ARGUMENT
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
Questions for Critically
Reading an Argument
➤ What claims does the writer make?
➤ What kinds and quality of evidence does
the writer provide to support the claim?
➤ What assumptions underlie the argument,
connecting evidence to claims?
➤ What is the writer’s tone? How does the
writer use language?
➤ Is the argument logical? Has the writer
committed any fallacies?
➤ Are you convinced? Why or why not?
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.1
EVIDENCE FOR ARGUMENT
➤Facts
Verifiable statements
➤Statistics
Facts expressed in numbers
➤Examples
Specific cases
➤Expert opinions
The judgments of authorities
➤Appeals to readers’ beliefs or
needs
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.2
CRITERIA FOR
WEIGHING EVIDENCE
➤Is the evidence accurate?
Trustworthy, exact, undistorted?
➤Is the evidence relevant?
Authoritative, pertinent, current?
➤Is the evidence representative?
True to context?
➤Is the evidence adequate?
Plentiful, specific?
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.3
GUIDELINES FOR
ANALYZING ASSUMPTIONS
➤What are the assumptions
underlying the argument?
How does the writer connect claims
with evidence?
➤Are the assumptions believable?
Do they express your values? Do they
seem true in your experience?
➤Are the assumptions consistent
with each other?
Is the argument’s foundation solid,
not slippery?
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.4
CHECKLIST OF FALLACIES
Evasions
 Begging the question
– Treating an opinion that is open to question as if it
were already proved or disproved.
 Non sequitar (“it does not follow”)
– Drawing a conclusion from irrelevant evidence.
 Red herring
– Introducing an irrelevant issue to distract readers.
 False authority
– Citing as expert opinion the views of a person who
is not an expert.
 Inappropriate appeals
– Appealing to pity or fear, snob appeal,
bandwagon, flattery, argument ad populum (“to
the people”), argument ad hominem (“to the
man”)
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.5
CHECKLIST OF FALLACIES
Oversimplifications
 Hasty generalization (jumping to a
conclusion)
– Asserting an opinion based on too little evidence.
 Sweeping generalization
– Asserting an opinion as applying to all instances
when it may apply to some, or to none. Absolute
statements and stereotypes are variations.
 Reductive fallacy
– Generally, oversimplifying causes and effects.
 Post hoc fallacy
– Assuming that A caused B because A preceded B.
 Either/or fallacy (false dilemma)
– Reducing a complicated question to two
alternatives.
 False analogy
– Exaggerating the similarities in an analogy or
ignoring key differences.
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.6
TESTS FOR AN
ARGUMENT SUBJECT
A good subject:
▲ Concerns a matter of opinion: a conclusion drawn
from evidence.
▲ Can be disputed: others might take a different position.
▲ Will be disputed: it is controversial.
▲ Is something you care about and know about or want
to research.
▲ Is narrow enough to argue in the space and time
available.
A bad subject:
▲ Cannot be disputed because it concerns a fact, such as
the distance to Saturn or the functions of the human
liver.
▲ Cannot be disputed because it concerns a personal
preference or belief, such as a liking for a certain
vacation spot or a moral commitment to
vegetarianism.
▲ Will not be disputed because few if any disagree over
it: the virtues of a secure home, for instance.
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.7
REASONING
Inductively
Evidence
Facts and expert opinions: Statistics and
opinions about the cost-effectiveness of
advertising in different media.
Assumption
What is true in one set of
circumstances (one set of print ads)
is true in a similar set of
circumstances (other print ads).
Claim
Generalization: Print is
the most cost-effective
advertising medium.
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.8
REASONING
Deductively
Assumption
A fact, a principle, a belief, or (as here) a
generalization from induction: Print is the
most cost effective advertising medium.
Evidence
New information: Companies on
lean budgets should advertise in
the most cost-effective medium.
Claim
A conclusion linking assumption and
evidence: Companies on lean budgets should
advertise in print.
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.9
Organizing an Argument’s
Body and Response to
Opposing Views
The traditional scheme The problem-solution scheme
Claim 1 and evidence
The problem: claims and evidence
Claim 2 and evidence
The solution: claims and evidence
Claim X and evidence
Response to opposing views
Response to opposing views
Variations on the traditional scheme
Use a variation if you believe your readers will reject your
argument without an early or intermittent response to opposing
views.
Response to opposing views
Claim 1 and evidence
Claim 2 and evidence
Claim X and evidence
Claim 1 and evidence
Response to opposing views
Claim 2 and evidence
Response to opposing views
Claim X and evidence
Response to opposing views
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.10
CHECKLIST FOR
REVISING AN ARGUMENT
➤ Thesis
 What is your thesis? Where is it stated?
 In what ways is your thesis statement an
arguable claim?
➤ Reasoning
 If your thesis derives from induction, where
have you related the evidence to your
generalization?
 If your thesis derives from deduction, is your
syllogism both true and valid?
 Have you avoided fallacies in reasoning?
➤ Evidence
 Where have you provided the evidence
readers need?
 Where might your evidence not be accurate,
relevant, representative, or adequate?
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.11
CHECKLIST FOR REVISING
AN ARGUMENT
(continued)
➤ Appeals
 Where have you considered readers’
probable beliefs and values?
 How are your rational appeals and emotional
appeals appropriate for your readers?
 What is your ethical appeal? How can you
improve it?
➤ Opposing views
 What opposing views have you answered?
 How successfully have you refuted opposing
views?
➤ Organization
 How clearly does your argument move from
one point to the next?
 How appropriate is your organization given
your readers’ likely views?
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.12
EXERCISE
Finding a subject for argument
Explain why each subject below is or is not
appropriate for argument.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Granting of athletic scholarships
Care of automobile tires
Censoring the Web sites of hate groups
History of the town park
Housing for the homeless
Billboards in urban residential areas or in rural
areas
7. Animal testing for cosmetics research
8. Cats versus dogs as pets
9. Ten steps in recycling wastepaper
10. Benefits of being a parent
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.13
ANSWERS TO EXERCISE
Possible answers
Topics that are not appropriate for
argument:
2. A matter of facts, and few people
would disagree.
4. A matter of facts, and few people
would disagree.
8. A matter of personal preference.
9. A matter of facts.
10. A matter of personal belief.
Copyright © 1995–2007 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman
Aaron, The Little, Brown Compact Handbook, Sixth Edition
11.14