COMMAS 1
1. Compound Sentence
Place a comma before coordinating conjunctions in a compound sentence. Coordinating conjunctions are:
for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so. Use the mnemonic device FANBOYS to remember which words are coordinating conjunctions.
a) As a result of global warming, the oceans will warm, and glaciers will melt.
b) NASA has used fuel cells to generate electricity in spacecraft since the 1960s, but more research is needed to make them
durable and cost-effective for use in cars, homes, or businesses.
2. Introductory Elements
Place a comma after introductory words or phrases in a sentence, including transition words or connectors to separate the
statement from the subject.
a) In firms of all sizes, a basic aim of management accounting routines is to control vital areas and to monitor performance.
b) In Figure 10, the difference between tamper-proofing and other techniques is characterized.
3. Interrupters
Put a comma around “interrupters” (parenthetical information, appositives) and non-essential relative clauses.
a) The gasoline prices have increased rapidly in the past three years, as can be seen from table 1.
b) Nokia, the Finnish cell phone maker, is struggling to break through in the US cell phone market.
c) Nokia, which is a Finnish cell phone maker, is struggling to break through in the US cell phone market.
d) In the future, those non-energy sectors most dependent on energy, such as the chemical and steel industries, will suffer the
greatest loss in production.
4. Items in a Series
Use a comma to set off items in a series (more than two items). The comma before the last ‘and’ is optional in a list.
a) I bought books, notebooks, and pens for this semester.
COMMAS 2
5.
Use a comma always before the main clause.
a) If you enter the factory, you are required to wear a hard hat.
b) Although there are dozens of green house gases, a handful of dominant ones have attracted the most attention.
Note: Commas are not usually used after the main clause
a) You are required to wear a hard hat if you enter the factory.
Some use commas with contrastive and causative subordinators after the main clause, so in other words it is optional.
Especially while, since, as are used with commas to distinguish them from their other meanings of time.
a) Many students and professors are excited about the possibilities that the new Aalto University may bring forth, while
others remain skeptical.
6. Use a comma to separate two or more equivalent adjectives
a) Similar to many other initially exotic, expensive technologies, CD-Recordable drives have become everyday tools for
most users.
Note: not all adjectives are equivalent. ‘Exotic’ and ‘expensive’ can be combined with ‘and’ or a comma and their order can be
switched. “Modern electronic devices” is an example where the adjectives cannot be separated with ‘and’, a comma nor can their
order be changed.
7. Use a comma before resultative –ing clauses
a) Any significant green house warming could cause a rapid melting of polar ice, resulting in a rise in sea level.
b) Design is often interdisciplinary, thus bringing concepts from the arts, mathematics and sciences.
SEMICOLONS
1. Use a semicolon (;) to join two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.
Ex) I knew I wanted to work in the marketing field; I ended up accepting a job as the Director of Advertising.
2.
Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when the items themselves already have internal punctuation
within the item.
Ex) During my free time, I like to travel; spend time with my brothers, sisters and cousins; and eat out frequently at all
kinds of restaurants.
3. Use a semicolon before transitional connectors (however, moreover, etc.), when they connect two independent
clauses.
Ex) I really should exercise more; however, I feel that I really don´t have time for exercise right now.
COLONS
1. Use a colon (:) after an independent clause to introduce a list
Ex) The lab report consist of six sections: introduction, background, engineering theory, experimental set up, procedure and
analysis.
2. Use a colon to introduce direct quotations from another source.
Ex) E-commerce is changing the way business is done in a multitude of ways: “There are an increasing number of
companies selling to consumers directly through the internet. In addition, the internet has enabled companies to come into
contact with suppliers from all over the world………”(Nickels, 67)
3. Use a colon to introduce an example or an explanation related to something just mentioned.
Ex) College graduates nowadays have a wide range of employable skills: they are computer savvy and know at least one
other language besides their own.
HYPHENS
The hyphen helps avoid confusion by telling readers when combinations of two or more words should be understood as a single
concept. These combinations, called 'compound words', have five main uses:
1. Compound nouns:
Hyphens can join two or more words to form new 'nouns'. These forms are typical of journalistic and business writing, though
less common in academic writing.
Most compound nouns were initially written as separate words. As these compounds gained popularity, they next appeared joined
by a hyphen. Later, as they became firmly established in the language, the hyphen disappeared, resulting in closed-form compound
nouns.
OPEN FORM
HYPHENATED FORM
"fire fighter" (1903)
"fire-fighter"
"work station" (1931) "work-station"
"data base" (1962)
"data-base"
CLOSED
FORM
firefighter
workstation
database
2. Compound adjectives:
Hyphens can indicate that two or more words act as an 'adjective' before a noun. These forms typically occur in the academic
writing of science and technology.
In general, English hyphenates the compound modifier when it appears before a noun in order to prevent any ambiguity.
HYPHENATED
NOT HYPHENATED
A man-eating shark
(a carnivorous fish)
a man eating shark
(a carnivorous male human)
New age-discrimination rules
(new rules regarding discrimination according to
age)
New-age discrimination rules
(rules about discriminating against the philosophy
of the New Age movement )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
[ NOUN + NOUN ] + NOUN, “a video-game industry”
[ ADJECTIVE + NOUN ] + NOUN “high-performance communication networks”
[ NOUN + PAST PARTICIPLE ] + NOUN “computer-related terms”
[ NOUN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE ] + NOUN “field-emitting materials”
[ ADVERB + PAST PARTICIPLE ] + NOUN “well-established transportation system”
[ NUMBER + UNIT ] + NOUN “200-pixel versión”
7. [ PHRASE ] + NOUN “state-of-the-art manufacturing plans”
3. Words formed from affixes:
Hyphens can be used to join an 'affix' to a word. “anti-immune” “de-energize” “self-evident” “ex-CEO”
4. Numbers and fractions:
Hyphens are used to form fractions (one-third) and compound numbers (from twenty-one to ninety-nine).
5. Avoiding ambiguity:
Hyphens are used to make a clear distinction between words that would otherwise be confused re-form (to form again) and
reform (to improve by change).
HYPHENATED
NOT HYPHENATED
re-form (to form again)
reform (to restructure)
re-cover (to cover again)
recover (to get better after an illness)
re-sent (sent again)
resent (to feel bitter about something)
re-press (to iron again)
repress (to hold down)
re-sign (to sign again)
resign (to hand in one�s notice)