and submissions from a
The CoI is primarily tasked with investigating
the feasibility and desirability on conservation
grounds of South Africa tabling a proposal for
a trade in rhino horn at the 17th Conference of
Comité d’enquête en Afrique du Sud
also been investigating and discussing pros and
cons of alternative ways that such a trade might be
make recommendations to the Inter-Ministerial
Howard Buffett Foundation
Donation
Buffet Foundation as part of a three-year initiative
and test anti-poaching strategy is one of the largest
Besides hoping to reduce the impact of poaching
on the world’s largest population of rhinos, it
hopes to develop tactics and strategies that could
be replicated in other regions of Africa, where
poaching can be a source of funding for illegal
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
participatif, le CoE cherche aussi une contribution et
des observations d’une large gamme de personnes et
Le CoE est principalement chargé d’enquêter sur la
faisabilité et la désirabilité, pour les raisons de conservation,
que l’Afrique du Sud présente une proposition en faveur
du commerce des cornes de rhinocéros à la 17ème
Le CoE a aussi été chargé d’enquêter et de discuter
des avantages et des inconvénients d’autres façons de
des recommandations au Comité interministériel au cours
19
Knight
using sophisticated detection and tracking
equipment and infrastructure on the ground and in
the air, elite canine units and highly-trained ranger
teams, as well as improved intelligence gathering,
has also been contracted to help in the review
and assessment of possible technology support
South African liaison with
Mozambique
As part of the MOU signed between South Africa
Operation Lebombo, puts the recommendation
into action by law enforcement and conservation
Don de la Fondation Howard Buffet
Buffet dans le cadre d’une initiative de trois ans pour
lutter contre le braconnage des rhinocéros dans le Parc
national Kruger et tester la stratégie d’anti-braconnage est
l’un des dons les plus importants offert à un organisme
braconnage sur la plus grande population mondiale
des rhinocéros, il vise à mettre au point des tactiques
et des stratégies qui pourraient être reproduites dans
Les fonds sont canalisés vers l’établissement d’une
zone de protection intensive en utilisant un équipement
sophistiqué de détection et une infrastructure au sol
et dans l’air, des unités d’élite canines et des équipes
collecte de renseignements et des systèmes d’observation
Continental and National Rhino
Plans
Continental Rhino Plan
industrielle a également été engagé pour aider à l’examen
et à l’évaluation d’une éventuelle assistance technique
La liaison sud-africaine avec le
Mozambique
Dans le cadre du protocole d’accord signé entre l’Afrique
to help facilitate the next Rhino Range States
meeting, with the aim of developing a Continental
Rhino Plan that builds upon the framework
appelée Opération Lebombo, met en action le personnel
Elle commence à porter ses fruits avec l’arrestation des
A second range states meeting has been scheduled
done during the reporting period with the host
country, South Africa, to develop an appropriate
programme for the meeting that builds on outputs
will report on progress with development of
the continental plan; which will hopefully
complement and dovetail with existing approved
national plans; in the next edition of Pachyderm
Revision of Zambian Plan
was held in Zambia to revise the country’s
20
Plans nationaux etcontinentaux sur le
rhinocéros
Plan Continental sur le rhinocéros
Après la première réunion des Etats de l’aire de répartition
prochaine réunion des Etats de l’aire de répartition du
rhinocéros, dans le but d’élaborer un plan continental
sur le rhinocéros qui s’appuie sur le cadre élaboré par les
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Une deuxième réunion de ces Etats est prévue pour
de la période considérée avec le pays hôte, l’Afrique
The workshop built upon the results of an internal
pour la réunion qui se fonde sur les résultats et les
since been completed and circulated for comment,
which will be shared with agencies that donated
The revised draft Zambian plan sets out a long
term vision and measurable target goals for the
sur les progrès de l’élaboration du plan continental, qui,
nous l’espérons, complétera et s’accordera avec les plans
nationaux existants approuvés, dans le prochain numéro
de Pachyderme
Révision du plan de la Zambie
key
and Law Enforcement; Biological Monitoring and
Management; Rhino Sourcing and achieving range
expansion; Communication; Sustainability and
Support; Coordination; Capacity and Enabling
L’atelier s’est appuyé sur les résultats d’un examen interne
were derived for each key component along with
In addition, drawing on experience from the latest
Zimbabwe plan, 2–3 Key Performance Indicators
were also derived for each Key
complété et diffusé pour commentaire, et il sera partagé
avec les organismes qui ont fait don des rhinocéros à la
South African Biodiversity Management
Plan for White Rhinos.
An earlier draft was made available for public
comment during the reporting period and has
been edited further in response to comments
the Ministerial technical committee after which it
Surveillance et gestion biologiques; Approvisionnement
en rhinocéros et expansion de l’habitat; Communication;
Durabilité et soutien; Coordination; Capacité et politique
vision for the South African white rhino population
of ‘A world with reduced poaching and demand for
illegal rhino horn, where the future survival of wild
white rhinos is ensured in South Africa, through
secure populations which are economically and
ecologically sustainable, and which provide a
source of founder rhinos to help repopulate former
range states as needed’ emphasises the importance
of regional cooperation in delivering on a secure,
pour chaque composante clé avec une liste d’actions
year target of a meta-population of at least 20,400
public au cours de la période considérée et il a été édité
Six key
this, namely: Biological Management; Monitoring,
actuellement en attente d’approbation du comité technique
ministériel, après quoi il sera signé par le ministre et
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
s’appuyant sur l’expérience du dernier plan du Zimbabwe,
2-3 indicateurs clés de performance ont également été
Plan de gestion de la biodiversité sudafricaine pour le rhinocéros blanc
21
Knight
Permitting and Stock Control; Protection;
Development of the Ugandan Plan
Uganda has internally developed a draft national
plan and this has been circulated more widely
should prove a very useful starting point when
rhinocéros blancs d’Afrique du Sud « Un monde ayant
un braconnage et une demande réduits pour les cornes
de rhinocéros illégales, où la survie future des rhinocéros
blancs sauvages est assurée en Afrique du Sud, à travers
des populations sécurisées qui sont économiquement et
écologiquement durables, et qui fournissent une source
de rhinocéros fondateurs pour aider à repeupler les
anciens Etats de l’aire de répartition au besoin» souligne
l’importance de la coopération régionale pour assurer une
Une cible sur cinq ans d’une métapopulation d’au moins
20 400 rhinocéros blancs en Afrique du Sud en 2020 a été
facilitate this meeting and a few experienced
autorisation et contrôle des stocks; Protection; Chasse
is opportune, as it would be good if Uganda
has a draft national plan going into a proposed
meeting later in the year that aims to try to get
Elaboration d’un plan ougandais
Mozambique Elephant and Rhino Plan
Following the last CITES Standing Committee
produce a rhino plan with milestones against
animer cette réunion et quelques membres expérimentés
l’atelier est opportun, car il serait bon que l’Ouganda ait
many timelines and actions were unfortunately
Plan de rhinocéros et d’éléphant du
Mozambique
Suite à la dernière réunion du Comité permanent de la
CITES, le Mozambique a été mandaté de produire un
22
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Possible new funding
mechanisms
Nouveaux mécanismes possibles de
financement
United for Wildlife/GEF Rhino Impact
Bond Development and meeting of new
Project Board and Technical Advisory
Committee in London, February 2015.
Réunion du Conseil d’administration et du
Comité Consultatif Technique du Nouveau
Project de RIB d’United for Wildlife et FEM à
Londres en février 2015.
In the last edition of Pachyderm I discussed work
to develop and test the concept of Rhino Impact
Dans le dernier numéro de Pachyderme
travail de développer et tester le concept du RIB (Rhino
be secured by the Zoological Society of London
banner, with ZSL taking the lead role as the
organisation ultimately responsible for delivering
en étroite collaboration avec la SZL pour les aider à
with ZSL to help them develop and trial the
range states and expert rhino conservationists in
ayant des liens étroits avec les Etats de l’aire de répartition
et les conservateurs experts du rhinocéros sur le terrain,
the concept, then it could hopefully be expanded
de nombreuses autres populations clés dans plus de pays
Key
additional funding from non-traditional sources to
fund needed rhino conservation action in Africa
nécessaires de conservation des rhinocéros en Afrique
they are outcome orientated rather than based on
qu’ils sont orientés vers les résultats au lieu d’être fondés
ressentent le besoin de changer de tactique et varier leurs
outcome targets, then with RIBs they should have
Comme indiqué dans le dernier numéro de Pachyderme,
As discussed in the last edition of Pachyderm
the original concept discussed between ZSL
façon indépendante (tels que la croissance de la population
d’au moins x après y années ou le braconnage n’étant pas
growth of population by at least x after y years
or poaching not more than x% of population
devraient être remboursés dépendra de si ces résultats
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
23
Knight
or not initial at-risk investors should be paid back
sont ainsi une sorte de pseudo RIB conçu pour tester le
processus d’élaboration et d’application des indicateurs
RIB designed to trial the process of developing
soutien aux populations de rhinocéros clés d’importance
Key rhino populations
pondérée a été développé utilisant les informations
sur le nombre de la population (nous les avons mises
system was developed using information on
des contraintes et exigences pour les sites pilotes imposées
some constraints and requirements for pilot sites
imposed by potential donors to help determine
locaux expérimentés ayant une expérience de première
main de ces zones travaillent en étroite collaboration
avec la gestion des parcs et le personnel de la SZL pour
working closely with park management and ZSL
divergences d’opinion quant à la meilleure façon de
It would be fair to say, that at times there have
been some differences of opinion as to how best
ont favorisé des solutions qui semblent commerciales
members have favoured seeking business-like “lean
stratégiques nationaux approuvés pour la conservation du
approved national strategic rhino conservation
deals directly with the relevant agencies managing
Key rhino populations (whether they be formal
state conservation agencies, communities, private
qui traite directement avec les organismes compétents
qui gèrent les populations de rhinocéros clés (que ce soit
collectivités, des propriétaires du secteur privé ou d’autres
Il a été décidé qu’un organe directeur devrait être mis en
It was decided that a governing body should
également été mis en place avec une représentation de
board has also been set up with representation
et approuvés pour les deux groupes, et en février 2015
developed and agreed to for both groups, and in
La SZL a entre-temps présenté au FEM une proposition
24
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
still has to be raised before full funding for the
has precluded also setting up and trialling some
peuvent être disponibles ou obtenues s’il y a une garantie
initial at risk funding are likely to be available or
could be secured given a guarantee of payback
investigate such true at-risk funding options
London Meeting to discuss Innovative
new Financing Mechanisms
took part in a one-day seminar in London designed
to share learning between the organisations
Réunion de Londres pour discuter de
nouveaux mécanismes innovateurs de
financement
des connaissances entre les organisations travaillant sur
organisé le 19 février 2015 par l’Unité internationale de
Unit on the 19th February 2015, together with
number of invited presentations that provided
organisations with an opportunity to present the
allowed those working in this area to get a clearer
sense of the similarities and differences of various
collaborative solutions to common barriers that
may exist with regards to performance metrics;
bond issuers and viable counter parties; and donors
La première partie de la réunion consistait en un
nombre de présentations qui ont donné l’occasion aux
organisations de présenter les détails de leurs diverses
travaillent dans ce domaine d’avoir une idée plus claire
Des groupes de travail se sont ensuite réunis pour
discuter et chercher des solutions de collaboration à
des obstacles communs qui peuvent exister en ce qui
concerne les mesures de performance, l’agrégation des
et contre-parties viables; et les bailleurs de fonds et les
ont estimé que le moment était venu pour des plans
schemes and that this could potentially access
financement important provenant des sources non-
where links between investments and subsequent
performance outcomes could be made, it was clear
impact investing would not be suitable for all
entre les investissements et les résultats de performance
subséquents, c’était clair que l’investissement d’impact
Les délégués pensaient toutefois que c’était essentiel que
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
25
Knight
bien conçues et réussies pour ouvrir la voie aux futurs
successful to pave the way for substantial future
Comments from the expert panel at the end
of the meeting echoed some of the sentiments of
réunion ont fait l’écho de certains sentiments des membres
soient aussi rentables que possible (et donc plus attractifs
to be as cost effective as possible (and hence more
experts locaux au lieu de parachuter des étrangers lorsque
local experts rather than parachuting in outsiders
mentioned that in recent years there had been less
focus on getting carried away with overly complex
performance metrics with a recommendation to
performance trop complexes et les choses simples sont
Divers
Miscellaneous
New Ivory Forensic Guidelines
Nouvelles lignes directrices légistes sur
l’ivoire
Au cours de la période considérée, le Responsable
on Methods and Procedures for Ivory Sampling
Elles avaient été préparées par le Laboratoire et la section
and Forest Crime, Sustainable Livelihoods Unit
lutte contre le crime de la faune et des forêts, l’Unité
d’une réunion des experts en la matière qui ont participé
umbrella of the International Consortium on
Consortium international de lutte contre la criminalité
Continued liaison with Asian Rhino
Conservation
Liaison continue avec la conservation des
rhinocéros d’Asie
with the aim of sharing knowledge and ideas and
Le Parc national de Kaziranga dans l’Assam en Inde
conserve la plus grande population de grands rhinocéros
conserves the world’s largest greater onethis population has experienced an increase
26
Etats de l’aire de répartition d’Afrique (environ 1,1%
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
les autorités du parc à lui fournir un rapport détaillé sur
la situation dans Kaziranga, ses options et ses besoins
with a detailed report on the situation in Kaziranga
remotely to meetings reviewing conservation
options and especially anti-poaching needs for the
park (with the SO supplying a video presentation
contribué à distance aux réunions qui examinaient les
options de conservation et en particulier, les besoins
Une assistance et des informations supplémentaires ont
information was provided on request by the SO,
who reviewed multiple chapters of the detailed
poaching approaches and use of Key Performance
Indicators was also shared with the Park Director
experienced African rhino conservationists that
took part and shared their experiences in the last
qui a revu plusieurs chapitres du rapport détaillé sur la
informations sur les actions anti-braconnage et l’utilisation
des indicateurs clés de performance ont aussi été partagées
expérimentés du rhinocéros d’Afrique qui avaient pris part
et partagé leurs expériences lors du dernier sommet sur la
dans le cadre d’une visite d’étude au cours de la période
range states of the situation in Asia at the next
informer les Etats de l’aire de répartition sur la situation
en Asie à la prochaine réunion des Etats de l’aire de
Independent AfRSG/SADC RMG
Assessment of the demographic
performance of a significant semicaptive white rhino “farming” operation
Evaluation indépendante du Groupe de
Gestion du Rhinocéros de la SADC/GSRAf
de la performance démographique d’une
opération importante « d’élevage » du
rhinocéros blanc semi-captif
rhino population in a semi-intensive operation that
L’Afrique du Sud a maintenant une population importante
de rhinocéros blancs dans une opération semi-intensive
qui est classée comme une Opération de Reproduction
The performance of most intensive white rhino
captive breeding operations around the world has
has in part been due to many pregnancies under
very intensive management not proceeding to
full term; and also due to possible sibling-like
relationships developing amongst some pairs
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
La performance de la plupart des ORC intensives
des rhinocéros blancs en captivité à travers le monde (à
partie due à de nombreuses grossesses sous gestion très
intensive qui n’ont pas abouti à terme; et aussi en raison des
relations fraternelles possibles qui se développent parmi
des paires de rhinocéros blancs qui grandissent ensemble
27
Knight
complete contrast to the rapid population growth
of many translocated wild white rhino populations;
worldwide there are currently fewer white rhino
in the world’s zoos and safari-parks than the total
number of wild white rhino exported to them
performance under intensive management,
concerns were raised in South Africa regarding
the potential of more intensive facilities such as the
rapide de la population de nombreuses populations de
rhinocéros blancs sauvages transférés; dans le monde
entier il y a actuellement moins de rhinocéros blancs
dans les zoos et les parcs animaliers du monde que le
nombre total de rhinocéros blancs sauvages exportés
vers ces zoos et parcs depuis le début des années
sous la gestion intensive, les préoccupations ont été
soulevées en Afrique du Sud concernant le potentiel
des installations intensives telles que la grande ORC
this CBO operation to help inform development
rhinocéros blanc appelle à une évaluation indépendante
It also aims to assess the potential conservation
politiques nationales et provinciales et d’évaluer les
avantages potentiels de conservation que cela (et
possiblement d’autres opérations similaires si elles
a CBO make a positive contribution to growing
rhino numbers and provide an insurance policy
the performance in the CBO been sub-optimal
and not a sound investment of surplus founder
last meeting of the SADC Rhino Management
telle opération pourrait-elle apporter une contribution
positive à l’augmentation du nombre de rhinocéros
et fournir une politique d’assurance à un moment du
de l’ORC a-t-elle été sous-optimale et non pas un
bon investissement de l’excédent des rhinocéros
CBO indicated they would welcome an assessment
Keryn Adcock visited the CBO and analysed all
the detailed data collected and provided by the
un représentant de l’ORC a indiqué qu’ils seraient
favorables à une évaluation de leurs activités par des
En réponse à ces questions, le Responsable
population history and breeding performance of
the CBO over an 80 month period (from inception
will be shared with members at the upcoming
The rhino in the CBO in question are kept in
a system of camps, each of which has two suband population unit within the overall CBO,
with movement of rhino between camps or to
new camps as the need arises for maintaining
suitable population demographic structures and to
l’ORC et analysé toutes les données détaillées
a été produit qui examinait l’histoire de la population
et la performance de l’ORC sur une période de 80 mois
résultats seront partagés avec les membres lors de la
Les rhinocéros dans l’ORC en question sont
conservés dans un système de camps, dont chacun a
from many different populations and mixed as
much as possible to maximise founder genetic
unité écologique et de population au sein de l’ORC,
avec le mouvement des rhinocéros entre les camps ou
dans de nouveaux camps au besoin pour maintenir les
structures démographiques de population appropriées
female skewed in breeding camps than in the wild
fondateurs viennent de nombreuses populations
différentes et ils sont mélangés autant que possible
28
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
most of the day the white rhinos can be found
spread out across the veld where they naturally
intensive operation than wild populations; it is
considerably less intensive than most zoos and
rhinocéros sont alimentés par des suppléments (40% de
sexes penchent plus vers les femelles dans les camps de
reproduction que dans la nature, mais il y a aussi des camps
on peut trouver les rhinocéros blancs dispersés sur le veld
not only reduced by the supplementary feeding,
but also by a policy of resting one half of each
camp every second year during the wet season to
inception a total of 776 rhino were introduced
due to calves born to cows that had been brought
and deaths associated with the translocation and
establishment of so many rhinos, and the loss of
some animals to an outbreak of Clostridium; the
average annual population growth rate achieved
by the CBO over the 80 months until the end of
The skewed sex ratio in favour of females, will
have boosted the population growth rate, but a
consideration of other reproductive parameters
largely independent of sex ratio (such as intercalving intervals, proportion of adult cows with
clairement une opération beaucoup plus intensive que les
populations sauvages; elle est beaucoup moins intensive
que la plupart des zoos et des parcs animaliers dans le
par l’alimentation supplémentaire, mais aussi par une
pratique de reposer la moitié de chaque camp tous les deux
ans pendant la saison humide pour donner la chance aux
En résumé, sur une période de 6,67 ans depuis sa
création, un total de 776 rhinocéros ont été introduits
du nombre était non seulement en raison des bébés nés
Au cours de la période, il y avait aussi 179 décès et 17
à la translocation et la présence de tant de rhinocéros, et la
perte de certains animaux à une épidémie de Clostridium,
le taux de croissance annuel moyen de la population atteint
all pointed to breeding in the CBO being good to
excellent (when assessed against SADC Regional
Le rapport biaisé entre les sexes en faveur des femelles
aura stimulé le taux de croissance de la population, mais
une considération d’autres paramètres de reproduction
largement indépendantes des rapports des sexes (comme
les intervalles entre les vêlages, la proportion de femelles
was too short to assess whether or not there was
any drop off in performance in F1 and subsequent
de reproduction dans l’ORC était bon à excellent (évalué
par rapport aux lignes directrices régionales de la SADC
up visit to the CBO is being envisaged which
among other things will examine and discuss
The SADC RMG black rhino status
report 2006-2011
création de l’ORC était trop court pour évaluer si oui ou
non il y avait une baisse de la performance en F1 et les
envisage une visite de suivi à l’ORC qui, entre autres
choses, va examiner et discuter des questions vétérinaires
Data from a total of 133 black rhino population
sites from six SADC countries (South Africa,
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
29
Knight
Rapport du Groupe de Gestion du
Rhinocéros de la SADC sur la situation du
rhinocéros noir de 2006 à 2011
understandable preoccupation by rhino managers/
Les données provenant d’un total de 133 sites de
population de rhinocéros noirs de six pays de la SADC
database system to facilitate collation of black
rhino status information via online submissions
par KerynAdcock en se basant sur les rapports de situation
Over the 2006-2011 period more than 1,680
calves were born, in comparison to 753 rhino
gestionnaires/propriétaires des rhinocéros concernant la
D.b. bicornis
and western South Africa achieved a good average
7% annual underlying growth rate per year, while
the more-heavily poached D.b.minor subspecies
a maintenant mis au point une base de données en ligne
sécurisée pour faciliter le classement des informations
sur la situation du rhinocéros noir via les soumissions en
L’adoption de cette nouvelle technologie devrait
Au cours de la période 2006-2011, plus de 1 680 bébé
for D.b.bicornis
for D.b.minor
were undertaken for managing sex-age structures,
genetic and demographic supplementation,
in translocating large founder groups to initiate
indicated breeding performance of females
sous-espèce Diceros bicornis bicornis
dans l’ouest d’Afrique du Sud a réalisé un bon taux de
croissance annuel moyen de 7%, alors que la sous-espèce
Diceros bicornis minor plus fortement braconnée est
parvenue à une moyenne de croissance annuelle favorable
rhinocéros noirs a augmenté de 39,6% pour le Diceros
bicornis bicornis à 1936 rhinocéros, et de 15,8% pour le
Diceros bicornis minor
Seulement 8,3% des événements de translocation
de 64,5% des translocations de rhinocéros ont été
apport génétique et démographique, et le déplacement des
Survey of white and black rhinos on
private and communal land in South
Africa for 2015
sponsored survey of white rhino Ceratotherium
simum simum on private land within South Africa
de grands groupes fondateurs pour initier de nouveaux
Les données appuient le résultat indiquant que la
performance de reproduction des femelles diminuait avec
rhinos in South Africa, that was last completed
30
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
upon 25 years of data for the regions’ black rhino
the single most important source of population data
for this species and probably one of the best for
Etude des rhinocéros blancs et noirs sur les
terres privées et communales en Afrique du
Sud pour 2015
sur les rhinocéros blancs Ceratotherium simum simum
sur les terres privées en Afrique du Sud faite pour la
role in the conservation of this species and the
separate surveys of white rhinos on private land
in South Africa have also been undertaken over
the years, making it the most reliable source of
this survey in this time of increased poaching is of
utmost importance in assessing the current status
of the population, estimates of horn stocks and the
impact of poaching on the private/communal rhino
extent to which poaching and owners disposing
of their rhinos poses to the continued expansion
the number of white rhino on private land and
demonstrated increased cooperation by the private
sector is also likely to be a necessary pre-requisite
for South Africa to have any chance of securing
CITES support for a possible future trade in
horn should the country decide to proceed with a
de la SADC s’appuie sur 25 années de données sur la
la SADC a entrepris environ 12 études distinctes depuis
1989 et constitue la source la plus importante de données
sur la population de cette espèce et probablement l’une
des meilleurs pour n’importe quelle espèce de grand
Puisque le secteur privé possède 24% des rhinocéros
conservation de cette espèce et l’industrie de la faune
blancs sur les terres privées en Afrique du Sud ont été
entreprises au cours des années et constituent la source
augmente est d’une importance capitale dans l’évaluation
de l’état actuel de la population, des estimations des stocks
de corne et l’impact du braconnage sur la population des
Both surveys are due for completion in
Northern white rhino update
awaiting results of further genetic research into
the differences between northern and southern
white rhino that should provide additional insights
and data on which to review the sadly somewhat
academic issue of whether the northern white rhino
should remain a subspecies or as was proposed
et de la façon dont les propriétaires se débarrassent de leurs
rhinocéros sur l’expansion de l’habitat des rhinocéros
rhinocéros blancs sur les terres privées et une coopération
accrue démontrée par le secteur privé vont probablement
être une condition préalable pour que l’Afrique du Sud
ait une chance d’obtenir le soutien de la CITES pour un
possible futur commerce de cornes si le pays décide de
Les deux études doivent être complétées en décembre
Mise à jour sur le rhinocéros blanc du nord
informed that the delay in completing this work
has been due to lack of additional information
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
attendait des résultats des recherches génétiques sur
les différences entre les rhinocéros blancs du nord et
ceux du sud qui fourniraient des idées et des données
31
Knight
needed to more accurately estimate the date of
sur lesquelles on se baserait pour examiner la question
malheureusement quelque peu académique de savoir si le
rhinocéros blanc du nord devrait rester une sous-espèce
I am pleased to report she has agreed for the work
and data she has done to be passed on to rhino
next edition of Pachyderm
mitochondrial pour quatre rhinocéros blancs du nord
study of genetic variation across many of the
avons été informés que le retard dans l’achèvement
nécessaires pour estimer la date de divergence des deux
espèces avec plus de précision et parce qu’elle travaille
their four rhinos translocated to Kenya to be
included in this study and the lab also has a further
heureux d’annoncer qu’elle a accepté que son travail et
ses données soient transmis au généticien du rhinocéros
also hope to have some additional information of
le prochain numéro de Pachyderme
une étude de la variation génétique dans de nombreux
de leurs quatre rhinocéros transférés au Kenya soient inclus
dans cette étude et le laboratoire a aussi l’échantillon d’un
Most Pachyderm readers will know that the
nous espérons avoir des informations supplémentaires sur
surroundings close to their original habitat was
undertaken in the hope this might help stimulate
conclusions des deux études seront prêts à temps pour la
the animals went well, the hormonal cycles of the
was observed, unfortunately no pregnancy to term
occurred (even after intercrossing and mating by
It has now been decided to abandon natural
mating attempts and to move to a high-tech
La plupart des lecteurs de Pachyderme sauront que
environnement naturel proche de leur habitat d’origine a
partners is currently seeking to develop a robust
protocol to optimize a procedure of harvesting
and maturing oocytes, fertilize oocytes and then
si l’acclimatation des animaux s’est bien passée, les cycles
hormonaux des femelles se sont nettement améliorés, et
l’accouplement répété a été observé, malheureusement
aucune grossesse à terme n’est survenue (même après le
process has been satisfactorily developed using
southern whites, the team will move to harvesting
On a maintenant décidé d’abandonner les tentatives
d’accouplement naturel et d’essayer une approche de
spécialistes en matière de reproduction de rhinocéros de
scale and cryo-preserve them or transfer them
32
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
According to a health examination that took place
d’autres partenaires cherche actuellement à développer
un protocole robuste d’optimiser une procédure pour
Lorsque le processus aura été assez développé sur les
EU document and Brussels meeting,
February 2015
préserver par cryogénisation ou les transférer directement
comments and data for the EU document ‘Larger
than Elephants – Inputs for an EU strategic
approach to wildlife conservation’
was followed by four volumes with a regional
additional sections including a 15 page section
on African Rhinos ending with some actions
Key rated
funding challenges they face was recognised in the
Rhino section; and it was recommended that the
EC should not only provide fully comprehensive
Document de l’UE et la réunion de Bruxelles
en février 2015
contribution, des commentaires et des données pour le
document de l’UE «Plus grands que les Eléphants –
Contributions pour une approche stratégique de l’UE
à la conservation de la faune». Le rapport est divisé en
une section de 15 pages sur les rhinocéros d’Afrique se
terminant par des actions recommandées pour le soutien
The report also noted that as a possible feature of
potential future EU support to rhino conservation –
possible guarantor of Rhino Impact Bonds which
dans la section du rhinocéros; et il a été recommandé que
in the event that the envisaged impact targets are
meeting in Brussels in February 2015 to discuss
fund to help sustainably contribute funding for
key
Comments have been included in the revised
version of the first volume “Synthesis” (see
eu/b4life/document/larger-elephants-input-eustrategic-approach-african-wildlife-conservation-
Le rapport a également noté une caractéristique
possible d’un éventuel soutien futur de l’UE pour la
conservation des rhinocéros - l’UE pourrait envisager
d’émuler le FEM en tant que garant éventuel des RIB
participé à une réunion à Bruxelles en février 2015 pour
cherchaient à obtenir un fonds de capital important pour
volumes (including Volume 6 that has the African
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
33
Knight
ont été inclus dans la version révisée du premier volume
document in order to increase its visibility and
eu/b4life/document/larger-elephants-input-eu-strategicapproach-african-wildlife-conservation-updated-
European Development Days, planned for early
compris le Volume six qui a la section des rhinocéros
in DEVCO (for EU international cooperation
in the EU institutions unfortunately did not take
d’augmenter sa visibilité et son impact sur la politique
because the EU Commission had decided to reduce
year; and the Commission was already preparing
le plein soutien de la hiérarchie de DEVCO (pour les
Therefore, we have been advised that the
document ‘Larger than elephants’ is now to be
published as a technical report, with the mandatory
disclaimer “this document does not necessarily
informés que c’était parce que la Commission européenne
de l’Environnement avec une forte participation des autres
co-authored by all contributors, including some
Par conséquent, nous avons été informés que le
document «Plus grands que les éléphants » doit
maintenant être publié comme un rapport technique,
Participants in the workshop and contributors to
rédigée par les cinq experts, et co-écrite par tous les
publication du premier volume de synthèse est prévue
the EU Action Plan in a development cooperation
will also be taken into account in the action plan
Les participants à l’atelier et les contributeurs au
The publication of the EU Action Plan is expected
After the publication of the action plan, it should
then be possible to move to publish the document
‘Larger than elephants
document of the Commission, accompanying the
has changed, the EU’s Enrico Pironio has indicated
the intention is still to give maximal visibility
to what has been seen as an extremely valuable
report, especially after the substantial comments
34
document représenteront un apport important pour le
Plan d’action de l’UE dans une composante future de la
de l’abattage illégal seront également prises en compte
accordée à tous les aspects et les causes du déclin de la
Après la publication du plan d’action, il devrait être
possible de publier le document «Plus grands que les
éléphants »
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Banning on the transport and
importation of rhino hunting trophies
The banning of the importation of legal rhino
concern as this action was taken without any
consultation with key rhino range states and rhino
document a changé, Enrico Pironio de l’UE a indiqué que
à ce qui est considéré comme un rapport extrêmement
précieux, surtout après les commentaires substantiels
Interdiction du transport et de l’importation
des trophées de chasse de rhinocéros
L’interdiction de l’importation des trophées de chasse
légale de rhinocéros par le gouvernement fédéral de
action a été prise sans aucune consultation avec les
principaux Etats de l’aire de répartition du rhinocéros et
sur l’utilisation durable qui est une pierre angulaire de
org/Assets/wcc-2012-rec-138-en-conservation-ofthe confusion between legitimate ethical sport
hunting which is an accepted form of rational
conservation with indefensible unethical canned
In a similar vein, the initial embargo on the
transportation by some airlines, such as South
African Airways, of legal CITES approved rhino
hunting trophies arises from a misunderstanding
actions fail to address the illegal trade in wildlife
products, and may have negative consequences by
disincentivising and reducing funding for genuine
the South African Department of the Environment,
South African Airways later rescinded their initial
émerge d’une confusion entre la chasse sportive éthique
légitime qui est une forme acceptée d’utilisation rationnelle
des rhinocéros avec une chasse indéfendable de lions
élevés en captivité dans de petits enclos contrairement
De la même manière, l’embargo initial sur le
transport par certaines compagnies aériennes, telles
que South African Airways, de trophées de chasse
légale de rhinocéros approuvée par la CITES découle
d’un malentendu des questions de commerce illégal
It remains imperative that any such actions
should not be taken unilaterally with no
consultation with expert conservationists in the
lutter contre le commerce illicite des produits de la faune
sauvage, et peuvent avoir des conséquences négatives
supporting evidence, with an assessment of
du Ministère sud-africain de l’Environnement, la South
Dallas auction rhino hunt in Namibia follow-up
Il est impératif que de telles actions ne soient pas prises
unilatéralement sans consulter les écologistes experts dans
les meilleures preuves, avec une évaluation des résultats
During the reporting period the one black rhino
hunt auctioned by Dallas Safari Club took place
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
35
Knight
the conservation rationale behind the hunting of
Suivi de la vente aux enchères de Dallas de la
chasse au rhinocéros en Namibie
surplus by conservation authorities; and how
Au cours de la période du rapport il y a eu une vente aux
channelled back into rhino conservation related
décrivant les raisons de conservation derrière la chasse
the SO and I also had a short article published on
rhino-hunt-is-conservation/
hunted was over 25 years old, and had been one
of the animals that had been pushed out of north
been that putting such animals back in the park has
not been very successful; as there sometimes have
reintroduction or the animals concerned simply
broke back or were pushed by younger more
rhino-hunt-is-conservation/
avait plus de 25 ans, et avait été l’un des animaux poussés
back to the park on three occasions (once 60km
MET, le retour de tels animaux dans le parc ne réussissait
pas; car il y avait parfois des mortalités dues au combat
ultérieur après la réintroduction ou les animaux concernés
se sont tout simplement enfuis ou ont été poussés hors
had a chance to breed and contribute their genes to
dépit d’être retourné dans le parc à trois reprises (une fois
funding needs to address the increased poaching,
MET decided it did not represent a good use of
their limited funds to continue to keep trying to
la possibilité de se reproduire et contribuer leursgènes à la
bull that was hunted by the winner of the Dallas
auction was one such animal that had been moved
urgents pour faire face à l’augmentation du braconnage,
le MET a décidé que cela ne représentait pas un bon usage
de leurs fonds limités de continuer à essayer de relocaliser
IUCN Red Listing
par le gagnant de l’enchère de Dallas était un tel animal
qui avait été déplacé vers une autre réserve quelque temps
Regional and Continental Red Listings have been
Liste rouge de l’UICN
will be discussed further with and reviewed by
Les Listes rouges régionales et continentales ont été
Red List Authority Focal Point meeting being held
les Listes rouges continentales proposées seront encore
discutées et révisées par le personnel de la Liste rouge
in more detail in the next edition of Pachyderm
de Pachyderme
36
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Next AfRSG Meeting
Prochaine réunion du GSRAf
I am pleased to report that with assistance of a
Service, Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation
plusieurs bailleurs de fonds le Fonds pour la conservation
du Tigre et du Rhinocéros du Service de la Pêche et de
la Faune des Etats-Unis, Save the Rhino International,
International Rhino Foundation, UK’s DEFRA,
rhinocéros, DEFRA du Royaume-Uni, la Fondation pour
la Faune Africaine, la Fondation des Parcs pour la Paix
which has been facing the biggest onslaught of
plus grande attaque du braconnage, en février 2016, ce qui
correspond bien à la prochaine CdP17 de la CITES plus
as of 31 December 2015 will largely be compiled
continental le 31 décembre 2015 sera compilé lors de la
collection of additional information from Range
d’Etats de l’aire de répartition d’autres renseignements qui
to inform the CITES Secretariat and Parties at
Getting an East African Rhino
Management Group operational
Mise en marche du Groupe de gestion du
rhinocéros de l’Afrique de l’Est
à participer à une réunion régionale prévue en Afrique
asked to assist with a planned regional meeting
to try to get the East African Rhino Management
préliminaires sont que l’atelier proposé aura lieu à la
Preliminary indications are the proposed workshop
conservation du rhinocéros en Afrique australe, on espère
also add value to the region’s rhino conservation
Zakouma NP Assessment
Evaluation du Parc National de Zakouma
During the period under review I visited Zakouma
national de Zakouma au Tchad pour évaluer son potentiel
assistance from Dr Pete Morkel, we found the area
to offer fair to good habitat in an isolated setting
suitable for the establishment of a viable black
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Pete Morkel, nous avons trouvé que la région peut offrir
un habitat passable à bon dans un cadre isolé pour établir
37
Knight
la magistrature suprême et un bon soutien de la gestion
plus inquiétante est potentiellement de petits groupes très
worrying threat is potentially from small highly
Acknowledgements, Welcome
and Thanks
As usual I would like to gratefully acknowledge the
Remerciements, Bienvenue et
Gratitude
sponsors principaux: le Fonds de conservation du tigre
et du rhinocéros du Service de la Pêche et de la Faune
Service, Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation
International Rhino Foundation; UK’s DEFRA
Fondation Internationale pour le Rhinocéros, DEFRA du
Royaume-Uni et le soutien logistique du Fonds pour la
I would like to welcome the new managing
editor of Pachyderm
chef de Pachyderme
challenges and technical tasks in the absence of the
level of support and help made available previously
Kees Rookmaaker for his continued voluntary
contributions to Pachyderm as the Rhino Section
Last but not least, I would like to thank the
unwavering and insightful support provided by
et reconnaître Kees Rookmaaker pour ses contributions
volontaires et constantes à Pachyderme en tant qu’éditeur
indéfectible et perspicace fourni par mon vice-président,
References
Sixth Rhino: A Taxonomic Re-Assessment of the
PLoS ONE
Report, Beyond enforcement: communities,
governance, incentives and sustainable use in
combating wildlife crime, 26-28 February 2015,
38
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
African Rhino Specialist Group report
Rhinoceroses: Assessment of rhino horn as a
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
39
Asian Rhino Specialist Group report
Rapport du Groupe des Spécialistes des Rhinocéros d’Asie
Bibhab Kumar Talukdar, Chair/Président
Aaranyak, 50 Samanwoy Path (Survey), PO Beltola, Guwahati – 781 028, Assam, India
email: [email protected]
The greater one-horned rhino
population touches 3,500 in
South Asia
despite some poaching of rhinos being reported
La population du grand rhinocéros
unicorne atteint 3,500 en Asie du Sud
La situation générale du grand rhinocéros unicorne en
de quelques braconnages de rhinocéros signalés dans les
Etats de l’aire de répartition du rhinocéros de l’Assam
national de Kaziranga a une population estimée à 2401
rhinocéros, alors que le Sanctuaire de la Faune de Pabitora
détient une population estimée à 92 rhinocéros, le Parc
national d’Orang détient à peu près 100 rhinocéros et le
population estimée à 186 rhinocéros et le Parc national
actuels du grand rhinocéros unicorne dans le Parc national
de Chitwan est de 605 alors que 29 se trouvent dans le
tandis que la Réserve de la faune de Parsa et les zones
the current global wild population crossed the
Camera trapping of Javan rhinos
in Indonesia shows encouraging
signs
Avec l’augmentation du nombre des grands rhinocéros
unicornes, la population sauvage mondiale a actuellement
Le piégeage photographique des
rhinocéros de Java en Indonésie
montre un signe encourageant
Les efforts de piégeage photographique des autorités du
40
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Asian Rhino Specialist Group report
de recherche: Suivi de la population des rhinocéros de
pas seulement parce que la population des rhinocéros de
recognized as the camera trap pictures were out
pouvaient pas être reconnus car les photos des pièges
positive pour ces trois, ils n’ont pas été inclus dans le
for a second suitable habitat within Indonesia to
another safe and viable population to save the
et cela donne de l’espoir pour la recherche d’un second
habitat convenable en Indonésie pour la translocation de
rhinos using this new area as per the records shared
Rhino poaching scenario in Asia
In India, Assam lost about 31 rhinos to poaching
qui utilisent cette nouvelle zone selon les informations
2013, a reduction of rhino poaching by about 25%
has been observed and this is due to combined
operations being carried out by a Special Task
Force of Assam police, local police stations and
Scénario de braconnage du rhinocéros
en Asie
rhino to poaching in 2014 and again another in
une comparaison avec 2013, on a remarqué une réduction
du braconnage de rhinocéros d’environ 25% et cela est
measures in the past few years is encouraging and
poachers with better coordination, timely actions
En Inde, l’Assam a perdu environ 31 rhinocéros à cause
du braconnage en 2014 et pendant les six premiers mois
de travail spécial de la police de l’Assam, les postes
de la police locale et les responsables forestiers pour
occidental a également perdu un rhinocéros au braconnage
en 2014 et encore un autre au cours des six premiers
and Sumatran rhinos no poaching information is
rhinocéros sont encourageantes et cela révèle comment un
pays peut lutter contre les braconniers avec une meilleure
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
41
Talukdar
PHVA workshops for Asian rhinos
along with the Department of Environment and
workshop on Indian Rhino Vision 2020 Population
Modelling to review progress with IRV 2020
The workshop focused primarily on Manas and
Burachapori, but other areas were also discussed
of presentations to discuss the current situation and
to outline current and future challenges, namely:
discussing and determining the real numbers
needed for the long-term success of the IRV
2020, taking into account our experience in
Manas with poaching losses
modelling predicted population growth rates
and the numbers of rhinos needed to make
translocations a success
discussing ways to ameliorate known threats as
The workshop was facilitated by Phil
coordination, des actions opportunes et une détermination
en danger critique il n’y a pas d’informations disponibles
Les ateliers d’Analyse de Viabilité des
Populations et de l’Habitat pour les
rhinocéros d’Asie:
la conservation et la Fondation Internationale pour le
Rhinocéros et aussi le Ministère de l’Environnement et
des Forêts du gouvernement de l’Assam, à tenir un petit
atelier sur la Modélisation de la population des rhinocéros
pour la Vision 2020 de l’Inde pour le Rhinocéros dans le
but d’examiner les progrès des translocations de la Vision
réussite à long terme de la Vision 2020 de l’Inde pour
le Rhinocéros, en tenant compte de notre expérience
dans Manas avec des pertes dues au braconnage
et le nombre de rhinocéros nécessaires pour que les
translocations soient un succès
together with Susie Ellis, Executive Director of
International Rhino Foundation and the Red List
L’atelier a porté principalement sur Manas et
Burachapori, mais d’autres zones ont également été
Foundation along with Ministry of Environment
and Sumatran rhino, organized in Taman Safari,
Indonesia during 11–13 March and 16–18 March
Dr Phil Miller, administrateur principal du programme du
to:
de la Fondation Internationale pour le Rhinocéros et de
and Sumatran rhinos by population modelling
through a series of simulation programmes
de spécialistes sur la reproduction et la conservation,
la Fondation Internationale pour le Rhinocéros et
aussi le Ministère de l’Environnement et des Forêts
de la République d’Indonésie à organiser des ateliers
en Indonésie du 11 au 13 mars et du 16 au 18 mars 2015
42
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Asian Rhino Specialist Group report
Phil Miller, Senior Programme Officer,
Sumatra
Ellis, Executive Director of International Rhino
Foundation and the Red List Authority for Asian
une série de programmes de simulation en utilisant
but d’examiner les menaces et de voir comment
elles pourraient conduire à l’extinction possible des
nécessaires à prendre pour assurer l’avenir des
Ellis, Directrice exécutive de la Fondation Internationale
pour le Rhinocéros et de l’Autorité de la Liste Rouge pour
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
43
Barnes et al.
RESEARCH
Retrospective versus prospective designs for studies of cropraiding by elephants in Kakum, Ghana
Richard F.W. Barnes,1* Emmanuel Danquah,2 Emmanuel M. Hema,3 Umaru-Farouk
Dubiure,4 Mildred Manford,5 Awo Nandjui6 and Yaw Boafo7
Ecology, Behavior and Evolution Section, Biology Division, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA
92093-0116, USA (Present address: Department of Medicine, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla,
CA 92093-8651, USA)
2
Department of Wildlife and Range Management, Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
3
Université de Ouagadougou/CUP-D, laboratoire de Biologie et Ecologie Animales, 09 BP 848, Ouagadougou
09, Burkina Faso
4
Wildlife Division, Accra, Ghana (Present address: Mole National Park, PO Box 8, Damongo, Ghana)
5
2720 Foster Ave, Apt #1A, Brooklyn, NY 11210, USA
6
21 BP 721, Abidjan 21, Côte d’lvoire
7
Wildlife Division, P.O. Box M239, Accra, Ghana
*corresponding author email: [email protected]
1
Abstract
include distance of farm to reserve boundary line, area under cultivation, number of crop types on farm and
Additional key words:
Résumé
La maraude des cultures par les éléphants continuera à être exacerbée par l’expansion des populations
44
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Retrospective versus prospective designs for studies of crop raiding by elephants in Kakum, Ghana
Mots clés supplémentaires:
Introduction
People and elephants come into more frequent contact
has many values that are zero (that is, there were many
A retrospective study is one in which the researcher
and then looks backward to collect data on what has
one understands the farmland landscape features that
that a retrospective design is a more cost-effective
reduced by advising farmers how to modify their
situation is different: while distance of farm to reserve
boundary line, area under cultivation, number of crop
types on farm and degree of farm’s isolation may be
risk factors common to all sites, wildlife managers will
usually need to identify the most important variables
that attract elephants to the farmland around their
paper described how the design of studies of crop
raiding should take account of the aims of the study
how large a sample is needed to achieve the statistical
Study site and methods
predominant activity in communities surrounding
KCA, resulting in a landscape mosaic of cultivation,
cash crops cultivated include cocoa, oil palm, and
paper described simple methods for analyzing the
was aimed particularly at researchers who need to
the system of farming is rain-fed shifting cultivation,
farming activity is done throughout the year, resulting
present paper we expand upon the analysis described
was the site for the largest and longest study of crop
a prospective design was chosen for the 2001 crop
beginning of the season and monitored for nine months
followed them forward throughout the length of the
hundred and three farms in those communities were
compared to our earlier analysis, because most farms
All crop raiding incidents on each farm were recorded
measurements was made on each farm: distance from
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
45
Barnes et al.
the KCA boundary, area of farm, distance from the
next nearest farm, number of crop types and area of
Ordinary least squares models have the form Y = a
+ bX, where Y is the dependent variable and X is the
independent variable, and the residuals are normally
form:
lnY = a + bX
which is the same as:
Prospective design
The number of crop raiding incidents was not normally
The residuals are Poisson distributed and the model
untouched and each of these had a value of zero for
raid, a few suffered two or three, and a tiny handful
means that predicted values of Y can never be negative
are typical of count data and the usual methods of
farm of the numbers of crop raiding incidents were
regression models, which are part of the family of
variables were those likely to attract elephants into the
Number of farms that suffered raids
monitored during the course of the growing season,
180
greater than that expected from a Poisson
160
140
120
the appropriate method to use when you have
a count data with a disproportionate number of
100
80
60
40
estimates the probability (p0
20
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Number of raids
Figure 1. Frequency histogram of elephant cropraiding incidents on a sample of 203 farms around
the Kakum Conservation Area in the growing season of
2001. The curve shows the fitted Poisson distribution.
probability 1 – p0
To illustrate this example, we used only two
farm from the KCA boundary, and the number of crop
shown in Table 1 (note that some farms were dropped
46
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Retrospective versus prospective designs for studies of crop raiding by elephants in Kakum, Ghana
Retrospective design
means that as one moved away from the KCA the odds
increased that the farm will be a zero (that is, it will
Selection of controls
the number of crop types had no effect on the risk of
Using the data from the KCA study, let us assume
Table 1. Results of the zero-inflated Poisson regression
model applied to farms around the Kakum Conservation
Area (n = 199 farms). SE: standard error
Stage
Parameter
Inflate portion
Poisson portion
the intact farms there is an issue that we have not
yet addressed: the 203 farms were
not distributed randomly across the
Estimate
SE
p
Intercept
Distance to boundary
Number of crop types
0.140
0.003
–0.153
1.017
0.001
0.195
0.890
0.004
0.434
the probability of crop raids within
Intercept
Distance to boundary
Number of crop types
–0.958
0.000
0.351
0.801
0.000
0.135
0.232
0.928
0.009
can remove the variation due to the
communities by matching each raided
farm against one or more intact farms
The lower half of Table 1 deals with the Poisson
part of the model, that is, the number of incidents
that distance from the boundary was not associated
the number of crop types was strongly associated (p
randomly-distributed communities
we matched each raided farm with
one randomly selected intact farm from the same
measurement of distance to the park boundary, so it
had been measured in that particular community and
so that left 28 raided and 27 intact farms in this sample
In the second step we intended to match each raided
estimate is a measure of the risk ratio, the greater risk
associated with a one unit increase in the independent
each time you increased the variety of crops on your
farm by adding another crop type, you increased the
communities with many intact farms we randomly
selected up to three intact farms to match to each
This prospective design was expensive in terms of
personnel and resources, because each farm had to
two or three intact farms we had a sample of 57 intact
farms to the 28 raided ones, a ratio of almost 2:1 for
found that only 29 out of 203 farms were raided by
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
47
Barnes et al.
Table 2. Estimates of median distance from boundary and median number of crop types for raided
and intact farms
Median distance to boundary (m)
Median number of crop types
Median distance to boundary (m)
Median number of crop types
Raided
farms
Intact farms
Wilcoxon rank-sum
test1
z
p
324.5
3.0
690.0
2.0
Raided
farms
Intact
farms
Wilcoxon
rank-sum test
z (p)
324.5
3.0
596.0
2.0
3.21 (0.001)
2.33 (0.020)
2.64
1.63
0.008
0.103
Table 3. Estimates from the conditional logistic regression models
48
Odds ratio
95% CI for
odds ratio
Wald p
Distance to boundary (m)
0.997
0.994, 0.999
0.021
Number of crop types
1.372
0.824, 2.282
0.224
Odds ratio
95% CI for
odds ratio
Wald p
Distance to boundary (m)
0.997
0.994, 0.999
0.021
Number of crop types
1.372
0.824, 2.282
0.224
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Retrospective versus prospective designs for studies of crop raiding by elephants in Kakum, Ghana
regression, designed to account for the matching was
Results
For example, the ZIP model from the prospective
design indicates that distance from the boundary
determines the risk of whether or not a farm is raided
while the number of crop types determines whether a
retrospective method shows that both distance from
were on average twice as far from the KCA boundary
The data collection methods were not designed
regression is another way of expressing this relationship
Rather, we have taken advantage of this large data
moved away from the boundary the odds of being
retrospective experiment indicated that if you have
of both distance from the boundary and number of
the odds of suffering a raid decreased by a factor of
raiding the retrospective design will be the most cost-
The results shown in Tables 2 and 3 make the point
will require intense work at the end of the growing
season, but anything less may lack the statistical
For example, prospective surveys show the proportion
Discussion
prospective surveys conducted in different years will
yield information on whether or not the problem is
involving the senior staff of the KCA and the research
were given to understand that the landscape was being
ravaged by marauding elephants, in the end only 15%
a relief to learn that the problem was not as bad as
claimed, regular monitoring of 203 farms was not a
In contrast, the retrospective method is far more
cost-effective because repeated visits to each farm
are not required; each farm need be visited only once,
Farms around the KCA were scattered through the
taking a completely random sample of farms around
order to cut travel costs it was more practical to select
a number of villages at random, and then select farms
around a particular village may share a characteristic
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
49
Barnes et al.
farms may be more alike than a sample of farms selected
other words, there is a degree of correlation between
therefore two sources of variation: variability between
farms in the same village, and variability between
References
Methods for improving regression analysis for skewed
Annual Review of
Public Health
Gajah
account for this will underestimate the true standard
Gajah
hypothesis when it is true (Shoukriand Chaudhary
overview of crop raiding by elephants around the
one can take a random sample of intact farms from
African Journal of
variation between farms and between communities
of analysis becomes quite complicated especially if
Carefully planned studies will show which features
of the farming landscape are most likely to draw
Kakum it was obvious before we started that the farms
Ecology
raiding by elephants around the Kakum Conservation
Pachyderm
Boafo Y, Dubiure, U–F, Danquah E, Manford M,
Long-term management of crop raiding by elephants
Pachyderm
Epidemiology
But with the present analysis we know that, once you
Modeling count data
Applied logistic
regression
Acknowledgements
Statistics for environmental
science and management
Generalized linear
models
nalysis of
the Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, the United
correlated data
Epidemiology: Study design
and data analysis
been possible without the effort and cooperation of
50
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Assessing perceived and documented crop damage in a Tanzanian village impacted by human-elephant conflict (HEC)
Assessing perceived and documented crop damage in a
Tanzanian village impacted by human-elephant conflict (HEC)
Rebekah R Hoffmeier-Karimi1, Bruce A Schulte1,2
Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA 30460, USA
Current address and correspondence: Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green,
KY 42101, USA
1
2
*corresponding author email: [email protected]
Abstract
methods for crop loss are numerous and such schemes could be made more effective by an improved understanding
Zea mays
Agriculturalists must also realize the detrimental effects of regular, low-level impacts such as water-scarcity
Additional key words: Mitigation, perception
Résumé
Zea mays
compte des effets néfastes d’impacts réguliers et de bas niveau tels que le manque d’eau et de pilleurs de récoltes
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
51
Hoffmeier-Karimi and Schulte
Mots clés supplementaires: Atténuation, perception
Introduction
In sub-Saharan Africa, crop raiding comprises a
pervasive and economically damaging form of humanlosses to wild animals are often the top perceived
factors that shape coping strategies and risk perception
ecological knowledge of the Maasai community
shows the value of combining surveys of humans with
especially in boundary areas between farms and wild
can damage crops, African elephants (Loxodonta
africana
Further costs to communities attributed to elephants
over water for livestock, social disruption and the
loss of productivity due to choosing guard duties over
deter elephants, but in retaliation to events such as
crop-raiding, humans often kill any readily located
a greater issue to agriculturalists than to pastoralists;
of the farmers toward elephants in comparison with
people assess risk based on their perceptions (Renn
Other studies have assessed the causes of crop
affect perceptions of those where human-elephant
required to generalize from a single study site and
Over the past 15 years, important advances have
the need for the implementation of socio-political
measures to continue progress toward more harmonious
entail consideration of land use practices and the
successful employment of such practices necessitates
perception of farmers relative to the actual sources of
crop loss is essential for the long-term reduction of
simultaneous evaluation of perception of damage and
farmers in dealing with current and future crop raiding
areas in which elephants are one of potentially many
study was to compare the perception by farmers of the
causes and extent of crop damage to the measured crop
Zea mays
Interviews provide the best means for determining
the attitude of the farmers toward wildlife (Badola
52
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Assessing perceived and documented crop damage in a Tanzanian village impacted by human-elephant conflict (HEC)
Materials and methods
The village of Miti Mirefu is composed mainly of
Masai pastoralists, and agriculturalists, primarily of the
Study area
Endarakwai Ranch encompasses 4,300 ha of woodland
studied African elephants at this property, which serves
as a wildlife corridor for elephants between Amboseli,
Assessment of farmers’ perceptions
Interviews
interview sessions in Kiswahili
questions and interview technique
were reviewed with a colleague in the
local villager to facilitate the interview
process although one of us spoke
interview, we obtained a signed consent
form, established a relationship with the
participants and gathered background
information on farming practices and
session occurred at least two weeks
The second interview consisted
Each section had questions that
required either a yes/no response, or
questions explained below (Appendix
section one, we asked questions to
assess the participants’ perception of
past crop damage (pictures of damage
categorized as 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%
Figure 1. Location (marked by star) of the study
site, Endarakwai Game Ranch (Map courtesy
of African Wildlife Foundation).
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
we assessed the participants’ use and perception of
deterrent methods and included pictures of possible
53
Hoffmeier-Karimi and Schulte
maintenance such as using pesticides, herbicides,
samples in areas without damage, each of 12 m length,
attribute damage to particular biotic factors (again
m belt transect, and we calculated the mean ears per
insects, rodents, domestic animals and non-domestic
damage caused and to provide an overall estimate of
damage, using the same pictures of categorical damage
transect did not equal 10% or more of the area, we also
bird, bushpig, cattle, elephant, goat, insect and/or lack
Perception Analysis
to questions on their background to describe their
multiplied by the average proportion of damage (Fd
with a value of 5 given to the cause of the greatest
by each factor by calculating the total undamaged
Quantification of crop damage
used deterrent methods and whether these were active
Comparison of crop damage and farmers’
attitudes
and the factors that caused damage to the factors the
calculated the accuracy of perception by using the
54
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Assessing perceived and documented crop damage in a Tanzanian village impacted by human-elephant conflict (HEC)
is why the grand sum of the percentages exceeds
A negative accuracy of perception indicated that the
positive accuracy of perception indicated damage was
were considered inaccurate if the difference between
perceived and actual proportions of damage exceeded
loss events, participants attributed complete loss to
elephants (Loxodonta africana
(Potamochoerus larvatus
(Papio anubis; 33%:
complete damage in a single season was perceived to
and actual damage was expected due to the use of
examined if attributes of farmers (background,
Among insects, rodents, domestic animals, elephants
answers to the interview demographic questions to
identify distinguishing characteristics of the groups
answering that elephants had caused the most damage
Results
factors that had damaged their crops in the past
Background of farmers
primarily elephants, other wildlife and insects; no
The participants that completed both interview
Crop damage quantification
Eight participants were born in Miti Mirefu, while
450
400
have an occupation outside of farming, while seven
350
Yield Damaged (ears of maize)
agriculture as their primary source of income for
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Elephants
Bushpigs
Lack of Water
Insects
Domes c
Birds
Damage Factor
participants depended on the yield from their crop
Perception assessment
experienced more than one complete loss over their
history of farming, so we included each event, which
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Figure 2. Damage to maize occurring in measured fields
was attributed to several damage factors. Estimated
yield damaged was calculated by multiplying the mean
proportion of damage from each factor by the mean
yield of the crop. Upper box marks the third quadrant
and lower box indicates the second quadrant. The
dividing line marks the median and bars encompass
the full range of measured data.
55
Hoffmeier-Karimi and Schulte
were categorized by combining bushpig,
baboon, and birds, the maximal damage was
Damage by insects was evident in 58% of
Crop damage was not related to deterrent
Actual damage and perceived
damage
perceptions assessed, nine participants
Figure 4. Perceived verses actual damage proportions.
Nine participants were accurate in their perception of
crop damage experienced (n = 9). Five participants
overestimated crop damage experienced (n = 5).
sample size (n = 9 for accurate and n = 5 for overmeasure contributed to the inability of these measures
Figure 3. The proportion of fields damaged multiplied
by the average damage proportion of a field by each
biotic damage factor. Y-axis = (proportion of fields
damaged* average damage); for the sake of clarity,
the scale bar has been truncated at 0.02
agreed that their crop was irrigated adequately, 93%
average percentage of maize that was damaged by a
lack of water was 18%, while the mean area damaged
56
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Assessing perceived and documented crop damage in a Tanzanian village impacted by human-elephant conflict (HEC)
There was no association between farming experience
and damage attributed to a lack of water (pairwise
with the local people, facilitating participation and
Interviewees rated the destruction of a cornstalk
as more detrimental than the removal of or damage
Discussion
bushpigs were the most likely means by which
and insects foraged on particular ears, permitting
perception by farmers of the extent and factors causing
crop damage to the actual damage experienced in their
was a persistent and visible problem, although
participants responded that their fields were
application would be to implement this dual approach
in other areas and on a larger scale with the goal
was no rain, requiring participants to use laborious
Improving crop viability is at odds with increased
elephants were in fact the greatest risk to the maize
lower effort and growing drought resistant varieties
would likely improve crop success; however, richer
Most farmers did not experience elephant raiding in
the current season but all experienced other, regular
participants base their perception on the severity more
this infrequent but severe impact is broadly applicable
stated that only crop damage by elephants led to farm
extent of destruction and human perception may be
programs that inform community members on the
if the severity of elephant impacts on humans were
has characteristics that are typical of many areas that
experience crop losses from a multitude of sources
a decade longer in Miti Mirefu and had been
farming for almost twice as many years as the
useful for predicting the accuracy of farmers in
Land-use planning can be helpful in reducing
the likelihood of crop raiding; farms in low-density
settlements such as Miti Mirefu and located near
wildlife refuges are particularly susceptible to crop
of crop damage, the perception of future damage
appears to be formed by the severity and not the
It is a self-contained village for which farming is the
other factors such as lack of water and small-scale
crop raiders having more regular impact on crop
for which we could quantify crop damage, rather than
to conduct broad scale surveys, which have been done
it may be worthwhile to extend our two-pronged
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
57
Hoffmeier-Karimi and Schulte
the perception and the actual causes of crop reduction
or failure is integral to development of successful
elephants, Loxodonta africana, in Laikipia, Kenya,
Systematics and Biodiversity
Acknowledgements
Mirefu and to individuals who assisted in reviewing
considerations involving biological, physical and
Pachyderm
advice of two bio-statisticians who assure us that
the statistical methods were appropriate although the
Pachyderm
damage in a Tanzanian village impacted by humanproperties of African elephant (Loxodonta africana
Excellence and Professional Development grants, and
elephants and conservation: Samburu pastoralists
Society & Natural Resources
(Loxodonta africana
References
conservation and alternatives to forest resources: a
Biodiversity
and Conservation
African elephants and other mammals at a Tanzanian
African Journal of Ecology
African Journal of
Ecology
ecological factors shaping local support for wildlife:
crop–raiding by elephants and other wildlife in
literature review and case studies from Uganda and
a response to changes in forage quality or crop
African Journal of Ecology
solutions: the evolution of an integrated approach to
Conservation Biology
Human Dimensions in Wildlife
Environmental Conservation
58
strategies
Conservation Research Unit, Oxford University,
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Assessing perceived and documented crop damage in a Tanzanian village impacted by human-elephant conflict (HEC)
Oryx
paradigm: can agricultural communities co-exist with
Biological Conservation
crop loss: human and technical dimensions in
Participants were shown pictures depicting: 1 = some
Oryx
Toxicity Letters
knowledge of a human-elephant interaction in
Transmara District, Kenya: implications for research
Advances in Anthropology
approach for assessing the costs of living with wildlife
the failure of a community-based human-wildlife
Group B. Deterrent method perception
For some of the following questions, participants were
asked to identify to which extent they agree with the
statements: A = strongly agree; B = mildly agree; C
= undecided or unsure; D = mildly disagree; or E =
Oryx
it was effective and less damage was
Appendix 1
The second interview session was divided into 3
groups of questions and assessed the perceptions
of participants’ past damage, use of deterrents, and
Group A. Past damage perception
Participants were asked to assign an extent to the
following questions:
1 = some; 2 = medium amount; 3 = large amount; 4 =
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
B7
I provide adequate water for the crops in
B8
There are deterrents I believe would be
B9
If you strongly agree with B8, why haven’t
59
Hoffmeier-Karimi and Schulte
Participants were presented with a number of pictures
‘bells’ attached, a chilli pepper, a 3-m clearing on both
C9
Using pictures of damage, how much
C11
B10
Do you see any pictures of methods that
you feel will reduce crop damage in your
B11
If yes to #B10, which pictures show the
B14
If yes to #B12, which pictures shows the
I am worried that the factor from the
answer to #C10 will again cause damage
B16
Are any of these deterrent methods are
strongly agree; B = mildly agree; C =
undecided or unsure; D = mildly disagree;
B17
If yes to #B16, which methods are
B18
If more than one answer to #B17, rank them:
Group C. Perceived factors causing
damage
C12
Using past experiences, which factor
C14
If more than one, rank them from most
Open- ended
C1
In the past, have you lost an entire season’s
C2
If yes to #C1, which factor was the loss
C4
If more than one answer to #C3, rank them
from most damage to least damage caused:
from most worried to least worried:
Participants were presented with a variety of
pictures including: 1/2 = insects & rodents: locusts,
grasshopper, beetles, tomato insects; field mice,
rats; 3 = domestic: cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys; 4
= non-domestic: bushpig, impala, wildebeest, zebra,
60
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Habitat utilization of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) on Willem Pretorius Game Reserve,
Free-State Province, South Africa
Habitat utilization of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum
simum) on Willem Pretorius Game Reserve, Free-State Province,
South Africa
Herman Jordaan1, Leslie R Brown1 and Kerry Slater1*
Applied Behavioural Ecology and Ecosystem Research Unit, Department of Environmental Sciences, UNISA,
Private Bag X6 Florida 1710 South Africa
* corresponding author email: [email protected]
1
Abstract
The grassland biome of the Free-State Province of South Africa meets all the suggested habitat requirements
The results of this study suggest that in areas that experience hot or cold environments, some form of cover
Additional keywords: Diet, range size, plant communities
Résumé
Le biome des herbages de la province de l’Etat-Libre d’Orange de l’Afrique du Sud répond à toutes les exigences
de l’habitat proposé pour le rhinocéros blanc, mais contrairement aux zones plus chaudes de la savane, il subit
et les données sur les déplacements et l’utilisation de l’habitat par les rhinocéros blancs ont été recueillies sur
et le veld herbeux ont été utilisés beaucoup moins que prévu, mais le veld épineux et les habitats boisés et
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
61
Jordaan et al.
que dans les zones qui connaissent des environnements chauds ou froids, une certaine forme de couverture
Mots-clés supplémentaires:
Introduction
(Ceratotherium simum simum
across southern Africa in suitable habitats of semiBy the late 19th century, except for a small population
herbivores in the grassland biome, these white rhinos
are exposed to this abundance of low quality food
dispersed over the landscapes in which they occur
of how white rhinos utilize these landscapes, effective
mentioned habitat requirements of white rhinos but
being situated in the grassland biome it is much colder
aim of this study was to investigate how white rhinos
by the 1960s the white rhino population had increased
during 1962 a 2009 survey indicated that 214 white
biome of the Free-State Province and was conducted
Material and methods
Study area and white rhinoceros
population
who analysed monitoring data collected from 1962
to 1997 to determine population performance of the
The reserve is 12,091 ha and surrounds the
general physiognomic features are represented by
ecology of white rhinos, have been restricted to the
Perrin and Brereton-Stiles 1999; Shrader and Perrin
The habitat of the white rhino Africa-wide includes
areas with medium-tall and short grass savannahs
cover, and water for drinking and wallowing (Player
and Feely 1960; Traill 2004; Skinner and Chimimba
reserve contains sandstones and mudstones of the
Beaufort series, whilst the northern section consists of
a series of resistant dolerite intrusions and sandstone
ridges that extend from east to west along the Sand
C
to 30 C in summer and from below 0 C to 15 C in
winter, (lowest temperature recorded was -11o
an average annual rainfall of 578 mm, most of which
o
o
o
o
to feed on high quality short grasses due to their wide
square lips but will broaden their variety of grass
species eaten and include longer less nutritious species
during the dry season when green nutritious grasses
become scarce (Owen-Smith 1988; Pienaar and du
was conducted is an environment with abundance
62
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Habitat utilization of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) on Willem Pretorius Game Reserve,
Free-State Province, South Africa
Eragrostis curvula, Digitaria
eriantha, Themeda triandra, Panicum coloratum,
Cynodon dactylon, Aristida congesta subsp. congesta
and Cymbopogon pospischili. Prominent trees
include, Acacia karroo, Ziziphus mucronata, Grewia
occidentalis, Olea europea africana, Celtis africana,
Euclea crispa, Searsia pyroides, Searsia lancea and
Lycium echinatum. Other than white rhinos, wildlife
species that occur on the reserve include: buffalo
(Syncerus caffer), Burchell’s zebra (Equus burchelli),
warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and eighteen
as steep slopes, dongas, wetlands and hills together
variations in the vegetation of the study area were
sampled, 40 sample plots of 400m2 were placed on a
on the size of the unit delineated on the ortho-photo,
with more plots being placed in large communities
of the sample plots, all plant species were recorded
and the cover abundance was estimated using the
For the purpose of this study a section of about
Floristic data was captured into the database
for this is that the chosen section of the reserve is the
approximation of the plant communities was derived
(one adult bull, eight adult cows, four sub-adult cows,
had previously been micro-chipped and ear-notched
have been maintained between 16 and 20 individuals,
provided a sex ratio of 1:9 productive adults is
maintained, with excess rhinos being translocated to
means of the phytosociological table and the habitat
information collected during sampling, different
recognized by means of diagnostic species that are
for a particular community if it was present within
value is slightly higher than the 9% suggested by
if as species occurred in 70% of the sample plots of
plots outside the community, it would be considered
moving around with their mothers or other females,
for the purpose of this study the ranging patterns and
habitat utilization of these age classes are considered
Plant communities of the study area
Range use
through direct observation were collected between
on a map of the reserve, and analysed to determine
Two 1:10,000 ortho-photos were used to stratify
the study area into physiognomic-physiographic
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
to calculate range sizes as minimum convex polygons
63
Jordaan et al.
Habitat utilization and diet
rhinos for 24 hours at a time (four days per month
time they moved into a different plant community, this
was recorded and utilized to determine preference
(occurred more frequently in given habitat than
(occurred less frequently in given habitat than expected
communities based on their availability within the
The plant species that the rhinos fed on were
(each day determined by feeding after waking and
recorded as feeding observation and only after the
next sleeping period was the next feeding observation
vlei
Cymbopogon excavatus
Eragrostis curvula-Acacia karroo rocky woodland
Acacia karroo-Setaria verticillata dense
Acacia karroo-Cynodon dactylon savannah
Acacia karroo-Enneapogon scoparius rocky
Acacia karroo-Grewia occidentalis midslope
Triraphus andropogonoides-Aristida diffusa
plateau grassland
Aristida diffusa-Cymbopogon pospischili
Aristida diffusa-Hyparrhenia hirta plateau
A detailed description of the plant communities
but for the purpose of this study, a brief description is
the area to allow access to the feeding patch, these
quadrat per individual present was sampled per feeding
1. Cynodon hirsutus dam edge Grassland
This community occurs on the lowest lying areas
within the one square metre then the most abundant
data were used to calculate the percentage that each
grass species contributed to the total number of grass
species recorded to have been eaten by the rhinos
dominated by the grass Cynodon hirsutus with the
grasses Aristida bipartita, Eragrostis curvula, Aristida
adscensionis and the forbs Schkuhria pinnata and
Conyza bonariensis
Results
2. Themeda triandra-Setaria incrassata
Grassland
Plant communities of the study area
This community is located throughout the study area
on gentle slopes and lower-lying areas associated
Due to the heterogeneous topography of the study
area, variation exists in the habitats, which resulted in
the recognition of 10 plant communities, which were
The vegetation is dominated by the palatable grasses
Themeda triandra and Setaria incrassata
grasses Eragrostis curvula and Digitaria eriantha
respective sub-communities:
Cynodon hirsutus
2 Themeda triandra-Setaria incrassata moist
grassland
Panicum coloratum-Eragrostis obtusa moist
64
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Habitat utilization of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) on Willem Pretorius Game Reserve,
Free-State Province, South Africa
Table 1. Range size of white rhinos within study area of the Willem Pretorius Game Reserve between July
2007 and June 2008
Individual
Dry season range
Number of
Wet season range
Number of
ID
(km²)
observations
(km²)
observations
Cow 21
4.756
38
4.661
31
Cow 25
3.609
29
4.520
23
Cow 26
5.047
25
3.126
25
Cow 8
1.973
10
3.840
13
Cow 13
4.754
25
2.773
12
Bull
6.367
61
8.134
42
3. Cymbopogon excavatus valley Grassland
This is the smallest community and occurs as an
isolated area within the Acacia karroo-Cynodon
dactylon
vegetation is dominated by the grasses Cymbopogon
excavatus and Themeda triandra while the forbs
Pentzia viridus and Monsonia angustifolia are also
4. Eragrostis curvula-Acacia karroo rocky
Woodland
is dominated by a mixture of species including the
grasses Triraphus andropogonoides, Aristida diffusa,
Digitaria eriantha, Cymbopogon pospischili, and the
forbs Cheilanthes eckloniana and Blepharis squarrosa
Range use
The criteria of at least 10 data points to generate
than 30 points to generate density kernel estimates
This community is located throughout the study area
on slopes, lower-lying and high-lying areas associated
Acacia karroo dominates the woody layer while
dominant grasses include
and
Eragrostis curvula. The forbs Conyza bonariensis,
Tagetes minuta and Bidens pilosa are present
throughout the community
5. Triraphus andropogonoides-Aristida diffusa plateau Grassland
This community lies on top of the Doringberg
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
65
66
279
280
281
282
277
278
3, 5.1,5.2
4.4
Grassveld
Trees and
Shrubveld
1
4.2
3, 5.1,5.2
4.4
Damkom
Savannah
Grassveld
Trees and
Shrubveld
52
83.5
342
195
118
22
290
52
83.5
342
195
118
22
290
Total
habitat
type
0.047
0.076
0.310
0.177
0.107
0.020
0.263
0.047
0.076
0.310
0.177
0.107
0.020
0.263
Proportion
of total
hectares
(Pi0)a
524
78
281
60
113
192
100
195
59
273
186
253
227
86
Number of
observations of
rhinos
0.389
0.058
0.208
0.045
0.084
0.142
0.074
0.152
0.046
0.213
0.145
0.198
0.177
Proportion
observed
in each habitat
type
(Pi )
0.067
64
102
418
238
144
27
355
60
97
397
226
137
26
336
Expected b
number of
rhino
sightings
Less*
More*
More*
Less*
Less*
Less*
More*
Less*
More*
Less*
Less*
Less*
Less*
More*
0.048 ≤ p ≤ 0.086
0.149 ≤ p ≤ 0.206
0.168 ≤ p ≤ 0.228
0.119 ≤ p ≤ 0.172
0.183 ≤ p ≤ 0.244
0.030 ≤ p ≤ 0.062
0.125 ≤ p ≤ 0.180
0.055 ≤ p ≤ 0.093
0.117 ≤ p ≤ 0.168
0.064 ≤ p ≤ 0.104
0.029 ≤ p ≤ 0.060
0.179 ≤ p ≤ 0.238
0.041 ≤ p ≤ 0.075
0.353≤ p ≤ 0.424
b
10
More / less
than
expected
Confidence interval
(95%) on observed
proportion of
occurrence (Pi )c
Proportions of total hectares represent expected rhino observation values as if rhinos occurred in each habitat in exact proportion to availability.
Calculated by multiplying proportion pi0 x n
c
pi represents theoretical proportion of occurrence and is compared to corresponding pi0 to determine if hypothesis of proportional use is accepted or rejected, i.e., pi =pi0.
a
4.1
River
4.3
4.2
Savannah
Thornveld
1
Damkom
2.1, 2.2
4.1
River
Wetland
4.3
Thornveld
Dry
Season
2.1, 2.2
Wetland
Wet
season
Plant sub
communities
(this study)
Habitat type
Season
Table 2 Occurrence of white rhinos in different habitat types in the wet and dry season on Willem Pretorius Game Reserve, Free State Province of
South Africa. (* indicates statistical significance at p = 0.05)
Jordaan et al.
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Habitat utilization of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) on Willem Pretorius Game Reserve,
Free-State Province, South Africa
Table 3. The percentage that different grass species contributed to the diet of white rhinos on Willem Pretorius
Game Reserve during the wet (n = 637) and dry (n = 490) season during this study
Plant species eaten
Cynodon species
Wet season
Dry season
47.4
31.4
Enneapogon scoparius
7.7
12.9
Themeda triandra
7.4
7.8
Eragrostis curvula
6.3
6.7
Aristida congesta
6.1
13.5
Hemarthria altissima
5.5
4.5
Panicum coloratum
3.6
2.4
Chloris virgata
3.0
5.1
Eragrostis lehmanniana
2.0
0.0
Digitaria eriantha
1.6
0.4
Cymbopogon plurinodes
1.3
1.6
Anthephora pubescens
1.1
0.0
Eragrostis rotifer
1.1
0.0
Heteropogon contortus
1.1
0.0
Sporobolus fimbriatus
1.1
2.0
Fingerhuthia Africana
0.9
0.0
Melica decumbens
0.9
0.0
Setaria sphacelata
0.9
0.0
Urochloa panicoides
0.9
0.0
Aristida adsensionis
0.0
2.2
Aristida diffusa burkei
0.0
0.6
Atriplex semibaccata
0.0
3.28
Brachiaria eruciformis
0.0
1.6
Eragrostis obtuse
0.0
0.2
Panicum maximum
0.0
4.9
Tragus racemosus
0.0
1.0
Urochloa oligotricha
0.0
1.0
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
67
Jordaan et al.
Habitat utilization and diet
most frequently throughout the year with a higher
To facilitate comparisons with previous vegetation
during this study were grouped into broad habitat
depressed grassland area between the full water mark
and the water surface of the Allemanskraal Dam was
observations in the various habitat types recorded
during this study were used to determine preference
and or avoidance of the different habitat types within
frequently eaten grass was Enneapogon scoparius
Aristida congesta and
Enneapogon scoparius
Themeda triandra
Eragrostis curvula
Aristida congesta
and Hemarthria altissima
grass species that contributed more than 5% to the
Themeda
triandra
Eragrostis curvula
Chloris
virgata
Panicum maximum
were the only other grass species that contributed
(Tree and Shrubveld, Savannah, Thornveld and
during the wet season but during the dry season were
Panicum maximum, Aristida adscensionis, Brachiaria
eruciformis, Urochloa oligotricha, Tragus racemosus,
Aristida diffusa and Eragrostis obtusa
expected utilization of each habitat type (based on their
Discussion
usage of habitat types by the white rhinos during both
habitat utilization by white rhinos in the Free State
plant communities and their respective sub communities
study area is heterogeneous and consists of a variety
expected but used the Thornveld (sub community
habitat types more than expected during both the wet
study, this may be due to the abundance of water
was used more than expected during the wet season,
dam and therefore rhinos do not have to travel longer
which could explain why differences in seasonal home
study area representing 134 genera and 51 families
were observed and 33 plant species were recorded to
The preference of some habitat types over others
indicates that certain habitat types provide preferred
species, 1 shrub species (Asparagus
Atriplex semibaccata,
types were preferred habitats during both the wet and
dry season, whereas the River habitat was preferred
habitat types are associated with some extent of tree
cover which would be important in protecting the
rhinos from the heat during the hot summer days and
rhinos varied between the wet and dry season
Cynodon
68
Thornveld had 65%-80% grass layer cover and is
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Habitat utilization of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) on Willem Pretorius Game Reserve,
Free State Province, South Africa
dominated by Enneapogon scoparius which is also
within the top three grass species that contribute to the
The Tree and Shrubveld had a tree density of 2,450
trees per hectare, with the woody species covering
between 45% and 70% of the area compared to the
having such a low grass cover, during the dry season
39% of rhino observations were in the thickets of steep
species such as Enneapogon scoparius, Panicum
coloratum, Eragrostis curvula and Panicum maximum
occur within this habitat, and during the dry season
were protected from frost due to them growing under
River habitat ranged between 70% and 100%, with the
The River habitat is characterized by Cynodon grass
species, which contributed the most to the rhino’s diet
Despite having suitable grass species present, the
to lack of tree or shrub cover, which protects the rhinos
from the heat during the wet season and the cold
Themeda grasslands during
the wet season and neglected Cynodon grasslands
during the dry seasons but utilized other grassland
areas and prefer habitats that have some form of cover
which is in contrast to what was found for white rhinos
Cynodon species contributed the most to the
rhino’s diet in both the wet and dry season during
Cynodon
highly nutritious species which form nutritious
grazing lawns that are ‘maintained’ by the rhinos
Cynodon
Aristida congesta, Enneapogon scoparius, Themeda
triandra, Eragrostis curvula, Hemarthria altissima
and Themeda triandra during the wet season and
Aristida congesta, Enneapogon scoparius, Eragrostis
curvula, Chloris virgate, Panicum maximum and
Themeda triandra
Panicum
maximum
Themeda triandra was used more frequently than in
areas had a grass cover of more than 97% and a woody
this study was observed to contribute more or less
and 85% and a woody layer of less than 3%-35% of
Cymbopogon
Aristida
Tragus berteronanus
however; Aristida congesta contributed 13% to the
diet of white rhinos during the dry season indicating
season they foraged in the short grasslands which
were dominated by Digitaria argyrograpta, Panicum.
coloratum, Urochloa mosambicensis and Sporobolus
nitens
in the woodland grassland areas that were dominated
by Panicum maximum but towards the end of the dry
quality grass species being available and therefore the
rhinos may be forced to eat poor quality food to meet
Cymbopogon pospichili
and Tragus berteronanus were however utilised very
short and Cynodon type grasslands during both the
wet and dry season but neglected the Themeda and
Bothriochloa grassland types (Shrader and Perrin,
Previous ecological studies of white rhinos
have generally occurred in savannah areas that are
characterized by hot, wet summers and mild, dry
winters whereas the grassland areas in which this
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
rhinos are predominantly short grass feeders (Player
69
Jordaan et al.
study was conducted are characterized by hot, wet
study suggest that differences in habitat resources
Primary grassland communities of urban open spaces
South African Journal of
Botany
season, adequate, although less nutritious grass species
package for input, processing and presentation
form of trees and or shrubs, and unlike white rhinos
its extremely cold winters and poor quality food, the
Free-State is a potentially harsh environment for white
rhinos however, provided the habitats are suitable with
use of white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum simum
white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum
protection from extreme cold and heat in the form of
woody species, white rhinos can be successfully kept
Department of Environmental Sciences, University
Acknowledgements
Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental
The complete book of
southern African mammals. Struik Publishers, Cape
American
Midland Naturalist
of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland
References
Aims and
methods of vegetation ecology
Journal
of Wildlife Management
Koedoe
characteristics and management of black rhinoceros
Diceros bicornis minor and white rhinoceros
Ceratotherium simum simum
Biological Conservation
First Atlas of Bird
distribution in the Orange Free-State
70
Megaherbivores: The
influence of very large body size on ecology.
and feeding behaviour of the buffalo and the white
South African Journal of Wildlife Research
Game Ranch Management
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Habitat utilization of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) on Willem Pretorius Game Reserve,
Free State Province, South Africa
Landscape preference of the white rhinoceros in the
Koedoe
Journal of Zoology, London.
the square-lipped rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum
simum The Lammergeier
Journal of
the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum
simum
Pachyderm
Journal of
Wildlife Management
Bioscience
on the seasonal utilization of broad grassland types
African Zoology
a mega-grazer copes with the dry season: food and
Functional Ecology
13:451South
African Journal of Wildlife Research
Ranging patterns in white rhinoceros, Ceratotherium
simum simum
Animal Behaviour
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
71
African Elephant Population Estimates
Continental Overview
600,000
554,973
473,386
400,000
200,000
38,980
63,894
0
Estimates from Surveys
2006
Informed Guesses
2013
Sub-RegionalOverview
350,000
1,588
8,270
300,000
250,000
200,000
6,671
320,904
150,000
51,394
100,000
301,052
4,026
30,063
166,528
50,000
102,303
59,319 59,587
658
204
8,222
10,444
0
2006 2013 2006 2013 2006 2013 2006 2013
Central
Eastern
Estimates from Surveys
Southern
West
Informed Guesses
Plate 1.
i
i
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Plate 2.
(above).Updated
continental
African
African
rhino
poachrhino poaching
statistics. Source of
data: AfRSG and also
TRAFFIC and CITES
Rhino Working Group,
see AfRSG Chair report
by Mike Knight;
pp. 10–39
Plate 3.
See
Plate 3. (right). See
Describing
the birth
Felix Patton,
of a wild
white the
rhino
Describing
birth
a wildRhino
white rhino
calf atofZiwa
calf at Ziwa Rhino
Sanctuary,
Uganda.
Sanctuary,
Uganda. New-born
Waribe with
mother;
pp. 114–116
2
2
ii
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
ii
individuals
into herds
of African into
Plate4.4. (above left).See FE Zachos and K Evans, Integration of injured
Plate
Integration
of injured
individuals
elephants (Loxodonta africana) – field observations from Kenya and Botswana; pp. 112–113 Three-legged
herds
African
elephants
adultof
female
African
elephant inLoxodonta
the Aberdareafricana
Mountains, Kenya, entering the clearing after the other females
and calves (left) and leaving the clearing together with them.
(aboveright).
left).See
Zachos
and Khandicap
Evans, Integration
Plate 5.
4. (above
The FE
female
elephant’s
in close-up.of injured individuals into herds of African
elephants
(Loxodonta
africana)
– field
observations
from
Kenya
andatBotswana;
Three-legged
Plate 6.(below).The
bull
was in the
foreground,
its back
can
be seen
the bottompp.
of 112–113
the left photograph.©
adult
female2013
African elephant in the Aberdare Mountains, Kenya, entering the clearing after the other females
FE Zachos.
Plate
and 5.
calves (left) and leaving the clearing together with them.
Plate
Plate6.5. (above right). The female elephant’s handicap in close-up.
Plate 6.(below).The bull was in the foreground, its back can be seen at the bottom of the left photograph.©
FE Zachos. 2013
3
iii
3
iii
3
3
iii
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Plate 7.
Plate 7. (above).This
Repelling elephants
see gas
Sébastien Le
with a chilipage
pepper
Be Repelling
elephants with a chili
and practical
usegas
in dispenser:
pepper
field tests and practical
use in Mozambique,
Zambia and Zimbabwe
2009 to 2013
from 2009 to 2013;The
chilli pepper gas
dispenser being
demonstrated in
Niassa, Mozambique.
4
4
Plate 8. (below).
Design of an
interactive boundary:
(i) a traditional fence
filled with brushwood
Plate 8. reed, bamboo woven
mats or thorn bush
(e.g. Commiphora
Africana): (ii) a second
row of light upright
poles 2 metres tall
outside the main fence
carrying on the top a
single wire or rope with
upright poles
2 metres
tall
empty
tins containing
pebbles acting as an
warning
system;
carrying onearly
the top
a single
(iii) a chilli pepper gas
dispenser providing
disciplinary action for
individuals that persist
in breaking through,
(iv) an alternative
ambush version
covering breaks in the
fence tripping the
culprit as it goes
through, further
boundary
tripping theenforcing
culprit asthe
it goes
and (v) olfactive
through, further
enforcing
reminders
with the
application of chilli
pepper extract on
or cloth.
application twine
of chilli
pepper
pp. 87–96
iv
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
iv
Plate 9. See TO Amusa et al., Movement patterns and resource needs of Kamuku elephants along
migration
routes
Plate
9. in Nigeria by Human Elephant Conflict. Map illustrating elephant migratory pattern in
Kamuku National Park; pp. 105–111
5
v
v
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
5
Plate 10. (above). This page see M Haryono et al., Monitoring of Javan Rhino Population in Ujung Kulon
Plate 10.
National Park, Correlation map showingspace use (number/location) of rhino and predators, taken from
Plate
10.clips
(above).
This
pageNP,
see2013
M Haryono et al., Monitoring of Javan Rhino Population in Ujung Kulon
camera
in Ujung
Kulon
National
Correlation
use (number/location)
of hutan);
rhino and
predators,
taken from
Key: red Park,
- leopard
(Macon map
tutul);showingspace
yellow - dhole/Asiatic
wild dog (Anjing
blue
- rhino (BadakJawa)
camera
clips in Ujung Kulon NP, 2013
pp. 82–86
Key: red - leopard (Macon tutul); yellow - dhole/Asiatic wild dog (Anjing hutan); blue - rhino (BadakJawa)
Plate
11. (below). Space use of rhino and competitors, taken in Ujung Kulon NP, 2013Key: dark green pp.
82–86
Plate 11.
wild cattle (Banteng); light green-barking deer (kijang); light orange - wild boar (Babihutan); red - rhino
Plate
11. (below). Space use of rhino and competitors, taken in Ujung Kulon NP, 2013Key: dark green (BadakJawa).
wild cattle (Banteng); light green-barking deer (kijang); light orange - wild boar (Babihutan); red - rhino
(BadakJawa).
6
6
6
vi
vi
Pachyderm
No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
6
vi
Plate 12.
Plate 12.(above). See Felix Patton, Black rhino population dynamics and the hidden cost of
of poaching
poaching; Solio Game Reserve, © Felix Patton 2014; pp.102–104
Plate
13.13. (below).See Tracey Bridges tribute to Theresa Warth who died in June 2015; p. 128
Plate
7
vii
vii
7
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Plate 14.This page (above). Ian Player
Plate
14.This
page (above).
who died
in November
2014, Ian
herePlayer
with
who
died
hereHitchins
with
Plate
14. in November
Bob Murray;
see tribute2014,
by Peter
Bob
Murray;
see tribute
and Clive
Walker;
p. 127by Peter Hitchins
and
Clive
Walker;
p. 127
Plate
14.This
page
(above). Ian Player
Plate
L-R Ian Player,
Ken Tinley,
who 15.
died(left).
in November
2014, here
with
Plate
(left).see
L-R
Ian
Player,
KenHitchins
Tinley,
Norman
Deane
andtribute
Barry
Clements.
Bob 15.
Murray;
by
Peter
Norman
Deane
and p.
Barry
Plate
and 15.
Clive
Walker;
127 Clements.
Plate 16. (below). Receiving the Order of
Plate
16.
Receiving
the Ken
Order
of
the
Golden
Ark award
from
Prince
Plate
15.(below).
(left).
L-R
Ian
Player,
Tinley,
Plate
16.
the
Golden
Ark award
from
Prince
Bernhard.
Photographs
courtesy
of Peter
Norman
Deane
and Barry
Clements.
Bernhard.
Photographs
courtesy of Peter
Hitchins and
Clive Walker
Hitchins
and
Clive Walker
Plate 16.
(below).
Receiving the Order of
the Golden Ark award from Prince
Bernhard. Photographs courtesy of Peter
Hitchins and Clive Walker
viii
viii
viii No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Pachyderm
viii
Les légendes des photos et
des infographies
Plaque 1. (i) Le calcul émanant des études présente
Rapport sur la Situation de l’Eléphant d’Afrique de
2007 et les calculs les plus récents mis à jour en ligne
sur www.elephantdatabase.org, respectivement. Les
suppositions informées sont les totaux possibles à
partir des suppositions informées. Le Rapport sur la
situation de l’éléphant d’Afrique de 2007 comprenait
des données provenant des études menées jusqu’au
31 décembre 2006 et d’autres sources de données
relatives à 2006 ou avant et disponibles au moment
de la publication. La mise à jour en ligne comprend
des données provenant des études menées jusqu’au
31 décembre 2013 et d’autres sources de données
relatives à 2013 ou avant et disponibles au moment
de la publication. Voir le rapport de la Présidente du
Groupe de Spécialistes de l’Eléphant d’Afrique par
Holly Dublin T; pp. xx
Plaque 2 (ii). Tableau. Statistiques continentales
actualisées sur le braconnage de rhinocéros d’Afrique.
Source des données: GSRAf, TRAFFIC et le Groupe
de travail de la CITES sur le rhinocéros. pp. xx
Plaque 3 (ii). (A droite). Voir Felix Patton, Décrivant
la naissance d’un bébé rhinocéros blanc sauvage au
nouveau-né Waribe avec sa mère; pp. xx
Plaque 4
et K Evans, L’intégration des éléphants blessés dans
des troupeaux d’éléphants d’Afrique (Loxodonta
africana) - observations sur le terrain provenant du
Kenya et du Botswana; Eléphant d’Afrique adulte
femelle à trois pattes dans les montagnes Aberdare,
au Kenya, entrant dans la clairière après les autres
femelles et les éléphanteaux (à gauche) et quittant la
clairière avec eux.
Plaque 5 (iii). (Ci-dessus à droite). Le handicap de
l’éléphant femelle en gros plan.
Plaque 6. (iii). (Ci-dessous). Le mâle était au premier
plan, on peut voir son dos en bas à gauche de la photo.
Plaque 7 (iv). (Ci-dessus). Cette page voir Sébastien
Le Bel, Repousser les éléphants avec un distributeur
de gaz de piment: essais sur le terrain et utilisation
de 2009 à 2013; Démonstration du distributeur
de gaz de piment dans la province de Niassa, au
Mozambique. pp. xx
Plaque 8 (iv). (Ci-dessous). Conception d’une clôture
interactive: (i) une clôture traditionnelle remplie de
ix
broussailles de roseau, des nattes tissées en bambous
ou brousse épineuse (par exemple Commiphora
Africana): (ii) une deuxième rangée de poteaux
verticaux légers de 2 mètres de haut à l’extérieur de
une corde avec des boîtes vides contenant des cailloux
qui agissent comme un système d’alerte précoce;
(iii) un distributeur de gaz de piment qui fournit des
mesures disciplinaires aux éléphants qui persistent à
percer la clôture, (iv) une autre version d’embuscade
couvrant les ruptures dans la clôture qui fait trébucher
le coupable quand il y passe, renforçant davantage la
clôture et (v) des rappels olfactifs avec l’application
pp xx
Plaque 9 (v). Voir TO Amusa et al., Les mouvements
et les besoins en ressources des éléphants de Kamuku
Homme-Eléphant. Carte illustrant le modèle migratoire
des éléphants dans le Parc national Kamuku; pp. xx
Plaque 10 (vi). (Ci-dessus). Cette page voir M
Haryono et al., Suivi de la population des rhinocéros
de Java dans le Parc national d’Ujung Kulon. Carte de
corrélation montrant l’utilisation de l’espace (nombre/
lieu) des rhinocéros et des prédateurs, prise à partir des
clips d‘appareils photo dans le Parc National d’Ujung
Kulon, 2013
Clé: rouge - léopard (Macon tutul); jaune - dhole /
chien sauvage d’Asie (Anjing hutan); bleu - rhinocéros
(Badak Jawa) pp. xx
Plaque 11 (vi). (Ci-dessous). Utilisation de l’espace
des rhinocéros et de leurs concurrents, prise au Parc
National d’Ujung Kulon en 2013
Clé: vert foncé - bovins sauvages (Banteng); vertclair- cerfs bramants (Kijang); orange clair - sanglier
(Babi hutan); rouge - rhinocéros (Badak Jawa). pp. xx
Plaque 12 (vi). (Ci-dessus). Voir Tracey Bridges
rendant hommage à Theresa Warth décédée en juin
2015. pp. xx
Plaque 13 (vi). (Ci-dessous). Voir Felix Patton,
Dynamique des populations de rhinocéros et le coût
caché du braconnage; Réserve de la Faune Sauvage
de Solio, © Felix Patton 2014; pp.xx
Plate 14.Cette page (vii). (Ci-dessus). Ian Player
décédé en novembre 2014, ici avec Bob Murray; voir
hommage par Peter Hitchins et Clive Walker; pp.xx
Plaque 15 (à gauche). De gauche à droite Ian Player,
Ken Tinley, Norman Deane et Barry Clements.
Plaque 16 (ci-dessous). Recevant l’Ordre du prix
Golden Ark du Prince Bernhard. Photographies grâce
à Peter Hitchins et Clive Walker. pp. xx
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Muboko
The role of man, hand-raised black rhinos and elephants on
woody vegetation, Matusadona National Park, Zimbabwe
Never Muboko1,2
Department of Environmental Sciences, Bindura University of Science Education, PB 1020, Bindura, Zimbabwe
Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Chinhoyi University of Technology, PB 7724, Chinhoyi,
Zimbabwe
email: [email protected]
1
2
Abstract
A combination of direct and indirect observation methods were used to assess the damage caused by the three
be concluded that the three agents had different roles in transforming a once thick vegetation area into open
Pachyderm programmes under similar circumstances, it is
Additional key words: boma, degradation, hand-raising site, poaching, woody plants
Résumé
sur la végétation ligneuse autour du site de Tashinga réservé à l’élevage de rhinocéros nourris à la main au Parc
noirs élevés à la main et l’homme et l’observation indirecte des animaux, adaptée aux éléphants et aussi à
de la dégradation et l’impact sur la végétation ligneuse variaient parmi les hommes, les rhinocéros noirs nourris
Pachydermes élevés à la main dans des circonstances semblables, il est recommandé que le broutage rotationnel
et un suivi de la végétation soient adoptés car les avantages l’emportent sur les inconvénients, surtout lors
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
72
The role of man, hand-raised black rhinos and elephants on woody vegetation, Matusadona National Park,
Zimbabwe
dégradation est souvent relativement petite, on pourrait inclure des mesures de reboisement en utilisant des
Mots clés supplementaires: enclos, dégradation, site d’élevage à la main, braconnage, plantes ligneuses
Introduction
consensus among stakeholders on the current black
The construction of the Lake Kariba dam wall between
agree that the numbers have declined considerably
The elephant (Loxodonta africana
area for non-hunting activities, then gazetted a game
aerial census estimated the population to be about
potential ecological concern of around 700 and is above
Regardless of the establishment of protected areas,
black rhino (Diceros bicornis
By 1995 the African black rhino population had
plunged to about 2,410 individuals from an estimated
continental population of 100,000 in 1960 (Milliken
recently carried out in 2014 estimated a reduction of
elephants in the Sebungwe region, which includes
to about 250 by 1993 from an estimated population
Before its suspension, the black rhino hand-raising
and release programme was blamed by stakeholders
prompted the formulation of conservation strategies
like the Zimbabwe Black Rhino Conservation Strategy
elephants on woody vegetation are well documented
co-exist with other large herbivores, such as rhinos,
situations is directly associated with rhino feeding,
as rhino handlers cut preferred leafy tree branches
the black rhino in Zimbabwe from escalating poaching,
These strategies resulted in Zimbabwe currently
holding approximately 700 rhinos, of which about
fourth largest stronghold for the species after South
1994 and March 2002, eight hand-raised black rhino
calves, one sub-adult and two adults were received
in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe and
one was received from Chewore Safari Area, a state
an estimated 43 wild and released black rhinos resident
The translocation of rhino calves for hand-raising
around 2002/3 following incidences of poaching, but
protection and monitoring of the existing animals
73
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Muboko
Table 1. Details of black rhinos that went through the Tashinga rhino hand-raising site (1994–2003). HRP: hand
raising programme; Chewore safari area; Imire game ranch. Dates are shown as (dd/)mm/yy; *month of birth
not known
Source: Modified from Matipano (2004b)
Materials and methods
alternating between being ‘hand fed’ and herded like
domestic livestock every day within a 2–3 km radius
from a focal point at the boma
Tashinga camp, reaching a maximum range of 4 km
aspects of black rhinos are well documented (Artkinson
by a combination of rhino, elephant and man on woody
and diversity and woody vegetation degradation by
man, elephant and rhino (collectively referred to as
Study area
landscapes: the wet, dystrophic, rugged highland
section with altitudes ranging from 600 to 1,200 m,
where Brachystegia–Julbernadia woodlands dominate
dominated by Colophospermum mopane mixed with
Combretum
Terminalia
establish the relationship between woody vegetation
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
74
The role of man, hand-raised black rhinos and elephants on woody vegetation, Matusadona National Park,
Zimbabwe
Experimental design and
data collection
The vegetation assessment design
located a focal point at the boma,
selected purposively as a reference
running in different directions, about
and the area was divided into two
concentric segments (Segments 1 and
transect, six 25 × 20 m quadrats (3
using systematic sampling, at 300 m
did not strictly follow the BraunBlanquet method due to homogeneity
further quadrats of the same size
were established in another segment
from the focal point and with similar
to compare vegetation damage in the
absence of heavy utilization by the
Figure 1. Matusadona National Park, indicating study
site (Tashinga). Source: Modified from Matipano
(2004b)
The study was carried out between
April and May 2004 soon after the
after the black rhino hand-raising
impact of hand-raised black rhino
means of direct observation of animal–
animal would be followed each day
on its feeding trail, where targeted
tree/shrub species and the girth of
individual plants were recorded
followed methods described by of
Figure 2. (a) Plant damage categories and (b)
Arrangement of transects and quadrats where woody
vegetation damage variables were assessed
75
For elephants, an indirect
observation method was adopted; this
involved tracking an animal’s feeding
trail and recording its feeding patterns
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Muboko
Table 2. Woody vegetation species density (plants/ha) in the three segments (2004)
No.
Plant species
1
Adansonia digitata
2
Baphia massaensis
3
Bauhinia petersiana
4
Boscia angustifolia
5
Canhtium randii
6
Canthium huillense
7
Cassia abbreviate
8
Colophospermum mopane
9
Combretum apiculatum
10
Combretum collinum
11
Combretum eleagnoides
12
Combretum zeyheri
13
Commifora africana
14
Commiphora mossambicensis
15
Dichrostachys cinerea
16
Diospyros quiloensis
17
Elephantorrhiza goetzei
18
Erythroxylum zambesiacum
19
Friesodielsia obovata
20
Gardenia resinifera
21
Grewia bicolour
22
Grewia flavescens
23
Grewia monticola
24
Holarrhena pubescens
25
Karomia tettensis
26
Kirkia acuminate
27
Lannea stuhlmannii
28
Lonchocarpus capassa
29
Margaritaria discoidea
30
Ormocarpum kirkii
31
Pteleopsis myrtifolia
32
Pterocarpus rotundifolius
33
Schrebera alata
34
Sclerocarya caffra
35
Strychnos madagascariensis
36
Terminalia mollis
37
Terminalia prunioides
38
Terminalia sericea
39
Terminalia stuhlmannii
40
Vanguelia infausta
41
Xemenia caffra
42
Xerodoris stuhlmanii
Total plants/ha
Total no. of recorded species
Segment 1
(9 quadrats)
Segment 2
(9 quadrats)
Segment 3
(4 quadrats)
0
2
0
2
0
0
0
193
44
36
231
18
0
2
20
120
2
0
0
0
7
0
4
0
549
2
2
0
0
7
31
0
0
2
40
16
0
0
2
16
0
13
1361
26
2
36
4
0
0
9
4
29
127
173
273
111
4
0
16
240
11
11
9
0
2
2
2
0
1251
0
0
4
2
0
153
0
9
0
96
38
0
22
0
40
0
11
2691
29
0
10
0
5
20
0
10
60
425
165
115
130
0
0
0
665
0
35
0
10
0
0
0
5
970
0
0
0
0
0
60
10
20
0
135
5
5
0
0
35
5
10
3030
24
1
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
76
The role of man, hand-raised black rhinos and elephants on woody vegetation, Matusadona National Park,
Zimbabwe
hours after the animal had gone (Kotze and Zacharias
For man direct observation focused on freshly cut
branches either by a hand-held axe or machete, while
cut surface due to the action of environmental agents
Results and discussion
Density, diversity and impact of man, elephant and rhino on woody vegetation
In 2004, Segments 1, 2 and 3 contained totals of
1,361, 2,691 and 3,030 woody vegetation plants/
composition variables calculated were density and
vegetation species recorded in the study area,
referred to signs of visible breakage on the trunk or
branches caused by plant utilization or browsing (Ssali
Shannon’s Diversity index, species diversity between
growth or development of the woody plant or plant
(P
damage recorded included; breaking of main trunk,
breaking of branches, pushing over of trunks, scarring,
uprooting of woody plants and cutting of shoots or
H
0–5, where 0 indicates that the number of species in
the sample are similar and a value near 5 indicates high
4
in a total of 10 classes of damage
Data analysis
each quadrat were converted
used to determine the differences in
species composition in the study site
used to test for differences between
vegetation damage by elephants and
r was used to measure the linear
correlation between plant damage
by each agent and distance from
Principal Component 2 (18.9%)
3
q19
q20
q22
q21
q17
q15
q16
q18
q2 q5
q3
q14
q1 q4
q6
2
1
0
q13
-1
q7
q8
q11q12
q9
-2
q10
-3
-4
-8
-6
between recorded woody vegetation damage categories
in the 22 sample quadrats, and principal component
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
Principal Component 1 (67.1%)
Figure 3. Principal component analysis biplot of 22
sample quadrats based on woody vegetation damage
variables drawn from all quadrats across the three
study segments. Notes: Box indicates quadrats with
similar characteristics.
to which sample quadrats across the segments were
77
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
8
Muboko
difference in woody vegetation composition between
2004 and 2012 could indicate that the suspended black
rhino hand-raising programme had little impact on
class of damage occurred in the 5 cm to 25 cm girth
recorded tree pushed over by rhinos had a girth of 46
In 2004, the impact on woody vegetation by
elephants and hand-raised black rhinos varied across
trunk pushing-over and tree girth, as trunk pushingover displayed a decreasing trend with increasing tree
of girth <5cm, while trunk breaking also decreased
28 woody vegetation species but were observed to
prefer Karomia tettensis, Diospyros quiloensis,
Combretum apiculatum, C. zeyheri and Strychnos
madagascariensis
the above species, with the exception of D. quiloensis,
but also favoured C. collinum
trunks more than rhinos in the larger girth sizes and
concentrated their damage in the 40–70 cm girth
increasing girth while the pushing-over of tree trunks
of >200 cm girth rarely had their trunks broken or
humans, observation revealed that branches were cut
Trees with broken trunks ranged between 3 cm
but no observations of woody plant trunk pushing over
Table 3. Summary of recorded woody vegetation damage by category across the three segments using the
eight classes of damage in 2004. Data are expressed as percentage damaged of the total number of woody
plants (n) recorded per segment. For branches, the percentage damaged of the total number of branches
stemming from the main trunk (in brackets) is shown. The results of Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA by ranks of the
22 sample quadrats (H and P values) are also given. H-values indicate the ranking of the means of recorded
woody vegetation damage by category across the sample segments, P-values indicate the relationship of
recorded woody vegetation damage categories across all segments; all values are significant with the exception
of the P-value in bold, which indicates no significant difference for the ‘plant scarred on main trunk’ damage
category across all segments. Woody plants with the damage classes of >50% branches broken/cut and
>50% branches dead were not observed
Damage class
Plants with no damage
Shoot/twigs cut
< 50 % branches dead
Scarred on main trunk
< 50 % branches broken/cut
Main trunk pushed-over
but not broken
Main trunk pushed over and
broken
Uprooted and dead
Segment 1
(n = 633)
5.9
42.2
37.5
(2532)
10.1
72.2
(2532)
Segment 2 Segment 3
(n = 1213) (n = 610)
7.0
6.2
56.7
57.4
86.5
51.4
(4852)
(2440)
3.9
2.1
94.2
89.0
(4852)
(2440)
Hvalue
10.5
13.8
18.0
Pvalue
0.005
0.001
0.000
6.6
16.9
0.036
0.000
15.2
26.4
2.1
17.4
0.000
68.9
61.9
54.6
11.0
0.001
8.1
14.0
2.6
13.3
0.001
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
78
The role of man, hand-raised black rhinos and elephants on woody vegetation, Matusadona National Park,
Zimbabwe
The observed damage patterns (trunk breaking,
branch breaking, plant uprooting and plant pushing
and dead plants, trunks pushed over but not broken
to an area with woody plants with more main trunks
broken, <50% total branches dead and <50% total
observations by other authors (Mapaure and Mhlanga
between patterns of woody vegetation damage and
association with distance in sampled quadrats in
mostly to shrubs while there was an almost even
element of incremental damage was observed where
woody vegetation that had already been damaged
there were decreases in all woody vegetation damage
classes with increasing distance from the focal point,
while Segment 3 showed no correlation between
woody vegetation damage and distance from the focal
elephants preferentially browse on woody vegetation
were observed to have the same behaviour, taking
advantage of woody plants that had been pushed over
that the elephant feeding strategy of pushing over trees
made available forage for other browsers and this
vegetation damage against distance from the focal
point showed significant strong negative linear
Man accounted for the largest percentage of tree
causes involved remain speculative but could include
natural diebacks, droughts, soil acidity and water
In Segment 3, man’s activity was negligible, with
only one tree observed cut during the 2004 study
growth was recorded in Segments 1 and 2 compared
differences in the amount of damage observed between
Woody vegetation damage patterns and
distance from the study centre
An assessment of vegetation damage patterns across
quadrats using the PCA indicated two principal
3 presents a PCA-biplot with 22 sampled quadrats
The concentration of rhino plant damage in Segments
1 and 2 concurs with the fact that rhinos were herded
created, localized high density of rhinos, exceeding
the recommended density of about 1 per 10 km2 (du
man’s impact was less than that of hand-raised black
km and 1 km, indicating that man was most active in
area where woody plants were more scarred on main
tracks to areas where less plants were uprooted/dead
indicating a movement from an area with less uprooted
79
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Muboko
Conclusions
woody plant damage by man, elephant and hand-raised
black rhino with increasing distance from the focal
agents on woody vegetation damage around the rhino
plants supported the idea that herbivores, especially
elephants, do not prevent regeneration of many
species, but may prevent recruitment into taller
the establishment of this black rhino hand-raising
References
composition and elephant damage in the Sengwa
Journal of Southern
African Wildlife Management Association
Maintenance of captive black
rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) on indigenous browse in
Zimbabwe: energetics, nutrition and implications for
conservation. MSc Thesis, Department of Biological
South African Journal of Animal Science 39,
unregulated anthropogenic activities could threaten the
Conservation and wildlife management in Africa
management purposes it is recommended that where
such similar programmes are run, rotational browsing
and management regimes should be established to
allow regeneration and recruitment of plants into taller
canopy trees and that for elephants, the recommended
elephant on the habitat of a black rhino sanctuary in
African Journal of Ecology
should be maintained if a balance between animal
Strategies for maintaining the balance can be through
areas and further promotion of the concept of transDPhil, Department of Biological Sciences, University
the area of degradation is usually relatively small, reforestation measures using native plant species could
Acknowledgements
South African Journal of Science
Proceedings of a Symposium on Rhinos as Game
Ranch Animals
reviewers for their comments that helped improve the
The Numbers game in wildlife
conservation: changeability and framing of large
mammal numbers in Zimbabwe
behaviour: implications for captive management and
International Zoo Yearbook
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
80
The role of man, hand-raised black rhinos and elephants on woody vegetation, Matusadona National Park,
Zimbabwe
Pachyderm
Loxodonta africana amplify browse heterogeneity in
woody browse and habitat by the black rhino (Diceros
bicornis
African
Journal of Forest Science
damage to Colophospermum mopane on selected
Kirkia 17
selective are elephants as agents of forest tree damage
African Journal of Ecology
structural changes in the vegetation and habitat
Biological Conservation
Pachyderm
of hand–raised black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis,
Ecography
The Zimbabwe
recommendations for management of introduction to
selection by hand–raised, boma adapted and wild
black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis
Koedoe
Executive Summary of
black rhino conservation strategy
The black rhino project:
Emergency Plan of 1993.
Elephant management in
Zimbabwe
International
Journal of Environmental Sciences
Pachyderm
megaherbivores: Asian elephant Elephas maximus and
greater one–horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis
Wildlife Biology
endangered black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis Oryx
rhinos (Rhinoceros unicornis
81
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Monitoring of the Javan rhino population in Ujung Kulon
National Park, Java
Mohamad Haryono1, Ujang Mamat Rahmat2, Muhiban Daryan1, Agung Suci Raharja1,
Aom Muhtarom1, Asep Yayus Firdaus1, Ai Rohaeti1, Irma Subchiyatin1, Amila Nugraheni1*, Kurnia Oktalina Khairani3, Kartina4
Ujung Kulon National Park Authority, Jl. P. Kemerdekaan No. 51 Labuan, Pandeglang 42264, Indonesia
Directorate of Biodiversity Conservation, Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation,
Ministry of Forestry, Gedung Wanabhakti, Jl. Gatot Subroto, Jakarta, Indonesia
3
Cornell University, 159 Sapsucker Wood Road, Ithaca, New York 14850, United States
4
Faculty of Agriculture, Tirtayasa University, Jl. Raya Jakarta Pakupatan, Serang 42121 Indonesia.
*Corresponding authoremail: [email protected]
1
2
Abstract
Résumé
Introduction
Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest
hence it is assessed as Critically Endangered by
Appendix 1 of the Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
include: providing managers with information on the
status of wildlife populations before deciding on
the appropriate course of conservation action to take;
82
Monitoring of the Javan rhino population in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java
Figure 1. Location of study area
evaluating the effectiveness of management actions
an unambiguous record of the species, date and time
feedback loop for learning about which actions lead
to the success or failure of a particular conservation
count animals whatever their activity and without
upon management practice in the future (Stokes et
footprints count method (Schenckel and Schenckel
In 2010 using this method there was about 50-60
individuals, and this number has remained the same
started to use camera video traps to monitor the
Camera trapping offers some advantages over direct
threatened mammals in the world, this monitoring
was established to understand the extent to which the
to provide information, which can be used to guide the
Materials and methods
Study area
no observer bias, can operate for extended periods
of time in remote locations and the method provides
83
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Haryono et al.
Table 1. Camera trapping of Javan rhino in Ujung Kulon National Park in 2012-2013
Year
2012
2013
Sampling period
March-December
March-December
Trap
station
Total clips
40
120
4,613
36,104
Total clips
899
1660
Javan rhino
Identified
(clips)
689
1388
Non identified
(clips)
210
272
peninsula is composed of secondary mangrove forest,
shrub swamp, primary dryland forest, shrub, secondary
including: size, horn shape, facial wrinkles, neck folds,
Cicakanggalih, Cibunar, Cikesik, Cibandawoh,
total number of different individuals was used as a
provide a source of drinking water, and are used for
wallowing and bathing by wildlife, which live in
Kulon Peninsula is also habitat for wild cattle (Bos
javanicus
Muntiacus muntjak
boar (Sus scrofa
dhole(Cuon alpinus
Panthera pardus
Results and discussion
Results
Data collection
The monitoring was conducted from March to
December 2013 using 120 camera traps which were
set to ‘video-mode’ to record the movement and sound
2012 and an adult female in 2013, the population size
with a sex ratio of 35 males : 23 females and age
structure consisting of eight calves : 50 sub adults
such as Citadahan, Cikeusik, Cibandawoh, Cigenter,
the cameras were placed in the spots which were
as the feeding ground tracks, the defecating tracks, the
wallow tracks and the tracks which were used by rhino
Discussion
By increasing the number of cameras used, the
population monitoring in 2013 resulted in a greater
number of useable clips compared with the monitoring
amount of cameras correlated with the probabality of
Data analysis
mammals have individual markings, which can be
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
of the demographic problems, because this condition
can lead to an increase in the competition for mates
and harassment of reproductive partners resulting in
84
Monitoring of the Javan rhino population in Ujung Kulon National Park, Java
researchers to be 150 different
and 252 species (Muntasib
a new species of food consumed
of plant species consumed
successful in surviving (Colles
Figure 2. Age and sex structure of the Javan rhinos.
wider niche breadth, each food
species can be interchangeable
(and importantly the animals
are not dependent on only a few varieties of plant
the negative effects of Allee effects and demographic
is one of the reasons why conservation managers
may have to potentially manipulate the population
rhino is the smallest and most endangered species
in one population, it needs careful consideration and
presents an important management strategy for the
population was positive indicated that they can coexist
with the other large herbivores in using the resources
availability or the resources availability was abundant
boar are also predated on by dhole and leopard, not
are some factors which cause a skewing of offspring
prediction in large ruminants was that females in
better body condition would produce more male than
was reportedand it was one of the factors which also
determination is purely environmental, manipulating
environmental factors in which sex is determined can
the Rhino Foundation of Indonesia (Rhino Protecting
rhino areas and also provided education to improve
Acknowledgements
One of the significant habitat components is
growth and welfare of wildlife populations (Masy’ud
85
Kulon for the operational logistics of two teams of
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Haryono et al.
Monica Dyah Rahmaningsih for useful discussions
Rhinoceros sondaicus Desm
References
Rhinoceros
sondaicus Desm.
Estimation of species richness of large vertebrates
using camera traps: an example from an Indonesian
Camera Traps in Animal Ecology Methods and
Analyses.Springer
Rhinoceros sondaicus
Desmarest
Demographic consequences of adult sex ratio in a
ournal of Animal
Ecology
an investigation of its population and ecology through
Biology Reproduction
rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus Desm
Acta Tropica Sparatum
Rhinoceros sondaicus
Laporan Sensus
Badak Jawa (Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest
Pachyderm
Udjung Kulon the land of
the last Javan Rhinoceros:with local and general
data on the most important faunal species and their
preservation in Indonesia
Agron. Soc.
Environ.
Rhinoceros sondaicus
Mammals in Ecological Census
Techniques
sex ratios in conservation practice: how and
Journal of Wildlife
Management
Potency of food vegetation and habitat improvement
effectiveness of Timor deer (Cervustimorensis, de
com/books/topics-in-conservation-biology/
managing-population-sex-ratio-why-and-how
Media Konservasi
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
86
Repelling elephants with a chili pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia
and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013
MANAGEMENT
Clarification: The Editorial Board of Pachyderm wishes to provide the clarification
that Francesco Nardelli’s article: The last chance for the Sumatran rhinoceros?,
published in Issue 55 does not reflect the views of Save the Rhino International.
Repelling elephants with a chilli pepper gas dispenser: field
tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe
from 2009 to 2013
Sébastien Le Bel
Cirad Dept ES UPR BSEF, Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
email: [email protected]
Abstract
new device with other more traditional mitigation approaches may increase human tolerance of elephants by
Additional key words:
Résumé
d’atténuation promues depuis les années 90, l’utilisation de piment comme un répulsif olfactif a été popularisée
87
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Le Bel
En complément des mesures d’atténuation traditionnelles, l’utilisation du propulseur à piment vise à générer
un processus de mémoire virtuelle des frontières, qui améliorerait la protection des récoltes et faciliterait la
Mots clés supplémentaires:
Introduction
what to do about so-called “problem elephants” that
coexist alongside human communities, in combination
with the illegal trade of ivory and the degradation of
wilderness for elephant habitats, is considered as a
from most of the 37 countries where elephants
its elephant component are one of the main problems
for Africa’s rural populations with regard to personal
central Africa COMIFAC (Commission des Forêts
strategies similar to the one recently developed in
indicated areas of progress, with a better understanding
of the behaviour of “problem” elephants and an
assessment of the various mitigation methods
chilli pepper-based olfactory repellents have produced
some promising results in deterring elephants from
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
using chilli pepper grease on traditional fences
pepper-based measures suitable for small farmers
were developed and disseminated during training
chilli pepper has been tested with success on cropraiding elephants (Osborn and Parker 2002; Osborn
local production of strong chilli pepper oil extract with
a high deterrent effect remains a challenge, as does
the production of reliable chilli pepper dispensers for
a paint-ball gun was suggested, but its utilization in
As a response to this challenge, a chilli pepper gas
and technical capabilities of local communities and
is intended for use by communities against croppublished in 2010, showed promising results (Le Bel
88
Repelling elephants with a chili pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia
and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013
the system and separate off the discrete effects of
over the same period, a few chilli pepper gas dispensers
were supplied to some of the communities based in
on how it performed with particular investigation of
Dispenser and projectiles
previous paper which reported on the preliminary
propels a standard ping-pong ball of 40 mm diameter
The purpose of this paper is to present the results of
means of a syringe and a large bore needle; the opening
and in Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013, and to discuss
how such an innovation could best be part of local
Material and methods
Homemade chilli pepper oil extract
The chilli pepper oil extract was locally produced
by extracting capsaicin, the main capsaicinoid found
which stimulates chemoreceptor nerves of the mucous
membranes, causing a sensation of heat, watering
eyes, a burning sensation in the trunk mucosa, and
Study areas
in Zimbabwe, which is characterized by its large
elephant population of some 45,000 animals during
activities, the remote block Central B, with a density
was allocated to the research team by the Zimbabwe
to test the behaviour change of elephants in response
was placed in a sealed bottle and then soaked with
currently affected by the intrusion of elephants in
adding more fuel to it until the dark ‘redness’ of the
draining liquid lessened and it was then placed in a
large open container in the shade to evaporate slowly
the Forestry Commission estate (Sikumi Forest,
diluted with locally made vegetable oil at a ratio of
Units, indicating a high concentration of capsaicin,
was extremely irritating and required careful handling,
wearing suitable rubber gloves, a protective mask and
89
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Le Bel
On shooting the following information
was recorded:
categories as adult male, adult female,
categories as unaware, on alert, moving
side, back, near-by hitting the soil or
classed in four categories as no reaction,
ambling off and stopping, moving off
completely, or running away with a sign
Figure 1. Location of the study areas: (a) Niassa
Game Reserve; (b) Kakumbi Chiefdom, Lupande
Game Management Area, South Luangwa National
Park; (c) Chirundu town; (d) Savé Valley Conservancy;
(e) Hwange National Park Hwange rural district and
Sikumi Forest; (f) Victoria Falls urban district.
the chilli pepper oil extract was tested on elephants
Recording parameters
Trained practitioners recorded the same parameters,
with the exception of the shooting distance and the
Field tests in urban and farming areas: The same
Field tests at Hwange National Park: The dispenser
found on the dust track, or close to it, to study its
The observations were classed in four categories
depending on the combination deterrent effects:
Noise: a single deterrent effect with the bang
Noise & Hit: a double deterrent effect with the bang
Noise, Hit & Chilli pepper: a triple deterrent effect
with the bang, the hit and the release of chilli pepper
Noise & Chilli pepper: similar to the previous
elephant burst on impact, releasing chilli pepper
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Figure 2. Elephant hit on the rear right leg with the
release of a cloud of chilli pepper to its right.
90
Repelling elephants with a chili pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia
and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013
Data collection
Results
Field tests at Hwange National Park: Between the
by the same professional hunter from a vehicle during
daylight hours between 08:00 h and 19:00 h in the study
Field tests
Out of the 138 tests for which the description of the
targeted animals was determined, the tested elephants
were optimum for shooting: dry and sunny, and with
Field tests in forestry, urban and communal
lands: Between April 2009 and April 2013, 329
attempts at deterring problematic elephants were
Observations in Zimbabwe and in Mozambique (n =
22% in Zimbabwe and 4% in Mozambique (May
Data analysis
Impact of deterrent category
The XLSTAT Version 2010 package was used to
Most of the elephants moved away completely after
Only a small number seemed not to be disturbed at
study the association between the explanatory variables
after transformation of quantitative variables into
of deterrent measures, the differences observed in
the behaviour displayed after shooting were highly
all observations were then utilized for Agglomerative
in a suitable number of classes, building a typology
chilli pepper, we observed the highest percentage
deterrent, the attempt of repelling was lower with the
combination of noise and chilli pepper dispersal, only
Table 1. Elephant behaviour displayed after shooting with regard to the type of deterrent (n = 372).
Type of deterrent
Category of behaviour response as a percentage (%)
Moving off
Running
Ambling off
completely
away
2
10
1
0
1
3
0
0
3
3
6
3
0
5
54
8
Indifferent
Noise
Noise & Hit
Noise & Chilli pepper
Noise, Hit & Chilli pepper
91
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Le Bel
not possible to separate the direct effect of the impact
of the chilli pepper strike; and only the release of the
spray breathed in by the elephant served to completely
Discussion
The deterrent effect of chilli pepper-based
olfactory repellents
The deterrent effect of chilli pepper on elephants has
been studied and assessed since the 1990s (Osborn
Typology of deterred elephants
The MCA was conducted on a sample of 135
individuals with the set of six qualitative variables
related to the information recorded during the attempt;
Seventy percent of the variance was explained by the
use was then mainly as a chemical barrier with the
use of grease and hot chilli pepper extract mixed
together and applied to string, or by burning elephant
dung mixed with ground chilli pepper to produce a
noxious smoke (Osborn and Parker 2002; Parker et
other deterrent measures such as electric fences and
to introduce chilli pepper as an elephant deterrent
the elephants in three clusters:
in both protected areas and farming areas, it was
moving off completely or running away from the study
effect of locally made chilli pepper oil extract, but
also to demonstrate the positive added value of the
locally assembled gas dispenser as a handy and safe
tool to repel potential crop-raiding elephants from a
and physical hit used in combination seemed to have
deterrent action, or were indifferent or moved slowly
In fact, the technique could be potentially dangerous
for inexperienced persons, especially when crop-
were shot at from a greater distance (55%, n = 22 from
suggests the need for a better designed and functional
Improving the chilli pepper gas dispenser
mix of situations characterized by an unclear hit (98%,
the mix of behaviours observed, with approximately
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
The improved dispenser needs to separate loading from
aim at the common distances elephants are encountered
and it should be possible to repeat the loading and
priming action quickly for subsequent shots even
92
Repelling elephants with a chili pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia
and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013
“hot” ping-pong balls; in other words, for a hundred
If we consider the various and well-documented
Figure 3. Design of the advanced gas dispenser
prototype.
through an industrial moulding process will incorporate
of standard petroleum fuel to be squirted in the
a continuous and more powerful spark to ignite the
chilli pepper is to be considered seriously as a local
deterrent this cannot be based solely on side production
of chilli pepper by the affected farmers, but will require
the formal establishment of nurseries or greenhouses
This social investment has been partly addressed
while replacing the oxygen/air mix in the combustion
Practical use on problematic animals
which has not only promoted the use of chilli pepper
as a means of keeping elephants away from sources of
human food, but has also introduced a viable cash crop
replicate its Zimbabwean model in two other southern
To improve the effectiveness of chilli pepper, use
potential users to secure a good source of chilli pepper
and, secondly, by incorporating the system in a holistic
example demonstrating that local farmers were able
to produce 250 kg of chilli pepper once they were
experienced in growing the crop (Parker and Anstey
Sourcing chilli pepper
Integrating the chilli pepper gas
Chilli pepper production in Africa is a labour-intensive
cash crop which can be grown in low rainfall areas
to 1200 kg per hectare of fresh African bird’s eye
reducing the average moisture from 75% (fully ripened
chilli pepper can be expected with an average planting
500 g of ground dry chilli pepper produces about
600 ml of chilli pepper oil extract, loaded into ~20
93
dispenser in a boundary strategy
Small, scattered settlements surrounded by natural
bush land are more vulnerable to crop depredation by
elephants than consolidated barriers of agricultural
communities pooled their resources in on-going
Electric fencing seems to reduce elephant damage at
but it has to be very well maintained (O’Connell-
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Le Bel
vandalism and theft of components have been frequent
by enabling them to protect themselves and to adopt
less risky responses when confronting dangerous
examples showed that an early warning system with
a guarding component can drastically reduce crop
farmers will only have resources for cheaper fence
existing traditional approaches provide the basis for
development of a range of applicable solutions that
are adapted to local conditions, enabling targeted
but this strategy requires support and investment in
Improving traditional fences with a virtual fencing
memory fences, using an active chilli pepper dispenser
will help crop-raiding elephants to respect human
activities and settlements through a discipline learning
observation that elephants remember boundaries and
could improve the functioning of elephant corridors,
thereby establishing a pattern, means that elephants
can be taught to respect boundaries and stay clear
the process of being blocked off with the result of an
and veterinary fence protection in the late 1980s to
control trypanosomiasis and foot-and-mouth disease
the tools and strategies being developed should not
divert attention from the need to promote and improve
wildlife-based revenue ventures, which are essential
were trained to respect boundary fences; the policy
of shooting or removing habitual fence-breakers
effectively taught elephants to respect the fence as a
Acknowledgements
This lethal practice is no longer accepted, but an
array of reminder measures repeatedly applied at the
boundary could train crop raiders to stay away from
especially Vernon Booth and Marufu Mvumba for
Conservation Society for its support for data
crop-raiding incidents are regular for a sustained
memory that they remember even when the physical
be administered at the interface where the elephants are
traditional boundary fences, the chilli pepper gas
dispenser can effectively target individuals persistently
breaking through, combined with the use of a passive
chilli pepper repellent on twine or cloth, as an olfactive
reminder to enforce the boundary dynamics (Plate 8;
thanks to Roger Parry who personally went out at night
to pepper bull elephants breaking into the suburbs of
Victoria Falls, using the Mhiripiri Bomber to repel
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negative interactions with them, the improvement
of community tolerance towards wildlife must start
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
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Journal of Ecology and the Natural
Environment
94
Repelling elephants with a chili pepper gas dispenser: field tests and practical use in Mozambique, Zambia
and Zimbabwe from 2009 to 2013
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Zimbabwe: a boundary perspective rather than a
a case study of the Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Laikipia
District, Kenya.
Le Bel S, Murwira A, Mukamuri B, Czudek
elephants, Loxodonta africana, in Laikipia, Kenya,
Systematics and Biodiversity
importance of biological interactions in the study of
InTech, Rijeka
Insights for Integrated Conservation from Attitudes
Conservation Biology
capsicum delivery system for crop-raiding elephants
Pachyderm
Controlling elephants with electric fences in Sri Lanka,
Economy and Environment Program for Southeast
Unasylva
Journal of Political Ecology
Mitigation of human-elephant
conflict in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier
Conservation Area through community based problem
animal control with particular reference to the use of
chilli peppers.
Loxodonta africana and human–elephant interactions:
International Zoo
Yearbook
chain analysis of Paprika and Bird’s Eye Chillies in
Ocean elephant corridors: a perspective from Kilwa
Pachyderm
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Le Bel
Pachyderm
Nationale et Plan
translocations, wildlife corridors, and transfrontier
Journal of
International Wildlife Law & Policy
Gabon. Ministère des Eaux et Forêts, République
“Mhiripiri
Oryx
Bomber”
A
review of human-elephant conflict management
strategies.
Conservation Research Unit, Oxford University,
crop raiding by African elephants: using a predictive
Journal of Applied Ecology
raiding by African elephants (Loxodonta africana)
African
Journal of Environmental Science and Technology
Environmental Management
New chilli sauce promotes elephant
conservation.
new-chili-sauce-promotes-elephant-conservation/
paradigm: Can agricultural communities co-exist with
drying air temperature and chemical pretreatments on
International Food Research
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Biological Conservation
Capsicium oleoresin as an
developmentmarketplace/idea/improving-naturalJournal of Wildlife Management
elephants II: A manual for implementing an integrated
programme to reduce crop loss to elephants and to
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Pachyderm
course for community-based approaches in Africa
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
96
Lessons learned in the implementation of endangered species
specific strategies: Midterm Review of the Kenya Black Rhino
Strategy (2012–2016)
*Martin Mulama1, 5, Patrick Omondi5,6, Charles Musyoki5,7, Cedric Khayale2, Linus Kariuki3,
4
and Robert Ndetei4, 5
Chief Conservation Officer, Ol Pejeta Conservancy, PB Nanyuki;
Research Scientist, Tsavo West NP, KWS
3
Rhino Programme Coordinator, KWS
4
Species Manager, WWF-Kenya
5
Member, Rhino Steering Committee
6
Deputy Director, Species Conservation and Management – KWS
7
Assistant Director, Species Conservation and Management – KWS
*corresponding author email: [email protected] or [email protected]
1
2
Abstract
A Midterm Review of the implementation of the “Conservation and Management Strategy for the Black Rhino
”
the escalation in poaching have been fairly successful in 2014 compared to 2012 and 2013 thus resulting into
Résumé
97
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Mulama et al.
Background
Kenya holds the third largest black rhino
(Diceros bicornis
is the stronghold for the eastern subspecies
currently has one Key 1 population, four
Key 2 populations and four Important 1
populations meaning that its conservation
decline in the early 1970s to mid-1980s
mainly due to poaching that was followed
by a period of stability and slow growth rate
in the early 1990s to 2000 mainly due to biological
rhino sanctuary enabled surplus rhinos in sanctuaries
above their carrying capacity to be moved into the
recognised the need to boost biological management
and enhanced efforts in this bore fruit with numbers
increasing more rapidly at a national level as a result
monitoring staff resulted in an increase of rhinos in
the speculative guess category from 38% in 2013 to
in Kenya was not obvious until 2013 when stagnation
by national strategies, with the current efforts being
consolidated in the “Conservation and Management
framework of the Strategy is summarized
below:
Overall Goal: To increase the black
rhino numbers by at least 5% per annum
additional areas secured for population
The Strategy’s overall goal is to be
achieved through the following six Strategic
years in 2013 due to the renewed demand in rhino horn
illegal trade in rhino horn and derivatives;
protocol to provide information for efficient
protection, meta-population management and
programme implementation;
suitable secure areas of habitat to invest surplus rhinos
that should be removed to keep established populations
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
in well-established sanctuaries and a minimum of
5% per annum at national level to attain 750 black
rhinos by 2016;
98
Lessons learned in the implementation of endangered species specific strategies: Midterm Review of the Kenya Black
Rhino Strategy (2012–2016)
Key outcomes of the Review
for rhino population expansion;
Field visits were made to all rhino sanctuaries in Kenya
public and corporate support globally;
capacity for effective implementation of this
The principle behind the 2012–2016 Strategy is
to minimize poaching, enhance awareness in the
rhino horn consumer countries, establish new rhino
areas and ensure effective implementation of the
Strategy by involving all stakeholders in the newly
This was achieved with the commendable support
the relevant intelligence information through synergies
with other law enforcement agencies at the start of
2014, despite both years recording higher than the
sustaining monitoring for both security and biological
have only been reviewed at the end of the plan period
in 2013, again despite both years recording lower
overwhelming backing the current Strategy received
from stakeholders, and the formation of a RSC to
oversee the implementation of the Strategy, this has
created a shared responsibility for the success or failure
on SO2 where 71% of the rhino areas maintained a
the Strategy there have been serious concerns on its
implementation together with escalating levels of
individual rhinos in their respective population with
The main purpose of the Midterm Review was to
areas the rhino monitoring staff were inexperienced
due to the high number of rangers recruited in 2013–
for the period 2012–2014 and use the evidence
collated from the various stakeholders to provide
recommendations for the remaining period (2015–
This was complimented with the basic process of
and trained for a relatively shorter period as an urgent
areas but not implemented due to national security
Progress on SO4 was mixed with two Intensive
information used in the Review was from various
stakeholders in rhino conservation who included
increased staff and one of the two being operationalized
rhino areas were set up while one was delayed due
to raising insecurity and technicalities of the fence
review by a four-member select team of the RSC and
the development of a community rhino sanctuary as
Force to identify suitable habitats over the long term had
99
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Mulama et al.
not been established and no progress had been made on
the formation of the East African Rhino Management
launched in 2012 was attended by representatives
of local rhino stakeholders and a soft copy of the
Clearly the growth rate and the absolute number of
black rhino, however; is not yet on track to achieve
accessibility, however, not so much progress has been
poaching pressure that rhino conservation in Kenya
and Africa as a whole is facing, the fact that the rhino
fraternity in Kenya is not working as a unit under the
Rhino Steering Committee umbrella should not be
on “Comprehensive Response to Rhino Poaching
The suggestion to revise the Strategy goal was
considered but eventually not upheld as part of the
by Yao Ming, a retired Chinese basketball celebrity,
is the need for concerted efforts to be set up to sustain
the various anti-poaching measures notably creating
synergies with other law enforcing agencies thus
a maximum of KES 40,000 to a minimum of KES 20
of this Act was as a result of sustained lobbying of the
supervision of rhino monitoring and protection staff;
improved reward systems; improve vetting of staff
recruited/deployed in rhino monitoring and protection
recommendation is to enhance the 2014 growth rate
as out of the four committees namely Area Rhino
These recommendations are based on the fact
that loss of rhinos through poaching and generally
through other natural causes had a direct impact on
functional, another 25% functional, with the remaining
since Kenya was able to reduce loss through poaching
fact that the Secretariat has not been formed to direct
Lessons learnt and recommended way
forward
investment if they are to be achievable, and includes
prioritizing activities in the SO1, SO3, and SO4 as well
as completing implementation of the others activities
The importance of a midterm review cannot be underopportunity to reinvigorate the remaining period
This Midterm Review indicated there was average
stakeholder workshop was held in May 2015 where
set out in the current Kenya Black Rhino Strategy
although most were undertaken in an uncoordinated
the Midterm Review save for the one calling for a
minimizing poaching, establishing new rhino areas and
ensuring a functional coordination mechanism was still
viable, the Review has highlighted areas and activities
revised the draft action plans of the Midterm Review
ensure implementation of the agreed action plan;
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
100
Lessons learned in the implementation of endangered species specific strategies: Midterm Review of the Kenya Black
Rhino Strategy (2012–2016)
plight of the rhinos, delivered at relevant meetings to
progress in the remaining period of the strategy can
The following is a summary of the
recommendation under each SO:
SO6: Establish a coordination framework and
enhance capacity for effective implementation of this
Strategy:
Strengthen the oversight capabilities of the RSC
by creating a functional Secretariat and co-opting
SO1: Reduce illegal killing of rhinos to less than
in rhino horn and derivatives:
Sustain the government support and goodwill to
ensure backing from all the security agencies involved
in the various high impact law enforcement activities
implemented in early 2014 into the long term to bring
the poaching levels to less than 1% per annum from
SO2: Maintain a standardized monitoring
and reporting protocol to provide information for
programme implementation:
Develop capacity in areas without a database as
well as undertake a comprehensive training for rhino
monitoring instructors using the latest version of the
SO3: Achieve and maintain a 6% per annum growth
rate in well-established sanctuaries and a minimum
of 5% per annum at national level to attain 750 black
rhinos by 2016:
Address issues of high density of herbivores and
predators in rhino areas by assessing the rhino habitat
with the aim of reviewing the ecological carrying
from established rhino populations whose densities
Acknowledgment
Midterm Review process including the proposed
national stakeholders workshop, the RSC select team
staff and stakeholders involved in rhino conservation
in Kenya for availing themselves for interviews or
References
Management Strategy for the Black
Rhino (Diceros bicornis michaeli
Unpublished report
Environmental Impact Assessment
Unpublished
SO4: Secure new areas and make policy
interventions for rhino population expansion:
Deal with the administrative and technical issues
well as establish a task force to start looking into the
SO5: Raise awareness on the plight of the rhino to
gain public and corporate support globally:
Establish a team of experts to develop an awareness
closely to ensure there is a common message on the
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Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Patton
FIELD NOTES
Black rhino population dynamics and the hidden cost of
poaching at Solio Game Reserve, central Kenya
Felix Patton
Solio Ranch, PO Box 2, NaroMoru, Kenya
email: [email protected]
Currently, the adult males are located in three
breeding male territories, which only covers one-third
Introduction
in Central Kenya was home to 68 black rhinos at
2
represented a very high density for a region where
2
was more typical and had been thus
There were three main outcomes from this high
Breeding males
Two breeding males were translocated on the
grounds of safety as they were regularly seen from a
of the preferred, better quality food species such as
Acacia drepanalobium
protected areas/reserves in order to develop the
territorial males surrounding the territory of the older
male died, so the older male increased its ranging as
it sought to compensate for the deaths of four females
competitor males and acted aggressively - after one
to reduce the population to fewer than 50 individuals
through a programme of translocations and expected
losses due to a high ratio of ageing to younger
One breeding male moved out of its territory to a
- the death due to poachers of an adult male black
rhino – the precursor to a further 15 black rhino and
Furthermore, 7 black rhino individuals died as the after
Current breeding potential
In addition, 13 more individuals died from ‘natural
Only one male has been seen breeding and has a well-
rhino population between 2009 and the end of 2014
An older male who had surrendered its ‘breeding
rights’ to a younger male which was subsequently
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
102
Black rhino population dynamics and the hidden cost of poaching at Solio Game Reserve, central Kenya
Table 1: Black Rhino Population Dynamics in Solio Game Reserve 2009 to 2015
poached, has been seen back in its former territory, as
Four breeding females died – two of old age, one
was euthanized having been wounded when charging
One young male changed its range from the east
of the river to the far north-west after being observed
males of similar age, the territory of the previously
mentioned visually impaired male will hopefully be
Current breeding potential
females, who were expected to calve and who had been
Breeding females
One young female of breeding age has yet to have
east to the south-west of the reserve possibly in order
sub-adult females were moved to help start a new
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Patton
Main Range Changes in the Period
The hidden cost of poaching
summarised
of the river to the south-east of the river when around
of the river to the centre-east of the river when around
of the river to the far north-west of the reserve when
such that included an area across the river when around
the deaths of competitor males in the new area while
allowing for the male to avoid other males in its normal
Although there were no direct observations of
the reason for the changes in area for all these young
As stated previously, the loss of seven territorial males
resulted in around two-thirds of the reserve area not
The loss of seven breeding females resulted in the
loss of potentially nine new calf births in the period
aggression among males seeking breeding rights over
the remaining females resulting in the deaths of three
As poaching pressure increased over the period,
Service armed rangers within the reserve, which
need for night vehicle patrols, ambushes and daytime
ranges by the territorial male as they had reached an
noise and disruption caused by these manoeuvres, plus
the poaching resulted in previously easy to monitor
west of the river to south-east of the river when around
individuals plus three calves have not been seen for
over a year, two individuals of which have not been
years old but lions killed the calf when she was 3
that all of these individuals are still alive and have not
when, the next day and for the next two months, he
rhinos for relocation to other reserves in order to
develop the national population – has been more
seriously compromised by the incidence of poaching
after she was observed to have moved range so it was
not clear which of the two males was the father but
the possibility exists that the change of range was to
The recent escalation of poaching has not only
resulted in the loss of nine potential new births, but
centre-east of the river to the centre-west of the river
looking for a different mate to the territorial male in
east of the river to south-west of the river when around
no breeding male in her former range and it is likely
that the range change was due to the female seeking
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
104
Movement patterns and resource needs of Kamuku elephants
along migration routes in Nigeria
Tajudeen Okekunle Amusa,1* Johnson Adedayo Ogunjobi,2 Ibrahim Jauro Fxentrimam3
and Kikwashi Abdullahi Garba3
Department of Forest Resources Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
Federal College of Wildlife Management, Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, New Bussa, Nigeria
3
Kamuku National Park, Birnin Gwari, Kaduna State, Nigeria
*Corresponding author email: [email protected]
1
2
Introduction
resource needs of Kamuku elephants along migration
an estimated area of 1,120 km2
and conservation activities aimed at enhancing the
2
2
as important locations that serve as migration routes
understanding of movement patterns and resource
needs of the animals along migration routes will help
to conserve key
will provide further impetus for enhanced protection
as an important elephant range and corridor, linking
different locales in north-west and north-central parts
of 2,614 km2
mammals such as elephants are considered to be one of
This is now widely advocated and documented as a
philosophy and mode of practice in the development
and conservation narrative (Chambers 1994;
protecting elephant migration routes will ensure the
conservation of other endangered plants and animals
used to obtain information on the range of local
people’s understanding and knowledge of elephant
conservation and status in the area, as well as to elicit
patterns and resource needs of the elephants will also
go a long way in reducing habitat fragmentation which
Elephant movement routes were located and
focused on elephant dung piles, feeding signs,
and movement patterns of elephants in and around
important food resources of elephants along migration
of elephant feeding signs on food trails were further
used to determine elephant food resources in different
elephants were followed and all the plants showing
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Amusa et al.
Movement from Kamuku NP to Kuyambana GR
Elephant migratory pattern
Movement from Kamuku NP to Mando FR
via the community of Tundun-bage
unable to conduct any proper survey in this location
our interaction with local communities revealed that
old settlement called Kewaye, where they browse on
plants such as Borassus aethiopum, Cussonia barteri,
Adansonia digitata, and Detarium microcarpum
at any time of the day and night once the weather is
where they stay for some weeks, depending on the
two weeks, excavating the roots of Cochlospermum
tinctorium and browsing on such plants as Entada
africana, and Cussonia
paradoxa
Elephant resource needs and availability
along migration routes
area for some days, browsing on plant resources in
On leaving Tundun-bage they sometimes return to
may decide to migrate to Mando FR through Kurebe
Movement of elephants from Mando FR to
Alawa GR
A total of 110 elephant foodplant species belonging to
included 11 species of cultivated plants and 99 species
23 shrubs, 9 herbs, 14 different grasses, 3 creepers and
reinforced the well known fact that the Mariga River
then pass through to old Kwangwama settlement,
time around Ringa and Mangoro, where they browse
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
106
the well known fact that the Mariga River bordering Kamuku NP and Kuyambana GR remains an
Movement patterns and resource needs of Kamuku elephants along migration routes in Nigeria
important water source for the elephants.
Table 1. Cultivated plants utilized as food by elephants in the project area.
Family
Scientific name
Common name
Local name
Habit
Fabaceae
Arachis hypogeal, L.
Groundnut
Ayayaa
Herb
Cucurbitaceae
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai
Water melon
Guna shaanu
Vine
or kankana
(Trailer)
Bignoniaceae
Crescentia cujete, L.
Calabash tree
Iccen kwarya
Tree
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea batatas, (L.) Lam.
Sweet potatoes
Dankali
Herb
Euphorbiaceae
Manihot esculenta, Crantz
Cassava
Rogo
Herb
Poaceae
Oryza sativa, L.
Rice
Shinkafa
Grass
Poaceae
Panicum miliare, Roth ex Roem. & Schult.
Millet
Daawa
Grass
Poaceae
Saccharum officinarum, L.
Sugarcane
Rakee
Grass
Poaceae
Sorghum bicolor, (L.) Moench
Guinea corn
Daawa
Grass
Fabaceae
Vigna unguiculata, (L.) Walp.
Cowpea
Waake
Herb
Poaceae
Zea mays, L.
Maize
Masara
Grass
Table 2. Non-cultivated plants utilized as food by elephants in the project area.
S/N
Family
Species
Habit
Anacardiaceae
Lannea acida A. Rich
Tree
2
Lannea Kerstingi Engl & K. Kiause
Tree
3
Lannea schimperi (Hochst. ex A. Rich) EngI.
Tree
1
4
Annonaceae
Annona senegalensis Pers.
Shrub
5
Apocynaceae
Voacanga africanna Stapf.
Shrub
6
Araliacceae
Cussonia barteri Seemann
Tree
7
Asteraceae
Aspilia africana (Pers.) C. D. Adams
Herb
8
Balanitaceae
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Dcl.
Tree
9
Bignoniaceae
Stercospermum kunthianum Cham.
Tree
10
Bombacaceae
Adansonia digtata L.
Tree
Bombax costatum Peliegr. & Guillet
Tree
11
107
12
Burseraceae
Boswellia dalzielii Plutch
Tree
13
Celastraceae
Maytenus senegalensis (Lain.) Exell.
Shrub
14
Cochlospermaceae
Cochlospermum planchoni Hook. F.
Shrub
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Amusa et al.
Cochlospermum tinctorium A. Rich.
Shrub
Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill & Pcrr.
Tree
17
Combretum adenogonium steud. ex A. Rich
Tree
18
Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC.
Tree
19
Combretum molle Br. & G. Don.
Tree
20
Terminalia avicennioides Guill & Perr.
Tree
21
Terminalia schimperiana Hochst
Tree
15
16
Combretaceae
22
Compositate
Tridax procumbens L.
Herb
23
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax
Climber
24
Dipterocarpaceae
Monotes kerstingii Gilg.
Tree
25
Ebenaceae
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC.
Tree
26
Euphorbiaceae
Drypetes floribunda (Mull. Arg) Hutch
Tree
27
Euphorbia convovuloides Hochst. ex Benth.
Herb
28
Euphorbia hirta L.
Herb
29
Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Wild) Baill.
Shrub
30
Bridelia ferruginea Benth
Tree
Uapaca togoensis Pax.
Tree
Afzelia africana (Sm.)
Tree
33
Burkea africana Hook.
Tree
34
Daniellia oliveri (Rolf Hutch. & Dalz.)
Tree
35
Detarium microcarpum Guill & Perr.
Tree
36
Isoberlinia doka Craib & Stapf
Tree
37
Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.) Milne Readhead
Shrub
38
Tamarindus indica L.
Tree
39
Isoberlinia tomentosa
Tree
31
32
Fabaceae
40
Hymenocardiaceae Hymenocardia acida Tul.
41
Liliaceae
Gloriosa simplex L.
Climber
42
Loganiaceae
Strychnos innocua Del subsp. innocua var. pubescens
Tree
Shrub
Solered.
Strychnos innocua Del. Subsp innocua var. innocua
43
Tree
Strychnos spinosa Lam.
Tree
Sida cordifolia L.
Herb
46
Sida pilosa Retz
Herb
47
Azanza garcheana
Shrub
Meliaceae
Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss
Tree
49
Menispermaceae
Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms.
Tree
50
Mimosaceae
Entada africana Guill & Perr.
Tree
44
45
48
Malvaceae
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
108
Movement patterns and resource needs of Kamuku elephants along migration routes in Nigeria
51
Faidherbia albida (Del.) A. Chev.
Tree
52
Mimosa pigra L.
Shrub
53
Parkia biglobosa (Jacq) Benth
Tree
54
Prosopis africana (GuilI & Perr.) Taub.
Tree
55
Acacia gourmaensis A. Chev.
Shrub
56
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd
Shrub
57
Acacia sieberiana DC. J var. sieberiana.
Tree
58
Acacia seyal
Shrub
Acacia nilotica
Shrub
Ficus thonningii Blume.
Tree
59
60
Moraceae
Ficus platyphylla Del.
Tree
62
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhavia diffusa L.
Herb
63
Ochnaccae
Lophira lanceolata var Tiegh. ex Keay
Tree
64
Olacaceae
Ximenia americana L.
Shrub
65
Palmae
Borassus aethiopum Mart.
Tree
66
Papilionaceae
61
Indigofera macrophylla Schum
Shrub
67
Indigofera secundiflora Poir.
Herb
68
Pericopsis laxiflora (Benth. ex Bak.) Van Meeuwen
Tree
69
Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir
Tree
70
Swartzia madagascariensis Desv.
Tree
Axonopus compressus Beauv
Creeper
72
Chloris gayana Kunth
Grass
73
Chloris pilosa Schum.
Grass
74
Cymbopogon giganteus Chiov.
Grass
75
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Creeper
76
Eluesine indica Gaertn.
Grass
77
Imperata cylindrica P.Beauv.
Grass
78
Panicum brevifolium L.
Grass
79
Panicum maximum Jacq.
Grass
80
Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin.
Grass
81
Pennisetum purpureum Schum. (Elephant grass)
Grass
82
Setaria anceps Massey
Grass
83
Sporobolus pyramidalis Beauv.
Grass
84
Crotalaria confusa Hepper
Herb
85
Andropogon gayanus Kunth.
Grass
86
Andropogon tectorum Schum. & Thonn.
Grass
87
Digitaria horizontalis Wild
Creeper
71
109
Poaceae
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Amusa et al.
88
Hyparrhenia rufa Stapf.
Grass
89
Polygalaceae
Securidaca longepedunculata Fres.
Shrub
90
Rubiaceae
Crossopteryx febrifuga (Afzel .ex G. Don) Benth
Tree
91
Mitragyna inermis (Wild.) O.Ktze
Shrub
92
Nauclea latifolia Sm.
Shrub
93
Gardenia aqualla Stapt & Hutch.
Shrub
94
Gardenia sokotoensis Hutch.
Shrub
95
Sterculiaceae
Sterculia setigera Del.
Tree
96
Sapotaceae
Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. F
Tree
97
Tiliacea
Grewia villosa Wild.
Shrub
Grewia mollis Wild.
Shrub
Vitex doniana Sweet.
Tree
98
99
Verbanaceae
Table 3. Distribution of plant species (non-cultivated) identified as being utilized as food by elephants in the
Table 3. Distribution of plant species (non-cultivated) identified as being utilized as food by
project area according to the habit
elephants in the project area according to the habit
Habit
Number
Percentage
Tree
48
48.5
Shrub
23
23.2
Herb
9
9.1
Grass
14
14.1
Climber
2
2.1
Creeper
3
3.0
Figure 2. Distribution of plant species (non-cultivated)
by taxonomic family
in the Support Zone Communities in order to ensure
an enduring participation in the conservation and
Recommendations
Apart from this, continuous ecological monitoring
is advisable in order to understand the long-term
There is need for habitat improvement as well as
restoration of preferred food resources of elephants
to be protected from various anthropogenic activities
such as bush burning, farming, livestock grazing,
simple, low cost and sustainable monitoring system is
essential for an assessment of the population structure
collected by community-based elephant monitoring
committees could potentially form the basis for such
nationally important wildlife conservation area, and
our candid opinion that a coherent strategy for the
conservation and management of the animals in all
sensitization, support and empowerment of local people
through community initiatives should be implemented
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
with elephant groups with regular dung counts along
permanent transects by park rangers during their
using radio/satellite tracking is proposed as well as
110
Movement patterns and resource needs of Kamuku elephants along migration routes in Nigeria
Figure 2. Distribution of plant species (non-cultivated) by taxonomic family
immediateRecommendations
efforts to aid restoration of the landscape,
Participatory survey of elephants (Loxodonta
the elephants’
and
places where
theyas restoration
africana)
Therepaths
is need
forhabitat
habitat in
improvement
as well
of preferred food resources of elephants
Pachyderm
in and around the Kamuku NP. Elephant routes need to be protected from various anthropogenic
Acknowledgements
activities such as bush burning, farming, livestock grazing, fuelwood exploitation and logging.
We
World Development
believe that the identified elephant ranges should be viewed as a nationally important wildlife
Flora
of
West
Tropical
Africa,
coherent strategy for the conservation and management of the animals in all the study locations
Overseas Development and Administration, London
should be developed. Continuous sensitization, support and empowerment of local people through
Trees of Nigeria
conservation area, and as a biologically important corridor. It is therefore, our candid opinion that a
community initiatives should be implemented in the Support Zone Communities in order to ensure
an enduring participation in the conservation and protection of wildlife and natural resources inParticipatory
the
science
for sustainable
wild harvests
– a methods
area. Apart from this, continuous ecological monitoring
is advisable
in order to understand
the long-
handbook
population
developmenttoofcarry
elephants
providing term
the enabling
environment
out thein Kamuku NP and adjoining areas.
Thus, the
development of a simple, low cost and sustainable monitoring system is essential for an assessment
elephant conservation
and monitoring committees,
of the population structure and dynamics of elephants.
members of survey corps as well as staff and rangers
Data currently being collected by
community-based elephant monitoring committees could potentially form the basis for such a
References
111
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Integration of injured individuals into herds of African Savannah
elephants (Loxodonta africana): field observations from Kenya
and Botswana
FE Zachos1 and K Evans2,3*
Mammal Collection, Natural History Museum Vienna, Burgring 7, 1010 Vienna, Austria
Elephants for Africa, Mailbox HA148HAKb, Maun, Botswana
3
Mammal Research Unit, School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol Life Sciences Building,
24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, United Kingdom
*corresponding author’s email: [email protected]
1
2
Introduction
Elephants, both Asian (Elephas maximus) and African
(Loxodonta spp.), have long been known for their
includes elephants helping each other in dangerous
lower part of her right hind leg was missing, but the
wound had healed well, leaving a scarred stump (see
easily but more slowly than the other elephants, and
female seemed to be an ordinary member of the
group, and interaction with the other animals was
not different from any other interaction within the
and Bekoff 1978 and references therein; Spinage
must have been life-threatening and extremely painful,
and it is likely that during the time it was healing she
For example, the group must have been indulgent
in humans and recorded in some other mammals
including elephants, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes),
dolphins (Tursiopstrun catus)
and easy year-round access to water, so unlike in dry
areas such as Tsavo in southern Kenya or the Kalahari,
and African buffalo (Syncerus caffer)
In this short note, we report two instances ofAfrican
Savannah elephants (L. africana) from Kenya and
Case 2: Okavango Delta, Botswana
individuals, which ultimately survived and became
In April and May 2003 a female elephant of about
20–25 years, her four-year old male calf and a male
calf of about eight months were repeatedly seen in
Case 1: Aberdare Mountains, Kenya
single bull was in the middle of a large clearing, and
a group of cows and calves were nearby drinking at
the youngest had a very swollen front left leg with an
unusual angle to the knee and that his head had a fold
of skin from the top of his ear and down the side of
the calf kept falling over and was really struggling to
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
112
Integration of injured individuals into herds of African Savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana):
field observations from Kenya and Botswana
mother or older calf stood over it or near it when it was
over the time that he was seen and he appeared to be
struggling less to remain upright, however he was
eaten by lions that night as a pride had been sighted
The next day the three elephants remained in the
mother and older calf were very protective and again
observations were done from afar and it was decided
not to remain for long to avoid undue stress to the
They were seen again on 9 April, this time with
four male elephants (two 21–25 year olds and two
affected his ability to remain with the pace of the herd
and it would appear that the female decided to remove
herself from her herd along with her older calf and
These two observations in different populations of
the African Savannah elephant provide more evidence
of the social complexities of this species and the ability
References
sighted; then the males left the lagoon followed by the
water the youngest calf kept falling over but was able
On 14 April they were sighted by a large lagoon,
Aquatic
Mammals 29:108–116
East African
ready to leave the lagoon the youngest was unable to
follow as he had his front left foot stuck in the mud
and could not get leverage with his swollen leg so kept
Wildlife Journal
The mother returned to the calf, and gently backed
into him but did not attempt to pull him up or out
Animal Behavioural Science
herd members came near the three, the four year old
calf stood between them and his younger brother,
apparently trying to keep them away, with his ears
out, not charging or trumpeting but moving towards
Applied
behavioural analysis of social organization in the Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus). Behavioural Ecology and
Sociobiology
Loxodonta africana.
Elephants
and moved on to drink from the lagoon, the three left
They were seen again on the 1 May and for the last
It is unusual to see small groups of females and their
calves apart from larger herds although similarly small
Usually a female as young as this and her calves would
be members of a herd consisting of a number of related
young male was either born with these deformities or
113
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Birth of a wild white rhino calf at Ziwa Rhino Sanctuary, Uganda
Felix Patton* and Angie Genade
Ziwa Rhino Sanctuary, Nagasongola, Uganda
*corresponding author email: [email protected]
It is extremely rare to witness the birth of a rhinoceros
away some 20 metres in a forceful but not aggressive
many free-ranging rhino populations living in protected
areas, the white rhino population at Ziwa Rhino
Sanctuary in central Uganda is monitored 24 hours
not settle for a further hour at which point she returned
The period of restlessness and frequent urination was
interval of 24 months, as had been experienced with
diligently watching for signs of an impending birth
2
The monitoring rangers had earlier reported to
in
becoming a wildlife sanctuary in 2004, the area was
the real time to the second displayed on each frame
little other wildlife on the Sanctuary apart from a few
numbers of small antelope and vervet monkeys, which
The rhinos at Ziwa are held under heavy security, 24
hours a day by armed guards and monitoring rangers
rhinos in view but at a discrete distance so as not to
disturb their normal behaviour, which is recorded on
afternoon heat in a small grass area surrounded by
open tree vegetation with her calf Laloyo, and two
two and a half year old Malaika, the second calf of a
of four years and three month old and the sub-adult
Obama, four years and seven months old were also
rangers who were monitoring the rhinos noted their
observations when, around 3pm, the behaviour of Kori
changed from being very calm to very agitated moving
around the immediate area, urinating many times and
At 1600hr Kori made the rhinos that were
accompanying her, including her calf Laloyo, move
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
For example, observation 2 - water bag breaks; and
observation 3 - calf drops, time expired 3 minutes 7
The birth of the new calf starting around 1700hr
took place in broad daylight which was a complete
That study showed that the ZRS females chased away
the older calf between 3 and 32 hours before the
aggression around 3 hours before her new calf,
towards Laloyo or her two companion rhinos and all
three remained within 20 metres of Kori before and
Kori burst the water bag by leaning up against
states that the captive rhino ruptures the water bag
by suddenly standing up leading to traction of the
114
Birth of a wild white rhino calf at Ziwa Rhino Sanctuary, Uganda
Table 1. The time between main observations of the birth of a wild white rhino calf at Ziwa Rhino Sanctuary
First time staggering
First suckle
17:34:49
17:48:09
First walk
First time standing
17:33:17
10
17:51:11
First wriggle movement
9
17:16:52
8
First attempt to stand
7
17:16:44
6
First movement
5
17:14:38
4
Calf drops
3
17:13:40
Water bag breaks
2
17:10:33
17:09:20
Water bag in view
1
1 min 13 sec
3 min 7 sec
58 sec
3 min 4 sec
3 min 13 sec
19 min 37 sec
21 min 9 sec
34 min 29 sec
37 min 31 sec
movement which was to shake its head after which its
main actions were to move by wriggling, attempting
the front legs in the correct position while the rear legs
During the period that the calf failed to stand, it
Laloyo became interested in the new calf, her sister,
2 minutes and 53 seconds after the birth and walked
a captive white rhino calf stood within 5 minutes
while a new Indian rhino calf took 24 minutes before
wriggled 90 degrees to face the head of Laloyo and
Kori decided to move Laloyo away from the calf by
it raised the front legs but collapsed as it tried to stand
115
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Patton and Genade
Bella’s group moved within 10 m of Kori and calf
3 steps at them as a warning and stood, then sat, as a
Panzernashorn (Rhinoceros unicornis). Zoologische
Garten
After 1 minute and 36 seconds, Kori became agitated
adult female white rhinos at Ziwa Rhino Sanctuary in
The new calf was able to stand properly 19 minutes
Pachyderm
using the body of the mother Kori to help it remain
After the fourth stagger, Kori lay down on her right
while in a good position, did not suckle but remained
reacted by standing and moving around to make the
teats easy for the calf to access but the calf appeared
Kori remained standing for a further 7 minutes and
21 seconds when it lay down for a second time and 16
was 34 minutes and 29 seconds after the birth while
to occur 3 minutes and 2 seconds later and again was
without staggering or leaning against the mother – was
The authors would like to thank Dr Kees
Rookmaaker of the Rhino Resource Center for his
References
(Rhinoceros
unicornis)
International Zoo Yearbook
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
116
Progress in the implementation of the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS)
ETIS UPDATES
Progress in the implementation of the Elephant Trade
Information System (ETIS)
Avancement dans la mise en œuvre du Système d’Information
sur le Trafic des elephants (ETIS)
Tom Milliken
Elephant and Rhino Programme Coordinator, TRAFFIC International, PO Box CY 1409, Causeway, Harare,
Zimbabwe
email: [email protected]
data collection effort prior to undertaking a trend
analysis for the upcoming 66th meeting of the
CITES Standing Committee, now holds 22,578
Parties, such as Angola and Myanmar, that have
seldom or never contributed data are beginning
to do so, whilst the best datasets span 25 years of
ETIS ne cesse de croître et, à la suite d’un important
effort de collecte de donnée savant l’analyse des tendances
pour la 66ème réunion du Comité Permanent de la CITES, il
Parties, commel’Angola et le Myanmar, qui contribuent
alors que les meilleurs ensembles couvrent 25 années de
données longitudinales, comme ceux del’Afrique du Sud,
Switzerland, Tanzania, United Kingdom, United
The issue of forensic examination of ivory
La question de l’examen médicolégal de l’ivoire
ème
réunion de la
when the Parties agreed a clear recommendation
les Parties ont adopté une recommandation claire dans
important es d’ivoire doivent être soumises à un examen
the section “Regarding the traceability of elephant
specimens in trade” the Resolution:
» la résolution:
RECOMMENDS that Parties cooperate in
the development of techniques to enhance the
traceability of elephant specimens in trade, for
instance by supporting research to determine
the age and origin of ivory and other elephant
specimens, by supplying samples for forensic
research, and collaborating with relevant
forensic research institutions;
117
RECOMMANDE que les Parties coopèrent au
traçabilité des spécimens d’éléphants faisant l’objet de
commerce, par exemple, en soutenant les travaux de
recherche sur la détermination de l’âge et de l’origine
de l’ivoire et d’autres spécimens d’éléphants, en
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Milliken
URGES Parties to collect samples from largescale ivory seizures (i.e. a seizure of 500 kg or
more) that take place in their territories, and
provide these to relevant forensic and other
research institutions in support of enforcement
and prosecutions; and
DIRECTS the Secretariat, subject to available
resources, to support activities that will enhance
the trace ability of elephant specimens in trade
by: informing Parties about and evaluating
relevant forensic facilities and research
institutions; reviewing relevant developments
and research activities, and advising the Parties
and the Standing Committee accordingly;
encouraging the sharing of forensic samples
and data, including through existing DNA
databases; and facilitating linkages with
MIKE, ETIS and national and international
enforcement activities.
That development was further buttressed by the
Parties involved in large-scale ivory seizures
(i.e. 500 kg or more) should collect samples
from the ivory seized within 90 days of the
seizure and, if possible, from all large seizures
from the past 24 months. They should submit
the samples for analysis to begin immediately,
to appropriate forensic-analysis facilities
capable of reliably determining the origin of
the ivory samples, with the aim of addressing
the entire crime chain.
fournissant des échantillons pour la recherche légiste
et en collaborant avec les institutions de recherche
légiste pertinentes;
PRIE instamment les Parties de prélever des
échantillons sur les saisies de grandes quantités
d’ivoire (à savoir supérieures ouégales à 500 kg)
effectuées sur leur territoire et de les remettre aux
institutions de recherche légiste et autres institutions
de recherche pour contribuer à la lutte contre la fraude
et aux pour suites judiciaires; et
CHARGE le Secrétariat, sous réserve des ressources
disponibles, de soutenir des activités qui amélioreront
la traçabilité des spécimens d’éléphants faisant
l’objet de commerce en évaluant les établissements
légistes et les institutions de recherche pertinents et
en communiquant des informations aux Parties à
cesujet; en examinant les faits nouveaux et activités
de recherche pertinents, et en informant les Parties
et le Comité permanent à cet effet; en encourageant
l’échange d’échantillons légistes et de données,
notamment dans le contexte des bases de données
d’ADN existantes; et en facilitant les liens avec MIKE,
ETIS et les activités nationales et internationales de
lutte contre la fraude;
Ce développement a été davantager enforcé par
Les Parties concernées par des saisies d’ivoire
devraient prélever des échantillons de l’ivoire saisi dans
toutes les saisies importantes effectuées dans les 24
Secretariat to:
examine and advise about existing DNA-
pour traitement immédiat à un établissement d’analyse
for sourcing and ageing ivory, identify relevant
forensic facilities and research institutions, and
consider the need for further research in these
areas.
prendre des mesures contre l’ensemble de la chaîne de
Identifying the origin of seized ivory
CITES :
D’examiner et donner des avis sur les techniques
by expanding known trade chain information
beyond those countries that are immediately
de l’ivoire, inventorier les établissements médicolégaux
important with regards to large movements of
pour suivre les recherches dans ces domaines;
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
118
Progress in the implementation of the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS)
L’identification de l’origine de l’ivoire saisi par
seizure made in Malaysia ostensibly coming from
Lome, Togo in 2012 revealed a tusk composition
that was roughly 60% savannah ivory from East
Africa, mostly Tanzania and Kenya, but also from
Mozambique, Zambia and Malawi in Southern
l’information sur la chaîne de commerce au-delà des
est particulièrement important en ce qui concerne les
Congo and Cameroon in Central Africa, plus some
a single ivory consignment moving from Africa
to Asia has been known to involve elephant tusks
from each of Africa’s sub-regions and stands as
an important wake-up call in terms of the ability
of criminal syndicates to connect with extensive
collected in distant parts of Africa is being exported
into trade thousands of kilometres from its origin
clearly demonstrates the transnational nature of
being a local, national or sub-regional affair are
shipment had not been forensically examined by
needed if we are going to defeat those engaged in
Unfortunately, while the CITES mandate to the
Parties tells them to ensure that forensic analysis of
ivory is conducted for large-scale ivory seizures,
they do not tell them ‘how’ or ‘where’ forensic
2012, ostensiblement en provenance de Lomé au Togo, a
révélé la composition des défenses qui était à peu près 60%
l’ivoire de la savane de l’Afrique de l’Est, principalement
de la Tanzanie et du Kenya, mais aussi du Mozambique,
de la Zambie et du Malawi en Afrique australe, ainsi que
et du Cameroun en Afrique centrale, en plus de l’ivoire
a vu un seul chargement d’ivoire venant d’Afrique vers
l’Asie comprendre les défenses d’éléphants provenant
de chacune des sous-régions de l’Afrique et c’est un
important signal d’alarme en termes de la capacité des
organisations criminelles à se connecter aux vastes réseaux
Le fait que l’ivoire obtenu de façon illégale des zones
lointaines de l’Afrique est exporté vers un commerce à
des milliers de kilomètres de son origine montre de façon
évidente la nature transnationale du commerce criminel
l’ivoire étaitune affaire locale, nationale ou sous régionale
tout cela si la saisie n’avait pas été soumise à l’examen
travail médicolégal si nous allons vaincre ceux qui font le
seized ivory, but lack in-country facilities and
how to implement this CITES recommendation
is rife, and who pays for it is another important
Malheureusement, alors que le mandat de la CITES aux
Parties leur dit de veiller à ce que l’analyse médicolégale de
l’ivoire soit effectuée pour les saisies importantes d’ivoire,
There is some good news to help the situation:
Guidelines on
Methods and Procedures for Ivory Sampling and
Laboratory Analysis to promote understanding
and foster’best practices’ going forward that
support transnational criminal investigations
mais manquent de structures et la capacité de le faire
comment mettre en œuvre cette recommandation de la
CITES et qui va payer, une autre considération importante
Il y a quelques bonnes nouvelles sur la situation: en
aim to facilitate the use of forensic science in
order to combat wildlife crime, and they place a
special emphasis on the illegal trade in elephant
Les directives sur les
méthodes et les procédures d’échantillonnage et d’analyse
d’ivoire au laboratoi repour promouvoir la compréhension
laboratory analysis, interpretation of results and
119
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Milliken
use of data, and international cooperation, detailed
guidance on a range of investigative procedures
and methodologies for ivory sampling and analysis
-- from the crime scene to the courtroom -- the
crime, crime scene investigators, law enforcement
resource is to ensure more timely, thorough and
effective investigations, which hopefully result in
an increased number of successful prosecutions
Guidelines
step forward in bringing clarity to an otherwise not
well understood discipline, what is lacking is an
of where forensic laboratories with appropriate
facilities are found throughout the world, what
types of forensic testing these facilities reliably
conduct, and at what cost such services are
in this regard, and the worrying reality is that only
a fraction of the large-scale ivory seizures that
meilleures pratiques» à l’avenir qui
soutiennent les enquêtescriminellestransnationales et
Les Directives
visent à faciliter l’utilisation de la science médicolégale
afin de lutter contre la criminalité de la faune, et
elles mettent un accent particulier sur le commerce
gestion du lieu du crime, les analyses de laboratoire,
l’interprétation des résultats et l’utilisation des données,
et la coopération internationale, des indications détaillées
sur de nombreuses procédures et méthodologies pour
Couvrant toute la chaîne de la garde –allant du lieu du
crime à la salle d’audience - Les Directives sont clairement
utiles à un large éventail d’acteurs, y compris les premiers
intervenants sur les lieux du crime, les enquêteurs des
lieux du crime, les responsables de l’application de la
loi, les médecins légistes, les procureurs et le pouvoir
est d’assurer des enquêtes plus rapides, plus approfondies
Alors que Les Directives représentent clairement une
par ailleurs pas bien comprise, ce qui manque est un
large ivory seizures made between 1996 and 2014,
but the ETIS data indicate that there have been
at least150 seizures involving 500 kg of ivory
knowledge of ivory trade would be so much better
if more forensic work was being undertaken in
To support the development of forensic
science in Africa and Asia that can benefit
elephant conservation and ivory trade analysis,
TRAFFIC’s TRAPS programme collaborated
laboratoires médicolégaux ayant des structures approprié
es dans le monde, quels types de tests médicolégaux ces
que seule une fraction des saisies importantes d’ivoire
al 2015 décrit les résultats de 28 grande ssaisies d’ivoire
effectuées entre 1996 et 2014; mais les données d’ETIS
indiquent qu’il y a eu au moins 150 saisies de 500 kg
connaissance du commerce de l’ivoire serait meilleure si
to bring professionals from Thailand, Malaysia,
Pour soutenir le développement de la science
showcase emerging forensic laboratories in these
two important ivory trade regions to a special
TRAFFIC delivered the keynote presentation
entitled “The Illegal Ivory and Rhino Horn
Trades and the Challenges of Wildlife Forensics
and Research” which highlighted the increasingly
important role that wildlife forensics is playing in
à la conservation de l’éléphant et l’analyse du commerce
de l’ivoire, le programme TRAPS de TRAFFIC a
collaboré avec TRACE, le Réseau Médicolégal de la
dans ces deux régions importantes du commerce de
réunion de la Société pour la Science Médicolégale de
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
120
Progress in the implementation of the Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS)
critical insight into the origin of seized wildlife
products, the trade routes involved in the trade,
enforcement investigations and the prosecution
by issuing a series of recommendations, including
the need:
detailing the location and technical capabilities
of individual laboratories around the world
which can undertake aspects of forensic and
research;
Les commerces illégaux
médecine légale et de la recherche sur la faune », qui a
souligné le rôle de plus en plus important que la médecine
illégal des espèces sauvages en offrant un regard critique
sur l’origine des produits issus de la faune saisis, les routes
commerciales impliquées dans le commerce et les liens
série de recommandations, y compris la nécessité:
validated and replicated through independent
testing;
law enforcement needs;
détaillant l’emplacement et les capacités techniques
des laboratoires individuels à travers le monde
capables d’entreprendre des aspects de la médecine
légale et la recherche;
chain of custody transfer to accredited labs to
the nearest regional hub;
forensic and research laboratories into national
and international policy and regulatory
frameworks through formal channels,
especially a feedback loop to the CITES
monitoring systems for elephants, ETIS and
MIKE;
and capacity building between accredited
laboratory facilities; and
Science into an international institutional
vehicle for ensuring best practice standards and
sustainability of a global forensics/research
les besoins de politique et d’application de la loi;
d’échantillons et la chaîne de transfert aux laboratoires
idéalement au centre régional le plus proche;
laboratoires de médecine légale et de recherche dans
la politique nationale et internationale et les cadres
vers les systèmes de surveillance de la CITES pour
les éléphants, ETIS et MIKE;
formation ciblée et de renforcement des capacités
entre les laboratoires accrédités et
The time has come to really scale-up and do
de la faune en un véhicule institutionnel international
References:
durabilité d’un réseau mondial de médecine légale et
Le temps est venu de vraiment faire les choses bien en
of large seizures of elephant ivory reveals Africa’s
Science Express,
121
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Milliken
BOOK REVIEW
China faces a conservation challenge: the expanding elephant
and mammoth ivory trade in Beijing and Shanghai
Lucy Vigne and Esmond Martin, 2014
Save the Elephants, Nairobi and The Aspinall Foundation, Lympne
Reviewed by Daniel Stiles PO Box 5159, Diani Beach 80401, Kenya
email: [email protected]
This report describes in detail the
elephant and mammoth ivory that were
found in physical outlets and factories
number of outlets, number of items, the
The report covers both registered
and describes the various challenges
involved in monitoring the sale of legal
ivory, most of which originated from
the 2008 CITES-authorized sales from
media, however, was the purported
tripling in raw ivory price between 2010 and 2014
was assumed by many to indicate a commensurate
problems with the claim that raw prices tripled during
this period, and the report itself contains pertinent
information to provide a more nuanced analysis of the
The data provided do not substantiate the oft-heard
claim that ‘insatiable consumer demand’ for ivory in
China is the largest importer of illegal elephant
tusks in the world.
This conclusion is substantiated by the Elephant
Trade Information System statistics, which show that
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
China is the main destination for illegal
Most raw elephant tusks smuggled
into China from Africa do not pass
The investigators visited six of the ten
small quantities of ivory processed by
these factories (the largest about 500 kg
for all of the poached ivory assumed
to be smuggled into China, and then
to support the conclusion that legal factories process
found, there are no data on what quantities the latter
Most of the large supplies of illegal African ivory,
both raw and worked, are not sold through retail
outlets but are given as gifts or sold informally to
friends and acquaintances.
This conclusion is not substantiated by the report’s
contents, nor could it be since what happens to the
illegal ivory after import is unknown in quantitative
items are most likely sold through personal networks
presumed huge quantity of illegal tusks imported
122
China faces a conservation challenge: the expanding elephant and mammoth ivory trade in Beijing and
Shanghai
annually could not possibly be ‘given as gifts or sold
informally to friends and acquaintances’, or even be
administrative and legislative actions are restricting
China is the main ivory manufacturing centre in the
world.
The numbers of ivory items surveyed for retail sale
have doubled in Beijing from 3,196 in 2002 to 6,272
in 2014 and increased in Shanghai from 2,045 in
2002 to 2,172 in 2014. Outlets in Beijing have more
than doubled from 61 in 2002 to 156 in 2014 and in
Shanghai from 35 in 2002 to 119 in 2014
Most ivory is bought on the retail market by Chinese
collectors and by growing numbers of investors reportedly anticipating further restrictions on the ivory
trade as well as possible growing scarcity in ivory
due to future worldwide ivory stockpile destructions.
The number of outlets has increased substantially, but
the average number of pieces per outlet has actually
about 7 per cent annual growth – and stagnation in
less than the average economic growth rate for China
attracting more investors in raw tusks” and “learned
some are also buying raw tusks, before they reach the
This is an exceptionally important conclusion
omitted from press releases and media reports, as
can be explained largely by the availability of legal
to support a claim that consumer demand for worked
Retail market data do not support a conclusion
that ivory market growth has ‘exploded’ since
2002; growth in the physical outlets sector has been
well-publicized stockpile destructions are spurring
The three conclusions below tell an important story:
Nearly all worked ivory seen for retail sale in Beijing
and Shanghai was recently made by Chinese carvers, with very few foreign-made or antique ivory
items seen for sale.
Well over 90% of the elephant ivory items sold in
the retail outlets in China are now bought by mainland Chinese.
Nearly all the worked ivory nowadays stays within
China.
self-contained ivory market, unlike the cosmopolitan
markets many of the buyers involved originate outside
of those regions, and traditionally imports and exports
123
Almost all of the new factories, outlets and ivory
pieces they found were registered and legal, with the
report that legal items made up 84 per cent of total
Retail prices for ivory items have skyrocketed
Rising price can be a good indicator of demand
changes, provided that prices for comparable items
prices for roughly comparable types between 2002 and
good indicator that indeed ivory demand has gone up
Unfortunately, the report did not systematically
compare prices for equivalent items found in the legal
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Stiles
and illegal outlets respectively; the two are lumped
items would have been very useful in determining
whether price differentials provide incentives to shop
The report did state that “retail prices for ivory
items in non-licensed outlets were generally lower
than in licensed outlets, especially pendants, bangles
and name seals”, but actual data to observe the degree
The legal outlets tend to sell the large, expensive
items while the illegal outlets sell the small, inexpensive items
This was not a conclusion given in the Executive
Some elephant ivory items are being exported as
mammoth ivory items.
The authors state that vendors told them that they
could buy and carry with them ivory items and say they
were mammoth, as customs agents cannot differentiate
in certain outlets elephant and mammoth ivory items of
serious challenge that needs a policy response in China
support for this conclusion:
“Of a random sample of 14 licensed elephant
ivory outlets, 28% were large items counted on the
Most Chinese are not interested in ivory and know
very little about it.
This proportion of large items for sale is very high
By contrast, “nearly all the items in the unlicensed
outlets seen on display for sale weighed less than 50
Summary is that “ivory is not seen generally for sale
in the modern shopping centres and is not popular
their money on modern items, such as cars and smart
The latter phenomenon has been noted by other
one place in Shanghai had a 20% discount, but still
Again, if this is the case, why is “ivory trade
There are opportunities for laundering illegal ivory in
legal outlets.
There are two main ways illegal ivory could be
mixed in with the legal:
Most visitors to the shops are not interested in the
brochures or the legal system, according to the
vendors and our observations.
Most Chinese ivory consumers buy in the black
These cards are not always taken with the buyer of
of knowing whether the new item now associated
with the old card was made from legal or illegal
This has important implications for the success of a
generally against a domestic ban on ivory, which they
say would push the industry completely underground,
making it harder to control, along with problems of
mammoth ivory, according to the authors; thus
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124
China faces a conservation challenge: the expanding elephant and mammoth ivory trade in Beijing and
Shanghai
The wholesale price of raw tusks sold for carving
has tripled since 2010
The 2010 black market price the authors use is
USD 750/kg, obtained in Fuzhou, southern China,
on southern China notes that “in Fuzhou, demand
ivory specialty shops in Fuzhou and only 282 ivory
Conclusions
The report contains very valuable quantitative and
qualitative data, but its credibility has been marred
by the inaccurate press hype that has been fabricated
reveals an unusually slow growth in the open retail
The scale of the open market lags behind Manhattan
black market raw ivory prices could be expected to
In the report under review here they state that
are reinforced by observations the authors make on
consumer attitudes and behaviour that ivory is of little
This leaves the anomaly of extremely high increases
surge so much in an environment of such slow market
of a sharp price rise from 2008 to late 2011, followed
answers involve the size of the informal black market,
price speculation/stockpiling, supply and demand
price has been questioned, however, which is why
black market raw ivory prices have risen roughly 1,000
References
Legal raw ivory prices
This report makes no attempt to deal with legal raw
Polishing off the Ivory Trade:
Surveys of Thailand’s Ivory Market
Table 1. Legal prices for China in USD/kg between 2010 and 2014
125
Year
Beijing Southern China/Hong Kong
2010
2011
2014
2014
2014
303–530
1,625
630–840
484–613
660–1,100
832–1,138
Tusk weight/kg
Source
1–5
>10
>20
>10
Martin and Vigne, 2011
Dentex, pers. comm. 2014
Moyle and Conrad, pers. comm.
‘tSas-Rolfes et al. 2014
Dentex, pers. comm. 2014
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Stiles
Biological Conservation
Making a killing: a 2011 survey of ivory markets
in China.
Ivory Markets in the
USA
of the largest retail centers for illegal ivory surveyed
TRAFFIC Bulletin
Pachyderm
The Elephant and Ivory Trade in
Thailand.
California, USA
Analysis of Ivory Demand Drivers.
complex policy issue of elephant ivory stockpile
Pachyderm
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
126
Obituaries
OBITUARIES
IAN PLAYER 1927–2014
Champion of white rhinos passes
away at 87
Tribute by Peter Hitchins and Clive Walker
*corresponding author’s
email: [email protected]
Ian Player began his conservation career as a
accomplishments were many and included leading a
team of dedicated rangers who were responsible for
capturing and translocating the white rhinoceros from
the team of rangers under his control was to protect the
existing population of rhinos, which at that time were
staff realized that the species had reached its carrying
capacity in Umfolozi, they petitioned the Parks Board
In Operation Rhino, which ran from 1961 to 1972
these trips, Ian gave lectures, promoted conservation
2,000 of the world’s leading scientists, politicians,
and others shared the platform to focus attention on
conservation needs, protection of wilderness areas,
wrote a number of books, among them Men, Rivers
and Canoes 1964, The White Rhino Saga 1972 and
Zululand Wilderness
organisations around the world for his commitment to
conservation and environmental education, and served
Ian Player’s work had a huge impact on conservation
acknowledged that his many accomplishments were
only made possible by the commitment and selfwish to pay tribute to all who at this time are engaged
sold and delivered 1,109 white rhino to other protected
areas across Africa and zoological gardens around the
Ian introduced wilderness trails to the game
reserves of Zululand and in 1957 founded the
education programme to develop leaders and preserve
School that Ian founded, after attending a trail in
adults from all ethnic communities and many nations
trained many young game scouts who became famous
127
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
Obituaries
Theresa Warth – The passing of the
“Elephant Lady” of Zimbabwe
Tracey Bridges
email: [email protected]
It became her life work to protect what she loved, and
educate people as to why it was important to care for
Theresa’s legacy alive and turn the future she saw and
Chiredzi River Conservancy in the south-east of the
Theresa was well known and respected for her
became someone that people across the country turned
dedication and incredible connection with elephants
set her apart, and she devoted her life to rescuing and
the years included 12 babies orphaned by the severe
drought that swept through the Zimbabwean low veld
in the early 1990’s; Marula and Lewa, rescued by Clem
Coetsee in 1993; Mungwezi and Chitora who were
The wild herd of elephants in the area were a
rescued from the drought were released into the
Chiredzi River Conservancy area in 1992; through
migration and breeding the population had grown to
One of the guests at Theresa’s Memorial at Mteri
Dam had this to say, in summing up her life dedicated
to wildlife:
“It was such a privilege to witness her incredible
relationship with the rehabilitated elephants and to
Unfortunately, Zimbabwe’s complicated and
turbulant political situation took its toll on wildlife in
the area, as well as placing Theresa personally under
wayside, Theresa formed a team of game scouts and
funded their anti-poaching operations, which continued
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
128
Guidelines for Contributors
Guidelines for Contributors
Obituaries
GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Aim and scope
Pachyderm publishes papers and notes concerning
all aspects of the African elephant, the African rhino
and the Asian rhino with a focus on the conservation
Papers may be reports of original biology research
or they may focus more on the socio-economic aspects
information concerning the activities of the African
Elephant, the African Rhino, and the Asian Rhino
Field notes
Submission of manuscripts
Review papers
All manuscripts should be submitted online at:
http://Pachyderm
If there are any questions or concerns regarding the
submission process, please send an email to:
Review papers, which are unbiased reviews of all the
telephone:
Pachyderm invites reviews of newly published books,
Book reviews
The Editor, Pachyderm
PO Box 68200 – 00200
telephone: +254 20 249 3561/65
fax: +254 20 249 3570
Letters to the editor
Letters should be addressed to the relevant Specialist
are welcome that comment on articles published in
Pachyderm or on any other issue relating to elephant
Manuscripts are accepted in both English and
Pachyderm’s Editorial Board categorizes material
received into the following sections:
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These should n o t be more than 5,000 words and
more than 250 words (informative type, outlining
information from the Introduction, Materials and
as EPS and images in the highest quality possible, such
Title and authors
The title should contain as many of the key words
as possible but should not be more than 25 words
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
130
Guidelines for Contributors
of the corresponding author, to whom proofs and
Examples are drawn from previous issues of Pachyderm:
Article in a journal or periodical
Journal conventions
Nomenclature
Use common names of animals and plants, giving
Man determines the distribution of elephants in
African
Journal of Ecology
Book
Mammals of the southern
Spelling
Use British spelling, following the latest edition
of the Concise Oxford dictionary or the Oxford
English Dictionary, using ‘z’ instead of ‘s’ in words
like ‘recognize’, ‘organization’, ‘immobilized’; but
Numbers
African sub-region.
Pretoria
Conservation research
in the African rain forests: a technical handbook
Chapter in a book
Studying elephants.
Use the International System of Units for measurement
Unpublished material
Spell out numbers under 10 if not a unit of measurement unless the number is part of a series containing numbers 10 or over, for example: 14 adult males,
Population Biology, University of Edinburgh,
Electronic site
References
are as advocated by the internationally recognized
Council of Science Editors in its
format,
Fencing and other barriers against problem
cited, separate them by a semicolon, listing them in
131
Pachyderm No. 56 July 2014–June 2015
ISSN 1026 2881