Florida State University Libraries
Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations
The Graduate School
2006
The Effects of a Novel Sports Drink on
Hydration Status and Performance during
Prolonged Running
Melissa D. Laird
Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected]
THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF HUMAN SCIENCES
THE EFFECTS OF A NOVEL SPORTS DRINK ON HYDRATION STATUS AND
PERFORMANCE DURING PROLONGED RUNNING
By
MELISSA D. LAIRD
A Thesis submitted to the
Department of Nutrition, Food and Exercise Science
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
Degree Awarded:
Summer Semester, 2006
The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Melissa D. Laird defended on June 22nd,
2006:
________________________
Emily M. Haymes
Professor Directing Thesis
________________________
Timothy Moerland
Outside Committee Member
________________________
Lynn Panton
Committee Member
Approved:
_____________________________
Bahram H. Arjmandi, Chair, Department of Nutrition, Food and Exercise Science
_____________________________
Penny A. Ralston, Dean, College of Human Sciences
The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.
ii
To my friends and family for their support and kind words when it mattered most; especially
Krista and Derek, who were much more than a shoulder to lean on.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank the ten participants of this study for your
hardwork and eagerness to advance the current knowledge in this area of research. This research
project would not have been possible without the contribution from each and every one of you. I
would like to give a special thanks to Dr. Krista Austin for her sincere desire to continue aiding
and safely enhancing the performance of today’s athletes. Your creative insight, dedication, and
willingness to “show me the ropes” were instrumental in guiding me to the path that I am on
today. I am also very grateful to have had the assistance of Derek Kingsley with his vast
understanding of statistics and unwavering patience. I am truly grateful for your friendship and
open-door policy. I would also like to thank Steven, Derek, Matt, Jessica and Beau for their
strong stomachs and steady hands during those early morning blood draws.
I would like to thank Dr. Emily Haymes, my major professor over the past two years, for
giving me a chance to work for her. Your great understanding and endless achievements in the
field of exercise physiology continue to inspire me. I am also very appreciative to have worked
with Dr. Lynn Panton over the pass two years. You have led by example and have taught me to
set the standard high. Thank you to Dr. Timothy Moerland for teaching such an intellectually
stimulating biology of muscle class.
You have reminded me of my interest in benchtop
chemistry and I will never again look at a muscle in the same way. Lastly, I would like to thank
Luke for his silent fortitude and selflessness in allowing me to pursue my professional dreams
and aspirations.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................vii
List of Figures ..............................................................................................................................ix
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................x
I. Introduction .............................................................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem
Research Hypotheses
Assumptions
Limitations
Significance of the Study
II. Review of the Literature.........................................................................................................7
Fluid Intake during Exercise
Salt Intake during Exercise
Potassium Intake during Exercise
Carbohydrate Intake during Exercise
Composition of Sports Drinks
Rationale for Using Sports Drinks
Gastric Emptying
Intestinal Absorption
Practical Recommendations for Fluid Intake during Exercise
Sport Drink Ingestion during Prolonged Exercise
Assessment of Endurance Performance
Summary
III. Methods.................................................................................................................................29
Participants
Effect Size Determination
Procedures and Techniques
Body Composition
Maximal Oxygen Uptake
Familiarization Run
Experimental Trials
Dietary Records
Blood Collection and Analyses
Statistical Analysis
IV. Results...................................................................................................................................36
v
V. Discussion ..............................................................................................................................46
Conclusions
Recommendations for Future Research
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................65
A:
B:
C:
D:
E:
IRB Approval and Human Informed Consent .......................................................................66
Health History Questionnaire.................................................................................................71
Dietary Record .......................................................................................................................73
Raw Data Tables ....................................................................................................................75
ANOVA Summary Tables .....................................................................................................142
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................168
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................................179
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Participant characteristics ..........................................................................................37
Table 4.2: Training log recorded in miles ran during each 2 week period prior to each trial ....37
Table 4.3: Participant dietary food record for 2 days prior to each trial.....................................38
Table 4.4: Perceptual differences................................................................................................41
Table 4.5: Blood chemistry measures.........................................................................................43
Table 4.6: 30 minute Performance Run ......................................................................................44
Table 4.7: Fluid balance..............................................................................................................44
Table 4.8: Sweat Rate .................................................................................................................45
Table D.1: Physical characteristics .............................................................................................75
Table D.2: Volume of run training (miles) 2 weeks prior to each trial ......................................77
Table D.3: Caloric intake (kcal) for 2 days prior to each trial....................................................81
Table D.4: Carbohydrate intake (g) for 2 days prior to each trial...............................................81
Table D.5: Fat intake (g) for 2 days prior to each trial ...............................................................82
Table D.6: Protein intake (g) for 2 days prior to each trial.........................................................82
Table D.7: Gatorade metabolic data ...........................................................................................84
Table D.8: Gookinaid metabolic data .........................................................................................86
Table D.9: Placebo metabolic data .............................................................................................88
Table D.10: Carbohydrate oxidation...........................................................................................91
Table D.11: Fat oxidation ...........................................................................................................97
Table D.12: Heart rate.................................................................................................................103
Table D.13: Respiratory exchange ratio .....................................................................................109
Table D.14: Oxygen consumption ..............................................................................................115
Table D.15: Carbon dioxide consumption ..................................................................................121
Table D.16: Rate of perceived exertion ......................................................................................128
Table D.17: Stomach fullness scale ............................................................................................129
Table D.18: Thirst scale..............................................................................................................130
Table D.19: Hemoglobin ............................................................................................................132
Table D.20: Hematocrit ..............................................................................................................132
Table D.21: Glucose concentration.............................................................................................133
Table D.22: Sodium concentration .............................................................................................133
Table D.23: Potassium concentration .........................................................................................134
Table D.24: Distance run during 30 minute performance run ....................................................136
Table D.25: Body weight change (g)..........................................................................................138
Table D.26: Body weight change (%).........................................................................................138
Table D.27: Sweat rate................................................................................................................139
Table D.28: Total sweat rate.......................................................................................................139
Table D.29: Plasma volume change (%).....................................................................................140
Table E.1: Volume of Run Training ...........................................................................................142
Table E.2: Caloric Intake ............................................................................................................143
vii
Table E.3: Carbohydrate Consumption.......................................................................................144
Table E.4: Protein Consumption.................................................................................................145
Table E.5: Fat Consumption .......................................................................................................146
Table E.6: Carbohydrate Oxidation ............................................................................................147
Table E.7: Fat Oxidation.............................................................................................................148
Table E.8: Heart Rate..................................................................................................................149
Table E.9: Respiratory Exchange Ratio......................................................................................150
Table E.10: Oxygen Consumption..............................................................................................151
Table E.11: Carbon Dioxide Consumption.................................................................................152
Table E.12: Rate of Perceived Exertion......................................................................................153
Table E.13: Stomach Fullness Scale...........................................................................................154
Table E.14: Thirst Scale..............................................................................................................155
Table E.15: Hemoglobin.............................................................................................................156
Table E.16: Hematocrit...............................................................................................................157
Table E.17: Glucose Concentration ............................................................................................158
Table E.18: Sodium Concentration.............................................................................................159
Table E.19: Potassium Concentration.........................................................................................160
Table E.20: Performance Run.....................................................................................................161
Table E.21: Body Weight Change (g).........................................................................................162
Table E.22: Body Weight Change (%) .......................................................................................163
Table E.23: Sweat Rate...............................................................................................................164
Table E.24: Total Sweat Rate .....................................................................................................165
Table E.25: Plasma Volume Change ..........................................................................................166
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Heart rate averages for each trial during the 90 min. preloaded run .........................39
Figure 4.2: RER averages for each trial during the 90 min. preloaded run .................................39
Figure 4.3: CHO oxidation averages for each trial during the 90 min. preloaded run ................40
Figure 4.4: Fat oxidation averages for each trial during the 90 min. preloaded run....................40
ix
ABSTRACT
The aims of this study were to examine the differences in hydration levels, perceptual
differences, and running performance in trained distance runners supplemented with Gatorade
(CRD), Gookinaid Hydralyte, or placebo. Ten participants completed three experimental trials
consisting of running on a treadmill for 90 min. at 65%VO2max (preload run) followed by a 30
min. performance run at a self-selected pace every 2-3 weeks in 22-26˚C. At 15 min. intervals
during the 90 min. run, 150 ml/ 70 kg body mass of the respective test beverage was consumed
and perceptual differences were noted. Body weights were recorded immediately prior to the
start of each experimental trial, after the 90 min. preload run, and following the 30 min.
performance run.
There was no significant difference in hydration status among the three beverages as
indicated by similar decrements in total body weight changes, sweat rates, and plasma volumes
changes (p > 0.05). Additionally, there were no significant differences found among trials or
time points for measures of rates of perceived exertion or thirst level (p > 0.05). A significant
main effect for time was observed for stomach fullness (p = 0.01), whereby stomach fullness was
higher at 45 min. than at 60 min. during the preloaded run (p = 0.041). Finally, no significant
differences (p > 0.05) were found among trials for distance ran during the 30 min. performance
run. The present study did not find Gookinaid Hydralyte or Gatorade to be more beneficial than
placebo in enhancing 2 hr of treadmill running performance or hydration status in thermoneutral
conditions.
x
CHAPTER I
Introduction
The production and sales of sports drinks is a competitive and growing industry. In the
United States alone $1.2 billon dollars a year is spent on purchasing sports drinks, all of which
claim to be more superior than the next (Coomes and Hamilton., 2004). All of these replacement
beverages vary in the type and concentration of electrolytes and carbohydrates (CHO) as well as
flavor. The purpose of consuming sports drinks is to prevent dehydration, supply carbohydrates
to aid in energy availability, and to replace electrolytes lost in perspiration (Jimenez et al, 2002).
There is evidence to suggest that CHO and electrolyte beverages are better than water for
preventing homeostatic disturbances and improving performance; however, no one particular
sports drink has been found to be superior. The benefits from drinking a sports drink rely on
what components of the ingested fluid enter the vascular system and how quickly this transport
occurs (Rehrer et al., 1992). This is dependent on the quantity of the beverage ingested, the time
it takes for the fluid to be emptied from the stomach (CHO are not absorbed in the stomach), the
time it takes for the fluid to be absorbed from the small intestine and whether or not the fluid
lessens the amount of endogenous CHO oxidation (Rehrer et al., 1993).
Endurance athletes lose approximately 1-1.5 L of sweat/h in distance races and
voluntarily drink less than 0.5 L of fluid/h at 20-25˚C (Daries et al., 2000), thus, leading to a
state of dehydration. It has been shown that a 2% decrease in body mass corresponding to the
loss of fluids is enough to cause significant decreases in time to exhaustion trials and negative
effects on performance (Rehrer et al., 1990). Unfortunately when athletes try to drink higher
volumes of fluids which more closely match their rates of sweat loss, they experience
gastrointestinal discomfort especially during running. For these reasons the American College of
Sports Medicine stated in their position stand on exercise and fluid replacement that “during
prolonged exercise, frequent (every 15-20 min) consumption of moderate (150ml) to large
1
(350ml) volumes is possible” but recommends “that individuals learn their tolerance limits for
maintaining a high gastric fluid volume for various exercise intensities (1996).”
Another factor that effects how quickly the beverage can be absorbed is the gastric
emptying time or the time it takes for the drink to leave the stomach. Gastric emptying rates are
dependent on three main factors: the effect of the CHO content, the effect of the CHO type and
the effect of osmolality (Rehrer et al., 1993). The effect of the CHO content is dependent upon
the volume of the beverage consumed in addition to the total percent CHO within the drink
(Noakes et al., 1991). There is an inverse relationship that exists between the CHO content and
the gastric emptying rates. The larger the volume ingested, the faster the gastric emptying rate
will be (Rehrer et al., 1993, 1992). Most sports drinks contain 6-8% CHO content. There is
little difference seen in the rates of gastric emptying with glucose versus sucrose or maltodextrin;
however, fructose is known to enhance gastric emptying rates (Rehrer et al., 1992). The problem
with fructose is that it also causes gastrointestinal distress so finding an appropriate balance is
imperative to maintaining hydration status (Rehrer et al., 1991). Finally the osmolality of the
solution ingested is now known to have a secondary influence on gastric emptying but is an
important factor during intestinal absorption. Generally speaking gastric emptying rates are
prolonged when the beverage consumed is not isotonic (Rehrer et al., 1992).
Intestinal absorption is dependent upon two main factors: the effect of the CHO type and
the osmolality of the solution (Maughan et al., 1995). Beverages that contain two or more
different CHO sources enhance solute and water flux more than solutions with one source
(Maughan et al., 1995).
This is true despite the fact that combining CHO sources can
significantly increase osmolality. This effect has been linked to the stimulation of more transport
mechanisms with the addition of a second CHO source. The osmolality of a sport drink is
affected by the concentration and type of CHO and electrolytes used (Gisolfi et al., 1992).
Beverages which are hypertonic to blood plasma (>280 mOsm/kg) stimulate less water
absorption and more secretion into the lumen of the intestines which results in a greater potential
for dehydration. Hypotonic and isotonic solutions (< 280 mOsm/kg) tend to promote water
absorption (Leiper and Maughan, 1988; Hunt et al., 1985).
As the intensity of aerobic exercise increases from low to moderate to high there is a shift
in the fuel utilization. During low intensity exercises the predominant source of energy comes
from the oxidation of fat in the form of free fatty acids and muscle triglycerides. With increasing
2
exercise intensity there is a shift from fat oxidation to the primary use of carbohydrates seen with
moderate and high intensity exercises. The CHO source comes from both plasma glucose and
muscle glycogen stores. After an hour of aerobic exercise the muscle glycogen stores begin to
become depleted and a drop in blood glucose is noted. Without CHO supplementation an
individual will be forced to stop exercising once the stores have been completely depleted. This
is where the benefit of a carbohydrate replacement drink (CRD) comes in. Despite the fact that
CRD cannot alter the rate at which the muscle glycogen stores become depleted, they are able to
maintain constant levels of blood glucose and thereby increase the time to exhaustion unlike
water (Millard-Stafford et al., 1992; Convertino et al., 1996).
Statement of the Problem
During prolonged exercise it is necessary to ingest fluid in order to replace the water and
electrolytes lost in sweat. Because more water is lost in sweat than Na+, plasma sodium
concentration and osmolality rise which reduce blood flow to the skin and affect heat dissipation
(Daries et al., 2000).
This fluid replacement is also imperative to preventing declines in
performance which are seen with low levels of dehydration (2% of body mass) (Coyle, 2004);
therefore, it is important for athletes to drink enough fluid to maintain their plasma osmolality in
events where dehydration and thermoregulation are of primary concern (Maughan, 1995).
Gookinaid Hydrolyte is a novel sport drink that contains both glucose and fructose as the
source of CHO with a total CHO concentration of 4.85%. The commercial CRD (Gatorade)
used in this study will contain sucrose, glucose and fructose and have a total CHO content of 6%.
Gookinaid also contains less calories and sodium than the commercial sports drink and has an
osmolality of 264 mOsm/kg. The CRD has an osmolality of 320 mOsm/kg.
A majority of the research dealing with sports drinks has been conducted during cycling
because the subjects are better able to tolerate larger volumes of liquid consumption without the
associated gastrointestinal distress (Coyle, 2004). No scientific research has yet been conducted
to assess the validity of Gookinaid’s claim to fame as being “the oral IV.” The primary purpose
of this study will be to assess the differences in hydration levels in trained distance runners
supplemented with either Gookinaid Hydrolyte, a commercial CRD (Gatorade) or water. A
secondary purpose will be to compare the levels of thirst, sensation of stomach fullness and/or
any gastrointestinal distress among the three replacement beverages. Gastrointestinal distress is
specifically correlated to the type and quantity of the CHO contained within the nutrient
3
beverage; whereas, all three factors are related to gastric emptying rates. A final aim of the study
is to examine how the different replacement beverages affect performance on prolonged aerobic
running bouts.
Research Hypotheses
Anticipated Outcomes
The following are research hypotheses for the present study:
1. Gookinaid Hydralyte (GH), composed of electrolytes and small quantities of glucose
polymers, will better maintain hydration status compared with equal volumes of either
Gatorade (CRD) or an artificially flavored placebo (P) and CRD will show better
hydration status than P. Hydration status will be assessed by measured body weight
changes, sweat losses and sweat rates. Additionally, percent changes in plasma volume
will be estimated from measured changes in hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit
(Dill and Costill, 1974).
2. CRD and GH, both containing CHO, will show greater rates of CHO oxidation and lower rates of
fat oxidation than the P. Metabolic data will be measured by indirect calorimetry using open
circuit spirometry. Serum glucose levels will also be measured to support the metabolic data.
3. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) using the 6 to 20 point Borg scale and heart rate
values will be lower during the CRD and GH trials compared to the P trial. The lower
RPE values will be the result of greater rates of CHO oxidation and the maintenance of
blood glucose level. The lower heart rate values will reflect better hydration status.
4. GH and CRD will rank lower on a 9-point thirst scale measuring the ability of the fluid to
“quench” thirst than the P.
5. The CRD and P will show higher ratings of stomach fullness (measured on a 9-point
scale) and gastrointestinal distress than GH. This will be assumed to be the result of
decreased gastric emptying rates for the CRD and P because they are less iso-osmotic
than GH.
6. The distance runners will run a longer distance during the 30-minute performance run
during the GH trial than during the CRD or P trial.
Assumptions
1. All participants will continue to follow their current training programs throughout the
duration of the study.
4
2. All participants will refrain from illegal substance abuse, including blood transfusions
prior to and during the duration of this study.
3. All participants will refrain from any new supplement use throughout the duration of the
study.
4. Participants are free from any psychological disease and/or eating disorder, and will not
falsely alter their dietary records.
5. Participants will refrain from consuming alcohol or caffeine 24 hr. prior to the maximal
oxygen consumption (VO2max) test and each of the three experimental trials.
6. Participants will refrain from strenuous physical activity 24 hr. prior to the VO2max test
and each of the three experimental trials.
7. All participants will put forth their best effort for each 30 min. performance run.
8. All laboratory equipment will give reliable and valid results.
Limitations
1. The study will be conducted over the course of a few months and will not be able to
control for variations in the environmental conditions and the level of acclimatization.
2. Only college age male runners will be included in the study; therefore, results can not be
generalized to other populations.
3. The experiment cannot control all outside activities, nutrition, supplements and physical
activity of the participants.
4. No direct measurements of plasma volume will be made. All measures of hydration will
be derived from estimates made through changes in body masses, hemoglobin
concentrations, and hematocrit.
Significance of the Study
Gookinaid Hydralyte is a CHO electrolyte replacement beverage that claims to replace
fluids and electrolytes faster and more effectively than any sports drink, electrolyte salts or any
other oral fluid and electrolyte replacement solution on the market today. Manufacturers of
Gookinaid also state that it is absorbed from the stomach faster than other sports drinks;
therefore, it is not associated with the gastrointestinal distress that is seen with other replacement
beverages. Currently there are no studies in the literature involving sports replacement drinks
which have looked at Gookinaid. This study will be the first study to analyze Gookinaid
Hydralyte by the non-biased scientific community. Previous experiments using Gookinaid have
5
only been conducted by the manufacturers of the product and none of these results have been
published. Anecdotal accounts and testimonials by several U.S. Olympic track athletes are in
favor of consuming Gookinaid during practices and competitions as a way of maintaining
hydration and thereby enhancing performance. By utilizing a within subject double blind design,
it can be determined whether or not Gookinaid does in fact maintain hydration status better than
a leading commercial CHO replacement beverage or water during prolonged running. This study
will also analyze how hydration affects performance.
6
CHAPTER II
Review of Literature
Fluid Intake during Exercise
During exercise it is important for athletes to consume fluids in order to prevent
decrements in performance attributed to dehydration. It is no secret that when athletes are given
ad libitum access to fluids, they do not drink enough fluid to replace the volume that has been
lost through sweating. Generally speaking the thirst mechanisms that stimulate individuals to
drink fluids only stimulate them to drink one-half to two-thirds of their fluid losses (Hubbard et
al., 1984). This unbalanced fluid consumption versus fluid loss is commonly referred to as
voluntary dehydration (Coyle, 2004).
Dehydration causes physiological stress on the body’s cardiovascular, muscular and
central nervous systems. Athletes who are engaging in high intensity exercise for long durations
produce a significant amount of heat that needs to be dissipated into the environment in order to
prevent added heat storage and elevations in core body temperature (Coyle and Montain,
1992a,b). Studies by Gonzalez-Alonso (1995, 1997) have shown the average heat production
rate in their athletes is 800-1200 watts (W), which is sufficient to cause hyperthermia if the
individuals are dehydrated. Dehydration also has an effect on cardiovascular strain. For every
one percent decrease in body weight due to fluid loss there is an increase in heart rate by 5-8
beats per min, a significant decline in cardiac output and a 0.2-0.3 ˚C increase in core
temperature (Tc) (Coyle and Montain, 1992 a,b; Cheuvront and Haymes, 2001). Endurance
performance is limited by dehydration due to a decreased blood volume as well as the direct
impairment of muscle metabolism with hyperthermia (Gonzalez-Alonso, 1995, 1996).
The
effects of dehydration and hyperthermia cause reduced stroke volume and blood flow to the
muscle which will limit the amount of oxygen being delivered to the exercising muscles. It has
also been reported that dehydration causes an increase in muscle glycogen consumption during
7
rhythmic exercise related to increased core body temperature (Tc), decreased O2 delivery, and
increased catecholamine levels (Hargreaves et al., 1996).
Around the time of WWII many dehydration studies were conducted in order to examine
how marching in the heat for prolonged periods of time affected performance. These studies
showed that dehydration by less than 3-4% was sufficient to cause exhaustion and to cause
individuals to collapse (Wyndham and Strydom, 1969; Pitts and Consolazio, 1944; Ladell,
1955). Despite this knowledge the scientific sport performance literature of the 1960s and the
early 1970s advised athletes to only drink a little water during exercise and stated that
dehydration of less than 3-4% of the body weight did not significantly cause hyperthermia or
performance decrements (Coyle and Montain, 1992a,b). Apparently the scientific community at
the time was unaware or unconvinced of the similarity in prolonged marching in the heat with
prolonged endurance performance. It was not until 1975, when the American College of Sports
Medicine (ACSM) published its first position stand on the issue of dehydration and the
prevention of heat injuries during exercise, that athletes were finally advised to consume more
than just “a little water.” In its most recent position stand the ACSM states “during exercise,
athletes should start drinking early and at regular intervals in an attempt to consume fluids at a
rate sufficient to replace all the water lost through sweating (body weight loss), or consume the
maximal amount that can be tolerated” without producing gastrointestinal distress (Convertino et
al., 1996). Unfortunately it is significantly more difficult to provide practical recommendations
that incorporate a fluid volume per hour target range. This is due to the fact that individual fluid
losses are affected by many different factors depending upon the length, intensity and mode of
exercise in addition to environmental conditions and individual characteristics such as body
surface area (BSA)/mass ratio, sweat rates, and acclimatization status (Coyle, 2004).
There have been many studies conducted over the last two decades examining how
different environmental conditions affect the level of dehydration and what percentage of
dehydration can be tolerated without a decline in exercise performance (Below et al, 1995;
Walsh et al., 1994; Casa, 2000). The general agreement in the literature is that dehydration
should not surpass 2% of body weight loss during exercise (Coyle, 2004; Daries, 2000). Sweat
rates increase in proportion to the rise in environmental temperature, thus exercising in the heat
will produce dehydration much quicker than exercising in the cold. Below et al. (1995) and
Walsh et al. (1994) found that exercising in 31-32˚C environments produced 2% dehydration
8
within 60 min. of intense exercise. A study looking at exercise in a thermal neutral environment
(20-21˚C) has reported that 1-2% dehydration can be tolerated without producing significant
decrements in performance during exercise lasting less than 90 min. (Cheuvront et al., 2003).
However, exercise exceeding 90 min. in duration with 2% or more dehydration significantly
impairs performance in thermoneutral conditions (McConell et al, 1997, Cheuvront et al., 2003).
There is less general consensus on what level of dehydration can be tolerated in the cold, but it is
believed that the cooler the environment the higher the level of dehydration that can be tolerated
without limiting performance. This concept is based on the fact that with cooler temperatures
there is less risk of hyperthermia and heat illness because more heat can be lost to the
environment by convection and radiation (Gonzalez-Alonso, 1998).
Salt Intake during Exercise
During exercise or exposure to a hot environment the human body regulates core
temperature by the evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin.
One of the main
electrolytes lost in the sweat is sodium chloride. It is well established that sodium is crucial to
performance and overall health by maintaining optimal fluid balance and proper extracellular
volumes in order to keep cells, tissues and organs functioning properly (Coyle, 2004; von
Duvillard, 2004). Thus it is imperative to maintain plasma sodium levels in the extracellular
fluid between 130-160 mmol/L (Rehrer, 2001). As previously stated, it is important to replace
fluid losses to prevent declines in performance; however, it is equally necessary to safeguard
against causing hyponatraemia due to excessive ingestion of hypotonic/low sodium fluids such
as water over several hours.
When this condition arises (serum sodium levels below
130mmol/L), fluid moves into the brain causing edema and symptoms that evolve from feeling
unusual, to mental confusion, weakness, collapsing, having seizures and finally coma and death
(Vrijens and Rehrer, 1999; O’Brien et al., 2001). The risk of hyponatraemia can also be
increased by losing large amounts of sodium in the sweat (von Duvillard, 2004).
The concentration of sodium lost in the sweat can range from 20-80mmol/L depending
on individual differences (Maughan et al., 1991).
Sodium is partially conserved through
reabsorption at the ducts of the sweat glands (Sato, 1993). The sweat rate plays a large role in
this process in which the greater the sweat rate, the higher the concentrations of sodium and
chloride lost in sweat (Morgan et al., 2004). Therefore, progressive dehydration will result in
increased sodium and chloride loss. Heat acclimatization has been proven to be an integral part
9
of sodium conservation mediated by an elevation in aldosterone. Aldosterone induces a genomic
effect on the sweat gland to decrease the concentration of sodium lost in sweat but requires at
least 6 hours for this effect to be realized (Sato and Dobson, 1970). Some athletes, despite being
heat acclimatized, continue to lose large quantities of sodium in sweat while exercising due to
genetic variation. These individuals tend to fatigue quicker due to the development of muscle
weakness or cramps (Eichner, 1998). An experiment by Morgan et al. (2004) examined the
acute effects of dehydration versus euhydration on sweat composition by analyzing the sweat of
cyclists riding in the heat for two hours. Results from this study show that there was no
difference in sweat rate between the dehydrated and euhydrated trials; however, the sweat
composition during the dehydration trial had significantly more sodium and chloride.
Additionally, dehydration caused greater concentrations of sodium, chloride and potassium in the
blood serum as well as elevated levels of aldosterone. There has been no mechanism identified
to account for this observed difference in sweat composition; however, it is speculated that this
may have happened through initial sweat changes brought about by one or more of the
following: 1) greater extracellular fluid concentrations of sodium and chloride increased the
driving force for sweat secretion, 2)
elevated aldosterone mediated chloride channel
conductance due to increased intracellular calcium concentrations, 3) increased Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter activity due to elevated sympathetic nervous system activity causing increased
intracellular calcium concentration, or 4) decreased sodium reabsorption at the sweat gland duct
because of reduced sodium channel conductance (Morgan et al., 2004).
Many athletes are capable of exercising for prolonged periods of time without requiring
the addition of sodium in replacement fluids. These athletes tend to only lose less than 50
mmol/L of sodium in their sweat which is less than 10% of the total body stores in a 70kg person
(Barr et al., 1991). Despite this fact, there are some benefits to adding sodium to the replacement
fluid.
Sodium aids in the palatability of a beverage and helps to trigger thirst mechanisms to
induce voluntary consumption while reducing voluntary dehydration (Wemple et al., 1997).
Sodium also aids in intestinal absorption of fluids and sugar; however, fluid in the GI tract will
contain sodium (from endogenous stores) regardless of exogenous consumption (Rehrer et al.,
1993, 2001). Many fluid replacement beverages contain sodium despite the lack of literature to
support this practice because the benefits of added sodium outweigh the risks. Not only does
10
sodium increase voluntary drinking but it also helps to prevent the occurrence of hyponatraemia
in individuals with high sodium sweat concentrations seen during dehydration and exercising in
the heat. Practical recommendations for salt intake include ingesting 20-40 mmol/L during
exercise especially with exercise lasting longer than 60 min. (Coyle, 2004).
Potassium Intake during Exercise
Unlike sodium which is lost in significant quantities in the sweat, comparatively little
potassium is lost; however, there is a large variation in electrolyte content among popular CRDs.
Some CRDs are high in potassium while others tend to be loaded with sodium. There is a
general opinion that sodium is the more important electrolyte in terms of fluid balance and
enhancing palatability and fluid intake, yet a few studies have been conducted to assess the role
potassium plays in maintaining homeostatis (Criswell et al., 1992; McCutcheon and Geor, 1998).
In an experiment by Malhotra et al. (1981), potassium intake was restricted prior to heat
exposure. Researchers found that the major loss of potassium was through the sweat which
contradicts the general consensus that the primary loss of potassium occurs via excretion in the
urine. Investigators pointed out that in hot environments there is very little fluid loss through the
urine so this cannot be the sole contributor to potassium loss. This group recommends that
potassium intake be sufficient in order to reduce potassium deficiency since there is no metabolic
conservation mechanism to prevent the excessive loss as there is for sodium (Malhotra et al.,
1981). In a different study by Shirreffs and Maughan (1998), subjects were dehydrated by 1.89
± 0.17% of their body weight prior to completing an exercise bout. Upon completion, the
subjects were provided with potassium free replacement beverages containing 0, 25, 50, and 100
mM/L of sodium and were subsequently monitored over the course of 6 hours. They discovered
subjects who drank the 100 mM/L sodium drink excreted a large amount of potassium during the
recovery period compared to the other trials. They attributed this loss to metabolic alkalosis due
to the metabolism of acetate. These subjects were potassium deficient during the recovery
period not due to the loss of potassium through the sweat during the exercise bout, but due to the
excretion of potassium in the urine during the rehydration period. These investigators concluded
that although the 100 mM/L sodium solution was the best at acutely restoring fluid balance the
concurrent deficiency of potassium needs to be addressed when examining whole body
electrolyte balance (Shirreffs and Maughan, 1998).
Nielsen et al. (1986) conducted an
investigation to examine the influence of different replacement drinks on fluid balance in
11
exercise dehydration and rehydration. Following an exercise bout in which the subjects lost 3%
of their body weight and reduced their plasma volume by 16%, participants consumed beverages
containing water, high sodium, high potassium or high sugar levels every 15 minutes for 2 hours.
The investigators discovered that the plasma volume had returned to pre-exercising values before
any replacement beverage had been consumed due to the fluid shift from the exercising muscles.
They also determined that the sodium drink provided the largest increase in plasma volume,
while the potassium and sugar solutions showed the lowest and slowest replacement of plasma
volume. Because total body water was the same with all three drinks, this suggested that high
sodium drinks favored filling the extracellular fluid compartment and potassium solutions
refilled the intracellular water compartment (Nielsen et al., 1986).
Carbohydrate Intake during Exercise
In the 1960s and 1970s researchers uncovered the importance of muscle glycogen as the
primary fuel source for exercise which allowed them to understand the importance of exogenous
CHO consumption (Bergstrom et al., 1967). Around the time of the ACSM’s first position stand
recognizing the benefit of fluid replacement during exercise, investigators still were not
recommending CHO ingestion in order to maintain blood glucose levels and performance. At
that time the mechanisms and physiological benefit were still not well understood (Hargreaves,
1996). Researchers came to discover that adding CHO to replacement fluids slowed the gastric
emptying rate, which they interpreted as a negative consequence of supplementation (Coyle et
al., 1978). It was later determined that the slight decrease in the gastric emptying rates of CRDs
(containing up to 8% CHO) paled in significance to the benefit of maintaining a readily available
fuel source to facilitate high levels of performance (Coyle and Montain, 1992a,b). During the
1980s it came to be known that supplemented CHO during prolonged continuous exercise
becomes the main fuel source late in the exercise bout (once muscle glycogen stores are reduced)
and was oxidized at a rate of 1g/min (Convertino et al., 1996). This enables fatigue to be
delayed so the athlete can exercise for a longer period of time and maintain a higher power
output. Therefore, there is a general agreement in the literature that endurance athletes should
consume 30-60 g/hr of CHO during prolonged aerobic exercise bouts (Convertino et al., 1996;
Casa, 2000).
12
Composition of Sports Drinks
Currently marketed sports drinks are designed for a few specific purposes. The most
important factor is that the beverage is highly palatable followed by the ability of the drink to
prevent dehydration. Other important traits include the supplementation of CHOs to aid fuel
availability and the provision of electrolytes to replace sweat losses. Carbohydrate replacement
drinks (CRD) are typically classified into two categories: those with a high CHO concentration
(> 10%) or those with a low CHO concentration (<10%). Generally speaking the former
category is primarily used for CHO loading and is not recommended for ingestion before and
during exercise; therefore, the lower CHO beverages will be the aim of this review (Coombes
and Hamilton, 2000).
Most of the sports drinks in the lower CHO category have been between 6 to 8% CHOs.
These CHOs are in the form of glucose and fructose monomers, sucrose dimmers, and
maltodextrins (synthetic glucose polymers). The benefit of using maltodextrin is the ability to
provide more CHO in the sports drink without increasing the osmolality (Coombes and
Hamilton, 2000).
In addition to CHOs, many CRD contain electrolytes of varying type and quantities. The
main objective in providing electrolytes, most prominently sodium, is to aid in the maintenance
of fluid balance by producing a beverage that is isotonic to the blood plasma. The addition of
electrolytes also plays a role in enhancing palatability of a CRD. There is a broad variation in
the electrolyte composition of the commercially available CRD today and it is unclear how these
differences physiologically affect the quality of one sports drink compared to another by
effecting hydration status or performance (Coombes and Hamilton, 2000).
Rationale for Using Sports Drinks
The benefits of consuming a CRD instead of water for the purpose of maintaining fluid
balance and exercise performance is based on four primary factors. The quantity of the fluid
ingested, the time it requires to be emptied by the stomach (gastric emptying rate), the time it
takes to be absorbed by the intestines (intestinal absorption rate) and if the drink provides
exogenous CHOs to aid in substrate utilization. As previously stated, athletes do not consume
fluids at a rate that is equal to their fluid losses which is termed voluntary dehydration. One of
the main goals of the sports beverage manufacturers is to provide a product that is highly
palatable in order to increase the volume and frequency of voluntary consumption (Coombes and
13
Hamilton, 2000). Although the factors contributing to this issue are important for practical
application outside a laboratory setting, they will not be discussed at length for they do not
contribute to the current investigation.
However, it is important to note that beverage
characteristics such as temperature, taste, smell, mouth feel, and appearance all contribute to the
palatability and voluntary intake of a sports drink (Boulze et al., 1983).
Gastric Emptying
There are a number of factors that contribute to the rate that a CRD is emptied by the
stomach. It is well understood that no significant absorption of nutrients (besides alcohol) occurs
in the stomach; therefore, the gastric emptying rate regulates the rate that fluids and nutrients are
delivered to the small intestine for absorption. The most important regulator is the volume of
fluid in the stomach (Vist and Maughan, 1994). The emptying rate of the stomach is exponential
in nature; therefore, the larger the volume of liquid in the stomach the greater rate at which the
stomach will empty. Thus, it is important to replace fluid continuously throughout an exercise
bout in order to promote a high rate of fluid and nutrient absorption at the level of the small
intestine (Brener et al, 1983).
Another primary regulator of gastric emptying is the CHO content of the CRD. Some
studies have found that increasing the CHO content of a drink above 2.5 % decreases the gastric
empting rate, while others report no differences in empting rates for 10% solutions compared to
water (Noakes et al., 1991). This issue has been thoroughly investigated in the literature due to
the wide range of discrepancies found based on methodology differences. In most of the early
work, the stomach fluid volume was measured at a single time point after the consumption of the
beverage (Maughan and Rehrer, 1994). So if a fixed volume of fluid was ingested, one drink
being more concentrated than the other, the initial emptying rate of the more dilute one will be
greater. This rate will dramatically decrease over time as the fluid volume of the stomach
decreases; however, this effect will be less pronounced in the more concentrated drink, which
will initially empty more slowly (Maughan and Rehrer, 1994). When examining a study that
analyzed the whole time course of gastric emptying rates, it seems that glucose solutions of
greater than 4-5% will cause a small decrease in empting rates (Vist and Maughan, 1994).
However, when observing the rate at which calories are emptied from the stomach there was no
difference, but there was a faster delivery of glucose to the small intestine (Brener et al., 1983).
It has been suggested that the CHO content of a CRD should be less than 10% because despite
14
the fact that increased CHO content increases the substrate availability; it decreases the
availability of water, which is the major concern with fluid replacement (Schedl et al., 1994).
Almost all of the popular CRDs on the market today have a CHO content of 6-8% and it has
been determined that this small difference in concentration does not significantly affect gastric
emptying rate.
Although there are numerous studies in the literature on the influence of the type of CHO
on gastric emptying rates, much of the information is not relevant for currently marketed CRD
formulations.
Investigations addressing the gastric emptying rate of glucose versus
maltodextrins or sucrose show little differences (Brouns et al., 1995). On the other hand,
fructose solutions have been found to empty much faster from the stomach than equimolar
glucose drinks (Elias et al., 1968). Additionally glucose drinks containing 2-3% fructose have
also been shown to have higher gastric emptying rates than glucose solutions alone which is why
CRD manufacturers add a small percentage of fructose to their products (Coombes and
Hamilton, 2000).
It was once thought that the osmolality of the ingested fluid was very important to the
gastric emptying rate; however, today it is understood to be of secondary importance (Brouns et
al., 1995). This prior misconception was based on the belief that in order for a solution to leave
the stomach it needed to become isotonic. However, this is not true because it has been shown
that the osmolality of the fluid leaving the stomach is about equal to that of the ingested solution
(Murray, 1987). Osmolality may be thought of as important with regards to emptying rate
because of the relationship between caloric content and osmolality of a CRD. It is known that as
the caloric content increases, generally so does the osmolality. This is why glucose polymers are
frequently used in order to maintain caloric content but decrease osmolality. It has been shown
that volume and the caloric density of CRD are the main factors regulating the rate of gastric
emptying; however, osmolality does play a larger role in intestinal absorption (Coombes and
Hamilton, 2000).
The effect of different modes and intensities of exercise on gastric emptying rate of
CRDs has been examined but not as extensively as during resting conditions (Maughan et al.,
1990). As with the resting studies there is much variation in the literature, which stems from the
differences in the methodology regarding sampling time (Costill and Saltin, 1974; Brener et al.,
1983). Several of the exercising studies required subjects to drink a number of different CRDs
15
(one after another) during a single session, which introduces a source of error by providing
confounding variables into the study (Leiper and Maughan, 1988; Rehrer et al., 1989a). There is
a general consensus that continuous exercise (running or cycling) at or below 70% of an
individual’s VO2max does not significantly decrease the emptying rate of CRD, although there is a
trend toward reduced emptying rates of CRD compared with water during exercise of increasing
intensity (Costill and Saltin, 1974; Mitchell et al., 1990; Rehrer et al., 1989a). However, exercise
intensities above 70% do show a significant decrease in emptying rates, this is thought to be
attributed to increased catecholamine levels and decreased perfusion of the splanchnic vascular
bed during exercise (Maughan et al., 1990). Data also show that there is not a difference in
gastric emptying rates between trained or untrained individuals when exercising at the same
relative intensity (Rehrer et al., 1989a). Additionally, researchers have also examined the effects
of exercising in the heat or after dehydration and have concluded that these conditions decrease
gastric emptying rates compared to exercise in thermoneutral conditions (Neufer et al., 1989b;
Rehrer et al., 1990a). Other factors such as carbonation and temperature of the CRDs, which
were initially thought to be important to gastric emptying, have recently been found not to have a
major influence; although, these factors are important in beverage palatability and increasing the
volume consumed (Maughan, 1991).
Intestinal Absorption
The maintenance of homeostasis during exercise is dependent on the rate of intestinal
absorption of CHOs, electrolytes and water in a CRD. Several factors that regulate the rate of
absorption are the variations in the type and concentration of the CHO in the replacement fluid,
the concentration of sodium and the osmolality of the beverage (Coombes and Hamilton, 2000).
Commonly included CHOs in CRDs are sucrose, fructose, glucose and maltodextrins due to a
number of underlying physiological principles, which manufacturers follow in order to justify
their CRD formulations. First of all, in order for CHOs to be absorbed they need to be broken
down into their monomer forms. Thus glucose polymers and sucrose cannot be immediately
absorbed but must first be broken down into glucose or glucose and fructose, respectively.
Glucose is absorbed from the lumen by an active process using sodium specific carrier proteins,
while fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion, which is not reliant upon sodium (Spiller et
al., 1987; Rumessen, 1992). One of the benefits of providing fructose in a CRD is due to the
enhanced gastric emptying rate; however, fructose ingested in large quantities produces
16
gastrointestinal distress such as diarrhea and vomiting which will limit the net water absorption.
Additionally, when fructose and glucose are both included in a CRD the absorption rate of both
is significantly higher than consuming glucose alone (Gisolfi et al., 1992; Fordtran, 1975).
However, the addition of more than one compound will inadvertently increase the osmolality,
thus limiting water absorption. One of the ways around this is to use sucrose and maltodextrins
in the CRD instead of glucose which will provide a high quantity of CHO without drastically
increasing the osmolality and reducing water or glucose absorption (Spiller, 1994; Jones et al.,
1983). Shi et al. (1995) analyzed the effects of a glucose/sucrose sports beverage versus a
glucose/fructose solution on intestinal absorption rates. Results from this experiment showed
that the glucose/sucrose drink had the greatest water and sodium absorption but moderate CHO
absorption. Conversely the glucose/fructose beverage produced large CHO absorption, moderate
water absorption and the lowest sodium absorption (Shi et al., 1995). Although it remains
unclear how exact differences in CHO type in currently available sports drinks influence
absorption rates, researchers agree that including more than one type of CHO aids in solute and
water absorption (despite increasing osmolality) due to the activation of multiple transport
mechanisms (Coombes and Hamilton, 2000).
The intestinal absorption rates will also be influenced by the concentrations of the CHOs
included in the sport beverage. Literature on various CHO concentrations regarding intestinal
absorption in currently available CRDs is lacking because many of the formulas have been
changed over time. Additionally, the large variations in all aspects of the CRDs on the market
today have prevented an easy comparison; thus, no one particular drink is considered superior
(Coombes and Hamilton, 2000). Currently it is understood that the concentration of CHO in the
lumen of the intestine does not only depend upon the concentration of the ingested fluid, but it
also depends on the quantity of any remaining CHO in the lumen from the previous meal (Schedl
et al., 1994). It is also known that maximal fluid absorption rates occur when the concentration
of glucose in the lumen is between 80-120 mmol/L and when water is consumed alone (Leiper
and Maughan, 1988). Presently, investigators believe that intestinal absorption rates are not
significantly altered when the CHO concentrations of CRDs is below 8%; however,
concentrations above 10% are thought to promote fluid movement into the lumen from the
vascular space causing dehydration (Gisolfi et al., 1992). Gisolfi et al. (1992) examined glucose,
sucrose, maltodextrin and corn syrup solutions of 2, 4, 6, and 8% to look at how concentration
17
and CHO type affect water absorption. Results from their study showed that water absorption
was unaffected by CHO type in isocaloric and isoosmotic solutions less than or equal to 6%.
They also found that in isocaloric solutions of 8% glucose and corn syrup significantly decreased
water absorption unlike 8% solutions of sucrose or maltodextrin.
Few studies have examined intestinal absorption rates in CRDs comparing different
concentrations of sodium. In one-experiment sodium concentrations of 0, 25 or 50 mEq/L in a
6% carbohydrate solution were perfused into subjects using a triple lumen tube (Gisolfi et al.,
1995). Investigators did not find a difference among water, sodium or glucose absorption with
the different solutions. This study was repeated using the same sodium concentrations in a 10%
glucose solution while performing moderate intensity exercise (65% of VO2max) and again the
sodium concentrations did not affect glucose availability (Hargreaves et al., 1994).
Thus
researchers agree that small quantities of sodium in CRD have little effect on intestinal
absorption.
One of the final and most important considerations when analyzing intestinal absorption
of various sports beverages is the effect of the osmolality.
As touched upon earlier, the
osmolality of a fluid is influenced by the type and concentration of CHO in addition to the
concentration of electrolytes (Gisolfi et al., 1992). There is an inverse relationship between the
osmolality of the fluid ingested and the rate of water absorption. Thus CRDs that are hypotonic
or isotonic with respect to the blood plasma (< 280 mOsm/kg) will induce water absorption;
whereas fluids that are hypertonic (>280 mOsm/L) draw water out of the lumen of the intestines
causing less water absorption and increased water loss (Maughan and Noakes, 1991; Hunt et al.,
1985).
Practical Recommendations for Fluid Intake during Exercise
In order to prevent any degree of dehydration, the fluid lost from sweat must be replaced
by an equal amount of fluid; however, this is not always practical. Researchers have shown that
drinking replacement beverages during exercise requires 40-60 minutes for gastric emptying,
intestinal absorption and changes in plasma osmolality to be effective in reducing heart rate and
core temperature in addition to restoring blood volume (Montain and Coyle, 1993). Based on
this statement, it is evident that exercise events that last less than 40-60 minutes in duration do
not benefit from consuming replacement beverages during the exercise.
Any fluid that is
ingested during the exercise bout will remain in the gastrointestinal tract thus not aiding in
18
reducing thermal or cardiovascular strain. Thus, it is not accurate to measure the amount of
dehydration solely by the difference in the percent body weight change as this, is not an accurate
indicator of cellular hydration (Coyle, 2004). Serum osmolality and urine specific gravity would
more accurately reflect true hydration status. This knowledge has led investigators to propose
the question: “What is a tolerable level of dehydration during exercise?” Researchers believe
that at the cellular level there is no amount of tolerable dehydration, which will not have negative
implications on cardiovascular and thermal strain. Montain and Coyle (1992) examined the
physiologic effects of 2 hours of exercise in the heat using a drinking schedule that maintained
high gastric volumes (high emptying rate) during most of the exercise except at the end when
low gastric volumes were more desirable. This was achieved by the subject drinking a large
volume at the beginning of the exercise followed up by smaller volumes at frequent intervals.
Results from this study showed that 2.3% dehydration versus 1.1% dehydration by body weight
caused a significant increase in heart rate and core temperature. Montain and Coyle (1992a)
followed this experiment up with comparing dehydration levels from 1-4% when exercising in
the heat and results supported the concept that no level of cellular dehydration was without
negative consequences.
Furthermore, the 1.2% difference in dehydration level was the
equivalent of approximately 1 L of fluid which was found to have the benefit of decreasing core
temperature by 0.3˚C, decreasing heart rate by 8 bpm and elevating cardiac output by 1 L/min in
the above experimental conditions (Montain and Coyle, 1992).
It is often not possible for athletes to drink the high volumes of fluid required to provide
high gastric emptying rates and intestinal absorption in order to prevent cellular dehydration.
This is especially true during the latter part of the exercise bout in which the benefits of
consuming the added fluid will not be realized until after the exercise has stopped due to the time
course of the fluid absorption and distribution. Therefore, from a performance vantage point it
may be better to consume less fluid during the latter part of a competition (not drink enough fluid
to fully replace all fluid loss) and finish with a 2% decrease in body weight as long as the
drinking schedule is set up to limit fluid volume in the gut at the end of exercise (Coyle, 2004).
The ACSM recommends “during prolonged exercise, frequent (every 15-20 min) consumption of
moderate (150ml) to large (350ml) volumes is possible” but suggests “individuals learn their
tolerance limits for maintaining a high gastric fluid volume for various exercise
intensities”(Convertino et al., 1996). The volume of fluid consumed is much more of an issue
19
for runners than cyclists who are less able to tolerate higher volumes of liquid due to the greater
gastrointestinal distress they experience with running because of the torsion and weight bearing
effect (Noakes et al., 1991a). A study by Daries et al. (2000) examined the effect of drinking
150 ml/70 kg versus 350 ml/70 kg of a CRD every 15-20 min. during 90 min.of running in a
thermoneutral environment followed by a 30 min. performance run.
Results from this
experiment showed that the greater rates of fluid consumption did not have significant effects on
plasma volume and osmolality (278 ± 3 mosmol/L vs. 281 ± 6 mosmol/L) and it did not improve
performance during the performance run. The only true difference between the two different
rates of ingestion was that the 350 ml/70 kg caused such extreme gastrointestinal distress that
two of the eight participants were unable to complete the performance run (Daries et al., 2000).
Noakes and Martin (2002) have suggested that runners should try to drink between 400-800
ml/hr. with the lower end of the spectrum for athletes who are slower runners competing in races
in cool environments while the upper range pertains to faster runners competing in the heat. It is
recommended that athletes use this range as a starting point from which individual runners
should try consuming higher rates of fluids during fast practice runs to find their individual
tolerance levels for fluid consumption. It will be more essential to consume fluids at a rate that
is close to the sweat rate when competing in prolonged events in the heat. In addition, this will
be an important factor for individuals who are more susceptible to hyperthermia or who are more
severely affected by dehydration induced hyperthermia (Coyle, 2004).
Sports Drink Ingestion during Prolonged Exercise
Researchers have studied the effects of sports drink consumption on performance using
different modes of exercise as well as variations in duration and intensity of the exercise bouts.
All of the literature can be subdivided into studies according to exercise duration [short term (< 1
hour), prolonged (1-4 hours, ultraendurance (> 4 hours)] and type (intermittent, continuous)
(Coombes and Hamilton, 2000). Investigators have also examined the roles CRDs have on
performance with ingestion prior to exercise compared with during the exercise event. There is a
general consensus in the literature today that there is not enough evidence to support the need for
CRD consumption before or during intense exercise of short duration (el-Sayed et al., 1997;
Snyder et al., 1993). There is some research to support the consumption of sports beverages
during prolonged intermittent exercise (Coggan and Coyle, 1988; Murray et al., 1987); however,
only one of these studies has used a sports beverage (Gatorade) that is currently available (el-
20
Sayed et al., 1997).
When comparing data from studies examining the effect of CRD
consumption prior to prolonged exercise, there is no evidence to support the consumption of
sports beverages containing less that 10% CHO in enhancing performance (Coombes and
Hamilton, 2000). High CHO content CRDs, greater than 10%, ingested immediately before
prolonged exercise can aid in maintaining elevated blood glucose levels and provide an
ergogenic effect on endurance at moderate intensities (Wright et al., 1991; Sherman et al, 1991).
However, the more important issue during prolonged exercise is the maintenance of proper fluid
balance because dehydration leads to cardiovascular and thermoregulatory strain which is
dangerous and will hinder performance (Coombes and Hamilton, 2000). For these reasons, most
of the literature regarding sport drink consumption has been conducted during prolonged
exercise which will be the focus of this review (Coombes and Hamilton, 2000).
Cycling is the predominate exercise modality employed in the literature with CRD
ingestion due to the fact that cycling is a non weight bearing activity with little or no torsion of
the torso. This is important because it allows for ingestion of much greater volumes of fluid
without the gastrointestinal distress seen with running (Rehrer et al., 1991). Unfortunately, with
no standard methodology in place, there is much variation in past research procedures which
could contribute to different outcomes. One example would be regarding the use of a fasting
protocol of less than 10 hours or a controlled diet to account for glycogen sufficiency (Tsintzas et
al., 1996; Millard-Stafford, 1990). Also many of the studies have been conducted using sport
drink formulations that are no longer available on the market or the studies have neglected to
mention the brand name product that was tested (Coombes and Hamilton, 2000). It is important
to note when analyzing the results of performance tests that there is much variability in maximal
performance times among individuals. This makes it hard to detect statistically significant
differences among treatment groups despite small improvements in performance which could be
physiologically significant in competition (Coombes and Hamilton, 2000). The focus of this
section of the review will center on the comparison of running performance studies when
ingesting CRDs containing less than or equal to 10% CHO content since this is the basis of the
current investigation.
In a study by Tarnopolsky et al. (1996), trained subjects (age = 25 ± 4.7yr: VO2max = 68.8
± 3.8 mg/kg/min) were fed a standard diet prior to completing 3 experimental trials consisting of
a treadmill run at 76% VO2max for 60 min. and then cycling at 78% VO2max until exhaustion.
21
During the run the subjects consumed 150ml of 8% glucose/glucose polymer solution, 8%
glucose, or placebo every 15 min. (600 ml/hr). The times to exhaustion during the cycling bout
did not differ with the three solutions (9.5 ± 5.4 min., 8.3 ± 4.2 min., 7.8 ± 5.6 min., with the 8%
glucose/glucose polymer solution, 8% glucose, or placebo respectively).
Another study
examined the effect of Powerade consumption (7% CRD) versus a placebo during a triathlon in
which approximately 530ml/hr was consumed (Millard-Stafford et al., 1990). There was no
significant difference in performance times between the two trials (Powerade = 141.9 ± 8.8
minutes, placebo = 143.1 ± 7.5 minutes), although the mean run time and total triathlon time
were faster with the Powerade consumption.
It is possible that in this study the fluid
consumption schedule may have played an integral role. Fluid was not consumed until 5km
(2ml/kg) after the swim portion, during 8km intervals during the cycling and then every 3.2km
during the run (Millard-Stafford et al., 1991). In another Powerade study subjects (age = 29.6 ±
3.7yr: VO2max = 67.0 ± 4.2 mg/kg/min) fasted overnight prior to completing a 32km run in the
heat in which 400 ml of fluid was consumed 30 min. prior to the run followed by 250ml every
5km (750ml/hr).
Performance was measured by timing the last 5km.
Results show that
Powerade significantly improved the 5km run time and better maintained blood glucose levels
(Powerade: 21.9 ± 1.0 min. vs. Placebo: 24.4 ± 1.5 min.) (Millard-Stafford et al., 1991). A study
by Riley et al. (1988), examined the effect of the ingestion of Exceed (7% CRD) versus a
placebo on 71% VO2max runs to exhaustion after a one day fast (Subjects: age = 30.0 ± 2.3yr:
VO2max = 65.0 ± 2.7 mg/kg/min). Fluid (200 ml) was ingested every 20 min. during the runs
(600ml/hr); however, there was no difference in the times to exhaustion (CRD: 106 ± 8 min. vs.
Placebo: 102 ± 8 min.). During the trial with Exceed ingestion, the blood glucose and insulin
concentrations were higher than during the placebo trial. Additionally the respiratory exchange
ratio was significantly higher during the CRD trial over the entire duration which suggests a
greater reliance on CHO and less on fat as an energy source. This experiment supports the need
for a precompetition meal or a fast of less than 10hr in order to ensure glycogen sufficiency and
improve performance (Riley et al., 1988). Sasaki et al. (1987) analyzed runs to exhaustion with a
5% sucrose solution ingestion compared with a placebo. Untrained men (15.6 ± 0.4yr: VO2max =
62.7 ± 3.5 mg/kg/min) ran on a treadmill at 80% of their VO2max for 60 min. followed by a
second run at 80% VO2max until exhaustion. Fluid (200 ml) was consumed 1 hr. before the first
run, then 250ml immediately before the first run and then 250ml before the second run
22
(500ml/hr). Results show that the sucrose beverage significantly improved performance (58 min.
29 sec. versus 39 min. 45 sec.) (Sasaki et al., 1987). Tsintzas et al. (1993) reported that ingestion
of a 5% CHO solution (390ml/hr) during a 30km road race significantly improved performance
times compared with a control (128.3 ± 19.9 min. vs. 131.2 ± 18.7 min.). In a follow up study,
Tsintzas et al. (1996) subjects (age: 27 ± 1.9 yrs; VO2max: 61.7 ± 1.8 ml/kg/min) ran at 70%
VO2max until exhaustion while consuming a 5.5 % CHO solution (A), a 6.9% CHO solution (B)
or water (C). Fluid was consumed at the following rates: 8ml/kg before the exercise and then
2ml/kg every 20 min. during the run (420ml/hr). Results from this study found that consuming
the 5.5 % CHO solution significantly improved performance compared to water (A: 124.5 ± 8.4
min., B: 121.4 ± 9.4 min., C: 109.6 ± 9.6 min.). It was reported that 7 out of 11 runners
experienced gastrointestinal distress with the 6.9% CHO solution compared with only 3 out of 11
runners consuming either 5.5 % CHO solution or water (Tsintzas et al., 1996). This is in
agreement with the concept that increased CHO content will increase drink osmolality
decreasing intestinal absorption which causes gastrointestinal distress. An additional study by
Williams et al. (1990) had recreational runners (age: 30.8 ± 10.8 yrs; VO2max: 63.4 ± 6.5
ml/kg/min)complete a 30km run as fast as possible consuming either a 4% CHO solution of 2%
glucose polymer/ 2% glucose (A), a 4% CHO solution of 2% glucose polymer/ 2% fructose (B),
or water (C). Fluid consumption was 250ml before the start of exercise and 150ml every 5km
during the run (700ml/hr). Although there was no recorded significance in the performance
times (A: 124.8 ± 14.9 min., B: 125.9 ± 17.9 min., C: 129.3 ± 17.7 min.), there was a noted
decrease in the running speed over the last 10km of the water trial (4.14 ± 0.55 m/s vs. 3.75 ±
0.86 m/s) which did not occur in the CHO trials. Additionally, the blood glucose concentrations
during the water trial decreased from 15km onwards and were significantly lower at the end of
the run compared with the CHO runs (Williams et al., 1990). Wilber and Moffatt (1992) had
subjects (age: 30 ± 4 yrs; VO2max: 64.9 ± 4.8 ml/kg/min) run at 80% VO2max until exhaustion
while consuming Exceed (7% CHO) or placebo. Fluid was ingested 5 min. before (250 ml) and
150ml every 15 min. during the run (850ml/hr).
Times to exhaustion were found to be
significantly greater with the CHO trial (115 ± 25 min. vs. 92 ± 27 min.). Most recently MillardStafford et al. (2005) conducted a study to answer the question of whether sports drinks of less
than 8% carbohydrate content should be consumed during exercise in the heat. Ten male
subjects (age: 23.7 ± 3.6 yrs; VO2max: 76.9 ± 6.1 ml/kg/min) participated in a 32 km run while
23
consuming 250 ml of either a 6% carbohydrate electrolyte drink (CE), a 8% CE drink or a
placebo at 5km intervals. The last 5km of the run was the measure of performance where
subjects were instructed to run all out. Results showed that the blood glucose and respiratory
exchange ratio were significantly higher for both the 6% CE and 8% CE drink compared with the
placebo (p < 0.05), but not significantly different from each other. This indicates the utilization
of CHOs instead of fat as the main fuel source. Additionally, the run performance for the last
5km of the run was 8% faster for the 8% CE drink (1062 ± 31 s) compared to the placebo (1154
± 56 s) but not significantly different from the 6% CE drink (1078 ± 33 s). Thus, it is apparent
from the studies previously mentioned that the consumption of low carbohydrate sports
beverages (< 10% CHO) during prolonged exercise enhances performance. However, it is still
unclear whether any one particular sports drink is more optimal than all the rest due to such
variation in exercise modalities, research methodologies and individual physical differences.
Assessment of Endurance Performance
In the previous section discussing different CRDs during prolonged exercise, one of the
difficulties in determining which sports beverage is more optimal is due to the lack of a
standardized methodology for assessing performance. Traditionally, endurance performance has
been measured in a laboratory while subjects exercise to exhaustion at a set percentage of
maximal workload or maximal oxygen uptake (Bergstrom et al. 1967). Unfortunately these
measures of time to exhaustion/fatigue are not representative of real life sports such as cycling or
running a race. Additionally, time to exhaustion tests have not been found to be reproducible
measures of endurance performance (Billat et al., 1994; Jeukendrup et al., 1996; McLellan et al.,
1995). More recently scientists have developed alternative protocols which better reflect the
demands of competitive endurance events for measuring endurance performance.
These
methodologies include either a race or time trial (time to complete a given distance) (Doyle et al.,
1998; Hickey et al., 1992; Jeukendrup et al., 1996; Palmer et al., 1996; Schabort et al., 1998;
Smith et al., 2001) or a set time (Bishop et al., 1997; Jeukendrup et al., 1996; Schabort et al.,
1998) to complete as much work as possible. Several of these protocols have variations which
include a submaximal steady state exercise session called a preload run (Doyle et al., 1998;
Jeukendrup et al., 1996) prior to the performance test or a series of sprints (Schabort et al., 1998)
during the time trial. The benefit of these variations lies in the ability to better simulate the
metabolic/performance demands of sports.
The preloaded time trials have been used by
24
investigators examining the effect of substrate altered diets on prolonged endurance performance
which allow for a reduction of endogenous substrate stores prior to a performance test of higher
intensity (Burke et al., 2000; Lambert et al., 2001).
The ability to accurately and reliably measure endurance performance is important in the
field of exercise physiology. The reliability of performance of a test refers to the consistency or
reproducibility of performance when a subject repeatedly performs the test (Hopkins, 2001). A
test with poor reliability is not suited for detecting changes in performance between trials and it
lacks precision for the assessment of performance in a single trial (Hopkins, 2000). The main
measure of reliability is the percent error: the standard error of measurement expressed as a
coefficient of variation (CV). The CV is equal to the standard deviation (SD) of an individual’s
repeated measurements, expressed as a percent of the individual’s mean test score (Hopkins,
2001). Many researchers have found these alternate performance testing protocols to be more
reproducible than time to exhaustion tests (CV ranging from 0.95-4.4%); however, most tests
have been conducted using cycling as the mode of exercise (Russell et al., 2004). Only three
studies have developed and evaluated a protocol for testing endurance performance during
treadmill running (CV ranging from 1-4.4%) and only two of these involved a preload (Russell et
al., 2004).
The focus of this section of the review will center on the comparison of the
reproducibility (CV) of the three main performance testing protocols focusing on those
conducted with a preload or using running as the exercise modality. A study by Billat et al.
(1994) examined the reproducibility of running time to exhaustion at maximal aerobic speed
(MAS: the minimum speed that elicits VO2max) in 8 male subelite long distance runners (29 ± 3
yrs; VO2max= 69.5 ± 4.2 ml/kg/min). Results from this study show that no significant differences
were observed between run time to exhaustion on a treadmill at a 1 week interval (404 ± 101 s
vs. 402 ± 113 s); however, there was large within-subjects variability upon examining individual
data (CV = 25%). In another study by Jeukendrup et al. (1996) 10 well trained male athletes
(age: 25 ± 6.3 yrs; work max: 5.31 ± 0.58 W/kg) performed a time to fatigue cycling bout at 75%
of their individual maximal work capacity (Wmax) on 6 separate occasions. The average time to
exhaustion was 61 min. with a CV of 26.6 %, thus researchers concluded that the reproducibility
of the test was poor and unreliable. Similar results were found in studies by Krebs et al. (1989)
and McLellan et al. (1995) (Subjects: age = 27.8 ± 4.4 yrs; VO2max = 47.0 ± 4.9 ml/kg/min)
25
which comprised of repeated cycling bouts at 80% VO2max until exhaustion in males. Substantial
variability in time to exhaustion was observed among subjects (12.8 ± 1.0 min test 1 vs. 24.7 ±
3.7 min test 5) with CV ranging from 2.8 to 31.4%. These studies all provide data to support the
conclusion that time to exhaustion/fatigue protocols are not highly reproducible and therefore
should not be used to assess endurance performance in trained athletes.
There have been quite a number of studies which have used time trial protocols to
examine the reproducibility of endurance performance. Hickey et al. (1992) conducted a study
with 8 well trained male cyclists (VO2max 4.6 ± 0.21 L/min) who completed 12 trials of 4
successive performance rides at 3 different work loads (1600, 200, 14 kJ, respectively) chosen to
represent a long (LT), medium (MT), and short trial (ST). Results show that the CV for
performance time in each trial was: LT = 1.01%, MT = 0.95%, ST = 2.43%. Similar studies by
Jeukendrup et al. (1996), Palmer et al. (1996), and Smith et al. (2001) (Subjects: age = 31 ± 5
yrs; VO2max = 5.11 ± 0.7 l/min)all included well trained competitive male cyclists using a cycle
ergometer to measure the time to complete a set amount of work (0.75 x Wmax x 3600; 20km;
40km, respectively) in which the mean CVs were calculated to be 3.4%, 1.1%, and 2.0%
respectively.
Schabort et al. (1998) also assessed reproducibility of cycling performance;
however, the protocol these investigators used involved a 100-km time trial interspersed with
four 1-km and four 4-km sprints. The subjects were 8 trained distance runners (age: 27 ± 7 yrs;
VO2max 66 ± 5 ml/kg/min). Results determined a within-cyclist CV of 1.7% and the mean sprint
performance showed similar good reliability with within-subjects variation for the 1-km and 4km sprint times of 1.9% and 2.0%, respectively. A study by Doyle and Martinez (1998) was
conducted using a preload protocol on both the cycle ergometer and treadmill. In both of these
experiments the preload was set a 90 min. of either cycling or running at 70% VO2max followed
by a performance test involving the time to complete a participant specific distance (which was
estimated to take 30 min at the preload pace). The average time to complete the cycling
performance test was 29 min and had a CV of 3.5% whereas the running performance averaged
23 min to complete and had a CV of 4.4%. A follow up study by Russell et al. (2004) aimed to
establish a highly reproducible running testing protocol to measure endurance performance of
longer duration (>2 h total time). Subjects included 4 men and 4 women (men: age = 34.6 ± 11.2
yrs, VO2max = 60.3 +/- 6.3 ml/kg/min; women: age = 36.1 ± 11.1 yrs, VO2max = 51.8 +/- 2.2
ml/kg/min) who performed a 10-km time trial on a treadmill after a 90-min preload run at 65%
26
VO2max on two separate occasions. The time trial distance of 10-km was selected to represent a
typical racing distance to assess higher-intensity endurance performance. Subjects completed
time trial 1 and time trial 2 in 45:41 ± 4:45 and 45:24 ± 5:03 mins, respectively. The withinsubject CV for the time trial was 1.00% ± 0.25%.
This study, as well as all of the
aforementioned studies using a time trial protocol to assess endurance performance, have been
found to be extremely reliable as evident by the low values of the CV.
Another commonly used protocol to assess endurance performance is a set duration
protocol in which the subject tries to complete a maximal amount of work in a given amount of
time. In a study by Bishop et al. (1997), 20 trained females (age = 28.1 ± 10.7 yrs, VO2peak =
47.4 ± 7.2 ml/kg/min) completed two trials in which they tried to produce the highest power
output possible throughout 60 min of cycling. The average power output for the two trials was
180 ± 18.1 W and 180 ± 20.6 W which had a CV of 2.7%. Jeukendrup et al. (1996) had 10 men
subjects (age: 25 ± 6.3 yrs; work max: 5.31 ± 0.58 W/kg) complete 6 trials comprised of a
preload of 45 min. at 70% Wmax followed by a performance bout where subjects tried to
complete as much work as possible (amount of watts cycled) in 15 min. Results determined the
CV for this protocol to be 3.5%. In another study by Schabort et al. (1998), 8 male trained
distance runners (VO2peak = 66 ± 5 ml/kg/min) completed a 60 min time trial on 3 occasions.
During the trial the runners controlled the speed of the treadmill and could view current speed
and elapsed time but not the elapsed or final distance.
The distance run in 1 h was not
significantly different among the trials (16.2 ± 1.4 km, 15.9 ± 1.4 km, and 16.1 ± 1.2 km for time
trials 1-3, respectively) and the CV for individual runners was calculated as 2.7%.
It is apparent from the previously mentioned studies in this section that protocols testing
endurance performance by measuring the time to complete a given distance or work completed
in a given amount of time are highly reproducible in trained individuals based on their
corresponding low CV values (0.95 – 4.4%).
On the contrary, using run time to
exhaustion/fatigue has found not to be highly reproducible based on the large CV values (2.8 –
31.8%). The small range in CV for the time trial and set duration tests may be due to any
number of methodological discrepancies. A few examples would be the athletic status of the
participant, using fasting or standardized diets, mode of exercise, the duration of the test, intertrial time as well as the use of a familiarization trial (Hopkins et al., 2001). Further research
needs to be conducted in order to address these issues and establish standardized protocols for
27
endurance performance; however, for the purpose of the current investigation either set duration
or time trial protocols are highly reproducible methods for assessing endurance performance.
Summary
During prolonged exercise it is necessary to ingest fluid in order to replace the water and
electrolytes lost in sweat. Because more water is lost in sweat than Na+, plasma sodium
concentration and osmolality rise which reduce blood flow to the skin and affect heat dissipation
(Daries et al., 2000).
This fluid replacement is also imperative to preventing declines in
performance which are seen with low levels of dehydration (2% of body mass) (Coyle, 2004).
Therefore, it is important for athletes to drink enough fluid to maintain their plasma osmolality in
events where dehydration and thermoregulation are of primary concern (Maughan, 1995).
Athletes participating in exercise sessions lasting longer than one hour in duration benefit from
the consumption of CHO electrolyte replacement drinks by maintaining blood glucose levels
which optimize performance despite the reduction in muscle glycogen stores. Although there are
a number of sport beverages on the market today, no one drink has proven to be superior to all
the rest. Differing sport drink compositions play an important role in absorption and therefore
hydration status and performance. It is important to test both current and novel sport drink
formulations using a highly reproducible endurance performance protocol in order to deduce any
ergogenic benefit provided by the CRD.
28
CHAPTER III
Methods
Participants
Thirteen male athletes between the ages of 19-26 years were recruited for this
experiment. 8 runners and 2 triathletes completed the study. The number of subjects that
completed the study is sufficient based on the effect size and power calculations of past research
which determined an effect size ≥ .80 when studying time differences in the last 5km of a 32km
race while consuming a CRD (Millard-Stafford et al., 2005). By using a with-in subjects double
blind design and measuring percent differences for all variables, it will afford a more powerful
study from which to draw conclusions. The sample size was determined by the methods reported
by Thomas and Nelson (1996).
Effect Size Determination
Run Time of last 5km of a 32km race (s) (Millard-Stafford et al., 2005; n = 10):
Experimental Trial Mean – Control Trial Mean/Control Trial Standard Deviation
1154 – 1078/ 56 = > 1 (1.35)
In order to participate in this study, participants had to be competitive in their respective
sport, were currently running at least 20 miles a week and had previously competed in long
distance running events (10K or longer). This was to ensure that all participants were familiar
with the mode of training being employed. The subjects were recruited from local running clubs
in the Tallahassee, Florida region and from advertisements placed around the Florida State
University campus. Prior to enrollment in the study, participants completed brief medical history
(Health History Questionnaire; Appendix B), and informed consent document that were
approved by the Florida State University Institutional Review Board (Appendix A). Methods
and rationale were provided to the participants for each procedure and it was emphasized that
they may terminate their participation in the study at any time. Exclusion criterion for the study
29
included: 1) a VO2max < 50 ml/kg/min (n=1), 2) female runners due to the menstrual cycle effects
on temperature regulation and fluid balance, 3) history of diabetes, heart disease or other chronic
illness, 4) currently taking diuretics, 5) inability to refrain from all illegal drug use or legal
supplements and 6) possessing orthopedic injuries (n=2).
Procedures and Techniques
All testing took place in the Exercise Physiology Laboratory at Florida State University
under controlled environmental conditions (22-26˚C; 35-90% rh). Participants were asked to
participate in 5 exercise bouts over 6 months: 1) VO2max test, 2) familiarization trial, 3) 3
separate experimental trials separated by 2-3 weeks. On the subjects’ first day in the laboratory,
preliminary measurements of age, body composition, weight, height, peak running speed and
VO2max were conducted.
Body Composition
Body composition was assessed by the skinfold technique using a calibrated Lange
skinfold caliper (Gays Mills, WI) having a constant pressure of 10 g/mm2.
Skinfolds
measurements were made at seven specific sites: triceps, subscapular, axilla, chest, abdomen,
suprailiac, and thigh.
These values were analyzed using the sex-specific equation for the
prediction of body density (Db) in accord with the methodology of Pollock and Jackson (1980).
Body density was used to estimate the percentage of body fat as determined by the Siri equation
(1961).
Body weight was measured by a SECA automated scale (Hanover, MD) to the nearest
0.1kg while participants were in their running shorts. The running shorts were weighed and this
value was subtracted from the weight of the subject wearing the shorts to determine a nude
weight for the subject. Height was measured one time with a stadiometer. All measurements
were made in a euhydrated state which was confirmed by a urine specific gravity of ~1.01 units.
Maximum Oxygen Uptake
The VO2max test was conducted on the Quniton Treadmill (Bothell, WA) using a
progressive exercise test to exhaustion protocol. Each participant was asked what his longest
distance race and corresponding time was for his most recent competition. This time was
converted to a 10km time and race pace. The VO2max test began at a speed that corresponded to
1:30 min/mile pace below the race pace. The treadmill was set at a 1% grade and the stages were
1 minute in duration. Every minute the treadmill speed was increased 2km/h until the subject
30
could no longer maintain the pace. During the exercise test, participants wore a nose-clip and
breathed through a mouthpiece connected to an automated gas analyzer. Before each test, the
pneumotach was calibrated with a 3 liter syringe, and the oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers
were calibrated with room air and a 4% CO2: 16% O2 gas mixture. Pneumotach and gas analyzer
outputs were processed by a computer using a metabolic measurement system (Truemax 2400:
Parvomedics: Michigan City, IN) that measured ventilation, oxygen consumption (VO2), and
carbon dioxide production (VCO2), and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) every 15 seconds.
Participants also wore a Polar heart rate monitor for measurement of heart rate. The criterion for
achievement of VO2max was fulfillment of at least three of the following: 1) a plateau in oxygen
consumption for an increase in exercise intensity (≤ 2.0 ml/kg/min increase), 2) respiratory
exchange ratio ≥1.05, 3) heart rate ≥ 85% of an age predicted maximum (as determined by 220participant’s age), 4) voluntary cessation of the test by the participant, and 5) a blood lactate
concentration > 8 mmol/L (Howley et al., 1995). If this criterion was not met, the test was
repeated the following day. The maximal lactate measurements were made by analyzing the
capillary blood from a finger prick immediately upon the completion of the test. This blood was
analyzed immediately using an automated enzyme electrode system (YSI 1500 Sport, Yellow
Springs, OH).
Familiarization Run
On a separate day the subjects performed a familiarization run on the treadmill. Subjects
first ran at 65% of VO2max for 45 min. followed by a 15 min. performance run in which the
subject tried to run “as far as possible” on the treadmill by adjusting their own running speeds.
During the performance run the subjects were only permitted to see their time displayed on the
treadmill. The accrued distance and speed displays were covered from view. These runs were
conducted in ambient room temperature ranging between 22-26˚C, a relative humidity of 3590%, and a fan was provided at a set speed. In this practice run, indirect calorimetry using open
circuit spirometry was used to measure VO2 over 5 min. intervals every 15 min. during the 45
min. run in order to ensure that the treadmill speed corresponded to 65% of each participants’
VO2max.
No other physiological measurements were made and the subjects were permitted to
drink water ad libitum. The purpose of these two runs was to familiarize the subjects with the
conditions to be used in the experimental trials and to minimize any learning effects (Daries et
al., 2000).
31
Experimental Trials
The experimental trials were conducted every 2-3 weeks at the same time of day and
repeated, in a randomized, counterbalanced order, after the familiarization run. During this time
frame, the subjects continued their usual training and consumed similar diets, and refrained from
strenuous physical activity on the day before each trial. Training and dietary records were kept
in order to aid the participants’ compliance with the requests.
The evening before each trial (15 hours prior), subjects were required to consume a
provided precompetition meal at the lab in order to ensure glycogen sufficiency for the trial the
following morning. This meal consisted of 1-2 cups (measured uncooked) pasta, 0.5-1 cups
meatless pasta sauce, and 1-2 servings of garlic bread (1 serving = 1/8 of a loaf). Each subject
consumed the exact same meal (both qualitatively and quantitatively) prior to each of the
remaining two trials. The variation in serving size among the meal components was a result of
individual level of appetite during the first precompetition meal. On the day of the trial, the
subjects arrived at the laboratory 2h after drinking 500 ml/70 kg body mass of water and 3h after
consuming a provided standard breakfast at their homes (Daries et al., 2000). The standard
breakfast consisted of 1 plain white bagel, 2 Tbsp of peanut butter, and 1 medium banana. The
participants refrained from drinking caffeine or alcohol for 24hr. before each trial. The ingested
volume of water (500 ml/70 kg body mass) was designed to ensure equal hydration at the start of
exercise which was measured before the trial. Euhydration was determined by a urine specific
gravity of 1.01 units. Equal hydration was confirmed later by similar pre-trial body masses,
hematocrits, and hemoglobin concentrations (Daries et al., 2000). At the laboratory, the subjects
provided a urine sample and were weighed in their running shorts and socks. Venous blood
samples (10ml) were collected with the subject seated after the subject had stood on the treadmill
for 10-15 min. (to account for cellular fluid shifts), after the 90 min run at 65% of VO2max, and at
the end of the 30 min performance run. After initial venous blood samples were taken, the
participants began running at 65% of VO2max for 90 min. Depending on which trial the subjects
were performing, one of the following beverages was ingested every 15 min at the set volume of
150ml/70kg body mass (Daries et al., 2000): Gookinaid hydralyte, Gatorade or placebo. All
beverages were matched for similar color and taste. Gookinaid Hydralyte is a 10.68g/250ml
glucose and fructose solution containing 41.66 calories, 74.04 mg of sodium, and 106.51 mg of
potassium in 250 ml. Gatorade is a 15 g/250 ml sucrose (38%), glucose (34%) and fructose
32
(28%) solution containing 63 kcal, 103 mg of sodium and 30 mg of potassium in 250 ml. Before
each drink, the participants were asked to indicate their ratings of perceived exertion using the 620 point Borg scale and to rank their thirst level on a scale of 1 (not thirsty at all) to 9 (very, very
thirsty) (Maresh et al., 2001). Subjects were also asked to assess their perceived stomach
fullness using a scale of 1 (not full at all) to 9 (very, very full) (Wilk et al., 1998). Between
drinks, indirect calorimetry using open circuit spirometry was used to measure VO2 and VCO2
over 6 min intervals during the 90 min. run (Daries et al., 2000). These values were then used to
calculate rates of carbohydrate and fat oxidation, assuming a non-protein respiratory exchange
ratio (Frayn et al., 1983). Rates of carbohydrate oxidation in g/min were converted to mmol/min
by dividing the values by the molecular weight of glucose.
At the end of this run there was a 5 min rest interval before the 30 min performance run
(Daries et al., 2000). In that interval and at the end of the performance run, the subjects toweled
themselves off, urinated, and were reweighed before changing into a new dry pair of running
shorts and socks. This body weight was subsequently adjusted for the weight of the sweaty
shorts and socks for further calculations of body weight changes and sweat rates. Sweat losses
were calculated from the decreases in body mass plus the volume of fluid ingested minus
clothing weight and excreted urine (Daries et al., 2000).
No physiologic measurements were
made during the 30 min. performance run and no fluid was provided to the subjects during this
time.
Dietary Records
Subjects were instructed to record their dietary intake 48h before each experimental trial.
These records helped the participants to comply with ingesting similar diets on the day before
each experimental trial because it is important to have adequate glycogen stores for prolonged
endurance performance. Subjects were instructed verbally and in written form on the proper
techniques for recording dietary intake. A copy of their dietary record was given to the subject
so they could replicate food intake for the two days preceding the following two experimental
trials. The dietary records were assessed using Nutritionist V software (First Data Bank, Inc.,
San Bruno, CA). Caloric intake and grams of CHO, fat and protein consumed over the two day
period was averaged and is reported. A copy of the dietary record form is in Appendix C.
33
Blood Collection and Analyses
Blood samples were obtained from an antecubital vein, while the subject was seated, by a
trained phlebotomist. Blood was drawn into one sodium heparin (5ml) and one serum separator
(10ml) vacutainer brand collecting tubes. Venous blood samples (15ml) were collected after the
subject had stood on the treadmill for 10-15 min. for the baseline draw, after the 90 min run at
65% of VO2max, and at the end of the 30 min performance run for each experimental trial.
Hemoglobin concentrations and hematocrits were measured in triplicate. Whole blood
from sodium heparin tubes were utilized for the determination of hemoglobin and hematocrit.
Hematocrit was determined from microcentrifugation and measured using a Micro-Hematocrit
Reader (IEC, Needham Heights, MA). Hemoglobin was assessed using the cyanomethemoglobin
method (Stanbio Laboratories, Boerne, TX). The absorbency obtained was plotted in a linear
regression curve based on a hemoglobin standard of 20 mg/dl to obtain the final value. Changes
in hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit were used to estimate the percent changes in plasma
volume during exercise (Dill and Costill, 1974).
Serum tubes were allowed to stand for a 30 minute period to allow for blood clotting
prior to being centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes at room temperature. The serum obtained
was stored at –80 oC until analysis. Serum glucose, sodium and potassium (Stanbio Laboratories,
Boerne, TX) were measured in duplicate using commercially available kits. A Beckmann DU
Series 600 spectrophotometer (Beckman Instruments, Inc., Fullerton, CA) was used to measure
the absorbency of all samples, standards and controls. Samples from all time points for each
participant were analyzed within the same assay/kit to eliminate inter-assay variability. The
mean coefficient of variation (CV) for all blood measures was calculated. In the case of
hemoglobin and hematocrit, this was done from the two samples that were most similar and
utilized to calculate the mean value for the specific time period. Global CV values for the entire
study were (5.4%) for hemoglobin, (4.7%) for hematocrit, (1.7%) for glucose, (0.76%) for
sodium, and (2.96%) for potassium. Mean CV values reported by the manufacturers were (0.41.0%) for hemoglobin, (1.2-3%) for glucose, (1.4%) for sodium, and (2.6%) for potassium.
Statistical Analysis
Means and standard deviations were computed for each variable during the three
experimental trials. A 3 x 2 x 7 with-in subjects ANOVA with repeated measures was used to
determine significant differences for training volume. A 3 x 2 with-in subjects ANOVA with
34
repeated measures was used to determine significant differences for dietary intake and fluid
balance measures of sweat rates and body weight changes. A 3 x 6 with-in subjects ANOVA
with repeated measures was conducted to demonstrate significant differences between trials and
across time for perceptual scales of exertion, thirst and stomach fullness. A 3 x 6 x 12 with-in
subjects ANOVA with repeated measures was utilized to determine significant differences
between trials and across time for all metabolic data. A 3 x 3 with-in subjects ANOVA was
implemented to examine significant differences for all blood measures including changes in
hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, blood glucose, sodium, and potassium levels. A one-way
repeated measures ANOVA was utilized to examine significant differences for the running
performance measurement, total sweat rates, and plasma volume changes among trials. Alpha
was set at p < 0.05 for all statistical tests. All significant main effects were followed up with
pairwise comparisons and/or Bonferroni’s post hoc analysis which were used to correct for
multiple comparisons to determine where the significant differences occurred. All interactions
were analyzed using t-tests for post hoc analyses.
35
CHAPTER IV
Results
Descriptive Subject Information
Ten male, Caucasian participants completed the study (8 runners, 2 triathletes) out of the
fourteen who were initially screened. Reasons for participant withdrawal or removal from the
study were injury (2 participants), relocation due to graduation from university (1 participant)
and inability to attain the minimum VO2max requirement (1 participant). All of the athletes who
completed the study were considered to be well trained in their respective events. One of the
triathletes who completed this study was ranked in the top 60 nationally for his respective age
group and distance event (Olympic). The average number of years these athletes had been
training for triathlon and running was 8 years.
The eight runners who completed this study came from various competitive backgrounds
and had been training for an average of 8 years. One participant competed three years for a
Division I university, one participant competed four years for a Division II university, and one
participant competed four years for a Division III university. The remaining five participants
were considered to be competitive recreational runners. All participants have competed in events
of at least 10km in distance. Seven participants have competed in half marathon or marathon
events in the last three years.
Participant Characteristics
Participant characteristics for age, height, weight, body fat percentage, body surface area
and VO2max are presented in Table 4.1. An independent samples t-test showed there were no
significant differences between the subjects for any of the data (p > 0.05). Individual data are
presented in Appendix D, Table D.1.
36
Table 4.1 Participant Characteristics (N=10)
Characteristics
Mean SD
Range
Age (yrs)
22.2
2.1
19-26
Height (cm)
178.4 5.0
169-184
Weight (kg)
66.8
5.4
58-74
Body Fata (%)
2
Body Surface Area (m )
VO2max (ml/kg/min)
a
8.6
3.1
4.7-12.5
1.82
59.9
0.09
4.0
1.65-1.95
54.1-65.5
Body Fat determined by ∑7 skinfolds
Participants were instructed to record and maintain a similar training regime for the two
weeks prior to each exercise trial. Adherence to the training requirements based on journal
entries was satisfactory. Average training volumes recorded in miles run per day can be found in
Table 4.2. There were no significant differences in miles ran per day among trials or between
weeks (p > 0.05). Individual data are presented in Appendix D, Table D.2.
Table 4.2 Training log recorded in miles ran during each 2 week period prior to each trial (N=10)*
Trial
Week 1
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Gatorade
5.1±4.4 5.3±3.9 4.8±3.4
3.8±3.5
3.4±3.8 4.7±3.4 3.3±4.3
(0-11)
(0-11)
(0-9)
(0-10)
(0-10)
(0-9)
(0-10)
Gookinaid
5.1±6.1 6.1±3.6 4.9±3.8
4.2±4.1
4.0±3.9 5.4±5.0 3.9±4.1
(0-18)
(0-11)
(0-11)
(0-15)
(0-12)
(0-12)
(0-13)
Placebo
7.2±7.5 3.0±4.2 4.6±5.6
4.9±4.5
4.6±7.3 5.2±4.7 3.2±4.8
(0-20)
(0-12)
(0-15)
(0-12)
(0-14)
(0-14)
(0-10)
Week 2
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Gatorade
5.3±5.0 5.3±4.2 4.6±4.4
4.6±4.1
4.5±4.5 5.1±3.9 4.3±4.3
(0-14)
(0-13)
(0-12)
(0-15)
(0-13)
(0-11)
(0-12)
Gookinaid
4.3±5.4 5.2±3.7 5.5±3.7
3.5±4.4
3.5±4.1 5.3±4.2 4.3±5.0
(0-16)
(0-10)
(0-12)
(0-15)
(0-12)
(0-12)
(0-13)
Placebo
5.2±5.8 3.8±3.8 3.1±3.4
5.9±5.0
4.8±4.6 4.3±5.0 5.7±7.4
(0-18)
(0-12)
(0-10)
(0-15)
(0-14)
(0-14)
(0-20)
*Values are means ± standard deviations (range). Mean values were calculated for each day by averaging the values
obtained from each participant for each day.
All trials were completed in random order. Four participants completed the Gatorade
trial first, three participants completed the Gookinaid trial first and three of the participants
completed the placebo trial first. Three participants completed the Gatorade trial second, three
completed the Gookinaid session second and four completed the placebo session second. Three
participants completed the Gatorade bout last, four participants completed the Gookinaid session
last and three participants completed the placebo trial last.
37
All participants completed a two-day dietary record before each trial. Mean caloric
intakes and mean consumption of grams of carbohydrates (CHO), fats, and proteins can be found
in Table 4.3. No significant differences in caloric intake or consumption of grams of fat or
protein were found among trials or across time. A significant main effect for time was observed
for grams of carbohydrate consumed (p < 0.05). Post hoc analysis determined that day 2 resulted
in significantly higher mean grams of carbohydrates consumed than day 1 (p = 0.045).
Individual data are presented in Appendix D, Tables D.3-D.6.
Table 4.3 Participant Dietary Food Record for 2 Days Prior to each Trial (N=10)*
Variables
Gatorade
Gookinade
Placebo
Day 1
Day 2
Day 1
Day 2
Day 1
Day 2
Total Calories
2043±777
2428±511
1819±549
2276±872
2059±577
2081±684
(1158-3283) (1717-3388) (1345-3107) (1114-3567) (1330-3399) (1286-3860)
Total CHO (gm)
Total Protein (gm)
Total Fat (gm)
297±119
(149-511)
77±33
(33-131)
64±30
(19-99)
397±148a
(193-702)
78±27
(34-113)
61±16
(33-76)
241±118
(77-489)
70±23
(34-117)
78±59
(28-224)
347±111a
(214-514)
73±35
(23-126)
71±48
(26-155)
324±108
(199-497)
76±23
(44-120)
63±27
(36-112)
325±93a
(173-517)
75±26
(35-118)
56±37
(15-155)
*Values are means ± standard deviations (range)
s
Significant main effect for time (p < 0.05); Participants consumed significantly more grams of CHO on day 2 compared to day 1 (p < 0.05).
Metabolic Data
Metabolic data were averaged and recorded in 30-second intervals for six minutes at a
time (runs) every 15 minutes during the 90-minute preloaded run portion of each trial. Complete
data were analyzed for all ten participants at each time point and for each condition. Means and
standard deviations for the measures of carbohydrate oxidation, fat oxidation, heart rate,
respiratory exchange ratio, oxygen and carbon dioxide consumption can be found in Appendix
D, Tables D.7-D.9. Individual data are presented in Appendix D, Tables D.10-D.15. No
significant differences (p > 0.05) were found among trials, runs, or time points for measures of
fat oxidation, heart rate (HR), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), oxygen (VO2) and carbon
dioxide production (VCO2) (p > 0.05). No significant trial by run by time interactions were
found for carbohydrate oxidation (p > 0.05); however, a significant main effect for time was
observed where CHO oxidation significantly increased from the start to the end of each 6-min.
run during the 90-min. preloaded run (p = 0.048).
38
Heart Rate (bpm)
165
150
135
120
Gatorade
Gookinaid
P lac ebo
105
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
R u n (1 r u n = 6 m in .)
Figure 4.1: Heart rate averages for each trial during the 90 min. preloaded run
1 .0
RER
0 .9
0 .8
G a to r a d e
G o o kin a id
P la c e b o
0 .7
1
2
3
4
5
6
R u n ( 1 r u n = 6 m in .)
Figure 4.2: RER averages for each trial during the 90 min. preloaded run
39
Carbohydrate Oxidation
(g/min)
2.7
2.5
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
1.5
1.3
1
2
3
4
5
6
Run (1 run = 6 min.)
Figure 4.3: CHO oxidation averages during the 90 min. preloaded run
Fat Oxidation (mmol/min)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
0.1
1
2
3
4
5
6
Run (1 run = 6 min.)
Figure 4.4: Fat oxidation averages during the 90 min. preloaded run
40
Perceptual Differences
Every 15 minutes during the 90-minute preloaded run portion of each trial, participants
were asked scaled perceptual questions about their rate of perceived exertion, level of thirst, and
stomach fullness. Means and standard deviations for these measures can be found in Table 4.4.
Individual data are presented in Appendix D, Tables D.16-D.18. There were no significant
differences found between trials. There was also no significant difference between time points
for measures of rates of perceived exertion or thirst level (p > 0.05). A significant main effect
for time was observed for stomach fullness (p = 0.01). The post hoc analysis determined that at
45 min. the stomach fullness was higher than at 60 min. (p = 0.041).
Trial
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
Table 4.4 Perceptual Differences (N=10)*
Rate of Perceived Exertion (6-20)
15 min.
30 min.
45 min.
60 min.
75 min.
10.4±1.8
11.5±1.5
12.4±1.2
13.1±1.3
13.7±1.3
(8.0-14.0) (10.0-15.0) (11.0-15.0) (11.0-16.0) (11.0-16.0)
10.2±2.1
11.1±1.7
12.3±1.4
13.0±1.6
13.2±1.6
(8.0-15.0) (9.0-15.0) (10.0-15.0) (11.0-16.0) (11.0-16.0)
10.5±1.8
11.4±1.8
12.2±2.0
12.9±1.5
13.5±1.4
(7.0-13.0) (8.0-14.0)
(8.0-15.0) (10.0-15.0) (11.0-16.0)
Stomach Fullness Scale (1-9)
15 min.
30 min.
45 min.
60 min.
75 min.
a
2.6±1.3
2.8±1.2
3.2±1.5
3.0±1.3
3.1±1.7
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-6.0)
3.9±1.1
3.5±1.2
3.3±1.2a
2.7±1.3
2.7±1.3
(3.0-6.0)
(2.0-5.0)
(2.0-5.0)
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-5.0)
2.9±1.4
3.0±1.3
2.7±1.2a
2.6±1.1
3.0±1.5
(1.0-6.0)
(1.0-6.0)
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-4.0)
(1.0-6.0)
Thirst Scale (1-9)
15 min.
30 min.
45 min.
60 min.
75 min.
3.2±1.3
3.4±1.3
3.5±1.4
3.4±1.7
4.0±1.6
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-5.0)
(1.0-6.0)
(1.0-6.0)
3.3±1.6
3.2±1.6
3.8±1.0
3.9±1.1
3.8±1.2
(1.0-7.0)
(1.0-7.0)
(2.0-5.0)
(2.0-5.0)
(2.0-6.0)
3.0±1.2
3.2±0.8
3.2±0.8
3.7±0.7
3.3±1.2
(1.0-5.0)
(2.0-5.0)
(2.0-5.0)
(3.0-5.0)
(1.0-5.0)
90 min.
14.2±1.1
(12.0-16.0)
13.8±2.0
(12.0-17.0)
14.2±1.0
(13.0-16.0)
90 min.
3.1±1.9
(1.0-6.0)
2.5±1.3
(1.0-5.0)
2.8±1.9
(1.0-7.0)
90 min.
4.1±1.5
(1.0-6.0)
3.7±1.1
(2.0-6.0)
3.5±1.4
(1.0-5.0)
*Values are means ± standard deviations (range)
a
Signficant main effect for time; Stomach fullness was significantly higher at 45 min. than at 60 min. during the 90 min.
preloaded run (p = 0.041)
Blood Chemistry
Blood samples were collected immediately before each trial began and immediately after
both the 90 and 30 min. run portions. Pre-trial hydration was adequate based on pre-trial urine
specific gravity measurements of less than 1.01 units. Means and standard deviations for the
41
measures of hemoglobin, hematocrit, glucose, sodium and potassium concentrations can be
found in Table 4.5. Individual data are presented in Appendix D, Tables D.19-D.23. Glucose,
sodium and potassium concentrations have been adjusted for hemoconcentration due to plasma
volume change (Dill and Costill, 1974). No significant differences in glucose concentration or
hematocrit were observed among trials or between time points (p > 0.05). No significant trial by
time interaction was found for hemoglobin; however, significant main effects for trial (p = 0.015)
and time were observed (p = 0.011). The post hoc analysis determined that the Gookinaid trial
had significantly lower hemoglobin concentrations than during the placebo trial (p = 0.037).
Also, the data revealed that the pre-90 min. concentrations of hemoglobin were lower than
during both post-30 and post-90 min. (p = 0.002 and p = 0.001, respectively).
Significant main effects for trial (p = 0.042) and time (p = 0.015) were found for sodium
concentration.
Further analysis using Bonferroni showed that sodium concentrations were
significantly higher in the blood during the Gatorade trials compared to the Gookinaid trials (p =
0.05). Additionally, sodium concentrations were significantly lower during the post-90 min.
blood draws than both pre-90 and post-30 blood draws for all trials (p < 0.05). Finally, a
significant main effect for time was found for potassium concentration (p = 0.012). Planned
comparisons
using
Bonferroni
demonstrated
significantly
lower
pre-trial
potassium
concentrations in the blood compared to post 90 min. for all trials (p < 0.001).
Assessment of Running Performance
Assessment of running performance was obtained during a 30-minute performance run
following each 90 minute preloaded run in each trial. Participants were in control of the
treadmill speed and were instructed to run as far as possible in the time allotted. Means and
standard deviations for the performance run are presented in Table 4.6. Individual data are
shown in Appendix D, Table D.24. No significant differences in distance run in 30 minutes were
recorded among trials (p > 0.05).
Table 4.6 30-minute Performance Run (N=10)*
Trial
Distance Run (km)
Gatorade
6.8±1.1
(5.6-9.0)
Gookinaid
7.1±1.3
(5.4-9.4)
Placebo
7.0±1.2
(5.3-9.2)
*Values are means ± standard deviations (range)
42
Trial
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
Trial
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
Trial
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
Table 4.5 Blood Chemistry Measures (N=10)*
Hemoglobin (g/dL)
Hematocrit (%)
Pre 90 min.
Post 90 min. Post 30 min.
Pre 90 min.
Post 90 min.
15.7±0.9b
16.4±1.0
16.6±1.0
45.5±2.7
45.8±2.0
(14.3-17.0)
(15.3-18.4)
(15.4-18.8)
(40.0-49.0)
(43.5-49.0)
15.4±0.9a, b
16.0±0.7a
16.3±0.9a
44.8±2.2
45.9±2.2
(14.2-16.9)
(14.9-17.3)
(14.7-17.5)
(41.5-47.5)
(42.0-48.5)
15.7±0.9b
16.8±0.9
17.0±0.8
45.2±2.0
46.4±2.6
(14.4-16.9)
(14.9-18.0)
(16.0-18.2)
(42.5-49.0)
(43.0-51.0)
Glucose (mg/dL)
Sodium (mmol/L)
Pre 90 min.
Post 90 min. Post 30 min.
Pre 90 min.
Post 90 min.
93.6±16.7
112.7±25.1
114.2±28.7
140.9±13.9c, 133.8±15.4c,d
(72-122)
(90-123)
(90-123)
(118-147)
(121-176)
82.4±17.0
100.6±16.5
109.1±25.0
124.1±18.3
120.5±19.4d
(63-110)
(73-128.1)
(84-156)
(91-146)
(86-146)
85.2±16.3
90.8±13.2
114.2±16.9
132.4±12.9
125.0±14.6d
(68-109)
(67-117)
(88-141)
(107-148)
(101-152)
Potassium (mmol/L)
Pre 90 min.
Post 90 min. Post 30 min.
3.8±0.6e
4.0±0.5
4.0±0.6
(2.7-4.8)
(3.3-4.7)
(3.1-4.8)
3.7±0.4e
4.2±0.5
4.2±0.6
(3.2-4.2)
(3.6-4.9)
(3.4-4.8)
4.0±0.5e
4.2±0.6
4.4±0.9
(3-4.7)
(3.3-5.1)
(3.1-5.7)
Post 30 min.
46.5±1.7
(44.5-49.5)
46.0±2.2
(41.0-48.0)
47.1±2.0
(43.0-51.0)
Post 30 min.
140.0±9.6c
(128-159)
123.4±16.5
(96-151)
136.2±27.4
(108-197)
*Values are means ± standard deviations (range)
a
Significant main effect for trial (p = 0.015); Hemoglobin concentrations were significantly lower in the blood during the Gookinaid
trial compared to the placebo trial (p = 0.037).
b
Significant main effect for time (p = 0.011); Pre 90 min. hemoglobin concentrations were lower than post 90 (p = 0.001) and post 30
min. (p = 0.002) concentrations.
c
Significant main effect for trial (p = 0.042); Sodium concentrations were higher during the Gatorade trial compared to the
Gookinaid trial (p < 0.05).
d
Significant main effect for time ( p = 0.015); Post 90 min. sodium concentrations were significantly lower than pre 90 and post 30
min. (p < 0.05) concentrations.
e
Significant main effect for time ( p = 0.012); Potassium concentrations were significantly lower in pre 90 min. compared to post 90
min. blood draws for all trials (p < 0.001).
Fluid Balance
Prior to the start of each trial, participants provided a urine sample to ensure adequate
hydration by obtaining a urine specific gravity measurement of less than or equal to 1.01 units.
Body fluid balance and sweat rates were assessed by measuring the changes in body weight
relative to fluid intake after each run portion (90 min. preloaded run and 30 min. performance
run) of each trial. Means and standard deviations for body weight changes relative to time, sweat
rates relative to body surface area and time, total sweat rates and plasma volume changes for
each trial are presented in Tables 4.7-4.8. Individual data are shown in Appendix D, Tables
D.25-D.29. No significant differences in total sweat rates or body weight changes were observed
between the 90 min. and 30 min. portion of each run or among trials (p > 0.05). No significant
43
trial by time interactions were found for sweat rates; however, a significant main effect for time
was observed (p = 0.0001). Post hoc analysis revealed that sweat rates, despite being relative to
time and body surface area, were higher during the 90 min. portion compared to the 30 min.
portion of each trial (p < 0.05). Additionally, no significant difference was found for plasma
volume change among trials (p > 0.05).
44
Table 4.7 Fluid Balance (N=10)*
BW Δ (g)
BW Δ (%)
Pre 90-Post 90
Pre 30-Post 30
Pre 90-Post 30
-979±269
-888±334
-3.11±0.87
(-620-(-)1450)
(-510-(-)1510)
(-1.99-(-)4.61)
-1090±667
-1047±585
-3.33±1.34
(-310-(-)2770)
(-410-(-)2550)
(-1.49-(-)5.18)
-893±298
-857±325
-2.96±0.99
(-420-(-)1260)
(-430-(-)1310)
(-1.58-(-)4.21)
Trial
Gatorade
Gookinaid
Placebo
PV Δ (%)
Pre 90-Post 30
-7.74±9.48
(-25.31-6.92)
-5.46±11.55
(-15.43-24.17)
-5.46±17.05
(-23.01-38.54)
*Values are means ± standard deviations (range)
BW ∆ = body weight change
PV ∆ = plasma volume change
Trial
Table 4.8 Sweat Rate (N=10)*
Sweat Rate (g/m2/hr)
Total Sweat Rate (L/hr)
Pre 90-Post 90
Pre 30-Post 30
Pre 90-Post 30
Gatorade
679±98a
(-541-(-)846)
357±180
(-207-(-)770)
1.41±0.38
(0.96-2.22)
Gookinaid
714±228a
(-428-(-)1275)
415±207
(-221-(-)960)
1.55±0.45
(1.11-2.53)
Placebo
644±107a
(-473-(-)786)
315±116
(-153-(-)477)
1.31±0.32
(0.84-1.74)
*Values are means ± standard deviations (range)
a
Significant main effect for time (p = 0.001); Sweat rates were higher during the 90 min. preloaded
run portion compared to the 30 min. portion of each trial.
45
CHAPTER V
Discussion
Introduction
The primary aim of this study was to examine the differences in hydration levels in
trained distance runners supplemented with either Gatorade (CRD), Gookinaid Hydralyte, or
placebo. The secondary objective was to compare the perceptual differences regarding levels of
thirst, ratings of perceived exertion, and sensation of stomach fullness among the three
replacement beverages. A final aim of the present study was to examine how these beverages
affected running performance as indicated by a 30 min. performance run. Each participant
completed a VO2max test to assess individual aerobic fitness, a familiarization trial, and three
experimental trials in which one of the following was consumed: 1) Gatorade (CRD), 2)
Gookinaid Hydralyte, or a 3) placebo. Each experimental trial was separated by at least two to
three weeks. All testing was conducted in ambient temperatures of 22-26˚C and 35-90% relative
humidity. The experimental trials consisted of running on a treadmill for 90 min. at a pace that
corresponded to 65%VO2max (preload run), which was separated by a 5 min. break, before
subsequent completion of a 30 min. performance run. At 15 min. intervals during the 90 min.
run, 150 ml/70 kg body mass of the respective test beverage was consumed after 6 min. of
metabolic data were collected, and perceptual differences were noted. Blood samples were
obtained and body weights were recorded immediately prior to the start of each experimental
trial, after the 90 min. preload run, and following the 30 min. performance run. Blood samples
were analyzed for Hb, Hct, glucose, sodium, and potassium concentrations. Self-reported dietary
intake records (two days) and training logs (two weeks) were assessed before each experimental
trial. A total of ten participants completed this study over a period of six months.
46
Research Hypothesis 1
Gookinaid Hydralyte will better maintain hydration status compared with equal volumes
of either Gatorade (CRD) or an artificially flavored placebo (P), and CRD will show better
hydration status than P.
Assessment of Hydration Status
Results from the present study did not support this hypothesis as no significant
differences in total sweat rates or body weight changes were observed between the 90 min. and
30 min. portions of each run or among trials (p > 0.05). Higher sweat rates were recorded during
the 90 min. preload run compared to the 30 min. performance run regardless of beverage
consumed (p < 0.05). Additionally, no significant difference was found for plasma volume
change among trials (p > 0.05).
There are many techniques described in the literature for the measurement of whole body
hydration status. Currently no “gold standard” hydration status marker exists; therefore, the
choice of marker usually depends on the accuracy and sensitivity needed for a particular situation
as well as the cost and equipment required (Armstrong, 2005). Some of the more common
techniques employed are the measurement of body weight changes, urinary indices (volume,
color, specific gravity, and osmolality), blood indices (hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit,
plasma osmolality, and sodium concentration) and heart rate (Kavouras, 2002). In the present
study, subjects were initially considered to be in a state of euhydration if pre exercise urine
specificity gravity measures were < 1.01 units. All other subsequent measures of hydration
status were derived from either changes in body weight or calculated changes in plasma volume
(derived from hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit) from pre-exercise values (Dill and
Costill, 1974). Changes in body weight were corrected for the following: 1) fluid consumption
during the 90 min. preloaded run in which subjects consumed 150 ml/70 kg body mass of a test
beverage, 2) clothing weight change and 3) for the weight of excreted urine.
Additional
measures of sweat loss and sweat rate were calculated from body weight changes. Subjects were
weighed and had blood drawn prior to the start of exercise and after both the 90 and 30 min. run
portions.
Assessing hydration status based on body weight changes has been found to be reliable
during dehydration that occurs with or without exercise over a time period of 1-4 hr. (Kavouras,
2002; Armstrong, 2005). When the subject is in caloric balance (as in the present study), the
47
body mass loss equals the water loss (when corrected for the aforementioned factors stated
above) (Armstrong, 2005). The lack of significant differences among trials for changes in body
weight and sweat rate is supported by a number of studies which examined the effect of different
CRD drink solutions compared with placebo drinks on hydration status and running performance
(Millard-Stafford et al. 2005, 1992, 1990; Tsintzas et al., 1995; Williams et al., 1990).
Regardless of drink composition, body weight was reduced to the same level of dehydration
when equal volumes of fluid were ingested among trials. This was not only observed when
completing runs of a fixed distance of 30km (Williams et al., 1990), 32km (Millard-Stafford,
2005), 40km (Millard-Stafford, 1992), 10km (Millard-Stafford, 1990) but also during a
70%VO2max run to exhaustion study (Tsintzas et al., 1995). Additionally, studies have also found
that altering volume of fluid intake (up to 1.4 L/hr) does not significantly increase sweat rates
during moderate intensity exercise (Daries et al., 2000; Montain and Coyle, 1992a). In the
current study, subjects lost approximately 2 kg of body weight (3% body weight change) over
the two hours of exercise with greater sweat rates having been observed during the 90 min. of
exercise than over the 30 min. performance run. A possible reason for this could be the result of
no fluid consumption during the performance run and subjects typically exercising at a greater
intensity than during the preloaded run. More intense exercise would necessitate a greater blood
flow to the exercising muscles, thereby decreasing the volume of blood available for heat
dissipation in the subcutaneous vessels and limiting sweat production and sweat losses.
Although, skin blood flow was not measured in the current study, this theory is supported by a
study by Montain and Coyle (1992a) which examined the effects of fluid consumption on
forearm blood flow (indicative of skin blood flow) and hyperthermia during 2 hr cycling at 6267% VO2max. Results indicated that no fluid replacement during exercise significantly increased
core body temperature by decreasing forearm blood flow (and therefore sweat losses) 17-20%
below that observed when fluid was ingested (Montain and Coyle, 1992a).
Another measure of hydration status used in the current study was the calculated changes
in plasma volume from hematocrit and hemoglobin concentration. This technique is simple to
perform which is why it is widely used today and has been cited in more than 1300 publications
over the last 10 years (Armstrong, 2005). Plasma volume change is also very reliable as long as
the baseline measurements are valid. These measurements can be influenced by the use of a
tourniquet for drawing blood and changes in posture (Kavouras, 2002). In the present study all
48
blood draws were taken within 5 min. of the subject being seated, using a tourniquet, following
each treadmill run segment or after subjects had stood on the treadmill for 15 min. for the initial
pre-exercise blood draw. Although no significant difference in plasma volume changes were
noted in the present study among the three trials, it is likely that the significant main effects for
trial and time seen with hemoglobin concentration (not with hematocrit) may have been affected
by posture-related fluid shifts. Prior research has demonstrated the rapidity of changes in plasma
volume with moving from a standing to supine position (Pivarnik et al., 1986; Hagan et al.,
1978). A 6% hemodilution of plasma volume was measured within the first 5 min. of lying
down from a standing position. Similar results have been observed when moving from a
standing to seated position, although the percent changes are smaller. Tan et al. (1973) observed
a significant drop in hematocrit (ranging from 2.2-6.1%) in the first 10 min. following subjects
moving from an upright to seated position. This effect of postural changes may also have
implications on the accuracy of other hematological measures of electrolytes and glucose
concentration in the present study.
For this reason, some investigators consider plasma or serum osmolality (Posm) to be the
only valid index of hydration status because Posm is not affected by postural changes and
osmolality increaseses of only 1% influences thirst sensation and an increase in arginine
vasopressin (Popowski et al., 2001).
Although the present investigation had planned on
measuring Posm, access to the equipment needed for analysis was limited on test days and the
literature shows that osmolality must be measured within 6 hours of sample collection (0.1-6 hr)
because as storage time increases, Posm decreases (Armstrong, 2005). Urine specific gravity was
only used to assess initial hydration status in the current study. This baseline measurement can
indicate a false euhydration state if a large quantity of water or hypotonic fluid is ingested in a
short period of time (Armstrong et al., 1994). In this situation, the fluid would quickly dilute the
blood and the kidneys would excrete diluted urine over a range of hydration states even if
dehydration exists. This occurs because the urine reflects the volume of fluid consumed instead
of the amount of water retained by the body (Armstrong et al., 1994). For this reason, subjects in
the current study were asked to consume 500 ml/ 70 kg of water 2 hr before arriving in the lab to
ensure euhydration.
Based on the measures made in the current study, it is safe to conclude that no particular
beverage maintained a better hydration state in the subjects over the 2 hr of exercise. This is
49
demonstrated from similar decrements in body weight and plasma volume as well as similar
sweat rates and sweat losses during the exercise period. Additionally, heart rate is known to
increase with progressive dehydration and the present investigation observed no significant
difference in heart rate over time and among the different beverages which further supports this
conclusion. Data from the current study do not provide evidence as to comment on the actual
hydration status of the subjects. This is directly the result of not having measured additional
hematological and urinary hydration markers such as Posm or urine specific gravity. It is a
reasonable assumption that subjects were in a more dehydrated state after the exercise session
(although the degree to which is unknown) based on body weight deficits alone.
Research Hypotheses 2 and 3
2) Gatorade and Gookinaid Hydralyte will show greater rates of CHO oxidation and
lower rates of fat oxidation than the placebo.
3) Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate values will be lower during the
Gatorade and Gookinaid Hydralyte trials compared to the placebo trial.
Assessment of Metabolic Measures
In the present study indirect calorimetry using open circuit spirometry was used to
measure VO2 and VCO2 in 30 second intervals over 6 min. intervals (runs) every 15 min. during
the 90 min. preloaded run.
performance run.
No physiologic measurements were made during the 30 min.
These values were then used to calculate rates of carbohydrate and fat
oxidation, assuming a non-protein respiratory exchange ratio. Results from the data analyses
show that there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) found among trials (beverages) or runs
for measures of CHO oxidation, fat oxidation, respiratory exchange ratio (RER) or glucose
concentration.
The results of the current study are in disagreement with several studies which noted
significantly greater CHO oxidation, RER values, and blood glucose concentrations while
ingesting a CRD versus a placebo beverage during running performance (Wilber et al., 1992;
Millard-Stafford, 1990, 2005; Sasaki et al, 1987). Additionally, studies by Millard-Stafford et al.
(1992) and Riley et al. (1988) both showed a trend toward greater RER values with CHO
consumption during exercise and significantly elevated blood glucose levels. On the other hand,
several studies have reported no significant differences in RER values between CHO-fed
compared to placebo-fed trials, despite finding higher blood glucose levels with CHO feeding
50
(Williams et al., 1990; Tarnopolsky et al., 1996). The discrepancy among the findings regarding
no significant difference between CHO oxidation rates, yet the appearance of elevated blood
glucose levels is difficult to explain. The normal expectation would be that increased blood
glucose levels would promote greater CHO utilization and lead to improved physical
performance (Wilber et al., 1992).
Most of the studies in the literature examining CHO consumption during prolonged
exercise, and all of the studies listed above, required subjects to exercise following a fasting
period lasting 8-21 hr (Wilber et al., 1992; Millard-Stafford, 1990, 1992, 2005; Sasaki et al,
1987; Riley et al., 1988; Williams et al., 1990; Tarnopolsky et al., 1996). This is a major
difference from the present study where subjects consumed a set breakfast consisting of a plain
white bagel (61 g CHO) and a banana (~27 g CHO) 3 hr before each of the three experimental
trials.
This deviation from the typical methodology was meant to coincide with current
guidelines for optimal sports nutrition practice with CHO availability strategies that are realistic
for competitive running.
The consumption of the pre-exercise meal likely explains the
conflicting metabolic results compared with that in the literature. This breakfast appeared to
provide sufficient CHO to maintain blood glucose levels, RER and CHO oxidation rates
regardless of whether a CRD was provided during 2hr of running.
Assessment of Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE)
In the current study, every 15 min. during the 90 min. preloaded run portion of each trial,
participants were asked scaled perceptual questions about their perceived level of exertion
(RPE). There were no significant differences found among trials or time points for RPE. This
finding can be attributed to the maintenance of CHO oxidation rates, RER values, blood glucose
levels, and HR throughout the exercise duration. Subjective ratings of perceived exertion are
reflective of CNS function, which is affected by alterations in substrate availability (Borg, 1982).
Prior research has shown that CNS distress results in subsequent increases in RPE (Wolfe et al.,
1986, Wilber et al., 1992; Riley et al., 1988). Additionally, studies have found a strong
correlation between RPE score and HR (Chen et al., 2002; Garcin et al., 2003).
Research Hypotheses 4 and 5
4) Gatorade and Gookinaid Hydralyte will rank lower/better on a thirst scale measuring
the ability of the fluid to “quench” thirst than the placebo.
51
5) Gatorade and the placebo drink will show higher ratings of stomach fullness and
gastrointestinal distress than Gookinaid Hydralyte.
Assessment of Perceptual Differences: Thirst and Stomach Fullness
In the current study, every 15 min. during the 90 min. preloaded run portion of each trial,
participants were asked scaled perceptual questions about their thirst level on a scale of 1 (not
thirsty at all) to 9 (very, very thirsty). Subjects were also asked to assess their perceived stomach
fullness using a scale of 1 (not full at all) to 9 (very, very full). Results indicated no significant
differences among any of the three beverages at any time point for thirst level. On the other
hand, a significant main effect for time was observed for stomach fullness which determined that
subjects perceived greater stomach fullness approximately 45 min. into exercise compared to an
hour into the preload run.
The lack of significant difference in level of thirst in the present study is in agreement
with the findings of Tsintzas et al. (1996) which compared runs to exhaustion times while
consuming ~420 ml/hr of either a 5.5% or 6.9% CHO solution or water. Most of the studies in
the literature that have compared the ingestion of different fluids on exercise performance use a
set fluid consumption schedule of a specific quantity based on individual body weight (Wilber et
al., 1992; Millard-Stafford, 1990, 1992, 2005; Sasaki et al, 1987; Riley et al., 1988; Williams et
al., 1990; Tarnopolsky et al., 1996). For this reason most of these studies do not mention
measuring thirst level because stomach fullness and gastrointestinal distress are more pertinent
factors to consider in this experimental design. In contrast, investigations that examine the effect
of ad libitum fluid ingestion with overall beverage acceptability and palatability are very
concerned with a beverage’s likeliness to trigger thirst mechanisms and influence fluid
consumption. Typically, the sensation of thirst occurs when the total body water loss reaches 12% of body mass (Hubbard et al., 1984). On the nine point thirst scale, scores between 3 (a little
thirsty) and 5 (moderately thirsty) can be assumed to reflect mild dehydration in most
circumstances (Armstrong, 2005). In the present study, at any one time point, thirst scores
tended to range from 1 to 6 which demonstrate the great variability found in perceptual
measures. This variability is not unexpected due to the numerous factors which can alter the
perception of thirst.
Some of these factors are as follows: environmental humidity, fluid
palatability, time allowed for fluid consumption, gastric distention, age, gender, and heat
acclimatization status (Kavouras, 2002).
52
Several recent studies which have examined the effects of different replacement solutions
on running performance have reported conflicting results regarding stomach fullness and GI
distress (Tsintzas et al, 1996; Millard-Stafford, 1990, 1992, 2005; Daries et al., 2000). Two
separate studies conducted by Millard-Stafford et al., reported no significant differences in
stomach fullness or GI distress when consuming the following beverages and participating in the
following exercise sessions in the heat: 1) drinking ~750 ml/hr of a 7% CRD or placebo during a
40 km run (1992) or 2) ingesting ~530 ml/hr of a 7% CRD or placebo during a simulated
triathlon (1990). However, in the simulated triathlon study there was a trend (p < 0.07) toward
participants ranking the CHO beverage lower in causing nausea and an upset stomach than the
placebo (Millard-Stafford, 1990). Additionally, in another study by Millard-Stafford (2005)
subjects consumed ~750 ml/hr of either 8% or 6% CRD or water during a 32 km run. Results
showed that both of the CRDs ranked significantly lower in GI distress compared to the placebo
drink, but they were not significantly different from each other. This study also measured fluid
absorption (dependent upon gastric emptying and intestinal absorption) by having subjects
consume a bolus of fluid labeled with deuterium oxide. This technique has proven to be a valid
relative marker to compare the appearance of different beverages in the blood over time (Davis
et al., 1987). Results from this study indicated that there is no significant difference in fluid
availability to the blood among 8% or 6% CRD or placebo beverage (Millard-Stafford, 2005). If
fluid availability was limited there would have been a proportional increase in both core body
temperature and heart rate; however, similar heart rates, plasma volume changes, lower ratings
for stomach discomfort and similar appearance of deuterium oxide in the blood suggested that
none of the beverages were different in their ability to deliver fluid. This finding supports the
results of the current study, despite having no measure of fluid absorption, which also observed
similar heart rates, plasma volume changes and ratings of stomach fullness among the beverages.
These results are also consistent with cycling studies which reported no difference in
percent fluid emptied from the stomach with either 6% or 8% CRDs (Cole et al., 1993; Coombes
and Hamilton, 2000). The observed increase in rating of stomach fullness around 45 min. into
exercise versus 60 min. in the present study was not surprising. Researchers have shown that
drinking replacement beverages during exercise requires 40-60 min. for gastric emptying,
intestinal absorption and changes in plasma osmolality to be effective in reducing heart rate and
core temperature in addition to restoring blood volume (Montain and Coyle, 1993). Therefore, a
53
reasonable explanation for the above finding would be that the third drink at 45 min. provided a
volume of fluid in the stomach which facilitated increased gastric emptying rates over the next
15 min. causing subjects to perceive a decrease in stomach fullness at 60 min. of exercise.
Two studies that noted severe GI distress with running have occurred in thermoneutral
conditions with large fluid consumption rates. Tsintzas el al. (1996) had participants consume an
initial ~560 ml of fluid and then ~420 ml/hr of either a 5.5% or 6.9% CRD or water while
running at 70% VO2max to exhaustion. Three subjects experienced GI distress during the water
and 5.5% CRD trials, while 7 cases of GI distress were reported during the 6.9% trials. When
measuring the gastric emptying rates of these beverages at rest, 95% of both of the CRDs were
emptied from the stomach within the first 60 min., whereas the same amount of water emptied
the stomach in the first 30 min. In a separate study, Daries et al. (2000) examined the effect of
fluid intake volume on 2 hr of running using the same protocol as the present study. Subjects
consumed a 6.9% CRD either ad libitum, ~600 ml/hr, or ~1.4 L/hr during a 90 min. preloaded
run. The ratings of stomach fullness were significantly greater in the latter half of the ~1.4 L/hr
trial than the other trials and two subjects had such severe GI distress that they were unable to
complete the following 30 min. performance run.
Some possible explanations for the differences seen in GI distress in the literature can be
due to a number of methodological variations. Many of these studies differ in the environmental
conditions in which subjects are participating. Exercise conducted in the heat, unlike cold or
thermoneutral conditions will cause greater sweat losses necessitating a greater need for higher
fluid consumption rates. It is well documented that most runners do not consume enough fluid
during exercise to offset dehydration and body weight deficits (Noakes, 2003). For this reason,
if participants are not used to consuming these large volumes of fluid during exercise, they will
experience GI discomfort regardless of beverage composition. Several studies have had subjects
practice consuming large fluid volumes during regular training sessions in order to become more
tolerant of greater fluid consumption (Millard-Stafford 1990, 1992, 2005). Digestion of fluids is
especially difficult while exercising in the heat due to the shunting of blood to the working
muscles as well as to the periphery for the dissipation of heat. Additionally, differences in study
design such as mode of exercise, exercise intensity, beverage composition, and fluid intake rates
all play a role in fluid absorption and thereby add another level of complexity when trying to
draw conclusions from results in the literature.
54
Although there were no statistical differences determined for thirst and stomach fullness
among the beverages in the current study, more than half of the subjects preferred the taste of
Gookinaid Hydralyte over Gatorade or the placebo. Anecdotal accounts by the several of the
subjects mention that they most often consume either water or diluted Gatorade during their
training sessions. This would support their taste preference of GH, for this beverage does not
have a very strong flavor and tastes more like a watered-down solution than a sports drink. This
knowledge is of great importance when considering how the overall beverage acceptability and
palatability influences ad libitum fluid ingestion. Therefore, the most preferable beverage would
be consumed in greater volumes, thereby enhancing performance by limiting the degree of
voluntary dehydration with exercise.
Assessment of Electrolyte Concentrations
In the present study, all blood samples were collected while the subjects were seated after
they had stood on the treadmill for 10-15 min. for the baseline draw, after the 90 min. run at 65%
of VO2max, and at the end of the 30 min. performance run for each experimental trial. Sodium
concentrations were found to be significantly higher in the blood during the Gatorade trials
compared to the Gookinaid trials. Pre-trial concentrations of potassium were significantly lower
at rest than after the 90 min. preloaded run for all trials.
Prior research has shown that sodium and potassium concentrations in the blood tend to
increase with exercise duration as plasma volume decreases due to sweat losses regardless of
CRD composition or fluid volume (Millard-Stafford, 1990, 1992, 2005; Tsintzas et al., 1996;
Daries et al., 2000; Tarnopolsky et al., 1996). Electrolyte concentrations in the current study
may not be accurate. As stated above, subjects were seated during blood draws and this change
in posture is known to cause an immediate hemodilution effect due to fluid shifts (Pivarnik et al.,
1986; Tan et al., 1973). Additionally, there are several individual subjects who had sodium
concentrations which were well below 135 mmol/L which is considered to be an indication of
hyponatraemia (Noakes, 2003). If these concentrations were accurate, subjects would have been
presenting some of the following symptoms: disorientation, pulmonary edema, respiratory arrest,
seizure and/or coma (Noakes, 2003). It is more reasonable to assume that these low sodium
concentrations are not solely due to the postural change incurred prior to the blood draws, but are
likely the result of human error when using the test kits to analyze the serum. Despite the
questionable sodium concentrations, the relatively higher sodium concentrations in the blood
55
during the Gatorade trials compared to the Gookinaid trials is not surprising since Gatorade
contains significantly more sodium than Gookinaid (Gatorade: 103 mg/250 ml vs. Gookinaid:
74.04 mg/250 ml).
Research Hypothesis 6
It was hypothesized that distance runners would run a significantly greater distance
during the 30 minute performance run when consuming Gookinaid Hydralyte compared with
Gatorade or placebo.
Assessment of Running Performance
The traditional measure of endurance performance has been in the form of exercise to
exhaustion trials (Hopkins, 2001). More recent research, on the reproducibility of performance
tests, has determined that time trial or set time (to complete as much work as possible) protocols,
have proven to better reflect the demands of competitive endurance events and also tend to be
more reliable (Jeukendrup et al., 1996: Hopkins, 2001). In the present study, subjects completed
a set time performance run of 30 min. in which they tried to run “as far as possible” by
controlling the speed of the treadmill. Results from the data analysis show that there was no
significant difference in mean values for distance ran while consuming any of the three
beverages (Gatorade: 6.8±1.1 km, Gookinaid: 7.1±1.3 km, Placebo: 7.0±1.2 km).
Assessment of Muscle Metabolism
One possible explanation, for no enhanced performance among the beverages, may be
attributed to the subjects still having adequate muscle glycogen stores at the end of the 90 min.
preloaded run.
Many studies which have examined the effect of exercise in the heat on
carbohydrate oxidation, have shown that exercise in hot environments increases sympathoadrenal activity and enhances the rise in muscle temperature (Fink et al., 1975; Nielsen et al.,
1986; Febbraio et al., 1994a,b).
Both of these responses cause an accelerated rate of
glycogenolysis during exercise. Therefore, it had been suggested if the rise in body temperature
is attenuated during prolonged exercise, by either reducing the ambient temperature, providing
external cooling, or preventing dehydration, contracting muscle glycogen utilization would be
reduced (Febbraio et al., 1994a).
A study by Febbraio et al. (1996) provided evidence to support this idea when they
examined how blunting the rise in body core temperature (by manipulating ambient temperature)
affected intramuscular glycogen utilization during exercise. In two separate trials trained cyclists
56
cycled for 40 min. at 65% VO2max in either 20˚C or 3˚C. Results showed net muscle glycogen
utilization was greater in the warmer environment (T20: 196 ± 18 mmol/kg vs T3: 142 ± 18
mmol/kg). This confirmed that glycogenolysis in exercising skeletal muscle is decreased during
exercise when the rise in body core temperature is attenuated. Another study which supported
this concept examined the effect of fluid ingestion on muscle metabolism (Hargreaves et al.,
1996). Participants cycled for 2 hr at 67% VO2max in 20-22˚C while either consuming no fluid or
a volume of water determined to prevent loss of body mass. Heart rate, rectal temperature and
muscle temperature (vastus lateralis) were found to be significantly lower during the trial with
fluid consumption. Additionally, net muscle glycogen utilization during exercise was decreased
16% during the trial with fluid consumption (318 ± 46 vs. 380 ± 53 mmol/kg) (Hargreaves et al.,
1996). Although muscle glycogen levels were not measured in Below et al. (1995), results
showed that adequate fluid replacement during exercise postponed performance decrements. In
this experiment, participants completed four trials consisting of cycling at 80% VO2max for 50
min. followed by a 300 kJ time trial. During exercise subjects consumed either a large volume
(~1330 ml) of a 6% CRD or water or a small volume (~200 ml) of a 40% CRD or water.
Performance times were significantly faster (6.5%) during the trials consuming the larger fluid
volume which replaced approximately 79% of fluid losses compared with only 13% replacement
with the smaller volume. The larger volume of fluid helped to attenuate the rise in heart rate and
core temperature observed during the small volume trial. Additionally, the CHO versus no CHO
trials also resulted in equally improved cycling performance (6.3%). Finally, a study which
analyzed muscle metabolism rates while ingesting a CRD or placebo, demonstrated that trained
cyclists, who exercised at 71%VO2max to fatigue had the same pattern of muscle glycogen
utilization (Coyle et al., 1986). Although subjects fatigued earlier during the placebo trial (P:
3.02 ± 0.19 hr vs CRD: 4.02 ± 0.33 hr), glycogen within the vastus lateralis muscle declined at
the same average rate during the first three hours of exercise despite the beverage consumed
(Coyle et al., 1986).
A limitation to the present study involves not having measures of muscle temperature or
muscle metabolism. It is reasonable to suggest that the volume of fluid consumed during the
preloaded run was sufficient to offset a significant rise in temperature. This assumption would
be supported by similar hydration levels (no significant difference in body weight deficits,
plasma volume changes, or sweat losses) of subjects among all trials. Therefore, reduced rates of
57
glycogenolysis would have resulted in enough fuel stores remaining for the performance run
regardless of exogenous CHO availability. It is also possible, based on data by Coyle et al.
(1986), that the present study is neither long enough in duration nor provides a sufficient
intensity level to necessitate the use of a CRD over a placebo.
Assessment of a Pre-competition Meal
Another possible explanation for adequate glycogen stores, at the end of the 90 min.
preloaded run, could have resulted from the consumption of a pre-exercise meal three hours
prior. Unlike the consistently observed benefit of CHO consumption during prolonged exercise,
the effect of a pre-exercise CHO meal is unclear. Studies in the literature have seen a beneficial,
detrimental or inconsequential effect on muscle glycogen utilization which has shown to
increase, decrease or have no effect on exercise performance (Brand Miller, 1998; Coggan and
Coyle, 1996; Sherman et al., 1989). This variability in response to a pre-exercise meal is most
likely due to the variability in the protocol including timing of the meal, quantity of CHO
consumed, the glycemic index of the CHO, and the method of evaluating performance.
Wright et al. (1991) examined the effects of consuming no CHO at all (P + P), just a
preexercise CHO meal (CHO + P), no CHO meal with CHO ingestion during exercise (P +
CHO), and the combination of a pre-exercise meal with the consumption of CHO with exercise
(CHO + CHO). The CHO feeding consisted of pre-exercise meal providing 5 g of CHO/kg body
mass 3 hr before exercise and/or 2.6 g of CHO/kg body mass in serial feedings during the
exercise which was cycling to exhaustion at 70% VO2max. Results from this study showed that
the pre-exercise meal alone (CHO + P) and the CHO ingestion during exercise (P + CHO)
increased performance from (P +P) by 18% and 33% respectively (p < 0.05). When ingesting
CHO in combination (CHO + CHO), cycle time to exhaustion increased by 45% compared to (P
+ P) (201 min.). However, a closer examination of the cycle times to exhaustion, between the
combined CHO intake trial versus the individual CHO feeding strategies (before or during
exercise), reveals no significant differences between trials (Wright et al., 1991).
A similar study by Chryssanthopoulos et al. (2002) investigated the effects a pre-exercise
meal (M) 3 hr before exercise with (M + CHO) and without CHO (M + P) ingested during
exercise compared to a liquid placebo 3 hr before exercise and water during exercise (P + P).
The data from the study indicated that trained runners, when running to exhaustion at 70%
VO2max, exercised for a significantly longer period of time during the M + CHO (125 ± 5.3 min.)
58
compared with M + P (111.9 ± 5.6 min.) trial and longer during the M + P than with the P + P
trial (102.9 ± 7.9 min.; p < 0.01, p < 0.05, p < 0.05, respectively). In both of these studies
exercise to exhaustion was the measure of performance unlike the present study in which a set
time was allotted to complete as much work as possible.
The latter method of assessing
performance is more reflective of a task athletes in the real world might experience; therefore, it
is important to analyze and compare results of studies which use similar performance protocols
of either set time or set workloads to better understand how CHO feeding strategies affect
performance.
Recent interest in the efficacy of a pre-exercise CHO meal has focused on the glycemic
index (GI) of the CHO. A recent study by Febbraio et al. (2000) examined the effect the GI of
the CHO pre-exercise meal had on subsequent cycling at 70% VO2max for 120 min. followed by a
30 min. performance ride in 20-22˚C. Subjects consumed one of the following meals 30 min.
prior to the start of exercise: a high glycemic index CHO meal (HGI) of instant mashed potatoes
(1g/kg body mass of CHO), a low glycemic index CHO meal (LGI) of mueslix (1g/kg body mass
of CHO), or a control meal of diet jelly (CON). The main finding of the study was that preexercise consumption of CHO (either HGI or LGI) had no effect on endurance performance
despite differences in CHO oxidation and GI of the meals.
Muscle glycogen levels were
measured before the start of exercise, 20 min. into exercise, and after the 120 min. of
submaximal exercise. Although the content of muscle glycogen was reduced during the 120
min. of exercise, it was not decreased to very low levels.
Another study which investigated the effects of GI on pre-exercise meals, employed 120
min. of cycling at 70% VO2max followed by a performance ride of a set amount of work (300KJ)
in 20˚C (Burke et al., 1998). The pre-exercise meals were ingestion 2 hr prior to the start of
exercise and contained 2 g CHO/kg body mass of either a (HGI) potato, (LGI) pasta, or a low
energy jelly (CON). For each of the three trials, subjects consumed 3.3 ml/kg body mass of a
radioactively labeled glucose solution every 20 min. during the submaximal exercise so that rates
of ingested glucose oxidation could be calculated. Results showed that during the 120 min. of
submaximal exercise, total CHO oxidation for HGI, LGI, and CON trials (403 ± 16, 376 ± 29,
373 ± 24 g/2 hr) as well as oxidation of ingested CHO (65 ± 6, 57 ± 6, 63 ± 5 g/2 hr) were not
significantly different. Additionally there was no difference in time to complete the 300 kJ
performance ride among HGI, LGI, and CON trials (946 ± 23, 954 ± 35, and 970 ± 26 s). The
59
main conclusion drawn from this study was that the GI of the pre-exercise meal had no
significant effect on performance when CHO is subsequently ingesting throughout the exercise.
In the present study, subjects consumed a pre-exercise meal 3 hr before exercise,
comprised of both a HGI food (white plain bagel; 61 g CHO) and a LGI food (medium banana;
~27 g CHO) before each of the three experimental trials and ingested 150 ml of test beverage/ 70
kg body mass (Gatorade: 9 g CHO/150 ml; Gookinaid: 6.41 g CHO/150 ml; Placebo: 0 g
CHO/150 ml) every 15 min. during the 90 min. of submaximal exercise. This pre-exercise meal
and CHO intake during exercise were chosen to coincide with current guidelines for optimal
sports nutrition practice with strategies that are realistic for competitive running. Additionally
this methodology was used because it is the most commonly used by endurance athletes to
promote CHO availability during exercise.
Based on the results from the studies described above, it is likely that the current study
did not see enhanced performance with the consumption of a CRD during exercise due to
sufficient levels of muscle glycogen being present at the end of the 90 min. preloaded run.
However, it is not clear whether this is the result of blunting the rise in body temperature from
adequate fluid ingestion or the consumption of a pre-exercise meal. Limitations to the current
study, which did not measure muscle glycogen levels, circulating blood metabolites throughout
exercise, core or muscle temperatures nor ingested CHO oxidation rates prevent further
conclusions from being deduced. It is reasonable to suggest that differences in performance may
have been seen if the preloaded run was longer in duration and/or the environment was more
stressful (hot).
Assessment of Running Performance Protocols: Running Economy
As previously discussed, the set time to complete as much work as possible method of
evaluating performance, has proven to be very reliable. Morgan et al. (1991) examined the
intraindividual variability and reliability in running economy and mechanics among trained
runners. Results showed that when environmental conditions are controlled, running economy
had both a high stride to stride and day to day reliability (r = 0.96 and 0.95, respectively) and a
low CV (1.32%). Studies have analyzed the effects that prolonged running have on running
economy and have agreed that the cost of running is significantly increased at of end of long runs
compared with the start (Morgan et al., 1991; Sproule, 1998) Kryolainen and colleagues (2000)
studied running economy (RE) and kinematics following marathon running and concluded that
60
the weakened RE could not be explained by changes in running mechanics. They suggested that
RE impairment might be due to increased fat oxidation as a source of fuel or due to the increased
demands of body temperature regulation. This aspect was analyzed by Sproule (1998) in which
runners completed 60 min. of running at 80% VO2max with and without consuming a 6% CHO
solution (at a rate previously determined to maintain body weight) in either a thermoneutral (2223˚C, rh: 56-62%) or hot environment (25-35˚C, rh: 66-77%). RE was found to decrease after
60 min. of running regardless of whether fluid was ingested in both environmental conditions.
Another study which supports these results compared decreases in RE with trained triathletes
during pre and post submaximal runs (at a velocity which corresponded to individual ventilatory
threshold) following an 80 min. run (Brisswalter et al., 2000). Subjects either consumed 2 ml/kg
of a 5.5% CHO solution or a placebo beverage every 20 min. during the 80 min. run. The cost of
running was shown to increase after the 80 min. run, regardless of the beverage consumed and
despite a significant reduction in RER with time and significantly lower RER values for the post
run placebo trial (Brisswalter et al., 2000). These studies show that metabolic changes and
substrate metabolism have a minimal role in changes in running economy with prolonged
exercise. Therefore, it is reasonable to suggest that any small variations in stride lengths and
frequencies (running mechanics) in the present study would not result in significant differences
in performance during a set time run because subjects typically run at speeds that provide
optimal running economy. This statement is supported by Williams et al. (1990) who compared
the influence of consuming a CRD with added fructose or glucose to water ingestion during a 30
km race. Results did not show a significant difference in time to complete the race and further
calculation of stride lengths proved not to be significantly different between trials. Additionally,
the studies presented above have noted similar decreases in RE after prolonged runs regardless of
the beverage consumed (Brisswalter et al., 2000; Sproule, 1998).
A final non-physiological explanation for no significant difference in distance ran during
the performance runs among beverages may be due to the subject’s lack of motivation. Although
the subjects were trained distance runners and were made aware of the benefits of participating
in this study (individual sweat rate information, better understanding of personal performance
and preference to different sports beverages, VO2max fitness assessment), perhaps the $100
payment for the completion of the study was not enough incentive to provide maximal effort on
the performance run component of each trial. Subjects were aware that they would receive the
61
financial reward as long as they completed the three experimental trials in their entirety. It is
possible that performance may have been improved had additional monetary incentives been
awarded on an individual basis for achieving specific goal distances or certain split times during
the performance runs.
Justification of Current Protocol
The protocol for the current study was chosen for a number of reasons. First of all, a
study looking at exercise in a thermal neutral environment (20-21˚C) reported that 1-2%
dehydration could be tolerated without producing significant decrements in performance during
exercise lasting less than 90 min. (Cheuvront et al., 2003). However, exercise exceeding 90 min.
in duration with 2% or more dehydration significantly impaired performance in thermoneutral
conditions (McConell et al, 1997, Cheuvront et al., 2003).
Secondly, there is a general
agreement in the literature that endurance athletes should consume 30-60 g/hr of CHO during
exercise lasting longer than an hour in order to maintain blood glucose levels and prevent
decrements in performance (Convertino et al., 1996; Casa, 2000). Finally, the literature supports
the idea that continuous exercise (running or cycling) at or below 70% of an individual’s VO2max
does not significantly decrease the gastric emptying rate of a CRD, although there is a trend
toward reduced emptying rates of CRD compared with water during exercise of increasing
intensity (Costill and Saltin, 1974; Mitchell et al., 1990; Rehrer et al., 1989a). Therefore, the
submaximal preloaded run was chosen to be conducted at 65% of an individual’s VO2max for 90
min. in order to necessitate fluid intake and CHO consumption without impairing gastric
emptying rates during exercise in thermoneutral conditions.
Results from the study by Coyle et al. (1986) demonstrated that trained cyclists, who
exercised at 71%VO2max to fatigue had the same pattern of muscle glycogen utilization during
the first three hours of exercise regardless of the drink ingested (CRD or placebo). This study
raises the question of whether the current study was of sufficient intensity and/or duration to
necessitate the use of a CRD. Further examination of the intensity level of the preloaded run
proves to be adequate. Although elite marathon runners tend to run consistently at about 80-90%
of VO2max in order to run a competitive race, sub-elite marathoners have been found to run at
much lower intensities (Hagerman, 1992). A study by Kyrolainen et al. (2000) determined
trained runners (VO2max = 65 ± 7.6 ml/kg/min; trained an average ~100 mi/month) ran a
marathon at a pace that corresponded to ~66% VO2max. These subjects had personal best
62
marathon times between 2.45 to 3.20 hr and had similar physical characteristics to the subjects in
the current study. The question that remains, the one that should be carefully considered when
designing future studies, is whether the preloaded 90 min. run was long enough to significantly
deplete endogenous muscle glycogen stores.
Conclusions
Based on the results of the present study, it can be concluded that ingesting 150 ml/70 kg
body mass of either a 4.85% or 6% CRD during a 90 min. run at 65% VO2max followed by
30min. performance run at a self selected speed provides no ergogenic effect compared to
placebo. This lack of performance improvement could be the result of consuming a pre-exercise
breakfast 3 hr before each trial, thereby, resulting in similar CHO and fat oxidation rates, RER,
RPE, and glucose levels during the course of exercise. It could also be the result of not having
more stressful environmental conditions or an exercise duration of sufficient length to
significantly deplete endogenous glycogen stores and necessitate the consumption of a CRD. It
was also demonstrated that participant hydration status was similar for the different beverages
consumed as indicated by similar decrements in body weight, plasma volume, and sweat rates.
Furthermore, both CRD are equally tolerable when compared to the placebo regarding
gastrointestinal comfort. This provides further support to studies in the literature, which have
shown that CRDs of less than 10% CHO provide adequate fluid absorption. Additionally, the
present study did not find CRDs to be more beneficial than placebo in enhancing 2 hr of
treadmill running performance or hydration status in thermoneutral conditions.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research with novel sports beverages requires a more comprehensive standardized
approach.
Many studies in the literature have not combined all the parameters that are
incorporated into evaluating the efficacy of a CRD during exercise. Where perceptual measures
of RPE, gastrointestinal discomfort and thirst sensation are of practical importance when
consuming a CRD during exercise, more accurate quantitative measures need to be evaluated
regularly such as fluid absorption rates using a D2O tracer and the examination of exogenous
versus endogenous CHO metabolism rates. Further work is also warranted to evaluate the
effects CRD consumption has on exercise performance under more realistic conditions.
Although, many exhaustion protocols following an overnight fast have found significant
improvement in performance with CRD ingestion, this type of fasting before exercise does not
63
parallel typical athletic training or competitive events for any discipline. In order to truly assess
how CRD impacts exercise performance more field studies or simulated races need to be
conducted using actual precompetition nutritional strategies athletes currently use to promote
CHO availability.
64
APPENDIX A
Human Subjects Informed Consent
65
66
67
68
69
70
APPENDIX B
Health History Questionnaire
71
Health History-Short Form
Please indicate whether any of the following apply to you. If so, please place a check in the blank beside the
appropriate item. Thank you.
_____ Hypertension or high blood pressure
_____ A personal OR family history of heart problems or heart disease
_____ Diabetes
_____ Orthopedic problems
_____ Cigarette smoking or other regular use of tobacco products
_____ Asthma or other chronic respiratory problems
_____ Recent illness, fever or Gastrointestinal Disturbances (diarrhea, nausea, vomiting)
_____ Any other medical or health problems not listed above. (Provide details below.)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
List any prescription medications, vitamin/nutritional supplements or over-the-counter medicines you routinely take
or have taken in the last five days (including dietary/nutritional supplements, herbal remedies, cold or allergy
medications, antibiotics, migraine/headache medicines, aspirin, ibuprofen, birth control pills, etc.)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
I certify that my responses to the foregoing questionnaire are true, accurate, and complete.
Signature:________________________________________________________ Date:_______________
72
APPENDIX C
Dietary Record Form
73
74
APPENDIX D
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
(RAW DATA TABLES)
75
Table D.1
Physical Characteristics
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
AGE
(yr)
20
23
24
23
23
19
26
22
20
22
22.2
2.1
HEIGHT
(cm)
169.0
179.0
180.0
176.0
184.0
179.0
184.0
181.0
181.0
171.0
178.4
5.0
Participant Characteristics
WEIGHT
BODY FAT
(kg)
(%)
59.68
4.65
72.99
12.50
69.01
8.55
68.45
9.58
68.68
11.80
67.20
12.47
74.10
6.02
62.18
5.46
68.10
4.84
57.59
9.76
66.80
8.60
5.40
3.10
76
BSA
(m2)
1.68
1.91
1.86
1.83
1.87
1.83
1.95
1.77
1.85
1.65
1.82
0.09
VO2MAX
(ml/kg/min)
56.5
62.6
51.9
65.5
54.1
55.9
59.7
58.9
62.5
62.5
59.9
4.0
APPENDIX D
TRAINING MEASURES
(RAW DATA TABLES)
77
Table D.2
Volume of Run Training (miles) 2 Weeks Prior to each Trial
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Sunday
11.0
11.0
6.0
0.0
0.0
7.8
0.0
5.0
0.0
5.0
5.1
4.4
Monday
11.0
8.0
8.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
9.0
4.0
5.3
3.9
GATORADE (Week 1)
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
9.0
4.0
10.0
9.0
0.0
8.0
8.0
7.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
4.5
0.0
4.5
0.0
10.0
0.0
5.5
0.0
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
5.0
6.0
5.0
0.0
4.0
0.0
4.8
3.8
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.8
Friday
8.0
9.0
7.0
4.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.0
5.0
2.0
4.7
3.4
Saturday
10.0
4.0
10.0
5.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.3
4.3
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Sunday
14.0
11.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.8
0.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.3
5.0
Monday
13.0
8.0
9.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
6.0
4.0
5.3
4.2
GATORADE (Week 2)
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
12.0
10.0
13.0
9.0
0.0
8.0
8.0
7.0
8.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
4.5
0.0
4.5
0.0
10.0
0.0
5.5
15.0
5.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
0.0
7.0
4.0
0.0
4.0
0.0
4.6
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.1
4.5
Friday
11.0
9.0
7.0
4.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.0
6.0
2.0
5.1
3.9
Saturday
10.0
4.0
12.0
5.5
4.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
0.0
4.3
4.3
78
Table D.2 (continued)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Sunday
18.0
12.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
5.1
6.1
Monday
11.0
7.0
9.0
4.0
0.0
10.0
0.0
3.0
7.0
4.0
6.1
3.6
GOOKINAID (Week 1)
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
11.0
9.0
12.0
8.0
5.0
0.0
9.0
8.5
0.0
5.0
0.0
5.5
4.5
0.0
4.5
0.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
15.0
5.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.5
10.0
6.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
4.9
4.2
4.0
3.8
4.1
3.9
Friday
13.0
7.0
12.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.0
6.0
4.0
5.4
5.0
Saturday
10.0
5.0
6.0
5.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
9.0
0.0
3.9
4.1
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Sunday
16.0
7.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
8.0
3.0
4.3
5.4
Monday
10.0
6.0
9.0
8.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
6.0
4.0
5.2
3.7
GOOKINAID (Week 2)
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
12.0
12.0
12.0
6.0
6.0
0.0
9.0
8.5
0.0
3.0
0.0
5.0
4.5
0.0
4.5
8.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
15.0
5.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
0.0
7.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
5.5
3.5
3.5
3.7
4.4
4.1
Friday
11.0
5.0
12.0
0.0
0.0
4.0
0.0
7.0
5.0
4.0
5.3
4.2
Saturday
13.0
11.0
6.0
4.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
4.3
5.0
79
Table D.2 (continued)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Sunday
18.0
9.0
0.0
20.0
0.0
7.8
0.0
5.0
5.0
0.0
7.2
7.5
Monday
12.0
6.0
0.0
6.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
4.2
PLACEBO (Week 1)
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
9.5
12.0
13.5
0.0
8.0
0.0
15.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
20.0
4.5
0.0
4.5
0.0
10.0
0.0
5.5
0.0
2.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
9.0
6.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.6
4.9
4.6
5.6
4.5
7.3
Friday
13.5
10.0
6.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.0
5.0
0.0
5.2
4.7
Saturday
10.0
9.0
10.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.2
4.8
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Sunday
18.0
9.0
0.0
6.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
6.0
3.0
5.2
5.8
Monday
12.0
6.0
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
4.0
4.0
3.8
3.8
PLACEBO (Week 2)
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
9.5
12.0
13.5
0.0
8.0
0.0
6.0
9.0
9.0
0.0
5.0
7.0
0.0
0.0
4.5
5.0
0.0
0.0
5.5
15.0
5.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
3.1
5.9
4.8
3.4
5.0
4.6
Friday
13.5
10.0
0.0
4.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
7.0
0.0
4.0
4.3
5.0
Saturday
10.0
9.0
12.0
20.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.7
7.4
80
APPENDIX D
DIETARY MEASURES
(RAW DATA TABLES)
81
Table D.3
Caloric Intake (kcal) for 2 Days Prior to each Trial
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Day 1
Day 2
2055.07
2055.07
3227.00
2570.58
1566.83
2095.52
1447.69
3388.26
1774.86
1717.67
2003.00
2134.69
1233.82
2246.05
2677.28
2947.92
1158.78
2225.00
3283.31
2901.20
2043.00
2428.00
777.00
511.00
GOOKINAID
Day 1
Day 2
1614.14
1614.14
2101.85
2089.55
2022.20
3566.52
1345.43
2690.45
1918.20
1298.69
1762.14
1114.00
1233.82
2246.05
3107.74
3755.71
1831.00
2079.23
1260.23
2306.86
1819.00
2276.00
549.00
872.00
PLACEBO
Day 1
Day 2
1802.73
2146.69
3398.56
3859.96
2022.20
1286.39
1869.45
1940.96
1855.00
2031.00
2001.84
1875.96
1626.36
1626.36
2047.92
1911.13
1330.00
1835.00
2641.00
2305.24
2059.00
2081.00
577.00
684.00
Table D.4
Carbohydrate Intake (g) for 2 Days Prior to each Trial
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Day 1
Day 2
330.32
330.32
460.97
411.39
149.14
316.58
189.13
701.95
257.66
192.48
260.16
257.86
222.71
472.37
373.78
485.39
214.08
303.35
510.97
494.49
297.00
397.00
119.00
148.00
GOOKINAID
Day 1
Day 2
265.39
265.39
319.25
249.17
316.14
451.96
159.57
391.75
124.77
208.21
249.63
214.00
222.71
472.37
488.86
513.85
76.52
362.00
185.86
341.12
241.00
347.00
118.00
111.00
82
PLACEBO
Day 1
Day 2
240.71
422.53
418.09
517.12
316.14
173.00
227.26
275.32
264.00
324.00
252.88
274.51
339.77
339.77
485.39
305.75
198.45
272.96
496.51
348.47
324.00
325.00
108.00
93.00
Table D.5
Fat Intake (g) for 2 Days Prior to each Trial
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Day 1
Day 2
64.72
64.72
99.15
63.87
75.79
48.01
40.20
36.08
42.00
72.62
82.50
67.19
27.51
33.02
97.34
76.48
18.98
75.06
93.14
74.34
64.00
61.00
30.00
16.00
GOOKINAID
Day 1
Day 2
39.08
39.08
70.42
76.17
58.00
149.53
62.74
88.36
123.76
28.28
56.58
26.45
27.51
33.02
87.61
155.33
224.69
50.30
33.98
65.77
78.00
71.00
59.00
48.00
PLACEBO
Day 1
Day 2
75.07
38.69
112.14
155.34
58.00
37.38
77.15
55.24
58.00
37.35
76.63
50.65
14.52
14.52
76.48
53.53
36.40
57.18
48.85
59.40
63.00
56.00
27.00
37.00
Table D.6
Protein Intake (g) for 2 Days Prior to each Trial
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Day 1
Day 2
38.77
38.77
130.84
94.38
83.36
103.85
84.95
76.34
94.42
70.70
65.39
113.31
33.57
33.89
92.12
106.16
35.01
71.84
112.15
74.36
77.00
78.00
33.00
27.00
GOOKINAID
Day 1
Day 2
48.32
48.32
56.59
104.58
72.00
126.43
62.39
87.82
89.83
54.22
81.02
22.71
33.57
33.89
116.96
94.33
72.87
53.65
68.81
107.66
70.00
73.00
23.00
35.00
83
PLACEBO
Day 1
Day 2
44.28
35.35
120.42
117.73
72.00
62.28
74.71
80.70
75.00
105.00
74.84
75.72
53.63
53.63
106.16
65.86
59.00
54.74
77.79
97.33
76.00
75.00
23.00
26.00
APPENDIX D
METABOLIC MEASURES
(MEANS ± STD. DEV. DATA TABLES)
84
Table D.7
Gatorade Metabolic Data (N=10)*
Run
1
Gatorade
Fat oxidation
HR
Time
CHO oxidationa
(min.)
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
(g/min)
2.08±0.70
1.66±0.45
1.86±0..44
2.11±0.38
2.25±0.34
2.35±0.48
2.53±0.52
2.45±0.40
2.41±0.48
2.52±0.54
2.46±0.47
2.55±0.46
(mmol/min)
0.10±0.29
0.49±0.18
0.55±0.17
0.48±0.19
0.38±0.18
0.39±0.18
0.32±0.24
0.34±0.19
0.37±0.18
0.30±0.20
0.34±0.23
0.31±0.18
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.34±0.43
1.99±0.34
2.13±0.36
2.30±0.32
2.46±0..30
2.49±0.34
2.46±0.29
2.63±0.44
2.64±0.32
2.55±0.23
2.54±0.25
2.61±0.36
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.25±0.52
1.92±0.39
2.13±0.38
2.26±0.37
2.30±0.31
2.42±0.44
2.36±0..40
2.38±0.43
2.49±0.42
2.46±0.41
2.53±0.41
2.56±0.35
RER
VO2
VCO2
(bpm)
118±10
135±11
143±13
147±12
147±15
148±15
149±14
149±13
150±13
151±14
151±14
151±14
0.97±0.08
0.87±0.04
0.87±0.04
0.89±0.04
0.91±0.04
0.91±0.04
0.91±0.04
0.91±0.04
0.92±0.04
0.93±0.05
0.92±0.04
0.92±0.04
(L/min)
1.76±0.28
2.23±0.25
2.50±0.23
2.55±0.19
2.46±0.25
2.56±0.25
2.55±0.21
2.53±0.24
2.56±0.25
2.50±0.24
2.57±0.22
2.54±0.21
(L/min)
1.69±0.25
1.93±0.22
2.17±0.21
2.26±0.14
2.22±0.18
2.31±0.23
2.35±0.17
2.31±0.19
2.33±0.23
2.31±0.23
2.35±0.19
2.34±0.19
0.15±0.21
0.38±0.12
0.44±0.11
0.40±0.12
0.34±0.08
0.34±0.08
0.34±0.08
0.29±0.10
0.25±0.09
0.30±0.09
0.33±0.05
0.30±0.06
127±12
141±13
148±13
151±14
152±16
148±15
153±15
154±15
153±15
154±15
154±15
154±14
0.86±0.29
0.90±0.03
0.89±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.92±0.02
0.92±0.02
0.92±0.02
0.84±0.24
0.93±0.02
0.92±0.02
0.92±0.01
0.93±0.02
2.06±0.25
2.27±0.22
2.50±0.19
2.53±0.20
2.54±0.22
2.55±0.17
2.53±0.21
2.56±0.22
2.50±0.16
2.53±0.21
2.56±0.22
2.56±0.21
1.96±0.19
2.03±0.21
2.21±0.19
2.28±0.18
2.33±0.21
2.33±0.18
2.31±0.20
2.37±0.24
2.33±0.17
2.34±0.19
2.35±0.20
2.37±0.22
0.13±0.24
0.42±0.15
0.45±0.16
0.39±0.15
0.37±0.10
0.33±0.16
0.36±0.10
0.36±0.10
0.32±0.14
0.33±0.14
0.31±0.12
0.31±0.13
134±20
151±18
154±14
155±13
157±16
156±16
153±18
155±18
158±15
157±15
159±15
158±16
0.96±0.07
0.88±0.04
0.89±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.02
0.92±0.04
0.91±0.03
0.91±0.03
0.92±0.03
0.91±0.03
0.91±0.03
0.92±0.03
1.95±0.29
2.28±0.20
2.50±0.20
2.48±0.24
2.48±0.25
2.49±0.25
2.50±0.26
2.51±0.21
2.51±0.22
2.51±0.24
2.53±0.23
2.55±0.20
1.86±0.24
2.02±0.18
2.22±0.18
2.24±0.21
2.25±0.22
2.28±0.24
2.27±0.25
2.28±0.23
2.31±0.21
2.31±0.23
2.33±0.23
2.35±0.19
Run
2
Run
3
*Values are means ± standard deviations
a
Significant main effect for time (p = 0.048)
85
Table D.7 (Continued)
Run
4
Gatorade
Fat oxidation
HR
Time
CHO oxidationa
(min.)
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
(g/min)
2.20±0.42
1.98±0.23
1.94±0.30
2.20±0.28
2.34±0.27
2.34±0.31
2.40±0.33
2.47±0.35
2.31±0.43
2.39±0.40
2.52±0.36
2.48±0.27
(mmol/min)
0.17±0.21
0.39±0.09
0.50±0.09
0.42±0.12
0.38±0.12
0.38±0.08
0.37±0.10
0.34±0.11
0.41±0.12
0.35±0.13
0.32±0.16
0.35±0.08
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.14±0.67
1.93±0.44
1.98±0.32
2.18±0.34
2.29±0.42
2.38±0.32
2.33±0.36
2.45±0.37
2.39±0.47
2.49±0.39
2.24±0.55
2.42±0.35
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.07±0.38
1.86±0.30
1.85±0.28
2.08±0.26
1.85±0..30
2.24±0.32
2.31±0.33
2.34±0.31
2.38±0.37
2.29±0.31
2.41±0.38
2.50±0.38
RER
VO2
VCO2
(bpm)
131±13
145±14
152±14
156±15
156±17
156±17
156±17
157±16
157±15
157±16
157±15
158±15
0.95±0.06
0.89±0.02
0.88±0.02
0.89±0.02
0.90±0.02
0.90±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.02
(L/min)
2.00±0.27
2.27±0.22
2.46±0.17
2.50±0.22
2.53±0.23
2.53±0.22
2.56±0.19
2.54±0.22
2.55±0.21
2.50±0.22
2.53±0.21
2.56±0.23
(L/min)
1.89±0.21
2.03±0.19
2.16±0.17
2.24±0.19
2.29±0.19
2.29±0.21
2.32±0.19
2.33±0.21
2.30±0.22
2.28±0.21
2.33±0.18
2.34±0.21
0.23±0.20
0.42±0.15
0.49±0.11
0.45±0.11
0.39±0.13
0.37±0.10
0.38±0.08
0.34±0.08
0.37±0.16
0.31±0.11
0.43±0.18
0.34±0.11
137±16
149±15
154±15
156±15
156±17
157±18
157±17
159±16
159±15
159±15
159±15
160±14
0.93±0.06
0.89±0.03
0.88±0.02
0.89±0.02
0.90±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.82±0.25
0.83±0.24
0.91±0.03
0.90±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.90±0.04
2.07±0.31
2.29±0.15
2.47±0.17
2.54±0.19
2.52±0.21
2.53±0.18
2.51±0.25
2.52±0.17
2.54±0.16
2.49±0.21
2.55±0.18
2.51±0.23
1.92±0.33
2.03±0.17
2.17±0.16
2.27±0.18
2.27±0.22
2.30±0.17
2.27±0.24
2.31±0.19
2.31±0.18
2.30±0.21
2.28±0.21
2.29±0.22
0.29±0.14
0.47±0.10
0.53±0.10
0.51±0.10
0.57±0.36
0.44±0.08
0.43±0.07
0.41±0.09
0.40±0.10
0.43±0.14
0.40±0.09
0.36±0.10
139±17
149±16
155±16
157±16
157±17
158±18
158±18
160±16
160±16
160±16
160±16
161±15
0.91±0.04
0.88±0.02
0.87±0.02
0.88±0.02
0.89±0.02
0.89±0.02
0.90±0.02
0.90±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.02
0.91±0.02
2.14±0.24
2.35±0.20
2.46±0.18
2.60±0.21
2.54±0.22
2.56±0.18
2.60±0.20
2.59±0.19
2.59±0.19
2.59±0.22
2.61±0.20
2.60±0.22
1.96±0.22
2.06±0.18
2.13±0.16
2.29±0.18
2.19±0.36
2.29±0.18
2.34±0.20
2.33±0.19
2.34±0.20
2.32±0.18
2.36±0.21
2.37±0.22
Run
5
Run
6
*Values are means ± standard deviations
a
Significant main effect for time (p = 0.048)
86
Table D.8
Gookinaid Metabolic Data (N=10)*
Gookinaid
Run
1
Time
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
CHO oxidationa
2.27±0.52
1.74±0.49
1.91±0.45
2.18±0.32
2.36±0.34
2.38±0.42
2.43±0.25
2.50±0.42
2.45±0.37
2.65±0.35
2.67±0.23
2.61±0.35
Fat oxidation
0.00±0.19
0.45±0.20
0.52±0.23
0.42±0.13
0.36±0.17
0.35±0.18
0.34±0.14
0.31±0.15
0.34±0.17
0.29±0.16
0.27±0.13
0.25±0.15
HR
112±17
137±17
143±17
145±17
145±18
146±19
146±18
146±17
146±18
147±19
147±18
147±18
RER
1.00±0.06
0.87±0.04
0.87±0.04
0.89±0.02
0.90±0.03
0.91±0.04
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.04
0.92±0.04
0.92±0.03
0.80±0.26
0.93±0.03
VO2
1.69±0.13
2.21±0.16
2.49±0.22
2.48±0.19
2.50±0.20
2.48±0.22
2.51±0.24
2.50±0.17
2.53±0.21
2.57±0.18
2.56±0.20
2.46±0.18
VCO2
1.68±0.16
1.94±0.16
2.17±0.15
2.22±0.16
2.27±0.14
2.27±0.19
2.29±0.19
2.30±0.18
2.31±0.17
2.38±0.15
2.38±0.15
2.30±0.16
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.11±0.39
1.85±0.45
1.96±0.46
2.09±0.37
2.20±0.30
2.26±0.40
2.26±0.44
2.20±0.40
2.32±0.47
2.23±0.58
2.23±0.46
2.34±0.46
0.18±0.18
0.38±0.22
0.41±0.20
0.38±0.21
0.36±0.14
0.32±0.19
0.32±0.20
0.34±0.17
0.32±0.18
0.33±0.22
0.36±0.19
0.31±0.18
128±22
137±19
146±15
146±16
143±18
148±18
149±18
149±17
147±16
148±17
149±17
151±16
0.95±0.07
0.91±0.06
0.89±0.04
0.90±0.04
0.91±0.04
0.92±0.04
0.91±0.05
0.91±0.03
0.92±0.04
0.91±0.05
0.91±0.04
0.91±0.04
1.94±0.41
2.15±0.43
2.30±0.39
2.34±0.45
2.39±0.38
2.34±0.43
2.35±0.45
2.34±0.41
2.38±0.42
2.35±0.48
2.41±0.43
2.39±0.39
1.83±0.34
1.92±0.35
2.04±0.33
2.09±0.36
2.16±0.32
2.14±0.35
2.14±0.38
2.12±0.35
2.18±0.36
2.14±0.42
2.18±0.37
2.19±0.34
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.34±0.63
2.00±0.43
2.03±0.35
2.28±0.49
2.30±0.40
2.45±0.49
2.36±0.45
2.33±0.44
2.40±0.39
2.34±0.32
2.35±0.42
2.35±0.35
0.16±0.22
0.37±0.15
0.49±0.17
0.39±0.18
0.42±0.14
0.33±0.18
0.36±0.17
0.38±0.19
0.36±0.14
0.37±0.15
0.39±0.17
0.38±0.19
132±20
140±20
148±15
149±16
147±18
150±17
151±16
151±16
147±18
149±17
152±17
152±16
0.95±0.06
0.90±0.04
0.88±0.03
0.90±0.04
0.90±0.03
0.91±0.03
0.91±0.04
0.90±0.03
0.91±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.03
2.08±0.24
2.26±0.17
2.50±0.18
2.50±0.26
2.57±0.19
2.51±0.22
2.50±0.20
2.52±0.25
2.53±0.19
2.51±0.21
2.54±0.15
2.54±0.26
1.98±0.25
2.02±0.18
2.20±0.14
2.26±0.25
2.31±0.18
2.30±0.21
2.27±0.20
2.28±0.21
2.30±0.18
2.28±0.17
2.30±0.14
2.30±0.20
Run
2
Run
3
*Values are means ± standard deviations
a
Significant main effect for time (p = 0.048)
87
Table D.8 (Continued)
Gookinaid
Run
4
Time
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
CHO oxidationa
2.10±0.43
1.78±0.34
1.86±0.34
2.10±0.30
2.19±0.35
2.28±0.46
2.14±0.39
2.24±0.28
2.27±0.27
2.29±0.39
2.37±0.42
2.48±0.44
Fat oxidation
0.23±0.20
0.44±0.14
0.52±0.15
0.46±0.09
0.43±0.16
0.40±0.18
0.45±0.17
0.40±0.14
0.40±0.09
0.40±0.14
0.38±0.14
0.31±0.18
HR
131±20
140±19
148±14
149±15
147±18
151±17
150±16
152±15
149±16
149±16
153±15
153±15
RER
0.93±0.05
0.88±0.03
0.87±0.03
0.89±0.02
0.89±0.03
0.89±0.03
0.89±0.03
0.89±0.03
0.90±0.02
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.81±0.29
VO2
2.04±0.26
2.23±0.20
2.46±0.22
2.51±0.15
2.51±0.23
2.52±0.20
2.51±0.20
2.50±0.19
2.51±0.19
2.52±0.21
2.55±0.19
2.50±0.19
VCO2
1.89±0.21
1.96±0.17
2.13±0.19
2.22±0.15
2.24±0.19
2.27±0.19
2.24±0.17
2.25±0.15
2.26±0.18
2.28±0.19
2.31±0.19
2.30±0.17
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.01±0.45
1.76±0.49
1.81±0.37
1.96±0.42
2.12±0.42
2.12±0.34
2.12±0.44
2.18±0.47
2.16±0.37
2.17±0.37
2.28±0.37
2.15±0.37
0.19±0.17
0.49±0.22
0.55±0.18
0.53±0.19
0.47±0.18
0.46±0.16
0.44±0.17
0.45±0.20
0.46±0.15
0.44±0.18
0.41±0.14
0.45±0.15
130±17
141±19
149±15
149±15
147±18
151±17
152±16
153±15
150±15
150±15
152±15
153±15
0.94±0.06
0.86±0.04
0.86±0.04
0.87±0.04
0.88±0.04
0.88±0.04
0.88±0.04
0.88±0.04
0.88±0.04
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.89±0.03
1.89±0.25
2.31±0.24
2.47±0.20
2.55±0.26
2.53±0.22
2.53±0.19
2.49±0.25
2.54±0.22
2.55±0.21
2.53±0.24
2.55±0.21
2.51±0.22
1.77±0.23
2.01±0.20
2.13±0.15
2.23±0.21
2.24±0.19
2.24±0.15
2.21±0.23
2.26±0.19
2.27±0.18
2.25±0.19
2.29±0.19
2.24±0.19
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.17±0.64
1.96±0.41
1.86±0.33
2.00±0.35
2.17±0.32
2.23±0.29
2.15±0.33
2.25±0.34
2.13±0.27
2.22±0.40
2.25±0.29
2.26±0.35
0.29±0.27
0.42±0.18
0.55±0.15
0.51±0.16
0.46±0.15
0.43±0.12
0.47±0.14
0.43±0.13
0.47±0.14
0.45±0.17
0.45±0.11
0.44±0.18
131±24
143±21
149±17
151±16
149±19
153±18
154±17
155±16
153±16
154±16
155±15
155±15
0.92±0.07
0.89±0.04
0.86±0.03
0.87±0.03
0.88±0.03
0.89±0.02
0.88±0.03
0.89±0.02
0.89±0.02
0.89±0.02
0.89±0.02
0.90±0.02
2.21±0.30
2.31±0.21
2.50±0.21
2.54±0.24
2.57±0.24
2.55±0.23
2.57±0.24
2.55±0.24
2.56±0.25
2.58±0.25
2.59±0.22
2.59±0.23
2.03±0.26
2.05±0.17
2.17±0.18
2.22±0.19
2.28±0.20
2.28±0.19
2.28±0.20
2.29±0.21
2.27±0.20
2.30±0.21
2.31±0.20
2.31±0.18
Run
5
Run
6
*Values are means ± standard deviations
a
Significant main effect for time (p = 0.048)
88
Table D.9
Placebo Metabolic Data (N=10)*
Placebo
Run
1
Time
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
CHO oxidationa
2.22±0.46
1.96±0.32
2.13±0.36
2.32±0.33
2.55±0.33
2.58±0.35
2.64±0.40
2.62±0.31
2.56±0.36
2.69±0.37
2.54±0.34
2.59±0.25
Fat oxidation
0.03±0.25
0.35±0.09
0.42±0.14
0.33±0.13
0.27±0.14
0.26±0.12
0.25±0.12
0.24±0.10
0.28±0.14
0.24±0.14
0.29±0.11
0.27±0.14
HR
128±21
140±14
145±14
147±14
150±15
149±14
150±15
150±14
149±14
150±15
150±15
151±14
RER
0.99±0.08
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.91±0.03
0.93±0.03
0.93±0.02
0.93±0.03
0.93±0.02
0.93±0.03
0.93±0.03
0.93±0.03
0.93±0.03
VO2
1.73±0.37
2.19±0.20
2.45±0.16
2.42±0.21
2.46±0.20
2.46±0.26
2.49±0.21
2.45±0.18
2.48±0.23
2.51±0.20
2.49±0.16
2.49±0.19
VCO2
1.70±0.27
1.97±0.19
2.19±0.15
2.21±0.19
2.29±0.17
2.29±0.23
2.33±0.21
2.30±0.17
2.31±0.21
2.35±0.19
2.31±0.16
2.32±0.13
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.15±0.30
1.97±0.27
2.04±0.34
2.38±0.36
2.51±0.35
2.52±0..30
2.41±0.31
2.52±0.38
2.65±0.36
2.46±0.36
2.52±0.39
2.56±0.43
0.21±0.13
0.38±0.12
0.43±0.12
0.37±0.15
0.29±0.14
0.29±0.11
0.33±0.12
0.30±0.13
0.27±0.09
0.32±0.10
0.30±0.13
0.30±0.15
125±17
137±21
145±16
150±15
151±16
149±18
150±16
151±15
152±15
151±17
151±18
153±16
0.93±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.91±0.03
0.92±0.03
0.92±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.92±0.03
0.93±0.02
0.92±0.02
0.92±0.03
0.92±0.03
2.04±0.27
2.25±0.20
2.40±0.25
2.54±0.22
2.47±0.18
2.48±0.21
2.48±0.21
2.49±0.24
2.54±0.21
2.49±0.22
2.48±0.21
2.52±0.24
1.91±0.23
2.01±0.17
2.14±0.22
2.31±0.19
2.29±0.16
2.29±0.18
2.27±0.19
2.30±0.22
2.36±0.21
2.29±0.22
2.30±0.20
2.33±0.23
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.20±0.41
2.01±0.33
2.00±0.43
2.20±0.33
2.30±0.40
2.43±0.36
2.44±0.37
2.48±0.33
2.51±0.36
2.46±0.20
2.46±0.31
2.47±0.34
0.20±0.18
0.34±0.13
0.44±0.14
0.42±0.15
0.34±0.08
0.35±0.09
0.33±0.13
0.31±0.11
0.31±0.16
0.33±0.11
0.32±0.13
0.33±0.12
126±18
141±21
148±17
148±20
153±16
153±16
151±17
154±15
153±15
154±17
155±19
156±16
0.93±0.04
0.81±0.27
0.88±0.04
0.89±0.03
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.03
0.92±0.02
0.92±0.03
0.90±0.03
0.92±0.03
0.91±0.02
2.06±0.27
2.21±0.20
2.38±0.23
2.50±0.25
2.42±0.29
2.52±0.19
2.50±0.22
2.48±0.21
2.51±0.21
2.51±0.23
2.49±0.23
2.52±0.25
1.93±0.23
1.99±0.18
2.11±0.22
2.24±0.21
2.21±0.28
2.31±0.20
2.29±0.21
2.29±0.19
2.32±0.18
2.30±0.19
2.29±0.19
2.31±0.23
Run
2
Run
3
*Values are means ± standard deviations
a
Significant main effect for time (p = 0.048)
89
Table D.9 (Continued)
Placebo
Run
4
Time
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
CHO oxidationa
1.96±0.51
1.84±0.37
1.85±0.38
2.02±0.45
2.25±0.47
2.33±0.47
2.24±0.33
2.36±0.27
2.43±0.41
2.44±0.35
2.33±0.28
2.42±0.31
Fat oxidation
0.24±0.19
0.42±0.14
0.51±0.14
0.47±0.13
0.41±0.17
0.37±0.15
0.42±0.14
0.37±0.10
0.34±0.13
0.34±0.14
0.39±0.10
0.35±0.12
HR
133±16
143±21
150±17
153±16
154±17
155±17
155±16
155±16
156±17
156±19
155±19
156±17
RER
0.92±0.05
0.88±0.03
0.87±0.03
0.88±0.03
0.89±0.04
0.90±0.03
0.82±0.23
0.82±0.23
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.90±0.02
0.91±0.02
VO2
1.96±0.30
2.22±0.21
2.41±0.21
2.47±0.25
2.52±0.20
2.50±0.18
2.53±0.21
2.52±0.20
2.51±0.24
2.51±0.25
2.53±0.22
2.52±0.20
VCO2
1.80±0.27
1.97±0.19
2.10±0.20
2.18±0.25
2.26±0.20
2.27±0.20
2.27±0.18
2.29±0.17
2.30±0.24
2.30±0.21
2.28±0.20
2.30±0.18
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
1.87±0.46
1.89±0.17
1.89±0.25
2.14±0.38
2.26±0.28
2.32±0.35
2.30±0.34
2.3±0.48
2.40±0.33
2.34±0.36
2.40±0.35
2.40±0.31
0.24±0.11
0.37±0.13
0.51±0.14
0.44±0.13
0.41±0.11
0.36±0.09
0.38±0.10
0.39±0.12
0.35±0.15
0.37±0.10
0.34±0.10
0.35±0.09
129±18
140±25
143±29
155±15
155±16
155±17
148±26
150±26
155±19
157±17
154±19
153±22
0.93±0.03
0.89±0.02
0.87±0.02
0.89±0.03
0.90±0.02
0.91±0.02
0.90±0.02
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.02
0.91±0.03
0.91±0.02
0.91±0.01
1.89±0.39
2.17±0.25
2.45±0.25
2.50±0.21
2.52±0.24
2.46±0.22
2.50±0.21
2.52±0.21
2.51±0.23
2.51±0.25
2.50±0.24
2.51±0.25
1.74±0.36
1.94±0.19
2.13±0.20
2.23±0.20
2.27±0.20
2.24±0.22
2.26±0.20
2.28±0.20
2.29±0.19
2.27±0.24
2.28±0.23
2.29±0.23
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
2:30
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
2.00±0.33
1.82±0.26
1.87±0.28
2.04±0.34
2.15±0.38
2.19±0.32
2.24±0.23
2.26±0.28
2.33±0.27
2.22±0.27
2.20±0.33
2.34±0.30
0.24±0.14
0.46±0.14
0.50±0.12
0.47±0.14
0.45±0.10
0.43±0.13
0.42±0.08
0.39±0.15
0.35±0.13
0.40±0.11
0.41±0.16
0.39±0.16
135±21
148±17
155±15
156±16
159±17
157±17
155±17
156±17
156±18
156±17
156±17
158±16
0.92±0.03
0.88±0.02
0.87±0.02
0.88±0.03
0.89±0.02
0.88±0.03
0.90±0.02
0.90±0.03
0.91±0.03
0.90±0.02
0.90±0.03
0.90±0.03
1.99±0.24
2.29±0.25
2.42±0.21
2.49±0.23
2.52±0.22
2.51±0.22
2.52±0.19
2.49±0.22
2.47±0.23
2.48±0.20
2.48±0.21
2.54±0.21
1.84±0.21
2.00±0.19
2.11±0.17
2.20±0.19
2.24±0.22
2.25±0.19
2.26±0.17
2.24±0.17
2.24±0.19
2.23±0.17
2.23±0.16
2.30±0.16
Run
5
Run
6
*Values are means ± standard deviations
a
Significant main effect for time (p = 0.048)
90
APPENDIX D
METABOLIC MEASURES
(RAW DATA TABLES)
91
Table D.10
Carbohydrate Oxidation (g/min)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.44
2.08
1.65
3.10
2.99
2.92
1.11
2.07
1.65
1.81
2.08
0.70
1:00
1.38
1.88
1.15
2.44
1.76
2.36
1.34
1.60
1.43
1.29
1.66
0.45
1:30
1.40
1.80
1.24
2.48
2.46
2.32
1.59
1.86
1.92
1.51
1.86
0.44
2:00
1.70
2.05
1.81
2.23
2.53
2.88
1.65
2.24
2.14
1.90
2.11
0.38
2:30
1.83
2.36
2.06
2.45
2.68
2.57
1.68
2.55
2.26
2.02
2.25
0.34
3:00
1.87
2.44
2.06
2.95
2.83
3.12
1.74
2.08
2.37
2.05
2.35
0.48
3:30
1.92
2.49
3.30
2.90
2.89
3.18
1.82
2.20
2.44
2.14
2.53
0.52
4:00
1.85
2.47
2.42
2.73
2.74
3.17
1.95
2.58
2.46
2.12
2.45
0.40
4:30
1.73
2.54
1.99
3.14
2.74
3.03
1.84
2.50
2.43
2.20
2.41
0.48
5:00
1.82
2.42
2.64
3.60
2.83
3.04
1.91
2.43
2.43
2.12
2.52
0.54
5:30
2.08
2.52
2.36
3.10
2.88
3.16
1.79
2.55
2.21
1.99
2.46
0.47
6:00
2.07
2.55
2.33
3.44
2.84
3.05
1.96
2.57
2.21
2.48
2.55
0.46
0:30
1.59
2.20
3.00
2.40
2.63
2.53
2.04
2.82
1.92
2.28
2.34
0.43
1:00
1.42
1.98
1.98
2.25
1.90
2.41
2.23
2.46
1.64
1.69
1.99
0.34
1:30
1.37
2.29
2.40
2.45
1.99
2.66
2.22
2.01
1.90
1.98
2.13
0.36
2:00
1.83
2.41
2.29
2.23
2.47
3.06
2.18
2.24
2.23
2.06
2.30
0.32
2:30
1.79
2.46
2.79
2.75
2.56
2.63
2.59
2.13
2.51
2.43
2.46
0.30
3:00
1.77
2.53
2.47
2.74
2.74
2.94
2.60
2.34
2.61
2.12
2.49
0.34
3:30
1.78
2.32
2.69
2.77
2.54
2.71
2.68
2.34
2.42
2.36
2.46
0.29
4:00
1.59
2.68
2.66
3.06
2.78
2.95
3.13
2.30
2.58
2.53
2.63
0.44
4:30
2.11
2.86
2.72
3.16
2.58
2.93
2.84
2.28
2.47
2.43
2.64
0.32
5:00
2.17
2.53
2.78
2.72
2.88
2.29
2.60
2.32
2.66
2.60
2.55
0.23
5:30
2.09
2.60
2.36
2.78
2.72
2.71
2.87
2.36
2.62
2.26
2.54
0.25
6:00
2.04
2.73
2.32
3.29
2.95
2.40
2.80
2.41
2.67
2.50
2.61
0.36
0:30
1.75
1.75
1.91
2.33
2.97
3.11
1.85
2.76
1.88
2.18
2.25
0.52
1:00
1.49
1.29
1.48
1.90
2.09
2.44
2.19
2.33
2.05
1.92
1.92
0.39
1:30
1.72
1.71
1.71
2.32
2.04
2.92
2.46
2.30
2.05
2.08
2.13
0.38
2:00
1.94
1.94
1.79
2.85
2.32
2.87
2.10
2.34
2.31
2.12
2.26
0.37
2:30
1.67
2.19
2.00
2.57
2.62
2.54
2.48
2.04
2.54
2.36
2.30
0.31
3:00
1.77
1.98
2.28
2.77
2.78
3.10
2.87
2.31
2.31
2.04
2.42
0.44
3:30
1.43
2.21
2.40
2.70
2.75
2.80
2.50
2.37
2.25
2.14
2.36
0.40
4:00
1.75
2.04
2.53
3.32
2.64
2.54
2.45
2.15
2.25
2.08
2.38
0.43
4:30
1.91
2.00
2.24
3.15
2.60
3.17
2.62
2.28
2.47
2.43
2.49
0.42
5:00
1.98
2.00
1.96
3.08
2.72
2.95
2.75
2.50
2.40
2.26
2.46
0.41
5:30
1.92
2.13
2.22
3.22
2.70
3.04
2.72
2.64
2.42
2.32
2.53
0.41
6:00
1.97
2.07
2.51
2.94
2.70
3.06
2.74
2.40
2.74
2.41
2.56
0.35
92
Table D.10 (continued)
]
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.62
1.79
2.71
2.77
2.54
2.53
2.19
1.97
1.74
2.18
2.20
0.42
1:00
1.55
1.92
2.27
2.03
2.20
2.04
2.27
1.86
1.85
1.78
1.98
0.23
1:30
1.45
1.91
1.79
2.02
1.93
2.45
2.34
1.99
1.91
1.59
1.94
0.30
2:00
1.61
2.10
1.98
2.23
2.28
2.63
2.49
2.18
2.18
2.34
2.20
0.28
2:30
1.74
2.29
2.33
2.36
2.44
2.74
2.67
2.28
2.32
2.24
2.34
0.27
3:00
1.74
2.21
2.18
2.57
2.47
2.72
2.78
2.23
2.20
2.28
2.34
0.31
3:30
1.78
2.08
2.19
2.91
2.73
2.63
2.42
2.30
2.43
2.52
2.40
0.33
4:00
1.87
2.19
2.78
3.10
2.40
2.46
2.76
2.19
2.43
2.56
2.47
0.35
4:30
1.86
2.20
1.86
2.99
2.37
2.76
2.76
2.21
2.41
1.69
2.31
0.43
5:00
1.66
2.24
1.88
2.77
2.40
2.84
2.80
2.19
2.49
2.60
2.39
0.40
5:30
1.83
2.19
3.13
2.82
2.46
2.67
2.58
2.26
2.47
2.75
2.52
0.36
6:00
1.89
2.51
2.52
2.56
2.66
2.64
2.84
2.17
2.48
2.48
2.48
0.27
0:30
2.03
2.09
1.50
3.30
2.62
2.88
2.18
2.14
1.62
1.03
2.14
0.67
1:00
1.74
1.64
1.65
2.60
2.15
2.26
2.29
2.21
1.62
1.12
1.93
0.44
1:30
2.09
1.63
1.77
2.48
2.04
1.97
2.29
2.21
1.86
1.41
1.98
0.32
2:00
2.06
2.04
1.84
2.43
2.19
2.67
2.51
2.51
1.92
1.65
2.18
0.34
2:30
2.02
1.93
1.73
3.05
2.38
2.78
2.53
2.40
2.24
1.88
2.29
0.42
3:00
1.96
2.07
2.07
2.77
2.58
2.83
2.59
2.57
2.23
2.12
2.38
0.32
3:30
1.82
2.27
2.26
2.82
2.45
2.61
2.64
2.58
2.07
1.76
2.33
0.36
4:00
1.81
2.38
2.46
2.90
2.67
2.82
2.83
2.43
2.32
1.92
2.45
0.37
4:30
1.76
2.24
1.75
3.03
2.56
2.80
2.81
2.67
1.87
2.37
2.39
0.47
5:00
1.86
2.30
3.06
2.99
2.41
2.67
2.41
2.58
2.67
1.92
2.49
0.39
5:30
1.79
2.18
1.93
3.19
2.23
2.67
2.52
2.67
1.23
1.97
2.24
0.55
6:00
1.78
2.07
2.71
2.87
2.47
2.31
2.85
2.52
2.47
2.16
2.42
0.35
0:30
1:00
1:30
2:00
3:00
3:30
4:00
4:30
5:00
5:30
6:00
1.41
1.78
1.67
2.53
2.47
2.36
2.08
2.46
1.90
2.06
2.07
0.38
1.32
1.56
1.87
2.35
1.86
1.95
2.18
1.92
1.94
1.64
1.86
0.30
1.40
1.65
1.71
1.90
1.86
2.09
2.48
1.85
1.81
1.78
1.85
0.28
1.54
1.92
1.99
2.29
2.09
2.43
2.39
2.12
2.02
2.05
2.08
0.26
2:30
1.27
1.96
1.95
2.63
2.33
2.45
2.28
2.25
2.27
1.69
1.85
0.30
1.60
2.07
2.03
2.64
2.29
2.52
2.66
2.09
2.18
2.28
2.24
0.32
1.68
2.16
2.16
3.01
2.31
2.42
2.47
2.30
2.44
2.18
2.31
0.33
1.71
2.10
2.28
2.90
2.45
2.49
2.32
2.25
2.55
2.39
2.34
0.31
1.79
1.97
2.34
2.80
2.55
2.84
2.61
2.30
2.61
1.98
2.38
0.37
1.62
2.07
2.55
2.00
2.28
2.42
2.66
2.34
2.54
2.39
2.29
0.31
1.70
1.98
2.51
3.03
2.48
2.73
2.52
2.36
2.58
2.18
2.41
0.38
1.95
2.22
2.45
3.33
2.28
2.87
2.59
2.35
2.56
2.42
2.50
0.38
93
Table D.10 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.74
1.98
2.03
3.22
2.71
2.52
1.50
2.35
1.98
2.69
2.27
0.52
1:00
1.24
1.37
1.22
2.54
1.85
2.14
1.37
1.58
1.64
2.49
1.74
0.49
1:30
1.66
1.65
1.26
2.21
1.76
2.90
1.65
1.92
1.85
2.24
1.91
0.45
2:00
1.93
1.86
1.68
2.62
2.10
2.56
2.16
2.08
2.21
2.58
2.18
0.32
2:30
2.09
1.97
2.08
2.63
2.35
3.11
2.36
2.30
2.09
2.59
2.36
0.34
3:00
1.69
2.13
2.17
2.62
2.58
3.13
2.16
2.32
2.11
2.84
2.38
0.42
3:30
2.32
2.23
2.08
2.80
2.43
2.88
2.37
2.27
2.33
2.56
2.43
0.25
4:00
2.31
1.99
2.36
3.26
2.40
3.18
2.17
2.30
2.34
2.65
2.50
0.42
4:30
2.18
2.25
2.17
3.05
2.30
3.11
2.10
2.63
2.24
2.45
2.45
0.37
5:00
2.38
2.28
2.43
2.99
2.50
3.42
2.61
2.60
2.42
2.90
2.65
0.35
5:30
2.50
2.31
2.57
2.98
2.55
3.04
2.66
2.60
2.61
2.88
2.67
0.23
6:00
2.30
2.17
2.48
3.30
2.37
3.04
2.43
2.62
2.60
2.81
2.61
0.35
0:30
1.84
2.23
1.75
1.69
2.47
2.73
1.94
2.45
1.58
2.38
2.11
0.39
1:00
1.96
1.97
1.35
1.46
2.03
2.64
1.99
2.14
1.85
1.08
1.85
0.45
1:30
1.87
1.64
1.46
1.31
1.76
2.75
2.10
2.14
2.02
2.57
1.96
0.46
2:00
2.18
2.14
1.72
1.47
1.75
2.82
2.18
2.30
2.21
2.12
2.09
0.37
2:30
1.85
2.26
2.05
1.66
2.25
2.72
2.14
2.44
2.33
2.32
2.20
0.30
3:00
1.81
2.04
2.05
1.71
2.24
2.95
2.16
2.74
2.50
2.43
2.26
0.40
3:30
1.82
2.04
2.04
1.54
2.42
2.97
2.15
2.64
2.25
2.73
2.26
0.44
4:00
2.03
2.01
2.06
1.46
2.25
2.66
2.08
2.94
2.16
2.33
2.20
0.40
4:30
1.76
1.91
2.22
1.62
2.27
2.95
2.28
2.77
2.48
2.92
2.32
0.47
5:00
1.71
1.64
2.09
1.26
2.48
2.85
2.03
3.01
2.54
2.72
2.23
0.58
5:30
1.77
2.16
2.14
1.43
1.96
2.92
2.26
2.85
2.43
2.42
2.23
0.46
6:00
1.80
1.91
2.30
1.60
2.29
2.80
2.36
2.91
2.64
2.82
2.34
0.46
0:30
1.48
1.85
2.41
3.56
2.74
2.75
1.83
2.82
1.86
2.10
2.34
0.63
1:00
1.33
1.82
1.66
2.86
2.05
2.31
1.97
2.34
1.68
2.00
2.00
0.43
1:30
1.68
1.64
1.70
2.45
1.81
2.58
1.91
2.36
1.84
2.29
2.03
0.35
2:00
1.60
1.93
2.32
3.02
1.73
3.04
2.15
2.60
2.24
2.21
2.28
0.49
2:30
1.64
2.14
2.21
2.88
1.86
2.85
2.08
2.64
2.37
2.28
2.30
0.40
3:00
1.70
1.82
2.39
3.22
2.35
2.81
2.10
2.68
2.43
2.97
2.45
0.49
3:30
1.75
2.10
2.13
3.29
2.27
2.72
1.85
2.60
2.35
2.58
2.36
0.45
4:00
1.76
2.09
2.34
2.99
1.93
2.68
1.74
2.65
2.37
2.73
2.33
0.44
4:30
1.74
2.10
2.37
2.94
2.13
2.79
2.01
2.77
2.61
2.53
2.40
0.39
5:00
1.84
2.02
2.41
2.66
2.15
2.79
1.96
2.52
2.57
2.47
2.34
0.32
5:30
1.63
1.80
2.38
2.66
2.13
2.94
2.25
2.57
2.33
2.83
2.35
0.42
6:00
2.05
1.95
2.34
2.71
2.24
2.62
1.74
2.74
2.39
2.70
2.35
0.35
94
Table D.10 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.73
2.02
1.63
2.82
2.39
2.30
1.69
2.63
1.67
2.09
2.10
0.43
1:00
1.14
1.89
1.54
1.90
1.53
2.08
1.85
2.38
1.60
1.88
1.78
0.34
1:30
1.43
1.82
1.53
2.52
1.67
2.12
1.72
2.25
1.75
1.79
1.86
0.34
2:00
1.77
1.98
1.87
2.65
2.02
2.45
1.92
2.42
2.02
1.90
2.10
0.30
2:30
1.81
1.80
1.98
2.79
2.06
2.69
1.98
2.43
2.12
2.29
2.19
0.35
3:00
1.64
1.94
2.32
2.77
1.91
2.85
1.69
2.69
2.29
2.72
2.28
0.46
3:30
1.69
1.87
2.18
2.74
1.81
2.68
1.80
2.55
2.10
2.00
2.14
0.39
4:00
1.95
2.22
2.11
2.61
2.20
2.39
1.69
2.54
2.28
2.44
2.24
0.28
4:30
1.78
2.14
2.30
2.55
2.17
2.59
2.14
2.59
2.41
2.05
2.27
0.27
5:00
1.68
2.07
1.92
2.88
2.26
2.72
1.93
2.62
2.43
2.39
2.29
0.39
5:30
1.95
2.33
2.21
3.36
1.91
2.42
2.08
2.70
2.46
2.32
2.37
0.42
6:00
1.99
2.08
2.40
3.26
2.26
3.10
2.02
2.59
2.39
2.73
2.48
0.44
0:30
1.48
1.67
1.90
2.68
2.26
2.51
1.35
2.41
1.73
2.13
2.01
0.45
1:00
1.29
1.37
1.46
2.25
1.93
2.71
1.27
1.61
1.54
2.21
1.76
0.49
1:30
1.71
1.51
1.48
2.06
1.66
2.65
1.36
1.97
1.73
1.93
1.81
0.37
2:00
1.67
1.59
1.39
2.40
1.90
2.72
1.57
2.24
2.19
2.08
1.96
0.42
2:30
1.67
1.77
1.85
2.64
2.25
2.79
1.49
2.37
2.13
2.18
2.12
0.42
3:00
1.90
1.76
1.97
2.60
2.17
2.53
1.55
2.27
2.10
2.37
2.12
0.34
3:30
1.44
1.86
2.15
2.38
2.06
2.92
1.50
2.41
2.38
2.13
2.12
0.44
4:00
1.58
1.77
1.87
2.41
2.13
2.78
1.52
2.32
2.58
2.78
2.18
0.47
4:30
1.75
2.10
2.12
2.53
2.09
2.75
1.44
2.33
2.19
2.28
2.16
0.37
5:00
1.80
2.03
1.98
2.49
2.01
2.72
1.50
2.51
2.37
2.29
2.17
0.37
5:30
1.79
2.08
2.19
2.49
2.11
2.92
1.79
2.55
2.67
2.23
2.28
0.37
6:00
1.74
1.96
2.01
2.34
2.00
2.70
1.55
2.39
2.61
2.17
2.15
0.37
0:30
1.43
1.71
2.35
2.84
2.39
3.32
1.38
2.64
1.78
1.89
2.17
0.64
1:00
1.44
1.57
1.76
2.28
2.12
2.67
1.48
2.41
1.96
1.88
1.96
0.41
1:30
1.45
1.80
1.61
2.25
2.04
2.31
1.54
2.25
1.50
1.90
1.86
0.33
2:00
1.50
1.71
2.06
2.23
2.15
2.33
1.41
2.41
2.21
2.01
2.00
0.35
2:30
1.60
2.22
1.79
2.53
2.11
2.56
1.92
2.43
2.26
2.33
2.17
0.32
3:00
1.72
2.14
2.01
2.62
1.94
2.45
2.15
2.60
2.29
2.35
2.23
0.29
3:30
1.68
2.00
1.73
2.53
2.18
2.55
1.97
2.59
2.14
2.12
2.15
0.33
4:00
1.75
2.07
2.18
2.67
2.02
2.79
1.89
2.55
2.33
2.28
2.25
0.34
4:30
1.75
1.81
2.10
2.50
2.14
2.39
1.82
2.36
2.37
2.12
2.13
0.27
5:00
1.72
1.81
2.01
2.64
2.14
2.89
1.78
2.51
2.27
2.41
2.22
0.40
5:30
1.69
2.42
2.08
2.48
2.06
2.58
2.15
2.62
2.30
2.07
2.25
0.29
6:00
1.85
1.69
1.98
2.67
2.19
2.60
2.11
2.66
2.33
2.47
2.26
0.35
95
Table D.10 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.42
2.37
2.78
2.90
2.61
2.15
2.00
2.17
1.70
2.09
2.22
0.46
1:00
1.43
2.05
2.30
2.31
1.99
1.98
1.88
2.12
2.18
1.39
1.96
0.32
1:30
1.49
2.02
2.41
2.34
1.73
2.38
1.98
2.51
2.59
1.89
2.13
0.36
2:00
1.76
2.47
2.48
2.75
2.02
2.70
2.04
2.48
2.48
2.04
2.32
0.33
2:30
2.12
2.49
2.22
3.23
2.55
2.79
2.17
2.73
2.59
2.58
2.55
0.33
3:00
2.04
2.59
2.15
3.24
2.54
2.93
2.39
2.68
2.57
2.72
2.58
0.35
3:30
1.98
2.84
2.22
3.40
2.75
2.91
2.56
2.78
2.37
2.64
2.64
0.40
4:00
2.29
2.62
2.19
3.21
2.64
2.93
2.30
2.74
2.61
2.65
2.62
0.31
4:30
2.22
2.47
1.97
3.18
2.54
2.81
2.38
2.86
2.35
2.83
2.56
0.36
5:00
2.52
2.56
2.25
3.54
2.52
2.70
2.59
3.12
2.49
2.56
2.69
0.37
5:30
2.44
2.46
1.90
3.06
2.67
3.05
2.37
2.57
2.51
2.39
2.54
0.34
6:00
2.34
2.56
2.48
2.84
2.37
2.84
2.19
2.90
2.54
2.81
2.59
0.25
0:30
1.69
2.19
1.86
2.28
2.35
2.17
2.39
2.61
1.74
2.20
2.15
0.30
1:00
1.46
1.98
1.88
2.21
1.77
2.18
2.06
2.38
1.75
2.01
1.97
0.27
1:30
1.58
1.99
1.82
1.99
2.21
2.55
1.88
2.61
2.12
1.70
2.04
0.34
2:00
1.67
2.29
2.27
2.35
2.12
2.83
2.45
2.93
2.37
2.56
2.38
0.36
2:30
1.80
2.37
2.25
2.46
2.38
2.91
2.90
2.90
2.47
2.69
2.51
0.35
3:00
2.02
2.21
2.40
2.94
2.27
2.71
2.56
2.93
2.54
2.62
2.52
0.30
3:30
2.12
2.35
2.02
2.92
2.27
2.66
2.15
2.87
2.29
2.42
2.41
0.31
4:00
2.22
2.24
2.16
3.39
2.36
2.82
2.56
2.77
2.38
2.33
2.52
0.38
4:30
2.13
2.52
2.26
3.32
2.52
3.00
2.95
2.74
2.50
2.61
2.65
0.36
5:00
2.19
2.31
2.21
3.39
2.35
2.39
2.58
2.58
2.41
2.21
2.46
0.36
5:30
2.16
2.17
2.37
3.36
2.36
3.04
2.31
2.63
2.41
2.38
2.52
0.39
6:00
1.84
2.38
2.33
3.44
2.51
2.77
2.17
2.82
2.78
2.50
2.56
0.43
0:30
1.48
2.06
1.69
2.63
2.50
2.25
2.02
2.14
2.75
2.51
2.20
0.41
1:00
1.51
1.68
1.82
2.32
1.65
2.38
2.01
2.07
2.45
2.18
2.01
0.33
1:30
1.39
1.68
1.48
2.57
1.65
2.34
2.12
2.32
2.46
1.95
2.00
0.43
2:00
1.73
2.09
1.80
2.75
1.91
2.39
2.15
2.57
2.40
2.18
2.20
0.33
2:30
1.88
2.45
1.88
3.00
2.22
2.69
2.42
2.33
2.45
1.68
2.30
0.40
3:00
1.91
2.40
1.94
3.11
2.35
2.79
2.48
2.59
2.51
2.22
2.43
0.36
3:30
1.99
2.30
2.08
3.19
2.32
2.91
2.34
2.54
2.20
2.57
2.44
0.37
4:00
2.12
2.56
2.14
3.24
2.14
2.57
2.40
2.57
2.40
2.62
2.48
0.33
4:30
2.11
2.30
2.03
2.88
2.00
2.85
2.69
2.90
2.61
2.69
2.51
0.36
5:00
2.25
2.31
2.08
2.76
2.49
2.62
2.42
2.63
2.55
2.43
2.46
0.20
5:30
2.17
2.23
2.19
2.82
2.26
3.01
2.14
2.71
2.63
2.42
2.46
0.31
6:00
2.17
2.14
2.08
3.08
2.47
2.61
2.59
2.93
2.39
2.27
2.47
0.34
96
Table D.10 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.18
2.02
1.47
3.02
2.10
1.76
1.83
2.38
1.67
2.13
1.96
0.51
1:00
1.41
1.57
1.60
2.50
1.49
2.13
1.93
2.33
1.76
1.73
1.84
0.37
1:30
1.44
1.64
1.58
2.48
1.43
2.14
1.85
2.39
1.81
1.68
1.85
0.38
2:00
1.59
1.71
1.59
2.73
1.81
2.50
2.18
2.65
1.67
1.82
2.02
0.45
2:30
1.85
2.03
1.80
3.07
1.91
2.94
2.09
2.45
1.83
2.50
2.25
0.47
3:00
1.80
1.98
1.65
3.21
2.20
2.78
2.16
2.44
2.52
2.59
2.33
0.47
3:30
2.07
2.16
2.09
2.94
1.83
2.61
1.97
2.26
2.40
2.03
2.24
0.33
4:00
2.01
2.24
1.99
2.80
2.10
2.47
2.34
2.53
2.49
2.60
2.36
0.27
4:30
2.07
2.14
1.99
3.19
1.93
2.62
2.74
2.45
2.37
2.85
2.43
0.41
5:00
1.94
2.16
1.94
2.92
2.26
2.64
2.76
2.47
2.49
2.78
2.44
0.35
5:30
2.03
2.14
2.02
2.88
2.12
2.62
2.49
2.22
2.48
2.28
2.33
0.28
6:00
2.22
2.16
1.89
2.96
2.28
2.51
2.41
2.85
2.49
2.41
2.42
0.31
0:30
1.82
2.03
1.91
2.34
2.60
1.70
1.78
1.88
1.86
0.82
1.87
0.46
1:00
1.63
1.88
1.76
2.07
1.97
1.85
1.82
2.22
1.77
1.96
1.89
0.17
1:30
1.90
1.91
1.60
2.24
1.55
1.85
2.01
2.31
1.67
1.83
1.89
0.25
2:00
2.06
1.87
1.72
2.88
1.95
2.45
2.06
2.61
1.84
1.97
2.14
0.38
2:30
2.20
2.27
1.88
2.95
2.16
2.48
2.14
2.25
2.15
2.17
2.26
0.28
3:00
2.02
2.42
1.97
3.15
2.28
2.59
2.22
2.27
2.06
2.22
2.32
0.35
3:30
2.07
2.30
1.82
3.08
2.10
2.49
2.20
2.46
2.37
2.15
2.30
0.34
4:00
2.08
2.27
1.93
3.16
2.26
2.48
2.17
2.32
1.96
2.42
2.30
0.48
4:30
1.92
2.28
2.06
2.86
2.26
2.46
2.24
2.37
2.49
3.00
2.40
0.33
5:00
2.01
2.17
1.69
3.03
2.40
2.50
2.41
2.57
2.40
2.25
2.34
0.36
5:30
1.82
2.18
2.00
2.78
2.41
2.69
2.84
2.65
2.53
2.11
2.40
0.35
6:00
1.94
2.22
2.20
3.11
2.38
2.56
2.24
2.45
2.46
2.43
2.40
0.31
0:30
1.37
2.14
1.78
2.50
2.31
2.02
1.77
2.09
1.75
2.26
2.00
0.33
1:00
1.22
1.74
1.82
2.16
1.75
1.91
1.63
1.92
2.01
2.00
1.82
0.26
1:30
1.47
1.72
1.41
2.16
1.81
2.20
1.85
2.03
2.11
1.95
1.87
0.28
2:00
1.63
1.98
1.48
2.31
1.82
2.61
2.32
2.18
2.09
2.03
2.04
0.34
2:30
1.46
2.13
1.70
2.82
2.04
2.32
2.34
2.49
2.04
2.17
2.15
0.38
3:00
1.66
2.08
1.92
2.76
1.95
2.51
2.17
2.45
2.18
2.18
2.19
0.32
3:30
1.90
2.18
1.96
2.56
2.14
2.43
2.24
2.57
2.30
2.08
2.24
0.23
4:00
1.87
2.15
1.88
2.38
2.10
2.53
2.56
2.46
2.07
2.61
2.26
0.28
4:30
1.86
2.29
2.20
2.72
2.19
2.49
2.49
2.71
2.34
2.11
2.33
0.27
5:00
1.79
2.17
2.08
2.19
2.12
2.71
2.35
2.60
2.05
2.20
2.22
0.27
5:30
1.97
1.88
2.09
2.08
1.95
2.44
2.39
2.97
2.09
2.15
2.20
0.33
6:00
1.96
2.19
2.15
2.60
1.96
2.74
2.25
2.71
2.21
2.58
2.34
0.30
97
Table D.11
Fat Oxidation (mmol/min)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.15
0.08
0.12
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.78
0.00
0.25
0.20
0.10
0.29
1:00
0.49
0.49
0.51
0.30
0.41
0.20
0.86
0.44
0.64
0.53
0.49
0.18
1:30
0.59
0.56
0.72
0.36
0.28
0.45
0.84
0.44
0.68
0.55
0.55
0.17
2:00
0.48
0.58
0.57
0.52
0.30
0.11
0.82
0.38
0.49
0.53
0.48
0.19
2:30
0.42
0.42
0.37
0.44
0.23
0.23
0.77
0.08
0.49
0.39
0.38
0.18
3:00
0.36
0.40
0.42
0.29
0.20
0.18
0.84
0.40
0.42
0.42
0.39
0.18
3:30
0.39
0.37
0.00
0.26
0.17
0.04
0.80
0.38
0.44
0.42
0.32
0.24
4:00
0.41
0.42
0.28
0.32
0.21
0.03
0.77
0.21
0.40
0.34
0.34
0.19
4:30
0.39
0.32
0.54
0.28
0.23
0.12
0.77
0.25
0.42
0.37
0.37
0.18
5:00
0.41
0.36
0.16
0.05
0.19
0.13
0.75
0.23
0.34
0.33
0.30
0.20
5:30
0.37
0.39
0.32
0.25
0.03
0.05
0.84
0.23
0.43
0.48
0.34
0.23
6:00
0.34
0.33
0.33
0.09
0.19
0.14
0.74
0.20
0.41
0.32
0.31
0.18
0:30
0.25
0.33
0.00
0.12
0.05
0.02
0.48
0.00
0.42
0.03
0.15
0.21
1:00
0.45
0.45
0.29
0.39
0.35
0.35
0.45
0.14
0.57
0.39
0.38
0.12
1:30
0.57
0.47
0.32
0.48
0.52
0.23
0.45
0.40
0.62
0.40
0.44
0.11
2:00
0.43
0.45
0.33
0.53
0.28
0.15
0.54
0.37
0.52
0.35
0.40
0.12
2:30
0.42
0.35
0.20
0.45
0.31
0.29
0.40
0.36
0.40
0.27
0.34
0.08
3:00
0.45
0.38
0.30
0.36
0.21
0.18
0.35
0.40
0.35
0.38
0.34
0.08
3:30
0.43
0.43
0.21
0.38
0.30
0.22
0.39
0.26
0.42
0.32
0.34
0.08
4:00
0.51
0.36
0.21
0.28
0.18
0.21
0.23
0.36
0.36
0.20
0.29
0.10
4:30
0.35
0.25
0.15
0.16
0.30
0.11
0.25
0.33
0.40
0.25
0.25
0.09
5:00
0.28
0.36
0.18
0.40
0.20
0.36
0.36
0.29
0.40
0.20
0.30
0.09
5:30
0.31
0.36
0.30
0.39
0.20
0.30
0.33
0.36
0.35
0.33
0.33
0.05
6:00
0.32
0.26
0.30
0.22
0.19
0.41
0.32
0.32
0.33
0.30
0.30
0.06
0:30
0.12
0.17
0.19
0.24
0.00
0.00
0.56
0.00
0.36
0.07
0.13
0.24
1:00
0.44
0.67
0.52
0.51
0.32
0.19
0.45
0.23
0.51
0.30
0.42
0.15
1:30
0.45
0.75
0.59
0.54
0.44
0.18
0.37
0.35
0.43
0.35
0.45
0.16
2:00
0.39
0.67
0.44
0.37
0.39
0.10
0.50
0.25
0.44
0.35
0.39
0.15
2:30
0.40
0.52
0.47
0.40
0.29
0.29
0.47
0.38
0.31
0.18
0.37
0.10
3:00
0.45
0.64
0.45
0.37
0.24
0.07
0.28
0.20
0.31
0.30
0.33
0.16
3:30
0.46
0.50
0.33
0.43
0.27
0.18
0.39
0.32
0.44
0.28
0.36
0.10
4:00
0.44
0.57
0.28
0.22
0.31
0.28
0.36
0.33
0.41
0.38
0.36
0.10
4:30
0.40
0.57
0.30
0.22
0.31
0.07
0.44
0.37
0.29
0.22
0.32
0.14
5:00
0.32
0.60
0.52
0.28
0.28
0.12
0.35
0.30
0.31
0.23
0.33
0.14
5:30
0.39
0.53
0.43
0.23
0.32
0.14
0.35
0.16
0.36
0.22
0.31
0.12
6:00
0.34
0.60
0.31
0.30
0.28
0.06
0.32
0.32
0.30
0.30
0.31
0.13
98
Table D.11 (continued)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.23
0.54
0.06
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.38
0.19
0.38
0.12
0.17
0.21
1:00
0.37
0.56
0.22
0.47
0.36
0.34
0.40
0.37
0.43
0.34
0.39
0.09
1:30
0.56
0.59
0.54
0.64
0.47
0.32
0.42
0.42
0.48
0.54
0.50
0.09
2:00
0.48
0.55
0.54
0.54
0.50
0.29
0.38
0.36
0.36
0.20
0.42
0.12
2:30
0.45
0.53
0.40
0.58
0.32
0.20
0.33
0.37
0.32
0.30
0.38
0.12
3:00
0.42
0.52
0.42
0.42
0.39
0.35
0.28
0.36
0.42
0.25
0.38
0.08
3:30
0.42
0.55
0.47
0.34
0.30
0.23
0.43
0.35
0.41
0.23
0.37
0.10
4:00
0.37
0.54
0.21
0.27
0.40
0.37
0.28
0.37
0.40
0.16
0.34
0.11
4:30
0.36
0.53
0.60
0.28
0.42
0.24
0.33
0.35
0.38
0.55
0.41
0.12
5:00
0.42
0.47
0.55
0.38
0.37
0.16
0.26
0.34
0.39
0.16
0.35
0.13
5:30
0.41
0.55
0.06
0.30
0.42
0.28
0.40
0.41
0.29
0.06
0.32
0.16
6:00
0.35
0.37
0.36
0.52
0.34
0.35
0.26
0.43
0.28
0.23
0.35
0.08
0:30
0.13
0.24
0.46
0.00
0.11
0.00
0.39
0.26
0.50
0.31
0.23
0.20
1:00
0.37
0.55
0.59
0.22
0.33
0.25
0.35
0.33
0.60
0.59
0.42
0.15
1:30
0.35
0.68
0.57
0.45
0.47
0.44
0.45
0.34
0.57
0.57
0.49
0.11
2:00
0.37
0.52
0.52
0.52
0.48
0.30
0.39
0.28
0.59
0.50
0.45
0.11
2:30
0.34
0.58
0.64
0.29
0.42
0.24
0.37
0.28
0.40
0.39
0.39
0.13
3:00
0.35
0.59
0.47
0.33
0.35
0.23
0.32
0.27
0.40
0.38
0.37
0.10
3:30
0.44
0.49
0.43
0.38
0.38
0.30
0.33
0.22
0.47
0.34
0.38
0.08
4:00
0.43
0.40
0.33
0.34
0.25
0.20
0.28
0.31
0.37
0.47
0.34
0.08
4:30
0.48
0.49
0.65
0.25
0.36
0.20
0.22
0.21
0.55
0.27
0.37
0.16
5:00
0.40
0.43
0.08
0.31
0.38
0.30
0.41
0.22
0.20
0.37
0.31
0.11
5:30
0.45
0.47
0.55
0.22
0.52
0.27
0.38
0.25
0.82
0.40
0.43
0.18
6:00
0.44
0.58
0.23
0.35
0.40
0.26
0.31
0.25
0.27
0.33
0.34
0.11
0:30
0.32
0.39
0.49
0.26
0.22
0.13
0.45
0.12
0.40
0.13
0.29
0.14
1:00
0.52
0.72
0.45
0.40
0.48
0.40
0.44
0.45
0.47
0.40
0.47
0.10
1:30
0.57
0.69
0.62
0.62
0.56
0.47
0.36
0.50
0.47
0.40
0.53
0.10
2:00
0.59
0.65
0.54
0.65
0.50
0.39
0.42
0.46
0.57
0.37
0.51
0.10
2:30
1.58
0.62
0.47
0.42
0.46
0.35
0.47
0.43
0.46
0.42
0.57
0.36
3:00
0.50
0.55
0.52
0.47
0.42
0.30
0.32
0.48
0.42
0.38
0.44
0.08
3:30
0.49
0.58
0.45
0.34
0.46
0.42
0.37
0.40
0.40
0.37
0.43
0.07
4:00
0.49
0.53
0.45
0.32
0.42
0.36
0.49
0.39
0.41
0.23
0.41
0.09
4:30
0.45
0.62
0.38
0.31
0.35
0.26
0.40
0.41
0.41
0.40
0.40
0.10
5:00
0.50
0.58
0.35
0.70
0.49
0.40
0.31
0.37
0.38
0.22
0.43
0.14
5:30
0.49
0.62
0.35
0.36
0.35
0.27
0.38
0.39
0.42
0.38
0.40
0.09
6:00
0.42
0.50
0.32
0.24
0.52
0.27
0.37
0.36
0.36
0.22
0.36
0.10
99
Table D.11 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.09
0.14
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.37
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.00
0.19
1:00
0.55
0.66
0.62
0.25
0.35
0.33
0.62
0.42
0.59
0.06
0.45
0.20
1:30
0.56
0.74
0.81
0.55
0.55
0.10
0.72
0.45
0.55
0.18
0.52
0.23
2:00
0.35
0.67
0.53
0.38
0.42
0.28
0.48
0.43
0.45
0.18
0.42
0.13
2:30
0.36
0.67
0.43
0.40
0.38
0.04
0.40
0.33
0.48
0.13
0.36
0.17
3:00
0.39
0.53
0.48
0.40
0.26
0.01
0.52
0.28
0.48
0.11
0.35
0.18
3:30
0.30
0.57
0.38
0.40
0.32
0.13
0.38
0.33
0.48
0.10
0.34
0.14
4:00
0.25
0.54
0.42
0.21
0.28
0.03
0.45
0.37
0.37
0.18
0.31
0.15
4:30
0.32
0.58
0.37
0.26
0.38
0.03
0.53
0.20
0.48
0.23
0.34
0.17
5:00
0.27
0.50
0.36
0.31
0.31
0.00
0.35
0.25
0.46
0.06
0.29
0.16
5:30
0.17
0.53
0.29
0.29
0.28
0.08
0.36
0.23
0.36
0.13
0.27
0.13
6:00
0.21
0.55
0.30
0.13
0.32
0.03
0.35
0.18
0.28
0.15
0.25
0.15
0:30
0.17
0.28
0.29
0.00
0.20
0.00
0.23
0.12
0.49
0.22
0.18
0.18
1:00
0.33
0.47
0.67
0.00
0.37
0.14
0.42
0.29
0.52
0.63
0.38
0.22
1:30
0.43
0.70
0.63
0.13
0.52
0.17
0.45
0.36
0.53
0.15
0.41
0.20
2:00
0.28
0.58
0.64
0.05
0.61
0.12
0.46
0.33
0.46
0.22
0.38
0.21
2:30
0.44
0.52
0.49
0.06
0.39
0.18
0.41
0.35
0.44
0.37
0.36
0.14
3:00
0.41
0.55
0.46
0.00
0.41
0.11
0.51
0.17
0.37
0.22
0.32
0.19
3:30
0.46
0.57
0.50
0.00
0.39
0.09
0.45
0.22
0.44
0.11
0.32
0.20
4:00
0.35
0.59
0.51
0.10
0.41
0.20
0.45
0.17
0.49
0.15
0.34
0.17
4:30
0.39
0.62
0.42
0.03
0.39
0.12
0.46
0.15
0.41
0.18
0.32
0.18
5:00
0.43
0.72
0.49
0.07
0.42
0.15
0.49
0.12
0.35
0.06
0.33
0.22
5:30
0.54
0.60
0.44
0.09
0.52
0.13
0.52
0.16
0.39
0.22
0.36
0.19
6:00
0.45
0.60
0.38
0.07
0.44
0.19
0.39
0.13
0.35
0.10
0.31
0.18
0:30
0.23
0.39
0.17
0.00
0.11
0.00
0.52
0.07
0.25
0.22
0.16
0.22
1:00
0.57
0.59
0.37
0.16
0.35
0.21
0.44
0.22
0.53
0.30
0.37
0.15
1:30
0.49
0.72
0.64
0.36
0.54
0.32
0.53
0.35
0.68
0.23
0.49
0.17
2:00
0.47
0.67
0.38
0.34
0.54
0.07
0.46
0.21
0.49
0.23
0.39
0.18
2:30
0.48
0.53
0.44
0.35
0.62
0.19
0.55
0.22
0.43
0.35
0.42
0.14
3:00
0.43
0.67
0.34
0.24
0.36
0.18
0.44
0.24
0.42
0.00
0.33
0.18
3:30
0.47
0.60
0.38
0.17
0.45
0.19
0.54
0.18
0.43
0.18
0.36
0.17
4:00
0.41
0.58
0.41
0.32
0.52
0.16
0.66
0.24
0.45
0.05
0.38
0.19
4:30
0.46
0.55
0.33
0.30
0.48
0.21
0.54
0.14
0.37
0.21
0.36
0.14
5:00
0.39
0.63
0.38
0.39
0.45
0.17
0.55
0.25
0.32
0.18
0.37
0.15
5:30
0.56
0.65
0.27
0.40
0.52
0.14
0.46
0.26
0.43
0.15
0.39
0.17
6:00
0.36
0.67
0.41
0.47
0.45
0.24
0.55
0.20
0.45
0.03
0.38
0.19
100
Table D.11 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.16
0.45
0.25
0.00
0.05
0.17
0.55
0.10
0.44
0.25
0.23
0.20
1:00
0.54
0.57
0.52
0.50
0.56
0.30
0.42
0.20
0.58
0.25
0.44
0.14
1:30
0.61
0.62
0.68
0.41
0.62
0.43
0.59
0.28
0.68
0.32
0.52
0.15
2:00
0.47
0.57
0.54
0.38
0.50
0.32
0.50
0.33
0.56
0.44
0.46
0.09
2:30
0.41
0.72
0.53
0.33
0.47
0.26
0.50
0.27
0.57
0.20
0.43
0.16
3:00
0.45
0.62
0.38
0.36
0.55
0.16
0.60
0.26
0.47
0.11
0.40
0.18
3:30
0.50
0.72
0.40
0.35
0.60
0.21
0.59
0.23
0.52
0.35
0.45
0.17
4:00
0.36
0.55
0.48
0.33
0.43
0.32
0.65
0.25
0.48
0.18
0.40
0.14
4:30
0.39
0.55
0.37
0.40
0.48
0.26
0.45
0.26
0.44
0.37
0.40
0.09
5:00
0.49
0.60
0.52
0.35
0.42
0.20
0.52
0.21
0.45
0.23
0.40
0.14
5:30
0.39
0.52
0.39
0.11
0.54
0.33
0.57
0.26
0.43
0.28
0.38
0.14
6:00
0.35
0.55
0.39
0.13
0.50
0.03
0.48
0.20
0.41
0.11
0.31
0.18
0:30
0.30
0.12
0.22
0.08
0.29
0.00
0.44
0.00
0.34
0.27
0.19
0.17
1:00
0.46
0.76
0.68
0.42
0.40
0.14
0.66
0.49
0.72
0.15
0.49
0.22
1:30
0.50
0.74
0.63
0.56
0.63
0.19
0.74
0.55
0.65
0.29
0.55
0.18
2:00
0.42
0.79
0.74
0.53
0.62
0.23
0.67
0.36
0.59
0.33
0.53
0.19
2:30
0.47
0.72
0.60
0.41
0.45
0.14
0.67
0.33
0.57
0.28
0.47
0.18
3:00
0.39
0.69
0.53
0.43
0.45
0.26
0.70
0.39
0.55
0.23
0.46
0.16
3:30
0.49
0.59
0.49
0.49
0.52
0.12
0.65
0.32
0.51
0.23
0.44
0.17
4:00
0.49
0.77
0.52
0.50
0.50
0.18
0.70
0.33
0.39
0.13
0.45
0.20
4:30
0.47
0.58
0.49
0.46
0.52
0.23
0.70
0.39
0.53
0.23
0.46
0.15
5:00
0.44
0.60
0.52
0.46
0.50
0.21
0.74
0.29
0.52
0.18
0.44
0.18
5:30
0.40
0.57
0.51
0.43
0.54
0.16
0.57
0.27
0.38
0.30
0.41
0.14
6:00
0.46
0.60
0.42
0.55
0.52
0.19
0.68
0.34
0.41
0.28
0.45
0.15
0:30
0.27
0.59
0.03
0.04
0.34
0.00
0.63
0.16
0.61
0.34
0.29
0.27
1:00
0.48
0.67
0.45
0.40
0.38
0.05
0.63
0.28
0.53
0.29
0.42
0.18
1:30
0.57
0.69
0.65
0.55
0.51
0.35
0.61
0.36
0.80
0.37
0.55
0.15
2:00
0.49
0.75
0.49
0.55
0.49
0.33
0.80
0.35
0.54
0.34
0.51
0.16
2:30
0.52
0.52
0.62
0.48
0.53
0.23
0.60
0.33
0.59
0.20
0.46
0.15
3:00
0.43
0.52
0.54
0.46
0.56
0.30
0.52
0.28
0.50
0.22
0.43
0.12
3:30
0.48
0.65
0.63
0.48
0.49
0.31
0.55
0.29
0.60
0.27
0.47
0.14
4:00
0.44
0.55
0.44
0.45
0.55
0.22
0.56
0.28
0.54
0.23
0.43
0.13
4:30
0.43
0.75
0.47
0.48
0.51
0.32
0.61
0.37
0.50
0.30
0.47
0.14
5:00
0.46
0.69
0.55
0.47
0.52
0.16
0.57
0.40
0.53
0.17
0.45
0.17
5:30
0.46
0.47
0.52
0.50
0.53
0.26
0.56
0.26
0.54
0.37
0.45
0.11
6:00
0.43
0.80
0.49
0.41
0.52
0.28
0.54
0.26
0.50
0.18
0.44
0.18
101
Table D.11 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.40
0.00
0.52
0.00
0.03
0.25
1:00
0.44
0.38
0.15
0.28
0.35
0.32
0.45
0.33
0.42
0.39
0.35
0.09
1:30
0.56
0.54
0.27
0.47
0.57
0.32
0.58
0.28
0.23
0.39
0.42
0.14
2:00
0.45
0.40
0.13
0.33
0.52
0.19
0.48
0.27
0.28
0.28
0.33
0.13
2:30
0.32
0.35
0.29
0.13
0.30
0.14
0.59
0.25
0.20
0.16
0.27
0.14
3:00
0.21
0.41
0.35
0.14
0.35
0.13
0.43
0.21
0.28
0.06
0.26
0.12
3:30
0.43
0.26
0.25
0.07
0.25
0.17
0.43
0.20
0.32
0.11
0.25
0.12
4:00
0.24
0.30
0.31
0.15
0.30
0.12
0.46
0.21
0.20
0.13
0.24
0.10
4:30
0.22
0.37
0.41
0.20
0.36
0.11
0.51
0.18
0.33
0.10
0.28
0.14
5:00
0.21
0.41
0.36
0.02
0.31
0.24
0.41
0.08
0.30
0.10
0.24
0.14
5:30
0.19
0.40
0.44
0.17
0.30
0.12
0.45
0.26
0.30
0.27
0.29
0.11
6:00
0.19
0.31
0.26
0.24
0.34
0.16
0.61
0.15
0.30
0.15
0.27
0.14
0:30
0.20
0.37
0.28
0.14
0.13
0.15
0.40
0.03
0.34
0.08
0.21
0.13
1:00
0.43
0.52
0.40
0.36
0.55
0.29
0.41
0.22
0.47
0.19
0.38
0.12
1:30
0.43
0.59
0.46
0.59
0.37
0.23
0.52
0.30
0.47
0.34
0.43
0.12
2:00
0.47
0.47
0.29
0.56
0.50
0.18
0.51
0.13
0.34
0.25
0.37
0.15
2:30
0.43
0.47
0.29
0.44
0.36
0.12
0.18
0.15
0.32
0.13
0.29
0.14
3:00
0.32
0.46
0.28
0.31
0.42
0.21
0.35
0.15
0.29
0.10
0.29
0.11
3:30
0.33
0.49
0.32
0.30
0.46
0.19
0.48
0.16
0.36
0.25
0.33
0.12
4:00
0.23
0.52
0.40
0.13
0.39
0.16
0.43
0.18
0.31
0.20
0.30
0.13
4:30
0.30
0.39
0.29
0.14
0.36
0.13
0.30
0.23
0.35
0.20
0.27
0.09
5:00
0.27
0.50
0.36
0.14
0.37
0.35
0.36
0.25
0.34
0.23
0.32
0.10
5:30
0.26
0.51
0.29
0.15
0.43
0.07
0.42
0.26
0.33
0.22
0.30
0.13
6:00
0.36
0.45
0.27
0.07
0.32
0.22
0.59
0.26
0.28
0.16
0.30
0.15
0:30
0.25
0.43
0.40
0.08
0.15
0.16
0.47
0.05
0.02
0.00
0.20
0.18
1:00
0.39
0.54
0.35
0.32
0.49
0.26
0.47
0.33
0.23
0.10
0.34
0.13
1:30
0.52
0.62
0.62
0.40
0.54
0.29
0.54
0.30
0.29
0.27
0.44
0.14
2:00
0.41
0.63
0.52
0.36
0.64
0.28
0.54
0.26
0.31
0.27
0.42
0.15
2:30
0.38
0.41
0.42
0.25
0.44
0.22
0.40
0.27
0.38
0.27
0.34
0.08
3:00
0.39
0.49
0.44
0.24
0.41
0.19
0.35
0.33
0.27
0.37
0.35
0.09
3:30
0.30
0.45
0.43
0.23
0.43
0.12
0.48
0.26
0.44
0.15
0.33
0.13
4:00
0.31
0.41
0.38
0.16
0.38
0.28
0.40
0.30
0.39
0.08
0.31
0.11
4:30
0.28
0.44
0.40
0.24
0.65
0.15
0.35
0.18
0.30
0.13
0.31
0.16
5:00
0.24
0.49
0.43
0.42
0.38
0.29
0.38
0.23
0.27
0.17
0.33
0.11
5:30
0.20
0.50
0.30
0.33
0.46
0.11
0.49
0.28
0.28
0.25
0.32
0.13
6:00
0.20
0.51
0.43
0.27
0.40
0.23
0.45
0.18
0.35
0.28
0.33
0.12
102
Table D.11 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.18
0.24
0.52
0.00
0.16
0.29
0.51
0.15
0.35
0.15
0.24
0.19
1:00
0.42
0.59
0.46
0.23
0.62
0.35
0.50
0.25
0.49
0.25
0.42
0.14
1:30
0.56
0.70
0.53
0.46
0.71
0.35
0.54
0.30
0.50
0.40
0.51
0.14
2:00
0.49
0.65
0.59
0.39
0.58
0.32
0.57
0.26
0.52
0.34
0.47
0.13
2:30
0.41
0.65
0.52
0.26
0.60
0.16
0.44
0.32
0.55
0.21
0.41
0.17
3:00
0.41
0.57
0.53
0.19
0.48
0.17
0.49
0.33
0.33
0.20
0.37
0.15
3:30
0.31
0.57
0.39
0.31
0.61
0.23
0.63
0.43
0.33
0.40
0.42
0.14
4:00
0.31
0.50
0.42
0.30
0.50
0.30
0.51
0.35
0.33
0.20
0.37
0.10
4:30
0.29
0.55
0.44
0.28
0.48
0.28
0.36
0.28
0.32
0.10
0.34
0.13
5:00
0.31
0.53
0.42
0.28
0.55
0.21
0.30
0.35
0.36
0.06
0.34
0.14
5:30
0.34
0.53
0.44
0.36
0.51
0.28
0.42
0.42
0.33
0.22
0.39
0.10
6:00
0.27
0.57
0.46
0.28
0.45
0.28
0.41
0.18
0.35
0.23
0.35
0.12
0:30
0.14
0.37
0.24
0.20
0.14
0.42
0.22
0.07
0.39
0.21
0.24
0.11
1:00
0.34
0.48
0.36
0.41
0.34
0.41
0.47
0.30
0.51
0.07
0.37
0.13
1:30
0.39
0.55
0.57
0.61
0.75
0.49
0.54
0.33
0.57
0.30
0.51
0.14
2:00
0.35
0.63
0.51
0.34
0.56
0.41
0.50
0.21
0.57
0.34
0.44
0.13
2:30
0.29
0.49
0.52
0.33
0.59
0.32
0.50
0.37
0.41
0.25
0.41
0.11
3:00
0.25
0.38
0.41
0.21
0.45
0.31
0.45
0.33
0.47
0.30
0.36
0.09
3:30
0.33
0.46
0.52
0.25
0.50
0.36
0.48
0.30
0.35
0.25
0.38
0.10
4:00
0.26
0.48
0.49
0.23
0.48
0.30
0.50
0.32
0.56
0.29
0.39
0.12
4:30
0.33
0.46
0.39
0.28
0.49
0.38
0.52
0.28
0.41
0.00
0.35
0.15
5:00
0.33
0.47
0.54
0.30
0.43
0.36
0.42
0.30
0.40
0.16
0.37
0.10
5:30
0.37
0.49
0.44
0.32
0.45
0.24
0.31
0.18
0.36
0.27
0.34
0.10
6:00
0.31
0.49
0.38
0.31
0.44
0.32
0.40
0.32
0.36
0.16
0.35
0.09
0:30
0.28
0.26
0.37
0.13
0.16
0.15
0.57
0.17
0.23
0.13
0.24
0.14
1:00
0.56
0.54
0.32
0.40
0.55
0.41
0.65
0.42
0.55
0.18
0.46
0.14
1:30
0.58
0.62
0.59
0.55
0.58
0.36
0.63
0.42
0.43
0.29
0.50
0.12
2:00
0.49
0.58
0.62
0.53
0.64
0.18
0.50
0.38
0.51
0.31
0.47
0.14
2:30
0.53
0.54
0.57
0.36
0.52
0.36
0.46
0.35
0.50
0.27
0.45
0.10
3:00
0.53
0.54
0.47
0.35
0.60
0.26
0.55
0.32
0.47
0.22
0.43
0.13
3:30
0.39
0.50
0.45
0.38
0.53
0.33
0.52
0.30
0.43
0.34
0.42
0.08
4:00
0.38
0.52
0.52
0.27
0.55
0.30
0.44
0.35
0.49
0.08
0.39
0.15
4:30
0.41
0.45
0.37
0.10
0.54
0.30
0.44
0.25
0.42
0.23
0.35
0.13
5:00
0.42
0.50
0.42
0.41
0.51
0.20
0.54
0.30
0.40
0.29
0.40
0.11
5:30
0.39
0.62
0.43
0.61
0.56
0.30
0.44
0.13
0.39
0.25
0.41
0.16
6:00
0.43
0.55
0.37
0.42
0.64
0.24
0.51
0.23
0.36
0.14
0.39
0.16
103
Table D.12
Heart Rate (bpm)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
101
126
108
120
123
125
124
117
105
133
118
10
1:00
112
132
130
139
144
140
145
136
125
152
135
11
1:30
117
139
138
146
153
157
153
143
131
157
143
13
2:00
120
140
144
147
158
160
154
148
135
163
147
12
2:30
115
141
145
145
159
165
155
150
133
164
147
15
3:00
113
145
146
148
160
164
157
150
135
162
148
15
3:30
115
146
152
150
160
165
156
153
135
161
149
14
4:00
119
145
151
149
160
165
152
154
135
161
149
13
4:30
120
145
150
149
158
164
156
154
137
165
150
13
5:00
120
145
154
156
158
165
158
154
139
164
151
14
5:30
120
145
158
151
160
165
158
154
136
162
151
14
6:00
122
145
157
151
161
165
159
155
135
163
151
14
0:30
101
126
120
126
140
125
146
133
115
133
127
12
1:00
112
132
143
140
153
140
153
150
135
154
141
13
1:30
117
139
155
149
158
157
156
153
137
162
148
13
2:00
120
140
158
152
162
160
158
154
142
166
151
14
2:30
115
141
161
152
163
165
162
155
144
166
152
16
3:00
113
145
161
152
164
164
161
154
13
168
148
15
3:30
115
146
160
152
163
165
162
154
145
166
153
15
4:00
119
145
160
153
164
165
165
155
142
167
154
15
4:30
120
145
160
153
164
164
165
155
141
167
153
15
5:00
120
145
162
151
165
165
162
158
143
169
154
15
5:30
120
145
165
154
163
165
164
158
146
168
154
15
6:00
122
145
164
156
166
165
164
154
145
168
154
14
0:30
101
170
129
147
142
125
147
139
110
131
134
20
1:00
112
167
147
179
159
140
159
150
145
154
151
18
1:30
117
162
156
169
163
157
157
157
145
160
154
14
2:00
120
155
161
159
166
160
160
159
147
162
155
13
2:30
115
167
161
168
168
165
162
157
148
162
157
16
3:00
113
158
164
158
170
164
163
156
148
165
156
16
3:30
115
150
164
155
171
165
163
154
127
166
153
18
4:00
119
166
163
158
170
165
164
157
126
165
155
18
4:30
120
163
168
160
171
164
164
159
149
166
158
15
5:00
120
150
167
157
171
165
165
161
151
165
157
15
5:30
120
169
168
157
172
165
165
157
152
166
159
15
6:00
122
170
167
160
172
165
165
157
141
167
158
16
104
Table D.12 (continued)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
101
126
139
128
146
125
148
136
125
135
131
13
1:00
112
132
153
147
161
140
156
147
142
157
145
14
1:30
117
139
160
152
166
157
160
155
152
160
152
14
2:00
120
140
165
156
169
160
163
160
162
162
156
15
2:30
115
141
168
156
171
165
162
162
152
165
156
17
3:00
113
145
168
155
172
164
163
162
151
166
156
17
3:30
115
146
169
154
172
165
161
161
151
166
156
17
4:00
119
145
170
156
172
165
163
162
150
166
157
16
4:30
120
145
168
157
172
164
163
163
150
165
157
15
5:00
120
145
170
155
172
165
164
163
151
166
157
16
5:30
120
145
169
155
173
165
163
164
153
166
157
15
6:00
122
145
169
158
174
165
163
164
154
166
158
15
0:30
101
145
146
141
153
125
155
149
132
128
137
16
1:00
112
146
158
151
168
140
156
161
145
151
149
15
1:30
117
145
166
154
169
157
160
164
148
156
154
15
2:00
120
145
167
155
171
160
161
166
152
157
156
15
2:30
115
145
169
157
173
165
162
166
152
159
156
17
3:00
113
145
172
157
175
164
161
167
154
162
157
17
3:30
115
145
171
159
175
165
162
168
153
160
157
17
4:00
119
151
172
158
175
165
164
166
156
160
159
16
4:30
120
153
172
158
174
164
166
166
155
161
159
15
5:00
120
153
170
158
175
165
162
168
158
161
159
15
5:30
120
152
172
159
175
165
162
167
156
162
159
15
6:00
122
153
172
159
176
165
163
166
156
164
160
14
0:30
101
145
148
144
157
125
159
145
129
137
139
17
1:00
112
146
164
151
169
140
154
160
148
151
149
16
1:30
117
145
172
155
172
157
160
166
151
158
155
16
2:00
120
145
172
158
174
160
161
168
154
161
157
16
2:30
115
145
173
158
174
165
162
169
153
160
157
17
3:00
113
145
175
159
174
164
162
168
154
163
158
18
3:30
115
145
176
159
173
165
163
169
156
161
158
18
4:00
119
151
175
159
175
165
163
168
158
162
160
16
4:30
120
153
177
160
176
164
164
168
158
160
160
16
5:00
120
153
178
154
176
165
163
169
159
165
160
16
5:30
120
152
177
159
175
165
162
170
159
164
160
16
6:00
122
153
176
162
176
165
163
169
160
166
161
15
105
Table D.12 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
101
119
112
100
132
146
147
120
111
127
112
17
1:00
112
136
136
126
144
167
152
140
112
141
137
17
1:30
117
142
143
142
146
174
154
148
116
147
143
17
2:00
120
146
146
141
146
174
153
155
117
151
145
17
2:30
115
145
145
140
156
174
152
153
116
153
145
18
3:00
113
145
145
144
159
176
153
152
116
155
146
19
3:30
115
145
145
141
156
175
153
154
117
154
146
18
4:00
119
144
145
144
157
175
153
152
118
155
146
17
4:30
116
145
145
143
157
176
153
154
117
153
146
18
5:00
115
146
145
144
154
178
153
155
117
159
147
19
5:30
119
145
145
143
157
178
153
154
117
160
147
18
6:00
116
145
145
145
158
176
153
156
118
158
147
18
0:30
101
127
112
145
122
145
147
151
90
144
128
22
1:00
112
140
136
145
106
164
152
149
117
149
137
19
1:30
117
146
143
145
155
167
154
155
123
156
146
15
2:00
120
149
146
145
138
172
153
156
122
154
146
16
2:30
115
148
145
145
122
172
152
155
125
155
143
18
3:00
113
148
145
149
160
175
153
158
125
156
148
18
3:30
115
148
145
151
158
175
153
161
124
157
149
18
4:00
119
149
145
147
160
175
153
161
126
159
149
17
4:30
116
150
145
143
140
174
153
160
128
156
147
16
5:00
115
151
145
148
140
176
153
161
128
161
148
17
5:30
119
150
145
144
161
177
153
161
127
158
149
17
6:00
116
149
145
147
161
176
153
161
146
157
151
16
0:30
101
139
112
150
122
142
152
156
106
140
132
20
1:00
112
144
136
145
106
168
155
155
127
150
140
20
1:30
117
150
143
145
155
171
155
161
131
155
148
15
2:00
120
151
146
149
138
176
156
162
133
156
149
16
2:30
115
150
145
150
122
175
157
162
135
158
147
18
3:00
113
151
145
150
160
173
155
162
133
161
150
17
3:30
115
150
145
150
158
174
156
162
135
160
151
16
4:00
119
151
145
149
160
177
156
162
134
161
151
16
4:30
116
153
145
148
140
177
156
162
120
157
147
18
5:00
115
153
145
150
140
176
156
162
134
159
149
17
5:30
119
153
145
150
161
178
156
162
132
162
152
17
6:00
116
152
145
153
161
176
156
162
137
161
152
16
106
Table D.12 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
101
132
112
150
122
144
152
153
103
138
131
20
1:00
112
146
136
145
106
166
155
154
128
152
140
19
1:30
117
148
143
145
155
170
155
159
137
154
148
14
2:00
120
150
146
149
138
173
156
166
135
157
149
15
2:30
115
152
145
150
122
173
157
166
135
157
147
18
3:00
113
152
147
150
160
172
155
165
136
160
151
17
3:30
115
152
144
150
158
171
156
164
136
158
150
16
4:00
119
153
147
149
160
170
156
165
137
159
152
15
4:30
120
154
148
148
140
171
156
165
126
159
149
16
5:00
120
153
145
150
140
173
156
165
130
160
149
16
5:30
120
152
148
150
161
173
156
166
141
160
153
15
6:00
122
150
149
153
161
175
156
166
140
160
153
15
0:30
101
121
118
127
122
143
152
150
117
146
130
17
1:00
112
144
139
144
106
163
155
160
131
153
141
19
1:30
117
146
144
146
155
169
155
165
137
156
149
15
2:00
120
146
141
149
138
171
156
168
139
159
149
15
2:30
115
147
146
149
122
172
157
168
141
158
147
18
3:00
113
147
146
147
160
172
155
168
141
160
151
17
3:30
115
147
152
147
158
173
156
168
143
160
152
16
4:00
119
149
145
149
160
174
156
169
144
161
153
15
4:30
120
148
148
146
140
173
156
168
141
160
150
15
5:00
120
148
148
145
140
173
156
168
145
160
150
15
5:30
120
148
149
144
161
173
156
168
143
161
152
15
6:00
122
146
148
148
161
174
156
170
146
160
153
15
0:30
101
133
118
92
122
153
165
153
127
144
131
24
1:00
112
145
139
142
106
164
162
167
139
156
143
21
1:30
117
148
144
146
155
165
164
171
124
160
149
17
2:00
120
150
141
147
138
166
166
173
145
160
151
16
2:30
115
148
146
145
122
170
166
173
146
161
149
19
3:00
113
147
146
148
160
169
166
173
147
162
153
18
3:30
115
149
152
149
158
172
166
173
146
160
154
17
4:00
119
149
145
150
160
174
166
173
148
162
155
16
4:30
120
151
148
151
140
172
166
174
146
163
153
16
5:00
120
152
148
150
140
173
167
173
149
164
154
16
5:30
120
152
149
150
161
172
166
174
148
161
155
15
6:00
122
150
148
150
161
173
166
174
147
161
155
15
107
Table D.12 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
93
126
164
118
125
138
160
117
124
115
128
21
1:00
114
132
145
136
140
162
160
139
136
139
140
14
1:30
118
139
141
140
147
168
162
151
138
146
145
14
2:00
120
140
147
142
152
170
159
152
135
151
147
14
2:30
118
141
150
145
157
172
167
154
139
154
150
15
3:00
119
145
145
146
156
173
154
154
140
154
149
14
3:30
119
146
146
147
159
175
159
154
142
154
150
15
4:00
122
145
143
148
158
175
158
155
138
158
150
14
4:30
120
145
145
145
157
175
156
154
139
156
149
14
5:00
119
145
152
147
156
175
158
157
139
155
150
15
5:30
121
145
141
146
157
175
159
158
140
156
150
15
6:00
122
145
151
146
156
176
161
159
140
157
151
14
0:30
99
126
130
119
135
139
147
135
95
125
125
17
1:00
85
132
142
138
150
160
152
146
126
141
137
21
1:30
107
139
152
142
156
168
154
152
137
147
145
16
2:00
117
140
155
144
158
172
157
156
143
154
150
15
2:30
116
141
156
145
160
175
158
156
143
156
151
16
3:00
117
145
155
148
161
174
159
157
121
156
149
18
3:30
118
146
146
147
159
175
159
160
133
154
150
16
4:00
118
145
149
148
159
176
160
158
144
155
151
15
4:30
118
145
152
149
162
175
162
159
140
154
152
15
5:00
111
145
159
147
162
175
159
158
144
154
151
17
5:30
109
145
163
149
162
176
156
158
144
153
151
18
6:00
118
145
160
148
164
177
162
159
144
157
153
16
0:30
99
140
130
120
141
95
152
129
121
130
126
18
1:00
85
138
142
142
151
159
158
144
145
144
141
21
1:30
107
144
152
146
161
172
160
151
144
146
148
17
2:00
117
146
155
149
164
175
159
155
112
150
148
20
2:30
116
147
156
151
165
177
159
158
143
152
153
16
3:00
117
148
155
151
165
178
162
155
150
152
153
16
3:30
118
148
146
153
166
178
161
156
130
158
151
17
4:00
118
150
149
153
165
178
162
160
148
155
154
15
4:30
118
150
152
151
163
178
159
159
148
155
153
15
5:00
111
148
159
151
166
178
161
160
151
156
154
17
5:30
109
149
163
153
165
180
162
162
150
155
155
19
6:00
118
149
160
153
167
179
163
161
150
158
156
16
108
Table D.12 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
99
124
148
128
150
143
150
138
120
130
133
16
1:00
85
139
158
141
158
147
157
151
144
144
143
21
1:30
107
143
163
148
162
169
156
156
147
147
150
17
2:00
117
144
160
151
164
176
161
162
147
148
153
16
2:30
116
147
158
153
166
179
163
162
148
152
154
17
3:00
117
145
153
153
168
180
165
159
149
158
155
17
3:30
118
147
160
153
167
180
164
158
148
159
155
16
4:00
118
147
162
153
165
178
165
159
150
154
155
16
4:30
118
145
164
154
167
180
166
161
147
155
156
17
5:00
111
146
162
153
169
181
167
160
152
155
156
19
5:30
109
147
161
153
169
180
165
159
152
154
155
19
6:00
118
146
165
153
169
180
163
161
152
158
156
17
0:30
98
138
114
131
151
155
122
123
115
143
129
18
1:00
104
140
135
144
163
170
152
152
91
142
140
25
1:30
110
144
154
148
165
173
158
160
77
146
143
29
2:00
121
145
158
153
169
178
160
163
147
152
155
15
2:30
119
147
159
154
170
178
160
165
144
155
155
16
3:00
117
148
159
155
170
178
162
165
148
153
155
17
3:30
115
146
150
155
169
178
161
164
91
156
148
26
4:00
116
146
160
155
169
178
162
167
95
156
150
26
4:30
116
147
162
154
172
178
163
166
132
157
155
19
5:00
118
147
156
156
172
178
164
167
152
157
157
17
5:30
117
147
152
154
173
180
166
167
131
153
154
19
6:00
116
147
157
155
173
181
166
167
117
155
153
22
0:30
99
155
114
134
149
123
165
149
120
136
135
21
1:00
114
141
135
147
166
169
162
158
146
147
148
17
1:30
119
153
154
152
170
174
164
162
149
151
155
15
2:00
119
152
158
154
170
178
166
165
149
154
156
16
2:30
116
169
159
157
172
178
166
167
150
155
159
17
3:00
118
151
159
156
171
178
166
167
146
155
157
17
3:30
119
148
150
157
170
178
166
167
139
155
155
17
4:00
118
146
160
146
172
178
168
168
153
156
156
17
4:30
117
147
162
140
172
179
168
167
152
156
156
18
5:00
119
146
156
148
172
180
167
167
149
156
156
17
5:30
120
146
152
152
172
179
167
168
149
157
156
17
6:00
122
146
157
155
172
180
168
168
153
158
158
16
109
Table D.13
Respiratory Exchange Ratio
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.93
0.97
0.95
1.05
1.06
1.06
0.81
1.00
0.91
0.93
0.97
0.08
1:00
0.85
0.87
0.84
0.92
0.88
0.94
0.81
0.87
0.84
0.84
0.87
0.04
1:30
0.84
0.86
0.82
0.91
0.93
0.89
0.82
0.88
0.85
0.85
0.87
0.04
2:00
0.87
0.87
0.86
0.88
0.92
0.97
0.83
0.90
0.88
0.87
0.89
0.04
2:30
0.88
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.94
0.94
0.83
0.97
0.89
0.89
0.91
0.04
3:00
0.89
0.90
0.89
0.93
0.95
0.96
0.83
0.90
0.90
0.89
0.91
0.04
3:30
0.89
0.91
0.91
0.94
0.95
0.99
0.83
0.90
0.90
0.89
0.91
0.04
4:00
0.89
0.90
0.89
0.92
0.94
0.99
0.85
0.94
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.04
4:30
0.88
0.92
0.92
0.94
0.94
0.97
0.84
0.93
0.90
0.90
0.92
0.04
5:00
0.88
0.91
0.96
0.98
0.95
0.96
0.84
0.94
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.05
5:30
0.90
0.91
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.98
0.83
0.93
0.89
0.88
0.92
0.04
6:00
0.90
0.92
0.91
0.97
0.95
0.96
0.85
0.92
0.90
0.92
0.92
0.04
0:30
0.91
0.10
1.05
0.96
0.98
0.99
0.88
1.00
0.89
0.98
0.86
0.29
1:00
0.86
0.89
0.91
0.90
0.89
0.91
0.89
0.96
0.85
0.89
0.90
0.03
1:30
0.84
0.89
0.92
0.89
0.87
0.94
0.89
0.89
0.86
0.89
0.89
0.03
2:00
0.88
0.90
0.91
0.88
0.92
0.96
0.88
0.90
0.88
0.90
0.90
0.03
2:30
0.88
0.91
0.95
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.91
0.90
0.91
0.93
0.92
0.02
3:00
0.88
0.91
0.92
0.92
0.95
0.95
0.92
0.90
0.92
0.90
0.92
0.02
3:30
0.88
0.90
0.94
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.91
0.93
0.90
0.92
0.92
0.02
4:00
0.86
0.20
0.94
0.94
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.91
0.91
0.95
0.84
0.24
4:30
0.90
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.92
0.97
0.94
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.93
0.02
5:00
0.92
0.91
0.95
0.91
0.95
0.91
0.91
0.92
0.91
0.94
0.92
0.02
5:30
0.91
0.91
0.92
0.91
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.92
0.91
0.92
0.01
6:00
0.91
0.94
0.92
0.95
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.93
0.02
0:30
0.95
0.94
0.94
0.93
1.03
1.08
0.86
1.00
0.89
0.97
0.96
0.07
1:00
0.86
0.82
0.85
0.87
0.91
0.94
0.89
0.93
0.88
0.91
0.88
0.04
1:30
0.87
0.84
0.85
0.88
0.89
0.95
0.91
0.91
0.89
0.91
0.89
0.03
2:00
0.89
0.85
0.88
0.92
0.90
0.97
0.88
0.93
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.03
2:30
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.91
0.93
0.92
0.90
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.90
0.02
3:00
0.87
0.86
0.89
0.92
0.94
0.98
0.93
0.94
0.92
0.91
0.92
0.04
3:30
0.86
0.88
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.95
0.91
0.92
0.89
0.92
0.91
0.03
4:00
0.88
0.87
0.93
0.95
0.92
0.93
0.91
0.91
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.03
4:30
0.89
0.87
0.91
0.95
0.92
0.98
0.90
0.90
0.93
0.94
0.92
0.03
5:00
0.90
0.86
0.87
0.94
0.93
0.96
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.93
0.91
0.03
5:30
0.89
0.88
0.90
0.95
0.92
0.96
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.93
0.91
0.03
6:00
0.90
0.87
0.92
0.93
0.93
0.98
0.92
0.93
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.03
110
Table D.13 (continued)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.91
0.86
0.98
1.01
1.00
1.04
0.90
0.93
0.89
0.95
0.95
0.06
1:00
0.88
0.87
0.94
0.88
0.91
0.90
0.90
0.89
0.88
0.90
0.89
0.02
1:30
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.86
0.88
0.92
0.90
0.89
0.88
0.85
0.88
0.02
2:00
0.87
0.87
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.93
0.91
0.90
0.90
0.94
0.89
0.02
2:30
0.87
0.88
0.90
0.88
0.92
0.95
0.92
0.91
0.92
0.92
0.90
0.02
3:00
0.88
0.88
0.89
0.91
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.91
0.90
0.93
0.90
0.02
3:30
0.88
0.87
0.89
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.91
0.91
0.02
4:00
0.89
0.88
0.89
0.94
0.90
0.91
0.93
0.90
0.90
0.20
0.91
0.02
4:30
0.89
0.88
0.91
0.94
0.90
0.94
0.93
0.91
0.91
0.30
0.91
0.02
5:00
0.88
0.89
0.89
0.92
0.91
0.95
0.93
0.91
0.91
0.94
0.91
0.02
5:30
0.89
0.88
0.92
0.93
0.90
0.93
0.91
0.90
0.93
0.94
0.91
0.02
6:00
0.90
0.91
0.91
0.89
0.92
0.92
0.94
0.89
0.93
0.93
0.91
0.02
0:30
0.95
0.92
0.86
1.00
0.96
1.03
0.90
0.92
0.86
0.87
0.93
0.06
1:00
0.89
0.86
0.85
0.94
0.91
0.93
0.91
0.91
0.85
0.83
0.89
0.03
1:30
0.90
0.84
0.86
0.90
0.88
0.88
0.89
0.91
0.86
0.84
0.88
0.02
2:00
0.90
0.88
0.87
0.89
0.89
0.93
0.91
0.93
0.87
0.86
0.89
0.02
2:30
0.90
0.86
0.85
0.93
0.90
0.94
0.91
0.93
0.90
0.89
0.90
0.02
3:00
0.90
0.87
0.89
0.92
0.92
0.94
0.92
0.93
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.02
3:30
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.92
0.10
0.93
0.92
0.94
0.89
0.89
0.82
0.25
4:00
0.88
0.90
0.20
0.92
0.91
0.95
0.93
0.92
0.89
0.88
0.83
0.24
4:30
0.87
0.89
0.89
0.94
0.91
0.95
0.94
0.94
0.90
0.92
0.91
0.03
5:00
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.93
0.91
0.93
0.90
0.94
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.02
5:30
0.88
0.89
0.91
0.95
0.89
0.93
0.91
0.94
0.88
0.89
0.91
0.02
6:00
0.88
0.87
0.91
0.92
0.90
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.82
0.91
0.90
0.04
0:30
0.88
0.88
0.87
0.93
0.94
0.96
0.89
0.96
0.89
0.95
0.91
0.04
1:00
0.84
0.83
0.88
0.90
0.87
0.89
0.89
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.02
1:30
0.84
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.86
0.88
0.91
0.87
0.87
0.88
0.87
0.02
2:00
0.85
0.85
0.87
0.87
0.88
0.91
0.90
0.89
0.87
0.90
0.88
0.02
2:30
0.86
0.86
0.88
0.91
0.89
0.91
0.89
0.90
0.89
0.88
0.89
0.02
3:00
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.90
0.90
0.92
0.92
0.88
0.90
0.90
0.89
0.02
3:30
0.87
0.87
0.89
0.93
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.90
0.02
4:00
0.87
0.87
0.89
0.93
0.90
0.91
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.94
0.90
0.02
4:30
0.88
0.86
0.91
0.93
0.92
0.94
0.91
0.90
0.91
0.89
0.91
0.02
5:00
0.86
0.87
0.92
0.85
0.89
0.90
0.92
0.91
0.91
0.94
0.90
0.03
5:30
0.87
0.86
0.91
0.92
0.91
0.93
0.91
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.90
0.02
6:00
0.89
0.88
0.92
0.95
0.88
0.94
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.94
0.91
0.02
111
Table D.13 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.96
0.95
1.00
1.10
1.04
1.03
0.88
1.00
0.97
1.02
1.00
0.06
1:00
0.84
0.83
0.83
0.93
0.90
0.91
0.84
0.87
0.85
0.97
0.87
0.04
1:30
0.86
0.83
0.81
0.88
0.86
0.97
0.84
0.88
0.87
0.94
0.87
0.04
2:00
0.90
0.85
0.86
0.91
0.89
0.93
0.88
0.89
0.89
0.95
0.89
0.02
2:30
0.90
0.86
0.89
0.91
0.90
0.98
0.90
0.91
0.88
0.96
0.90
0.03
3:00
0.88
0.87
0.89
0.91
0.93
0.99
0.88
0.92
0.88
0.97
0.91
0.04
3:30
0.92
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.92
0.96
0.90
0.92
0.89
0.96
0.91
0.02
4:00
0.93
0.87
0.90
0.95
0.93
0.99
0.89
0.91
0.91
0.95
0.91
0.04
4:30
0.91
0.87
0.90
0.94
0.90
0.99
0.88
0.95
0.89
0.93
0.92
0.04
5:00
0.93
0.89
0.91
0.93
0.92
0.99
0.92
0.93
0.90
0.98
0.92
0.03
5:30
0.95
0.88
0.93
0.93
0.30
0.99
0.92
0.40
0.92
0.96
0.80
0.26
6:00
0.94
0.88
0.92
0.93
0.91
0.99
0.91
0.95
0.93
1.00
0.93
0.03
0:30
0.94
0.92
0.90
1.12
0.94
1.00
0.92
0.96
0.86
0.94
0.95
0.07
1:00
0.90
0.88
0.83
1.03
0.90
0.96
0.89
0.92
0.87
0.95
0.91
0.06
1:30
0.88
0.84
0.84
0.93
0.87
0.95
0.89
0.90
0.87
0.95
0.89
0.04
2:00
0.92
0.87
0.85
0.97
0.85
0.96
0.89
0.91
0.89
0.93
0.90
0.04
2:30
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.97
0.90
0.95
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.91
0.91
0.04
3:00
0.88
0.87
0.88
1.01
0.90
0.97
0.88
0.95
0.91
0.94
0.92
0.04
3:30
0.88
0.87
0.88
1.01
0.91
0.97
0.89
0.94
0.89
0.97
0.91
0.05
4:00
0.90
0.87
0.88
0.95
0.90
0.95
0.89
0.96
0.88
0.50
0.91
0.03
4:30
0.89
0.86
0.90
0.98
0.90
0.96
0.89
0.96
0.91
0.95
0.92
0.04
5:00
0.88
0.83
0.88
0.96
0.90
0.96
0.88
0.97
0.91
0.97
0.91
0.05
5:30
0.86
0.87
0.89
0.95
0.87
0.96
0.88
0.96
0.91
0.94
0.91
0.04
6:00
0.88
0.86
0.90
0.96
0.89
0.95
0.91
0.96
0.92
0.97
0.91
0.04
0:30
0.91
0.89
0.95
1.08
0.97
1.01
0.87
0.98
0.92
0.93
0.95
0.06
1:00
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.96
0.90
0.94
0.88
0.94
0.86
0.91
0.90
0.04
1:30
0.87
0.84
0.85
0.91
0.86
0.92
0.87
0.91
0.85
0.93
0.88
0.03
2:00
0.87
0.85
0.90
0.93
0.86
0.98
0.89
0.94
0.89
0.93
0.90
0.04
2:30
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.92
0.86
0.95
0.87
0.94
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.03
3:00
0.88
0.85
0.91
0.95
0.91
0.95
0.89
0.94
0.90
1.00
0.91
0.03
3:30
0.87
0.87
0.90
0.96
0.89
0.95
0.87
0.95
0.90
0.95
0.91
0.04
4:00
0.88
0.87
0.90
0.93
0.87
0.95
0.85
0.94
0.90
0.98
0.90
0.03
4:30
0.87
0.88
0.92
0.93
0.88
0.95
0.87
0.96
0.91
0.94
0.91
0.03
5:00
0.89
0.86
0.91
0.91
0.89
0.95
0.87
0.93
0.92
0.95
0.90
0.03
5:30
0.85
0.85
0.93
0.91
0.88
0.96
0.89
0.93
0.90
0.96
0.90
0.03
6:00
0.90
0.85
0.90
0.90
0.89
0.94
0.86
0.95
0.90
0.99
0.90
0.03
112
Table D.13 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.94
0.88
0.91
1.02
0.98
0.95
0.86
0.97
0.87
0.92
0.93
0.05
1:00
0.83
0.86
0.86
0.88
0.85
0.91
0.88
0.94
0.85
0.92
0.88
0.03
1:30
0.84
0.85
0.84
0.90
0.85
0.89
0.86
0.92
0.85
0.90
0.87
0.03
2:00
0.87
0.87
0.87
0.91
0.88
0.92
0.87
0.92
0.87
0.89
0.89
0.02
2:30
0.88
0.84
0.87
0.92
0.88
0.94
0.88
0.93
0.87
0.94
0.89
0.03
3:00
0.87
0.86
0.91
0.92
0.87
0.95
0.85
0.93
0.89
0.96
0.89
0.03
3:30
0.86
0.85
0.90
0.92
0.86
0.94
0.86
0.94
0.88
0.20
0.89
0.03
4:00
0.90
0.88
0.88
0.92
0.89
0.92
0.85
0.94
0.89
0.40
0.89
0.03
4:30
0.89
0.88
0.91
0.91
0.88
0.95
0.89
0.93
0.90
0.93
0.90
0.02
5:00
0.87
0.87
0.87
0.92
0.90
0.93
0.87
0.94
0.90
0.93
0.90
0.03
5:30
0.89
0.88
0.90
0.95
0.87
0.94
0.87
0.94
0.90
0.94
0.90
0.03
6:00
0.90
0.87
0.91
0.05
0.88
0.94
0.88
0.94
0.90
0.96
0.81
0.29
0:30
0.89
0.95
0.92
0.97
0.92
1.03
0.86
1.01
0.89
0.92
0.94
0.06
1:00
0.85
0.82
0.83
0.90
0.89
0.96
0.82
0.86
0.83
0.95
0.86
0.04
1:30
0.87
0.83
0.84
0.87
0.85
0.95
0.82
0.87
0.85
0.91
0.86
0.04
2:00
0.88
0.83
0.82
0.89
0.86
0.94
0.84
0.91
0.87
0.90
0.87
0.04
2:30
0.87
0.84
0.86
0.91
0.89
0.96
0.84
0.91
0.87
0.92
0.88
0.04
3:00
0.89
0.84
0.87
0.90
0.89
0.93
0.83
0.90
0.87
0.93
0.88
0.04
3:30
0.85
0.86
0.88
0.89
0.88
0.97
0.84
0.92
0.89
0.96
0.88
0.04
4:00
0.86
0.84
0.87
0.89
0.88
0.95
0.83
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.88
0.04
4:30
0.87
0.87
0.88
0.90
0.88
0.94
0.83
0.90
0.88
0.94
0.88
0.04
5:00
0.88
0.86
0.87
0.90
0.88
0.94
0.83
0.92
0.89
0.92
0.90
0.03
5:30
0.89
0.87
0.88
0.90
0.88
0.96
0.86
0.93
0.91
0.93
0.90
0.03
6:00
0.87
0.86
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.95
0.84
0.91
0.91
0.94
0.89
0.03
0:30
0.90
0.85
0.98
0.98
0.91
1.03
0.83
0.95
0.85
0.90
0.92
0.07
1:00
0.86
0.84
0.88
0.90
0.90
0.98
0.84
0.92
0.87
0.91
0.89
0.04
1:30
0.84
0.85
0.84
0.88
0.88
0.91
0.84
0.91
0.82
0.89
0.86
0.03
2:00
0.86
0.84
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.91
0.82
0.91
0.88
0.91
0.87
0.03
2:30
0.86
0.88
0.85
0.90
0.88
0.94
0.86
0.92
0.87
0.94
0.88
0.03
3:00
0.88
0.88
0.87
0.90
0.87
0.92
0.88
0.93
0.89
0.30
0.89
0.02
3:30
0.87
0.86
0.85
0.90
0.88
0.92
0.87
0.93
0.87
0.92
0.88
0.03
4:00
0.88
0.87
0.89
0.90
0.87
0.94
0.87
0.93
0.88
0.93
0.89
0.02
4:30
0.88
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.88
0.92
0.86
0.91
0.89
0.91
0.89
0.02
5:00
0.87
0.88
0.87
0.90
0.88
0.96
0.86
0.91
0.88
0.94
0.89
0.02
5:30
0.87
0.86
0.88
0.89
0.88
0.93
0.87
0.93
0.88
0.90
0.89
0.02
6:00
0.88
0.86
0.88
0.91
0.88
0.93
0.88
0.93
0.89
0.95
0.90
0.02
113
Table D.13 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.95
1.00
1.11
1.05
1.01
0.98
0.89
1.04
0.86
1.03
0.99
0.08
1:00
0.86
0.89
0.95
0.92
0.90
0.91
0.88
0.91
0.89
0.87
0.90
0.03
1:30
0.85
0.87
0.93
0.89
0.86
0.92
0.87
0.93
0.93
0.89
0.90
0.03
2:00
0.88
0.91
0.96
0.92
0.87
0.95
0.88
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.03
2:30
0.91
0.92
0.92
0.97
0.92
0.96
0.87
0.94
0.94
0.95
0.93
0.03
3:00
0.93
0.91
0.91
0.96
0.92
0.96
0.90
0.94
0.93
0.98
0.93
0.02
3:30
0.89
0.94
0.93
0.98
0.94
0.96
0.90
0.95
0.92
0.96
0.93
0.03
4:00
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.96
0.93
0.97
0.89
0.94
0.94
0.96
0.93
0.02
4:30
0.93
0.91
0.89
0.95
0.91
0.97
0.89
0.98
0.91
0.97
0.93
0.03
5:00
0.94
0.91
0.91
0.99
0.92
0.94
0.91
0.93
0.92
0.97
0.93
0.03
5:30
0.94
0.91
0.88
0.96
0.93
0.97
0.90
0.96
0.92
0.93
0.93
0.03
6:00
0.94
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.91
0.96
0.87
0.97
0.93
0.96
0.93
0.03
0:30
0.92
0.90
0.91
0.95
0.96
0.95
0.90
0.99
0.89
0.97
0.93
0.03
1:00
0.87
0.87
0.89
0.90
0.86
0.92
0.89
0.94
0.87
0.94
0.90
0.03
1:30
0.87
0.86
0.88
0.87
0.90
0.94
0.87
0.93
0.89
0.89
0.90
0.03
2:00
0.87
0.89
0.92
0.88
0.88
0.95
0.89
0.96
0.91
0.93
0.91
0.03
2:30
0.88
0.89
0.92
0.90
0.91
0.97
0.95
0.96
0.92
0.96
0.92
0.03
3:00
0.91
0.89
0.92
0.93
0.90
0.94
0.92
0.96
0.93
0.97
0.92
0.02
3:30
0.91
0.89
0.91
0.93
0.89
0.95
0.88
0.96
0.91
0.93
0.90
0.02
4:00
0.93
0.88
0.90
0.97
0.90
0.95
0.90
0.95
0.92
0.94
0.92
0.03
4:30
0.91
0.91
0.92
0.96
0.91
0.96
0.93
0.94
0.91
0.95
0.93
0.02
5:00
0.92
0.89
0.90
0.96
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.91
0.93
0.92
0.02
5:30
0.92
0.88
0.92
0.96
0.90
0.98
0.90
0.93
0.92
0.94
0.92
0.03
6:00
0.89
0.90
0.92
0.98
0.92
0.94
0.87
0.94
0.93
0.95
0.92
0.03
0:30
0.90
0.89
0.88
0.97
0.95
0.95
0.88
0.97
0.99
1.00
0.93
0.04
1:00
0.88
0.86
0.89
0.92
0.87
0.93
0.88
0.10
0.94
0.96
0.81
0.27
1:30
0.85
0.85
0.84
0.91
0.86
0.92
0.88
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.88
0.04
2:00
0.88
0.86
0.87
0.92
0.86
0.92
0.88
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.89
0.03
2:30
0.89
0.90
0.88
0.94
0.89
0.94
0.90
0.93
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.02
3:00
0.89
0.89
0.88
0.94
0.90
0.95
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.91
0.91
0.02
3:30
0.91
0.89
0.89
0.95
0.90
0.97
0.89
0.93
0.89
0.95
0.91
0.03
4:00
0.91
0.91
0.90
0.96
0.90
0.93
0.90
0.92
0.91
0.97
0.92
0.02
4:30
0.92
0.89
0.89
0.94
0.86
0.96
0.92
0.95
0.92
0.96
0.92
0.03
5:00
0.93
0.89
0.89
0.91
0.91
0.93
0.91
0.84
0.93
0.95
0.90
0.03
5:30
0.94
0.88
0.91
0.92
0.89
0.97
0.88
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.92
0.03
6:00
0.91
0.88
0.89
0.94
0.90
0.94
0.90
0.95
0.91
0.94
0.91
0.02
114
Table D.13 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
0.91
0.92
0.85
1.03
0.95
0.90
0.87
0.95
0.88
0.95
0.92
0.05
1:00
0.87
0.85
0.87
0.94
0.84
0.90
0.87
0.93
0.87
0.10
0.88
0.03
1:30
0.84
0.84
0.86
0.90
0.83
0.91
0.87
0.92
0.87
0.88
0.87
0.03
2:00
0.86
0.85
0.85
0.91
0.86
0.92
0.87
0.93
0.86
0.90
0.88
0.03
2:30
0.89
0.86
0.87
0.94
0.86
0.96
0.89
0.92
0.86
0.94
0.89
0.04
3:00
0.88
0.87
0.86
0.95
0.89
0.95
0.88
0.91
0.92
0.95
0.90
0.03
3:30
0.91
0.87
0.90
0.93
0.86
0.94
0.86
0.90
0.20
0.93
0.82
0.23
4:00
0.91
0.88
0.89
0.93
0.88
0.92
0.89
0.92
0.20
0.95
0.82
0.23
4:30
0.92
0.88
0.89
0.94
0.88
0.93
0.92
0.93
0.91
0.97
0.91
0.02
5:00
0.91
0.88
0.89
0.93
0.88
0.94
0.93
0.91
0.92
0.98
0.91
0.02
5:30
0.90
0.88
0.89
0.92
0.88
0.93
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.94
0.90
0.02
6:00
0.92
0.88
0.88
0.93
0.89
0.93
0.90
0.92
0.93
0.93
0.91
0.02
0:30
0.94
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.88
0.93
0.97
0.89
0.87
0.93
0.03
1:00
0.89
0.87
0.89
0.89
0.90
0.89
0.87
0.92
0.87
0.97
0.89
0.02
1:30
0.89
0.87
0.85
0.87
0.83
0.87
0.87
0.91
0.85
0.90
0.87
0.02
2:00
0.90
0.86
0.86
0.92
0.87
0.90
0.88
0.94
0.86
0.90
0.89
0.03
2:30
0.92
0.89
0.87
0.93
0.87
0.92
0.88
0.90
0.90
0.92
0.90
0.02
3:00
0.92
0.91
0.89
0.95
0.89
0.92
0.89
0.91
0.88
0.92
0.91
0.02
3:30
0.91
0.89
0.87
0.94
0.88
0.91
0.89
0.92
0.91
0.93
0.90
0.02
4:00
0.92
0.89
0.88
0.95
0.89
0.92
0.88
0.92
0.87
0.92
0.90
0.03
4:30
0.90
0.89
0.90
0.93
0.89
0.91
0.89
0.92
0.91
1.00
0.90
0.02
5:00
0.90
0.89
0.86
0.93
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.95
0.90
0.95
0.91
0.03
5:30
0.89
0.88
0.89
0.93
0.90
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.92
0.91
0.02
6:00
0.91
0.89
0.90
0.93
0.90
0.92
0.90
0.92
0.91
0.95
0.91
0.01
0:30
0.89
0.92
0.89
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.86
0.94
0.92
0.96
0.92
0.03
1:00
0.83
0.86
0.90
0.90
0.86
0.89
0.84
0.89
0.87
0.94
0.88
0.02
1:30
0.84
0.85
0.84
0.88
0.86
0.90
0.86
0.89
0.89
0.91
0.87
0.02
2:00
0.86
0.87
0.84
0.88
0.85
0.95
0.89
0.90
0.88
0.91
0.88
0.03
2:30
0.85
0.88
0.86
0.92
0.88
0.91
0.89
0.91
0.88
0.92
0.89
0.02
3:00
0.86
0.88
0.88
0.92
0.86
0.93
0.88
0.92
0.89
0.93
0.88
0.03
3:30
0.89
0.88
0.88
0.91
0.88
0.92
0.88
0.92
0.90
0.91
0.90
0.02
4:00
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.93
0.87
0.92
0.90
0.94
0.88
0.97
0.90
0.03
4:30
0.89
0.89
0.90
0.97
0.88
0.92
0.90
0.93
0.90
0.93
0.91
0.03
5:00
0.88
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.88
0.95
0.88
0.93
0.89
0.92
0.90
0.02
5:30
0.89
0.86
0.89
0.87
0.87
0.92
0.90
0.94
0.90
0.93
0.90
0.03
6:00
0.89
0.88
0.90
0.91
0.86
0.94
0.88
0.94
0.91
0.96
0.90
0.03
115
Table D.14
Oxygen Consumption (L/min)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.39
1.73
1.48
1.93
1.81
1.80
2.40
1.52
1.74
1.77
1.76
0.28
1:00
2.02
2.40
1.89
2.43
2.16
2.17
2.74
2.09
2.37
2.05
2.23
0.25
1:30
2.25
2.48
2.40
2.59
2.40
2.65
2.89
2.28
2.82
2.25
2.50
0.23
2:00
2.25
2.71
2.51
2.72
2.50
2.38
2.90
2.46
2.59
2.50
2.55
0.19
2:30
2.22
2.62
2.29
2.73
2.48
2.39
2.82
2.08
2.69
2.31
2.46
0.25
3:00
2.13
2.65
2.39
2.81
2.52
2.70
3.00
2.37
2.62
2.39
2.56
0.25
3:30
2.24
2.62
2.36
2.71
2.51
2.47
2.99
2.43
2.71
2.46
2.55
0.21
4:00
2.23
2.71
2.39
2.70
2.48
2.44
3.02
2.37
2.65
2.27
2.53
0.24
4:30
2.09
2.55
2.58
2.91
2.53
2.52
2.94
2.38
2.67
2.41
2.56
0.25
5:00
2.21
2.55
2.31
2.80
2.51
2.55
2.96
2.29
2.51
2.26
2.50
0.24
5:30
2.30
2.68
2.41
2.83
2.59
2.48
3.04
2.38
2.53
2.47
2.57
0.22
6:00
2.25
2.58
2.42
2.77
2.51
2.58
2.96
2.33
2.49
2.50
2.54
0.21
0:30
1.70
2.33
1.90
2.05
2.07
1.94
2.50
2.08
2.29
1.78
2.06
0.25
1:00
1.98
2.40
2.06
2.47
2.14
2.52
2.59
2.13
2.39
2.05
2.27
0.22
1:30
2.18
2.66
2.44
2.80
2.54
2.46
2.57
2.31
2.68
2.30
2.50
0.19
2:00
2.25
2.72
2.39
2.75
2.42
2.60
2.73
2.43
2.72
2.26
2.53
0.20
2:30
2.19
2.55
2.49
2.96
2.56
2.55
2.76
2.33
2.69
2.36
2.54
0.22
3:00
2.23
2.67
2.46
2.80
2.49
2.57
2.66
2.56
2.66
2.37
2.55
0.17
3:30
2.20
2.62
2.45
2.85
2.51
2.48
2.81
2.28
2.66
2.41
2.53
0.21
4:00
2.23
2.75
2.43
2.87
2.45
2.64
2.83
2.46
2.67
2.30
2.56
0.22
4:30
2.29
2.64
2.34
2.70
2.54
2.43
2.64
2.38
2.66
2.33
2.50
0.16
5:00
2.19
2.64
2.45
2.85
2.56
2.44
2.68
2.33
2.80
2.35
2.53
0.21
5:30
2.21
2.69
2.38
2.87
2.44
2.64
2.83
2.49
2.67
2.37
2.56
0.22
6:00
2.18
2.58
2.35
2.92
2.61
2.64
2.75
2.46
2.67
2.48
2.56
0.21
0:30
1.56
1.66
1.81
2.24
1.98
1.80
2.53
2.03
2.15
1.77
1.95
0.29
1:00
2.01
2.33
2.17
2.46
2.22
2.22
2.55
2.22
2.58
2.05
2.28
0.20
1:30
2.21
2.81
2.47
2.84
2.43
2.56
2.59
2.43
2.41
2.27
2.50
0.20
2:00
2.24
2.81
2.23
2.88
2.54
2.36
2.59
2.26
2.62
2.30
2.48
0.24
2:30
2.07
2.69
2.45
2.74
2.54
2.50
2.81
2.31
2.53
2.14
2.48
0.25
3:00
2.25
2.77
2.62
2.82
2.57
2.47
2.72
2.14
2.36
2.14
2.49
0.25
3:30
2.00
2.67
2.47
2.89
2.62
2.46
2.66
2.42
2.58
2.18
2.50
0.26
4:00
2.20
2.68
2.47
2.94
2.61
2.48
2.57
2.29
2.52
2.34
2.51
0.21
4:30
2.25
2.65
2.29
2.80
2.57
2.53
2.87
2.45
2.43
2.26
2.51
0.22
5:00
2.13
2.72
2.52
2.87
2.61
2.46
2.77
2.48
2.42
2.17
2.51
0.24
5:30
2.22
2.68
2.54
2.87
2.67
2.57
2.75
2.31
2.55
2.18
2.53
0.23
6:00
2.16
2.77
2.52
2.82
2.60
2.42
2.71
2.44
2.67
2.41
2.55
0.20
116
Table D.14 (continued)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.68
2.43
2.16
1.97
1.87
1.65
2.42
1.86
2.08
1.87
2.00
0.27
1:00
1.92
2.57
2.14
2.47
2.38
2.22
2.51
2.15
2.26
2.02
2.27
0.22
1:30
2.23
2.63
2.43
2.81
2.41
2.49
2.60
2.36
2.41
2.28
2.46
0.17
2:00
2.17
2.69
2.57
2.76
2.72
2.57
2.64
2.37
2.37
2.16
2.50
0.22
2:30
2.22
2.80
2.56
2.95
2.47
2.45
2.67
2.46
2.39
2.29
2.53
0.23
3:00
2.16
2.71
2.48
2.78
2.65
2.75
2.65
2.41
2.50
2.22
2.53
0.22
3:30
2.19
2.67
2.59
2.86
2.65
2.44
2.69
2.45
2.65
2.36
2.56
0.19
4:00
2.16
2.74
2.52
2.87
2.61
2.59
2.64
2.39
2.64
2.25
2.54
0.22
4:30
2.12
2.72
2.62
2.81
2.63
2.56
2.74
2.38
2.58
2.39
2.55
0.21
5:00
2.09
2.64
2.53
2.84
2.56
2.47
2.63
2.34
2.67
2.28
2.50
0.22
5:30
2.20
2.75
2.47
2.72
2.69
2.56
2.74
2.52
2.43
2.19
2.53
0.21
6:00
2.13
2.64
2.63
2.97
2.68
2.69
2.66
2.49
2.42
2.33
2.56
0.23
0:30
1.78
2.06
2.05
2.45
2.20
1.92
2.43
2.14
2.24
1.40
2.07
0.31
1:00
2.05
2.35
2.43
2.39
2.29
2.19
2.43
2.32
2.44
2.04
2.29
0.15
1:30
2.29
2.61
2.48
2.77
2.48
2.38
2.62
2.34
2.55
2.22
2.47
0.17
2:00
2.30
2.59
2.43
2.88
2.62
2.62
2.67
2.45
2.63
2.26
2.54
0.19
2:30
2.20
2.63
2.59
2.88
2.63
2.58
2.65
2.37
2.49
2.19
2.52
0.21
3:00
2.17
2.75
2.50
2.76
2.64
2.59
2.59
2.47
2.48
2.37
2.53
0.18
3:30
2.26
2.69
2.57
2.88
2.61
2.57
2.66
2.37
2.50
2.00
2.51
0.25
4:00
2.24
2.59
2.52
2.88
2.50
2.51
2.70
2.45
2.48
2.39
2.52
0.17
4:30
2.29
2.67
2.64
2.79
2.66
2.50
2.55
2.43
2.52
2.32
2.54
0.16
5:00
2.20
2.60
2.45
2.87
2.58
2.61
2.64
2.38
2.40
2.19
2.49
0.21
5:30
2.24
2.58
2.57
2.83
2.72
2.55
2.65
2.50
2.59
2.29
2.55
0.18
6:00
2.22
2.74
2.50
2.86
2.66
2.25
2.77
2.39
2.39
2.30
2.51
0.23
0:30
1.71
2.12
2.24
2.43
2.30
2.03
2.46
2.09
2.24
1.82
2.14
0.24
1:00
2.05
2.63
2.32
2.57
2.37
2.27
2.52
2.35
2.41
2.05
2.35
0.20
1:30
2.21
2.63
2.54
2.68
2.54
2.52
2.58
2.40
2.32
2.15
2.46
0.18
2:00
2.35
2.76
2.58
3.03
2.58
2.62
2.65
2.52
2.67
2.28
2.60
0.21
2:30
2.24
2.72
2.41
2.82
2.68
2.55
2.65
2.55
2.63
2.12
2.54
0.22
3:00
2.22
2.67
2.57
2.93
2.57
2.50
2.65
2.54
2.48
2.49
2.56
0.18
3:30
2.25
2.80
2.53
2.95
2.66
2.67
2.61
2.53
2.64
2.38
2.60
0.20
4:00
2.27
2.66
2.62
2.83
2.69
2.59
2.73
2.48
2.74
2.26
2.59
0.19
4:30
2.26
2.73
2.53
2.72
2.61
2.65
2.77
2.55
2.78
2.30
2.59
0.19
5:00
2.24
2.74
2.62
2.93
2.70
2.64
2.62
2.50
2.67
2.23
2.59
0.22
5:30
2.26
2.74
2.59
2.99
2.56
2.60
2.66
2.56
2.78
2.41
2.61
0.20
6:00
2.31
2.68
2.48
2.99
2.77
2.70
2.68
2.49
2.64
2.25
2.60
0.22
117
Table D.14 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.49
1.76
1.49
1.76
1.76
1.65
1.88
1.63
1.63
1.84
1.69
0.13
1:00
2.05
2.36
2.17
2.41
2.10
2.28
2.29
2.04
2.43
2.00
2.21
0.16
1:30
2.38
2.73
2.58
2.77
2.44
2.37
2.70
2.36
2.50
2.05
2.49
0.22
2:00
2.16
2.75
2.32
2.74
2.42
2.49
2.60
2.44
2.56
2.30
2.48
0.19
2:30
2.29
2.83
2.43
2.78
2.54
2.42
2.58
2.40
2.53
2.21
2.50
0.20
3:00
2.05
2.68
2.59
2.77
2.47
2.37
2.67
2.31
2.57
2.36
2.48
0.22
3:30
2.34
2.82
2.34
2.90
2.46
2.42
2.55
2.38
2.73
2.12
2.51
0.24
4:00
2.23
2.58
2.63
2.87
2.37
2.44
2.54
2.47
2.51
2.35
2.50
0.17
4:30
2.29
2.87
2.39
2.82
2.50
2.39
2.66
2.37
2.65
2.31
2.53
0.21
5:00
2.32
2.72
2.55
2.87
2.51
2.55
2.66
2.45
2.74
2.30
2.57
0.18
5:30
2.22
2.81
2.52
2.83
2.48
2.44
2.73
2.42
2.68
2.42
2.56
0.20
6:00
2.15
2.74
2.47
2.73
2.42
2.34
2.53
2.33
2.53
2.40
2.46
0.18
0:30
1.71
2.25
1.90
0.89
2.26
2.01
1.93
2.07
2.18
2.22
1.94
0.41
1:00
2.13
2.43
2.37
0.96
2.27
2.27
2.34
2.19
2.45
2.08
2.15
0.43
1:30
2.27
2.66
2.37
1.24
2.38
2.40
2.48
2.34
2.59
2.23
2.30
0.39
2:00
2.21
2.79
2.59
1.20
2.56
2.36
2.57
2.39
2.58
2.03
2.34
0.45
2:30
2.29
2.74
2.52
1.36
2.49
2.39
2.43
2.54
2.64
2.48
2.39
0.38
3:00
2.18
2.65
2.47
1.22
2.50
2.44
2.67
2.39
2.63
2.26
2.34
0.43
3:30
2.30
2.68
2.55
1.11
2.61
2.42
2.52
2.43
2.57
2.28
2.35
0.45
4:00
2.23
2.69
2.57
1.29
2.52
2.40
2.47
2.54
2.61
2.05
2.34
0.41
4:30
2.12
2.69
2.52
1.28
2.49
2.46
2.65
2.39
2.68
2.55
2.38
0.42
5:00
2.14
2.69
2.56
1.09
2.70
2.44
2.53
2.50
2.62
2.17
2.35
0.48
5:30
2.41
2.84
2.49
1.27
2.53
2.46
2.75
2.47
2.61
2.25
2.41
0.43
6:00
2.26
2.65
2.50
1.35
2.61
2.48
2.56
2.45
2.69
2.31
2.39
0.39
0:30
1.57
2.17
2.14
2.08
2.28
1.99
2.42
2.26
1.90
2.02
2.08
0.24
1:00
2.14
2.55
2.00
2.47
2.24
2.16
2.38
2.20
2.33
2.11
2.26
0.17
1:30
2.26
2.69
2.58
2.57
2.46
2.57
2.50
2.47
2.75
2.19
2.50
0.18
2:00
2.16
2.80
2.51
2.96
2.39
2.43
2.55
2.38
2.68
2.13
2.50
0.26
2:30
2.20
2.69
2.55
2.87
2.65
2.51
2.68
2.43
2.65
2.42
2.57
0.19
3:00
2.15
2.72
2.48
2.90
2.50
2.47
2.46
2.49
2.67
2.22
2.51
0.22
3:30
2.27
2.79
2.36
2.80
2.62
2.42
2.49
2.31
2.63
2.30
2.50
0.20
4:00
2.15
2.75
2.59
2.89
2.50
2.34
2.64
2.48
2.69
2.14
2.52
0.25
4:30
2.23
2.69
2.44
2.82
2.57
2.52
2.61
2.37
2.71
2.33
2.53
0.19
5:00
2.18
2.80
2.57
2.78
2.53
2.44
2.58
2.40
2.59
2.22
2.51
0.21
5:30
2.36
2.67
2.34
2.81
2.66
2.49
2.62
2.46
2.61
2.42
2.54
0.15
6:00
2.27
2.82
2.59
2.99
2.60
2.44
2.42
2.45
2.71
2.09
2.54
0.26
118
Table D.14 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.61
2.43
1.72
1.94
1.89
2.06
2.39
2.17
2.14
2.08
2.04
0.26
1:00
1.94
2.57
2.21
2.44
2.27
2.17
2.24
2.19
2.37
1.92
2.23
0.20
1:30
2.30
2.62
2.52
2.73
2.51
2.47
2.48
2.26
2.69
1.99
2.46
0.22
2:00
2.28
2.64
2.50
2.76
2.53
2.48
2.46
2.49
2.64
2.31
2.51
0.15
2:30
2.19
2.81
2.56
2.76
2.49
2.55
2.50
2.36
2.75
2.12
2.51
0.23
3:00
2.13
2.71
2.51
2.81
2.55
2.47
2.49
2.55
2.66
2.27
2.52
0.20
3:30
2.29
2.86
2.44
2.76
2.58
2.44
2.54
2.38
2.64
2.21
2.51
0.20
4:00
2.19
2.78
2.56
2.63
2.53
2.43
2.59
2.41
2.67
2.20
2.50
0.19
4:30
2.13
2.72
2.47
2.72
2.61
2.48
2.52
2.48
2.70
2.28
2.51
0.19
5:00
2.25
2.77
2.49
2.86
2.54
2.44
2.50
2.40
2.73
2.26
2.52
0.21
5:30
2.25
2.79
2.45
2.74
2.52
2.49
2.71
2.56
2.73
2.31
2.55
0.19
6:00
2.20
2.68
2.60
2.70
2.71
2.38
2.50
2.34
2.61
2.28
2.50
0.19
0:30
1.72
1.50
1.88
2.16
2.28
1.66
1.90
1.74
1.98
2.14
1.89
0.25
1:00
1.91
2.56
2.46
2.54
2.27
2.32
2.28
2.20
2.62
1.96
2.31
0.24
1:30
2.30
2.63
2.39
2.68
2.53
2.37
2.51
2.59
2.61
2.03
2.47
0.20
2:00
2.10
2.79
2.55
2.88
2.67
2.51
2.53
2.42
2.85
2.24
2.55
0.26
2:30
2.22
2.79
2.60
2.81
2.60
2.38
2.48
2.46
2.76
2.21
2.53
0.22
3:00
2.21
2.71
2.56
2.82
2.54
2.43
2.58
2.50
2.68
2.25
2.53
0.19
3:30
2.08
2.58
2.61
2.78
2.59
2.43
2.45
2.45
2.82
2.07
2.49
0.25
4:00
2.18
2.89
2.46
2.82
2.61
2.45
2.55
2.40
2.72
2.35
2.54
0.22
4:30
2.27
2.76
2.58
2.84
2.61
2.52
2.50
2.54
2.72
2.18
2.55
0.21
5:00
2.23
2.74
2.53
2.79
2.51
2.46
2.64
2.47
2.82
2.09
2.53
0.24
5:30
2.14
2.71
2.68
2.74
2.68
2.52
2.50
2.46
2.77
2.28
2.55
0.21
6:00
2.25
2.69
2.37
2.87
2.54
2.41
2.54
2.48
2.78
2.20
2.51
0.22
0:30
1.62
2.47
1.82
2.22
2.49
2.22
2.30
2.30
2.58
2.10
2.21
0.30
1:00
2.04
2.54
2.23
2.52
2.36
2.11
2.37
2.38
2.54
1.99
2.31
0.21
1:30
2.25
2.74
2.53
2.80
2.55
2.44
2.38
2.43
2.74
2.17
2.50
0.21
2:00
2.11
2.81
2.54
2.78
2.60
2.41
2.68
2.52
2.75
2.19
2.54
0.24
2:30
2.26
2.71
2.59
2.87
2.66
2.38
2.65
2.50
2.89
2.15
2.57
0.24
3:00
2.16
2.65
2.61
2.89
2.59
2.46
2.66
2.51
2.73
2.20
2.55
0.23
3:30
2.24
2.82
2.58
2.87
2.63
2.54
2.59
2.52
2.82
2.13
2.57
0.24
4:00
2.19
2.67
2.52
2.91
2.63
2.54
2.55
2.49
2.85
2.18
2.55
0.24
4:30
2.17
2.88
2.53
2.84
2.64
2.45
2.61
2.51
2.79
2.20
2.56
0.25
5:00
2.22
2.75
2.62
2.94
2.66
2.50
2.49
2.69
2.77
2.14
2.58
0.25
5:30
2.20
2.76
2.61
2.87
2.61
2.46
2.74
2.50
2.82
2.30
2.59
0.22
6:00
2.26
2.90
2.47
2.84
2.70
2.51
2.68
2.53
2.76
2.22
2.59
0.23
119
Table D.14 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.26
1.74
1.48
1.80
1.86
1.72
2.32
1.43
2.33
1.40
1.73
0.37
1:00
1.97
2.32
2.03
2.29
2.21
2.13
2.32
2.27
2.48
1.83
2.19
0.20
1:30
2.26
2.60
2.36
2.70
2.47
2.42
2.66
2.45
2.41
2.20
2.45
0.16
2:00
2.24
2.66
2.13
2.73
2.56
2.42
2.50
2.40
2.43
2.11
2.42
0.21
2:30
2.24
2.57
2.25
2.68
2.51
2.36
2.83
2.55
2.34
2.27
2.46
0.20
3:00
1.95
2.78
2.32
2.71
2.62
2.46
2.67
2.44
2.50
2.17
2.46
0.26
3:30
2.35
2.66
2.17
2.70
2.58
2.52
2.80
2.48
2.42
2.21
2.49
0.21
4:00
2.22
2.57
2.26
2.71
2.58
2.44
2.65
2.49
2.36
2.25
2.45
0.18
4:30
2.10
2.59
2.30
2.79
2.64
2.32
2.83
2.51
2.44
2.32
2.45
0.23
5:00
2.31
2.76
2.41
2.70
2.51
2.51
2.78
2.50
2.47
2.12
2.51
0.20
5:30
2.22
2.65
2.31
2.63
2.61
2.52
2.69
2.46
2.49
2.33
2.49
0.16
6:00
2.15
2.56
2.40
2.63
2.48
2.46
2.88
2.47
2.51
2.40
2.49
0.19
0:30
1.67
2.40
1.97
1.99
2.03
1.94
2.61
2.02
2.01
1.82
2.04
0.27
1:00
1.96
2.53
2.22
2.40
2.43
2.22
2.37
2.22
2.27
1.88
2.25
0.20
1:30
2.05
2.70
2.28
2.69
2.41
2.37
2.47
2.56
2.54
1.96
2.40
0.25
2:00
2.21
2.66
2.30
2.89
2.61
2.49
2.87
2.46
2.46
2.42
2.54
0.22
2:30
2.21
2.74
2.28
2.73
2.51
2.42
2.55
2.47
2.50
2.28
2.47
0.18
3:00
2.17
2.59
2.37
2.84
2.56
2.46
2.64
2.49
2.49
2.16
2.48
0.21
3:30
2.26
2.76
2.17
2.79
2.63
2.38
2.59
2.48
2.44
2.32
2.48
0.21
4:00
2.13
2.73
2.44
2.81
2.56
2.45
2.79
2.44
2.41
2.15
2.49
0.24
4:30
2.20
2.69
2.27
2.78
2.61
2.52
2.82
2.52
2.59
2.36
2.54
0.21
5:00
2.19
2.74
2.39
2.83
2.51
2.50
2.66
2.44
2.50
2.13
2.49
0.22
5:30
2.15
2.67
2.37
2.82
2.63
2.42
2.58
2.51
2.47
2.22
2.48
0.21
6:00
2.11
2.70
2.30
2.72
2.54
2.52
2.82
2.65
2.64
2.21
2.52
0.24
0:30
1.60
2.41
2.09
2.14
2.18
2.02
2.46
1.71
2.10
1.88
2.06
0.27
1:00
1.91
2.35
2.08
2.38
2.23
2.31
2.46
2.23
2.31
1.84
2.21
0.20
1:30
2.09
2.51
2.37
2.73
2.33
2.34
2.68
2.35
2.42
2.01
2.38
0.23
2:00
2.12
2.85
2.40
2.80
2.72
2.37
2.70
2.46
2.43
2.18
2.50
0.25
2:30
2.18
2.66
2.26
2.75
2.56
2.47
2.63
2.29
2.61
1.81
2.42
0.29
3:00
2.22
2.79
2.34
2.81
2.58
2.48
2.58
2.61
2.42
2.41
2.52
0.19
3:30
2.10
2.63
2.44
2.86
2.61
2.42
2.72
2.44
2.53
2.23
2.50
0.22
4:00
2.23
2.74
2.38
2.75
2.37
2.51
2.60
2.53
2.59
2.13
2.48
0.21
4:30
2.15
2.63
2.34
2.64
2.82
2.44
2.73
2.54
2.57
2.28
2.51
0.21
5:00
2.17
2.74
2.44
2.92
2.64
2.54
2.59
2.44
2.47
2.16
2.51
0.23
5:30
2.03
2.70
2.25
2.78
2.62
2.48
2.60
2.60
2.54
2.32
2.49
0.23
6:00
2.03
2.64
2.44
2.84
2.67
2.41
2.85
2.56
2.50
2.28
2.52
0.25
120
Table D.14 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.24
1.99
2.15
2.04
1.89
1.91
2.41
2.09
1.97
1.90
1.96
0.30
1:00
1.90
2.37
2.13
2.34
2.36
2.30
2.46
2.25
2.31
1.81
2.22
0.21
1:30
2.22
2.66
2.26
2.79
2.50
2.31
2.48
2.40
2.38
2.08
2.41
0.21
2:00
2.18
2.61
2.38
2.84
2.53
2.53
2.79
2.52
2.31
2.05
2.47
0.25
2:30
2.21
2.84
2.40
2.83
2.65
2.53
2.47
2.48
2.49
2.31
2.52
0.20
3:00
2.18
2.64
2.31
2.80
2.61
2.43
2.61
2.50
2.56
2.34
2.50
0.18
3:30
2.18
2.77
2.35
2.83
2.61
2.44
2.74
2.57
2.47
2.34
2.53
0.21
4:00
2.14
2.69
2.34
2.71
2.59
2.47
2.78
2.60
2.54
2.35
2.52
0.20
4:30
2.13
2.72
2.38
2.95
2.43
2.52
2.78
2.41
2.42
2.33
2.51
0.24
5:00
2.09
2.70
2.31
2.76
2.81
2.41
2.67
2.56
2.61
2.21
2.51
0.25
5:30
2.21
2.69
2.41
2.89
2.62
2.52
2.72
2.51
2.53
2.15
2.53
0.22
6:00
2.21
2.77
2.34
2.79
2.62
2.45
2.63
2.50
2.57
2.28
2.52
0.20
0:30
1.65
2.27
1.91
2.17
2.23
2.13
1.78
1.55
2.19
1.04
1.89
0.39
1:00
1.92
2.39
2.05
2.38
2.16
2.22
2.32
2.27
2.37
1.61
2.17
0.25
1:30
2.22
2.55
2.36
2.91
2.68
2.38
2.59
2.41
2.41
1.98
2.45
0.25
2:00
2.25
2.68
2.33
2.84
2.59
2.67
2.56
2.39
2.54
2.17
2.50
0.21
2:30
2.23
2.70
2.46
2.89
2.81
2.51
2.62
2.43
2.44
2.14
2.52
0.24
3:00
2.02
2.59
2.31
2.79
2.62
2.57
2.58
2.38
2.49
2.27
2.46
0.22
3:30
2.22
2.66
2.42
2.83
2.59
2.61
2.63
2.45
2.49
2.11
2.50
0.21
4:00
2.09
2.68
2.43
2.83
2.67
2.48
2.64
2.38
2.61
2.40
2.52
0.21
4:30
2.10
2.63
2.34
2.72
2.70
2.62
2.73
2.35
2.69
2.23
2.51
0.23
5:00
2.18
2.58
2.36
2.87
2.67
2.60
2.65
2.53
2.61
2.02
2.51
0.25
5:30
2.11
2.64
2.40
2.73
2.73
2.51
2.76
2.35
2.63
2.13
2.50
0.24
6:00
2.08
2.65
2.43
2.95
2.67
2.58
2.49
2.48
2.57
2.15
2.51
0.25
0:30
1.59
2.13
2.08
2.13
2.06
1.83
2.48
1.91
1.78
1.96
1.99
0.24
1:00
2.04
2.40
2.01
2.42
2.42
2.25
2.53
2.29
2.63
1.87
2.29
0.25
1:30
2.28
2.54
2.24
2.74
2.53
2.38
2.65
2.37
2.46
2.04
2.42
0.21
2:00
2.22
2.65
2.37
2.81
2.66
2.32
2.75
2.41
2.60
2.16
2.49
0.23
2:30
2.16
2.70
2.43
2.84
2.60
2.47
2.69
2.57
2.55
2.18
2.52
0.22
3:00
2.32
2.65
2.39
2.78
2.69
2.41
2.74
2.48
2.60
2.08
2.51
0.22
3:30
2.22
2.65
2.37
2.69
2.67
2.49
2.74
2.53
2.61
2.24
2.52
0.19
4:00
2.18
2.67
2.47
2.34
2.70
2.51
2.80
2.55
2.55
2.11
2.49
0.22
4:30
2.24
2.63
2.39
2.25
2.74
2.47
2.75
2.53
2.60
2.05
2.47
0.23
5:00
2.19
2.63
2.41
2.48
2.63
2.45
2.86
2.55
2.34
2.24
2.48
0.20
5:30
2.26
2.66
2.44
2.79
2.59
2.44
2.68
2.49
2.35
2.11
2.48
0.21
6:00
2.35
2.75
2.37
2.80
2.77
2.54
2.72
2.50
2.39
2.22
2.54
0.21
121
Table D.15
Carbon Dioxide Consumption (L/min)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.29
1.67
1.40
2.03
1.92
1.90
1.93
1.52
1.59
1.64
1.69
0.25
1:00
1.72
2.10
1.58
2.24
1.90
2.04
2.22
1.82
1.98
1.72
1.93
0.22
1:30
1.89
2.14
1.96
2.36
2.23
2.37
2.38
2.01
2.40
1.92
2.17
0.21
2:00
1.95
2.36
2.16
2.40
2.31
2.30
2.40
2.22
2.29
2.17
2.26
0.14
2:30
1.96
2.36
2.06
2.46
2.33
2.24
2.35
2.02
2.39
2.07
2.22
0.18
3:00
1.90
2.40
2.13
2.62
2.39
2.58
2.49
2.12
2.36
2.13
2.31
0.23
3:30
1.99
2.39
2.38
2.54
2.39
2.43
2.50
2.19
2.44
2.20
2.35
0.17
4:00
1.97
2.45
2.21
2.49
2.34
2.40
2.55
2.23
2.40
2.06
2.31
0.19
4:30
1.85
2.35
2.25
2.73
2.38
2.43
2.47
2.22
2.41
2.17
2.33
0.23
5:00
1.95
2.32
2.20
2.75
2.38
2.46
2.50
2.14
2.30
2.05
2.31
0.23
5:30
2.07
2.44
2.21
2.67
2.45
2.43
2.53
2.23
2.26
2.17
2.35
0.19
6:00
2.04
2.37
2.21
2.70
2.38
2.48
2.51
2.20
2.23
2.30
2.34
0.19
0:30
1.54
2.12
1.99
1.96
2.03
1.91
2.20
2.08
2.03
1.75
1.96
0.19
1:00
1.70
2.12
1.88
2.22
1.92
2.30
2.31
2.03
2.04
1.81
2.03
0.21
1:30
1.84
2.37
2.24
2.50
2.22
2.31
2.29
2.06
2.30
2.05
2.21
0.19
2:00
1.98
2.44
2.18
2.42
2.24
2.50
2.40
2.20
2.40
2.04
2.28
0.18
2:30
1.93
2.33
2.36
2.68
2.36
2.37
2.50
2.10
2.44
2.19
2.33
0.21
3:00
1.95
2.43
2.27
2.57
2.35
2.45
2.44
2.31
2.44
2.13
2.33
0.18
3:30
1.94
2.35
2.31
2.61
2.32
2.33
2.56
2.11
2.40
2.21
2.31
0.20
4:00
1.91
2.52
2.29
2.68
2.33
2.50
2.67
2.23
2.44
2.17
2.37
0.24
4:30
2.07
2.48
2.24
2.59
2.35
2.35
2.48
2.17
2.41
2.17
2.33
0.17
5:00
2.02
2.41
2.33
2.60
2.43
2.21
2.45
2.15
2.55
2.22
2.34
0.19
5:30
2.01
2.46
2.19
2.63
2.31
2.45
2.61
2.27
2.45
2.16
2.35
0.20
6:00
1.98
2.41
2.16
2.77
2.48
2.38
2.55
2.26
2.46
2.29
2.37
0.22
0:30
1.48
1.55
1.69
2.08
2.04
1.94
2.18
2.03
1.92
1.72
1.86
0.24
1:00
1.74
1.92
1.85
2.15
2.02
2.09
2.27
2.07
2.26
1.86
2.02
0.18
1:30
1.93
2.35
2.11
2.50
2.16
2.44
2.36
2.21
2.14
2.05
2.22
0.18
2:00
2.00
2.40
1.96
2.65
2.29
2.29
2.28
2.10
2.34
2.08
2.24
0.21
2:30
1.82
2.37
2.16
2.49
2.36
2.31
2.52
2.07
2.33
2.02
2.25
0.22
3:00
1.97
2.38
2.34
2.59
2.41
2.41
2.54
2.01
2.16
1.95
2.28
0.24
3:30
1.72
2.36
2.26
2.63
2.44
2.34
2.42
2.22
2.31
2.00
2.27
0.25
4:00
1.93
2.33
2.29
2.79
2.41
2.30
2.35
2.08
2.27
2.10
2.28
0.23
4:30
2.00
2.30
2.10
2.65
2.37
2.47
2.59
2.22
2.25
2.12
2.31
0.21
5:00
1.93
2.35
2.20
2.69
2.42
2.37
2.55
2.29
2.23
2.02
2.31
0.23
5:30
1.98
2.35
2.27
2.72
2.46
2.47
2.53
2.20
2.32
2.04
2.33
0.23
6:00
1.95
2.40
2.32
2.63
2.42
2.37
2.50
2.24
2.48
2.22
2.35
0.19
122
Table D.15 (continued)
GATORADE
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.53
2.10
2.11
1.99
1.87
1.71
2.18
1.74
1.84
1.79
1.89
0.21
1:00
1.69
2.23
2.00
2.18
2.16
2.01
2.26
1.92
1.99
1.81
2.03
0.19
1:30
1.88
2.26
2.10
2.41
2.11
2.28
2.34
2.09
2.11
1.95
2.16
0.17
2:00
1.88
2.35
2.24
2.43
2.41
2.39
2.40
2.14
2.14
2.03
2.24
0.19
2:30
1.94
2.47
2.31
2.59
2.27
2.32
2.46
2.23
2.19
2.10
2.29
0.19
3:00
1.90
2.39
2.22
2.51
2.40
2.53
2.47
2.18
2.24
2.06
2.29
0.21
3:30
1.93
2.33
2.30
2.65
2.46
2.29
2.42
2.22
2.39
2.21
2.32
0.19
4:00
1.93
2.41
2.38
2.70
2.36
2.36
2.46
2.16
2.39
2.14
2.33
0.21
4:30
1.90
2.40
2.25
2.63
2.37
2.40
2.53
2.15
2.34
2.05
2.30
0.22
5:00
1.84
2.35
2.19
2.61
2.32
2.35
2.46
2.12
2.42
2.17
2.28
0.21
5:30
1.95
2.41
2.42
2.53
2.43
2.39
2.49
2.27
2.25
2.14
2.33
0.18
6:00
1.91
2.41
2.40
2.65
2.47
2.47
2.49
2.23
2.24
2.18
2.34
0.21
0:30
1.70
1.91
1.77
2.44
2.12
1.98
2.19
1.97
1.93
1.21
1.92
0.33
1:00
1.82
2.01
2.07
2.25
2.08
2.04
2.21
2.11
2.07
1.68
2.03
0.17
1:30
2.07
2.19
2.13
2.49
2.19
2.10
2.34
2.13
2.20
1.87
2.17
0.16
2:00
2.06
2.27
2.11
2.55
2.32
2.42
2.43
2.27
2.27
1.95
2.27
0.18
2:30
1.99
2.27
2.20
2.69
2.37
2.42
2.42
2.19
2.24
1.95
2.27
0.22
3:00
1.96
2.39
2.21
2.55
2.42
2.44
2.39
2.30
2.23
2.13
2.30
0.17
3:30
1.98
2.39
2.30
2.64
2.37
2.38
2.45
2.23
2.21
1.79
2.27
0.24
4:00
1.97
2.34
2.31
2.66
2.34
2.38
2.51
2.25
2.25
2.10
2.31
0.19
4:30
1.99
2.37
2.24
2.63
2.43
2.37
2.41
2.29
2.18
2.15
2.31
0.18
5:00
1.96
2.33
2.39
2.67
2.34
2.42
2.39
2.24
2.27
1.96
2.30
0.21
5:30
1.97
2.29
2.23
2.69
2.40
2.38
2.42
2.34
2.09
2.04
2.28
0.21
6:00
1.95
2.38
2.35
2.64
2.41
2.09
2.57
2.23
2.22
2.09
2.29
0.22
0:30
1.51
1.88
1.94
2.26
2.15
1.94
2.18
2.01
1.99
1.73
1.96
0.22
1:00
1.73
2.19
2.04
2.32
2.08
2.02
2.25
2.07
2.12
1.80
2.06
0.18
1:30
1.86
2.21
2.16
2.30
2.19
2.23
2.36
2.09
2.02
1.90
2.13
0.16
2:00
1.99
2.36
2.25
2.63
2.27
2.37
2.39
2.24
2.32
2.05
2.29
0.18
2:30
1.30
2.34
2.12
2.56
2.39
2.33
2.37
2.28
2.35
1.86
2.19
0.36
3:00
1.91
2.33
2.25
2.64
2.31
2.31
2.45
2.24
2.22
2.25
2.29
0.18
3:30
1.95
2.44
2.25
2.73
2.37
2.41
2.38
2.28
2.39
2.15
2.34
0.20
4:00
1.97
2.33
2.34
2.62
2.42
2.36
2.42
2.24
2.49
2.11
2.33
0.19
4:30
1.98
2.35
2.29
2.52
2.39
2.48
2.52
2.30
2.53
2.05
2.34
0.20
5:00
1.93
2.38
2.40
2.50
2.40
2.38
2.43
2.27
2.43
2.09
2.32
0.18
5:30
1.96
2.36
2.37
2.77
2.34
2.42
2.42
2.31
2.52
2.17
2.36
0.21
6:00
2.05
2.37
2.28
2.83
2.44
2.52
2.45
2.26
2.41
2.11
2.37
0.22
123
Table D.15 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.43
1.67
1.49
1.94
1.83
1.71
1.65
1.66
1.58
1.88
1.68
0.16
1:00
1.72
1.96
1.79
2.25
1.88
2.07
1.91
1.78
2.07
1.95
1.94
0.16
1:30
2.04
2.28
2.09
2.43
2.10
2.30
2.26
2.08
2.16
1.93
2.17
0.15
2:00
1.94
2.34
2.00
2.50
2.16
2.31
2.30
2.17
2.28
2.18
2.22
0.16
2:30
2.07
2.42
2.17
2.53
2.30
2.38
2.33
2.19
2.24
2.12
2.27
0.14
3:00
1.81
2.35
2.30
2.52
2.30
2.35
2.35
2.13
2.27
2.28
2.27
0.19
3:30
2.15
2.47
2.10
2.65
2.26
2.33
2.31
2.17
2.42
2.05
2.29
0.19
4:00
2.08
2.25
2.36
2.73
2.19
2.41
2.26
2.24
2.27
2.23
2.30
0.18
4:30
2.09
2.51
2.15
2.65
2.26
2.36
2.33
2.24
2.35
2.16
2.31
0.17
5:00
2.15
2.41
2.33
2.67
2.31
2.54
2.44
2.29
2.45
2.25
2.38
0.15
5:30
2.11
2.48
2.33
2.64
2.30
2.38
2.50
2.27
2.45
2.33
2.38
0.15
6:00
2.02
2.40
2.28
2.64
2.22
2.31
2.31
2.21
2.34
2.30
2.30
0.16
0:30
1.61
2.07
1.72
0.99
2.13
2.01
1.78
1.99
1.88
2.08
1.83
0.34
1:00
1.92
2.14
1.96
1.00
2.04
2.17
2.08
2.01
2.13
1.70
1.92
0.35
1:30
2.01
2.23
1.98
1.16
2.06
2.29
2.20
2.12
2.26
2.13
2.04
0.33
2:00
2.03
2.43
2.20
1.17
2.18
2.28
2.28
2.19
2.30
1.89
2.09
0.36
2:30
2.01
2.42
2.22
1.32
2.24
2.28
2.18
2.32
2.36
2.25
2.16
0.32
3:00
1.93
2.31
2.18
1.23
2.25
2.36
2.35
2.28
2.40
2.12
2.14
0.35
3:30
2.02
2.33
2.24
1.11
2.36
2.35
2.24
2.28
2.30
2.20
2.14
0.38
4:00
2.01
2.33
2.26
1.23
2.26
2.27
2.19
2.43
2.31
1.95
2.12
0.35
4:30
1.87
2.31
2.26
1.25
2.25
2.37
2.36
2.29
2.43
2.43
2.18
0.36
5:00
1.88
2.25
2.26
1.04
2.44
2.34
2.22
2.42
2.40
2.12
2.14
0.42
5:30
2.08
2.47
2.22
1.20
2.21
2.37
2.43
2.36
2.36
2.11
2.18
0.37
6:00
1.98
2.28
2.26
1.30
2.33
2.36
2.31
2.35
2.47
2.24
2.19
0.34
0:30
1.43
1.93
2.03
2.24
2.20
2.00
2.10
2.20
1.74
1.88
1.98
0.25
1:00
1.80
2.19
1.77
2.36
2.02
2.02
2.10
2.06
2.00
1.92
2.02
0.18
1:30
1.95
2.25
2.18
2.35
2.13
2.37
2.18
2.25
2.34
2.04
2.20
0.14
2:00
1.87
2.39
2.27
2.74
2.06
2.37
2.26
2.25
2.37
1.98
2.26
0.25
2:30
1.91
2.36
2.28
2.65
2.27
2.39
2.34
2.28
2.38
2.20
2.31
0.18
3:00
1.89
2.31
2.27
2.74
2.27
2.35
2.19
2.34
2.41
2.21
2.30
0.21
3:30
1.98
2.42
2.12
2.69
2.34
2.29
2.16
2.19
2.36
2.18
2.27
0.20
4:00
1.90
2.39
2.34
2.68
2.18
2.23
2.24
2.32
2.41
2.10
2.27
0.20
4:30
1.95
2.35
2.23
2.63
2.27
2.38
2.28
2.27
2.48
2.19
2.30
0.18
5:00
1.93
2.41
2.33
2.54
2.25
2.33
2.24
2.24
2.38
2.10
2.28
0.17
5:30
2.02
2.27
2.17
2.56
2.34
2.39
2.34
2.29
2.35
2.32
2.30
0.14
6:00
2.05
2.41
2.34
2.69
2.32
2.29
2.08
2.32
2.42
2.06
2.30
0.20
124
Table D.15 (continued)
GOOKINAID
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.51
2.15
1.57
1.98
1.85
1.95
2.05
2.10
1.87
1.92
1.89
0.21
1:00
1.62
2.22
1.89
2.13
1.93
1.98
1.98
2.06
2.02
1.76
1.96
0.17
1:30
1.93
2.24
2.11
2.47
2.13
2.20
2.12
2.08
2.27
1.79
2.13
0.19
2:00
1.99
2.29
2.17
2.52
2.22
2.28
2.15
2.28
2.30
2.04
2.22
0.15
2:30
1.94
2.37
2.23
2.55
2.20
2.38
2.19
2.19
2.40
1.99
2.24
0.19
3:00
1.86
2.33
2.27
2.58
2.21
2.36
2.12
2.38
2.37
2.19
2.27
0.19
3:30
1.98
2.42
2.19
2.54
2.21
2.30
2.18
2.23
2.31
1.99
2.24
0.17
4:00
1.96
2.44
2.26
2.42
2.26
2.23
2.19
2.25
2.38
2.08
2.25
0.15
4:30
1.88
2.38
2.24
2.47
2.31
2.31
2.24
2.31
2.42
2.05
2.26
0.18
5:00
1.95
2.40
2.17
2.64
2.28
2.31
2.18
2.26
2.45
2.11
2.28
0.19
5:30
2.01
2.47
2.20
2.66
2.19
2.28
2.36
2.39
2.45
2.13
2.31
0.19
6:00
1.98
2.34
2.35
2.61
2.40
2.35
2.20
2.21
2.36
2.20
2.30
0.17
0:30
1.54
1.42
1.74
2.11
2.10
1.71
1.63
1.75
1.77
1.97
1.77
0.23
1:00
1.63
2.10
2.05
2.28
2.01
2.23
1.88
1.90
2.18
1.86
2.01
0.20
1:30
1.99
2.18
2.01
2.34
2.14
2.24
2.06
2.26
2.22
1.85
2.13
0.15
2:00
1.84
2.31
2.10
2.55
2.29
2.36
2.12
2.19
2.48
2.03
2.23
0.21
2:30
1.92
2.35
2.23
2.55
2.32
2.28
2.07
2.25
2.41
2.03
2.24
0.19
3:00
1.97
2.29
2.23
2.55
2.26
2.26
2.15
2.25
2.35
2.10
2.24
0.15
3:30
1.78
2.22
2.31
2.48
2.27
2.35
2.05
2.25
2.50
1.92
2.21
0.23
4:00
1.88
2.42
2.14
2.51
2.30
2.33
2.13
2.20
2.47
2.26
2.26
0.19
4:30
1.98
2.40
2.28
2.55
2.29
2.38
2.08
2.30
2.39
2.03
2.27
0.18
5:00
1.96
2.37
2.22
2.51
2.21
2.32
2.18
2.28
2.50
1.97
2.25
0.19
5:30
1.90
2.36
2.36
2.47
2.35
2.41
2.15
2.28
2.53
2.09
2.29
0.19
6:00
1.96
2.32
2.10
2.53
2.22
2.28
2.13
2.27
2.53
2.02
2.24
0.19
0:30
1.45
2.11
1.79
2.18
2.27
2.28
1.92
2.19
2.20
1.89
2.03
0.26
1:00
1.75
2.13
1.95
2.27
2.12
2.07
1.99
2.20
2.21
1.81
2.05
0.17
1:30
1.90
2.32
2.13
2.46
2.24
2.22
2.01
2.20
2.26
1.94
2.17
0.18
2:00
1.81
2.35
2.24
2.44
2.30
2.21
2.19
2.30
2.41
1.98
2.22
0.19
2:30
1.94
2.39
2.21
2.57
2.33
2.23
2.28
2.29
2.52
2.02
2.28
0.20
3:00
1.90
2.33
2.28
2.61
2.24
2.26
2.34
2.33
2.42
2.06
2.28
0.19
3:30
1.94
2.42
2.20
2.57
2.32
2.34
2.25
2.34
2.45
1.96
2.28
0.20
4:00
1.92
2.33
2.25
2.63
2.29
2.39
2.21
2.31
2.51
2.03
2.29
0.21
4:30
1.91
2.42
2.24
2.54
2.33
2.24
2.23
2.28
2.48
2.01
2.27
0.20
5:00
1.94
2.33
2.28
2.64
2.34
2.39
2.14
2.44
2.45
2.03
2.30
0.21
5:30
1.92
2.47
2.29
2.56
2.29
2.29
2.40
2.33
2.49
2.07
2.31
0.20
6:00
1.99
2.41
2.17
2.58
2.38
2.33
2.34
2.36
2.45
2.10
2.31
0.18
125
Table D.15 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
1
Run
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.19
1.74
1.65
1.90
1.87
1.68
2.07
1.48
2.01
1.44
1.70
0.27
1:00
1.69
2.08
1.93
2.12
1.99
1.93
2.05
2.06
2.22
1.59
1.97
0.19
1:30
1.91
2.27
2.19
2.41
2.11
2.22
2.30
2.27
2.26
1.96
2.19
0.15
2:00
1.96
2.41
2.04
2.52
2.24
2.29
2.21
2.23
2.25
1.93
2.21
0.19
2:30
2.04
2.35
2.07
2.59
2.32
2.27
2.46
2.39
2.21
2.16
2.29
0.17
3:00
1.82
2.52
2.10
2.61
2.40
2.37
2.40
2.30
2.32
2.12
2.29
0.23
3:30
2.09
2.49
2.01
2.64
2.41
2.40
2.53
2.35
2.22
2.13
2.33
0.21
4:00
2.06
2.38
2.07
2.61
2.39
2.35
2.36
2.35
2.23
2.16
2.30
0.17
4:30
1.96
2.36
2.04
2.65
2.41
2.25
2.51
2.39
2.23
2.25
2.31
0.21
5:00
2.18
2.50
2.19
2.67
2.31
2.35
2.52
2.44
2.28
2.05
2.35
0.19
5:30
2.09
2.40
2.04
2.52
2.42
2.44
2.41
2.29
2.30
2.16
2.31
0.16
6:00
2.02
2.36
2.23
2.47
2.26
2.35
2.50
2.37
2.32
2.30
2.32
0.13
0:30
1.54
2.16
1.79
1.90
1.94
1.84
2.36
1.99
1.79
1.76
1.91
0.23
1:00
1.70
2.21
1.97
2.17
2.10
2.04
2.11
2.08
1.98
1.76
2.01
0.17
1:30
1.78
2.33
2.00
2.32
2.18
2.22
2.15
2.37
2.25
1.75
2.14
0.22
2:00
1.92
2.37
2.11
2.55
2.30
2.37
2.56
2.37
2.25
2.26
2.31
0.19
2:30
1.95
2.44
2.09
2.46
2.29
2.34
2.42
2.37
2.29
2.19
2.29
0.16
3:00
1.97
2.30
2.19
2.64
2.30
2.32
2.42
2.39
2.31
2.09
2.29
0.18
3:30
2.05
2.45
1.97
2.60
2.35
2.26
2.29
2.37
2.22
2.16
2.27
0.19
4:00
1.98
2.41
2.19
2.72
2.31
2.34
2.52
2.32
2.21
2.02
2.30
0.22
4:30
2.01
2.44
2.09
2.68
2.39
2.42
2.63
2.37
2.37
2.23
2.36
0.21
5:00
2.02
2.43
2.16
2.73
2.28
2.28
2.44
2.28
2.29
1.98
2.29
0.22
5:30
1.98
2.35
2.18
2.71
2.37
2.37
2.32
2.34
2.26
2.08
2.30
0.20
6:00
1.88
2.42
2.13
2.66
2.33
2.38
2.46
2.48
2.47
2.10
2.33
0.23
0:30
1.45
2.14
1.84
2.08
2.08
1.91
2.17
1.67
2.08
1.87
1.93
0.23
1:00
1.68
2.02
1.86
2.18
1.93
2.15
2.17
2.02
2.16
1.77
1.99
0.18
1:30
1.77
2.13
1.99
2.48
2.00
2.15
2.35
2.16
2.24
1.84
2.11
0.22
2:00
1.87
2.46
2.08
2.57
2.33
2.19
2.37
2.29
2.23
2.01
2.24
0.21
2:30
1.94
2.41
2.00
2.59
2.29
2.33
2.38
2.12
2.37
1.64
2.21
0.28
3:00
1.98
2.49
2.07
2.65
2.33
2.36
2.35
2.40
2.25
2.18
2.31
0.20
3:30
1.91
2.35
2.17
2.70
2.34
2.34
2.43
2.27
2.26
2.13
2.29
0.21
4:00
2.03
2.49
2.14
2.64
2.14
2.32
2.35
2.34
2.34
2.07
2.29
0.19
4:30
1.97
2.35
2.09
2.49
2.42
2.34
2.51
2.42
2.38
2.19
2.32
0.18
5:00
2.02
2.43
2.17
2.65
2.40
2.36
2.35
2.29
2.30
2.05
2.30
0.19
5:30
1.90
2.38
2.06
2.57
2.34
2.40
2.29
2.42
2.36
2.16
2.29
0.19
6:00
1.90
2.32
2.17
2.67
2.42
2.27
2.57
2.44
2.28
2.10
2.31
0.23
126
Table D.15 (continued)
PLACEBO
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
4
Run
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Run
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
0:30
1.13
1.84
1.84
2.09
1.79
1.73
2.09
1.99
1.75
1.80
1.80
0.27
1:00
1.65
2.01
1.85
2.19
1.99
2.09
2.15
2.09
2.01
1.65
1.97
0.19
1:30
1.87
2.23
1.93
2.51
2.07
2.09
2.15
2.21
2.07
1.83
2.10
0.20
2:00
1.88
2.21
2.02
2.60
2.17
2.32
2.44
2.35
1.99
1.84
2.18
0.25
2:30
1.96
2.44
2.08
2.66
2.28
2.42
2.19
2.28
2.15
2.17
2.26
0.20
3:00
1.92
2.29
1.98
2.67
2.32
2.31
2.31
2.29
2.35
2.21
2.27
0.20
3:30
1.98
2.42
2.11
2.63
2.24
2.28
2.36
2.30
2.26
2.09
2.27
0.18
4:00
1.95
2.38
2.08
2.52
2.28
2.27
2.47
2.38
2.33
2.22
2.29
0.17
4:30
1.95
2.38
2.11
2.77
2.13
2.34
2.56
2.23
2.22
2.26
2.30
0.24
5:00
1.89
2.37
2.04
2.58
2.47
2.27
2.48
2.34
2.38
2.16
2.30
0.21
5:30
2.00
2.36
2.14
2.66
2.30
2.35
2.45
2.25
2.32
2.01
2.28
0.20
6:00
2.04
2.42
2.06
2.61
2.34
2.27
2.37
2.38
2.35
2.13
2.30
0.18
0:30
1.56
2.04
1.76
2.04
2.13
1.87
1.64
1.50
1.94
0.91
1.74
0.36
1:00
1.70
2.09
1.83
2.12
1.95
1.96
2.03
2.08
2.05
1.56
1.94
0.19
1:30
1.97
2.21
2.01
2.53
2.22
2.08
2.26
2.20
2.06
1.79
2.13
0.20
2:00
2.04
2.29
2.02
2.63
2.25
2.41
2.25
2.25
2.18
1.96
2.23
0.20
2:30
2.05
2.40
2.14
2.67
2.45
2.31
2.31
2.20
2.18
1.98
2.27
0.20
3:00
1.86
2.35
2.06
2.65
2.34
2.37
2.30
2.17
2.20
2.08
2.24
0.22
3:30
2.02
2.37
2.10
2.66
2.28
2.38
2.33
2.26
2.27
1.95
2.26
0.20
4:00
1.92
2.38
2.13
2.68
2.37
2.28
2.33
2.18
2.26
2.21
2.28
0.20
4:30
1.90
2.35
2.09
2.54
2.39
2.38
2.41
2.17
2.44
2.23
2.29
0.19
5:00
1.97
2.29
2.03
2.68
2.40
2.38
2.39
2.34
2.36
1.91
2.27
0.24
5:30
1.88
2.33
2.12
2.53
2.45
2.35
2.56
2.23
2.40
1.96
2.28
0.23
6:00
1.88
2.35
2.19
2.76
2.40
2.37
2.24
2.28
2.35
2.04
2.29
0.23
0:30
1.42
1.97
1.85
2.05
1.95
1.73
2.13
1.80
1.64
1.87
1.84
0.21
1:00
1.70
2.07
1.81
2.17
2.08
2.00
2.14
2.03
2.29
1.75
2.00
0.19
1:30
1.93
2.16
1.89
2.40
2.18
2.16
2.27
2.11
2.19
1.86
2.11
0.17
2:00
1.91
2.30
1.99
2.48
2.27
2.20
2.44
2.17
2.29
1.96
2.20
0.19
2:30
1.84
2.36
2.08
2.61
2.27
2.25
2.40
2.35
2.24
2.01
2.24
0.22
3:00
2.00
2.32
2.10
2.56
2.32
2.25
2.40
2.28
2.30
1.94
2.25
0.19
3:30
1.98
2.34
2.09
2.45
2.34
2.28
2.42
2.34
2.34
2.03
2.26
0.17
4:00
1.94
2.34
2.15
2.16
2.35
2.32
2.53
2.33
2.25
2.05
2.24
0.17
4:30
1.98
2.35
2.16
2.17
2.41
2.28
2.48
2.37
2.34
1.90
2.24
0.19
5:00
1.93
2.33
2.15
2.23
2.31
2.32
2.53
2.36
2.10
2.06
2.23
0.17
5:30
2.02
2.28
2.17
2.42
2.24
2.24
2.40
2.40
2.11
1.95
2.23
0.16
6:00
2.08
2.41
2.13
2.53
2.37
2.39
2.41
2.35
2.16
2.12
2.30
0.16
127
APPENDIX D
PERCEPTUAL DIFFERENCE MEASURES
(RAW DATA TABLES)
128
Table D.16
Rate of Perceived Exertion (6-20)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
9
12
10
11
9
11
14
9
8
11
10
2
30
min.
10
12
10
12
11
12
15
11
10
12
12
2
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
9
11
8
10
10
10
15
9
8
12
10
2
30
min.
10
11
9
10
11
11
15
11
10
13
11
2
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
11
11
8
11
11
11
13
12
7
10
11
2
30
min.
11
12
8
12
13
11
14
13
9
11
11
2
GATORADE
45
60
min.
min.
11
11
13
13
12
13
12
13
13
14
12
12
15
16
12
13
11
13
13
13
12
13
1
1
GOOKINAID
45
60
min.
min.
11
11
13
14
10
11
11
12
13
13
12
12
15
16
13
14
12
13
13
14
12
13
1
2
PLACEBO
45
60
min.
min.
12
12
13
13
8
10
12
12
15
15
12
13
14
15
13
14
10
12
13
13
12
13
2
2
129
75
min.
11
14
14
14
14
13
16
13
14
14
14
1
90
min.
12
14
15
14
15
14
16
13
15
14
14
1
75
min.
12
12
11
12
14
12
16
15
14
14
13
2
90
min.
12
12
12
12
16
12
17
15
15
15
14
2
75
min.
12
14
11
13
14
13
16
14
14
14
14
1
90
min.
13
14
13
13
15
14
16
15
15
14
14
1
Table D.17
Stomach Fullness Scale (1-9)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
3
3
2
1
5
4
2
2
3
1
3
1
30
min.
3
4
2
2
5
4
2
2
3
1
3
1
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
3
5
4
3
6
5
3
4
3
3
4
1
30
min.
3
5
4
2
5
5
3
3
3
2
4
1
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
3
1
2
3
6
3
3
4
2
2
3
1
30
min.
3
3
2
3
6
3
3
4
2
1
3
1
GATORADE
45
60
min.
min.
3
3
5
5
2
2
3
3
5
4
5
5
2
1
2
2
4
3
1
2
3
3
2
1
GOOKINAID
45
60
min.
min.
3
3
5
5
4
3
2
2
5
4
4
3
2
1
3
2
3
3
2
1
3
3
1
1
PLACEBO
45
60
min.
min.
3
3
4
4
2
2
2
2
5
4
3
3
2
1
3
3
2
3
1
1
3
3
1
1
130
75
min.
3
5
2
3
4
6
1
2
4
1
3
2
90
min.
3
6
2
4
3
6
1
1
4
1
3
2
75
min.
3
5
2
2
4
4
1
2
3
1
3
1
90
min.
3
5
2
2
3
4
1
2
2
1
3
1
75
min.
3
6
2
2
4
4
1
2
4
2
3
2
90
min.
3
7
2
2
4
4
1
1
3
1
3
2
Table D.18
Thirst Scale (1-9)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
3
5
2
3
4
3
1
4
5
2
3
1
30
min.
4
4
2
3
5
3
1
4
5
3
3
1
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
3
7
2
2
4
4
1
3
4
3
3
2
30
min.
3
7
3
2
4
3
1
3
4
2
3
2
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
15
min.
3
3
3
3
2
4
1
5
2
4
3
1
30
min.
3
3
3
3
4
3
2
5
3
3
3
1
GATORADE
45
60
min.
min.
4
5
3
1
3
3
4
4
5
5
2
2
1
1
3
3
5
4
5
6
4
3
1
2
GOOKINAID
45
60
min.
min.
4
3
5
5
3
4
3
3
5
5
3
2
4
5
2
3
5
5
4
4
4
4
1
1
PLACEBO
45
60
min.
min.
3
4
2
3
3
4
3
3
5
5
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
3
4
1
1
131
75
min.
5
1
4
5
6
2
3
5
5
4
4
2
90
min.
5
1
4
5
6
2
4
5
4
5
4
2
75
min.
3
3
4
4
6
2
5
3
3
5
4
1
90
min.
4
4
4
3
6
2
4
3
3
4
4
1
75
min.
3
1
4
4
5
2
4
3
3
4
3
1
90
min.
5
1
4
3
4
2
5
3
5
3
4
1
APPENDIX D
BLOOD CHEMISTRY MEASURES
(RAW DATA TABLES)
132
Table D.19
Hemoglobin (g/dL)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Pre
90
15.0
16.9
15.4
15.9
16.5
15.7
14.7
15.9
14.3
17.0
15.7
0.9
GATORADE
Post
Post
90
30
15.3
15.4
18.4
18.8
16.3
17.2
15.7
16.1
16.2
16.2
15.8
15.8
15.6
16.1
17.0
16.9
16.1
16.6
17.4
17.2
16.4
16.6
1.0
1.0
Pre
90
14.2
16.1
15.4
14.5
16.5
15.1
15.1
16.9
14.4
15.4
15.4
0.9
GOOKINAID
Post
Post
90
30
15.1
15.6
17.3
17.5
15.9
16.8
14.9
14.7
16.5
16.7
16.0
16.2
16.4
17.1
16.6
17.1
15.5
15.8
15.9
15.9
16.0
16.3
0.7
0.9
Pre
90
14.8
16.9
15.9
15.4
16.5
16.5
15.6
16.3
14.4
14.8
15.7
0.9
PLACEBO
Post
90
14.9
18.0
17.2
16.3
16.8
17.8
17.1
17.0
16.5
16.3
16.8
0.9
Post
30
16.1
18.2
16.9
17.0
17.0
17.6
18.1
16.6
16.1
16.0
17.0
0.8
Pre
90
42.5
44.5
46.0
44.0
45.5
47.0
46.0
49.0
43.0
44.0
45.2
2.0
PLACEBO
Post
90
43.5
46.0
47.0
44.0
46.0
48.3
49.5
51.0
46.0
43.0
46.4
2.6
Post
30
46.0
48.0
47.5
46.0
47.0
48.0
51.0
48.0
46.5
43.0
47.1
2.0
Table D.20
Hematocrit (%)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Pre
90
43.0
47.5
48.0
46.5
47.0
44.5
44.0
45.5
40.0
49.0
45.5
2.7
GATORADE
Post
Post
90
30
44.0
44.5
49.0
49.5
47.0
48.0
44.5
44.5
48.5
46.0
43.5
44.5
45.0
47.5
47.0
47.0
44.0
47.0
45.5
46.0
45.8
46.5
2.0
1.7
Pre
90
42.5
45.0
46.0
41.5
47.5
47.0
46.0
46.5
41.5
44.5
44.8
2.2
GOOKINAID
Post
Post
90
30
45.0
44.5
45.0
45.0
48.0
47.5
42.0
41.0
48.5
47.5
47.5
48.0
48.0
48.0
46.0
47.0
43.0
45.0
46.0
46.0
45.9
46.0
2.2
2.2
133
Table D.21
Glucose Concentration (mg/dL)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Pre
90
92.0
118.0
103.0
72.0
99.0
122.0
82.0
84.0
86.0
78.0
93.6
16.7
GATORADE
Post
Post
90
30
89.6
191.0
104.4
123.1
113.6
115.3
122.9
113.1
177.7
107.7
118.2
99.75
102.7
108.2
106.4
98.6
94.5
95.5
97.1
90.2
112.7
114.2
25.1
28.7
GOOKINAID
Pre
Post
Post
90
90
30
63.0
78.3
156.3
86.0
103.3
123.6
94.0
102.6
67.8
70.0
104.2
109.3
105.0 128.1
118.4
110.0 110.9
123.4
66.0
100.2
119.9
88.0
115.1
83.8
78.0
73.3
92.8
64.0
90.4
96.0
82.4
100.6
109.1
17.0
16.5
25.0
Pre
90
74.0
109.0
97.0
73.0
93.0
101.0
100.0
64.0
73.0
68.0
85.2
16.3
PLACEBO
Post
90
85.9
90.4
92.5
103.0
117.3
95.1
88.7
82.9
67.0
85.0
90.8
13.2
Post
30
135.3
114.3
120.0
91.5
122.8
140.9
111.8
105.4
112.7
87.6
114.2
16.9
Pre
90
115.0
135.0
134.0
143.0
107.0
141.0
140.0
148.0
135.0
126.0
132.4
12.9
PLACEBO
Post
90
122.0
126.1
126.1
135.1
101.2
152.1
117.7
140.1
113.3
116.4
125.0
14.6
Post
30
109.7
126.7
133.1
122.0
121.9
196.7
108.2
166.3
149.3
128.4
136.2
27.4
Table D.22
Sodium Concentration (mmol/L)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Pre
90
141.0
141.0
137.0
172.0
143.0
118.0
147.0
140.0
143.0
127.0
140.9
13.9
GATORADE
Post
Post
90
30
136.8
139.8
129.4
136.6
131.9
130.2
175.5
158.9
121.3
152.4
127.4
143.9
133.3
135.0
126.4
133.8
123.5
141.4
132.6
128.3
133.8
140.0
15.4
9.6
GOOKINAID
Pre
Post
Post
90
90
30
103.0
86.4
102.6
133.0 125.6
131.5
127.0 122.2
123.3
131.0 145.7
150.5
138.0 122.5
128.1
91.0
108.8
128.1
146.0 132.1
109.3
139.0 144.9
136.3
104.0
94.1
95.6
129.0 122.5
129.0
124.1 120.5
123.4
18.3
19.4
16.5
134
Table D.23
Potassium Concentration (mmol/L)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
Pre
90
4.8
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.4
3.7
3.9
3.3
4.3
2.7
3.8
0.6
GATORADE
Post
Post
90
30
4.5
3.9
3.6
3.4
3.3
3.1
4.7
4.7
4.3
4.8
4.1
4.2
4.2
4.0
3.4
3.3
3.9
3.4
4.2
4.7
4.0
4.0
0.5
0.6
Pre
90
4.2
3.2
4.3
4.2
3.5
3.5
4.2
3.3
3.6
3.4
3.7
0.4
GOOKINAID
Post
Post
90
30
4.9
4.8
3.6
3.4
3.9
3.7
4.4
4.5
3.8
3.4
4.6
4.6
4.8
5.1
4.7
4.5
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.9
4.2
4.2
0.5
0.6
135
Pre
90
4.0
3.4
3.0
4.4
4.1
4.2
4.7
4.5
4.4
3.5
4.0
0.5
PLACEBO
Post
90
3.7
3.5
3.3
4.5
4.6
5.1
4.8
4.4
4.1
3.6
4.2
0.6
Post
30
3.3
3.1
3.5
4.1
4.4
5.7
5.4
5.1
4.8
4.1
4.4
0.9
APPENDIX D
PEFORMANCE MEASURES
(RAW DATA TABLES)
136
Table D.24
Distance Run during 30 minute Performance Run (km)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
8.95
7.68
6.12
7.63
5.80
7.18
6.71
6.09
7.12
5.62
6.80
1.10
GOOKINAID
9.35
8.00
6.78
7.76
6.04
7.02
6.84
5.89
8.15
5.39
7.10
1.30
137
PLACEBO
9.21
8.00
6.39
7.42
6.31
6.96
6.60
6.25
8.07
5.33
7.00
1.20
APPENDIX D
FLUID BALANCE MEASURES
(RAW DATA TABLES)
138
Table D.25
Body Weight Change (g)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Pre 90-Post
Pre 30-Post
90
30
-1030
-1140
-1030
-1030
-640
-610
-1450
-1240
-640
-620
-1000
-560
-1160
-1510
-1100
-770
-1120
-890
-620
-510
-979
-888
269
334
GOOKINAID
Pre 90-Post
Pre 30-Post
90
30
-940
-1100
-1310
-1010
-700
-910
-1350
-900
-790
-620
-740
-730
-2770
-1320
-830
-2550
-1160
-920
-310
-410
-1090
-1047
667
585
PLACEBO
Pre 90-Post
Pre 30-Post
90
30
-750
-1120
-1210
-1150
-540
-500
-1260
-1310
-630
-430
-880
-670
-1170
-1190
-960
-770
-1110
-920
-420
-510
-893
-857
298
325
Table D.26
Body Weight Change (%)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Pre 90-Post
30
-3.72
-2.90
-2.07
-3.97
-1.99
-2.42
-4.61
-3.63
-3.20
-2.62
-3.11
0.87
GOOKINAID
Pre 90-Post
30
-3.52
-3.25
-2.67
-3.84
-2.14
-2.31
-5.18
-5.79
-3.07
-1.49
-3.33
1.34
139
PLACEBO
Pre 90-Post
30
-3.90
-3.40
-1.85
-3.91
-1.73
-2.46
-4.21
-3.54
-3.04
-1.58
-2.96
0.99
Table D.27
Sweat Rate (g/m2/hr)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Pre 90-Post Pre 30-Post
90
30
723
455
695
360
541
219
846
770
549
221
702
211
735
516
708
290
728
321
566
206
679
357
98
180
GOOKINAID
Pre 90-Post
Pre 30-Post
90
30
687
439
792
353
573
326
820
328
602
221
618
275
1275
451
606
960
742
332
428
469
714
415
228
207
PLACEBO
Pre 90-Post
Pre 30-Post
90
30
611
447
736
401
505
179
787
477
545
153
670
252
728
407
662
290
724
332
473
206
644
315
107
116
Table D.28
Total Sweat Rate (L/hr)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Pre 90-Post
30
1.48
1.51
1.06
2.22
1.08
1.21
1.83
1.33
1.46
0.96
1.41
0.38
GOOKINAID
Pre 90-Post
30
1.41
1.64
1.26
1.58
1.16
1.19
2.53
2.08
1.49
1.11
1.55
0.45
140
PLACEBO
Pre 90-Post
30
1.33
1.63
0.96
1.74
0.98
1.23
1.66
1.26
1.47
0.84
1.31
0.32
Table D.29
Plasma Volume Change (%)
Participant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
M
SD
GATORADE
Pre 90-Post
30
-5.22
-13.87
-10.72
-2.58
-7.87
6.92
-14.96
-8.45
-25.31
4.64
-7.74
9.48
GOOKINAID
Pre 90-Post
30
-12.38
-8.08
-11.18
-0.41
-8.7
24.17
-15.43
-1.96
-14.82
-5.76
-5.46
11.55
141
PLACEBO
Pre 90-Post
30
-13.95
-13.41
-8.45
-13.06
-0.61
38.54
-23.01
0.8
-15.78
-5.7
-5.46
17.05
APPENDIX E
ANOVA Summary Tables
142
Table E.1
Volume of Run Training
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Week
Error
Day
Error
Condition x Week
Error (Condition x Week)
Condition x Day
Error (Condition x Day)
Week x Day
Error (Week x Day)
Condition x Week x Day
Error (Condition x Week x Day)
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
1
7
0.968
12.068
1.132
3.093
0.411
29.066
6.191
1.271
2.360
9.163
2.841
2.531
5.175
2.903
0.080
0.785
0.366
0.564
0.014
0.909
4.872
0.063
0.258
0.627
1.123
0.325
1.783
0.224
143
p < 0.05
Table E.2
Caloric Intake
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
147521.963
754457.831
1244851.296
269293.650
212600.799
221199.722
0.196
0.669
4.623
0.060
0.961
0.353
144
p < 0.05
Table E.3
Carbohydrate Consumption
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
23260.042
14702.967
71595.204
13295.907
10281.380
4830.123
1.582
0.240
5.385
0.045
2.129
0.179
145
p < 0.05
*
Table E.4
Protein Consumption
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
295.819
436.310
20.161
162.077
28.979
726.424
0.678
0.432
0.124
0.732
0.040
0.846
146
p < 0.05
Table E.5
Fat Consumption
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
2503.173
2184.159
516.179
434.197
13.514
2962.455
1.146
0.312
1.189
0.304
0.005
0.948
147
p < 0.05
Table E.6
Carbohydrate Oxidation
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Run
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Run
Error (Condition x Run)
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
Run x Time
Error (Run x Time)
Condition x Run x Time
Error (Condition x Run x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
4.160
1.638
0.233
0.294
0.132
0.025
0.161
0.255
0.001
0.025
0.002
0.012
0.000
0.019
2.540
0.145
0.793
0.396
5.211
0.048
0.629
0.448
0.050
0.828
0.154
0.704
0.016
0.902
148
p < 0.05
*
Table E.7
Fat Oxidation
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Run
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Run
Error (Condition x Run)
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
Run x Time
Error (Run x Time)
Condition x Run x Time
Error (Condition x Run x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
0.392
0.187
0.014
0.020
0.024
0.006
0.022
0.032
0.003
0.004
0.003
0.007
0.000
0.005
2.100
0.181
0.706
0.423
4.198
0.071
0.680
0.431
0.737
0.413
0.454
0.517
0.012
0.915
149
p < 0.05
Table E.8
Heart Rate
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Run
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Run
Error (Condition x Run)
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
Run x Time
Error (Run x Time)
Condition x Run x Time
Error (Condition x Run x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
7663.315
3068.396
48.237
182.813
13.384
38.895
1.993
145.405
134.314
59.870
37.012
41.040
31.051
21.311
2.497
0.148
0.264
0.620
0.344
0.572
0.014
0.909
2.243
0.168
0.902
0.367
1.457
0.258
150
p < 0.05
Table E.9
Respiratory Exchange Ratio
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
Within
Condition
Error
Run
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Run
Error (Condition x Run)
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
Run x Time
Error (Run x Time)
Condition x Run x Time
Error (Condition x Run x Time)
df
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
1
8
MS
0.022
0.006
0.005
0.007
9.91E10-5
0.003
0.000
0.004
6.84E10-5
0.001
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.001
151
F
p
3.390
0.103
0.795
0.399
0.029
0.869
0.037
0.853
0.048
0.832
0.216
0.654
0.508
0.496
p < 0.05
Table E.10
Oxygen Consumption
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Run
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Run
Error (Condition x Run)
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
Run x Time
Error (Run x Time)
Condition x Run x Time
Error (Condition x Run x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
0.072
0.604
0.016
0.157
0.002
0.009
0.358
0.210
0.007
0.007
0.006
0.019
0.001
0.007
0.119
0.738
0.099
0.761
0.223
0.648
1.704
0.224
0.953
0.354
0.328
0.581
0.132
0.725
152
p < 0.05
Table E.11
Carbon Dioxide Consumption
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Run
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Run
Error (Condition x Run)
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
Run x Time
Error (Run x Time)
Condition x Run x Time
Error (Condition x Run x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
1
9
0.400
0.532
0.037
0.141
0.002
0.005
0.259
0.162
0.003
0.006
0.002
0.010
0.001
0.003
0.752
0.408
0.263
0.620
0.430
0.529
1.599
0.238
0.439
0.524
0.220
0.650
0.187
0.676
153
p < 0.05
Table E.12
Rate of Perceived Exertion
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
2.178
2.104
0.000
0.132
0.000
0.223
1.035
0.336
0.001
0.975
0.001
0.973
154
p < 0.05
Table E.13
Stomach Fullness Scale
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
1.600
0.798
0.744
0.071
0.048
0.073
2.006
0.190
10.492
0.010
0.663
0.437
155
p < 0.05
*
Table E.14
Thirst Scale
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
1.003
4.694
0.001
0.287
0.172
0.284
0.214
0.655
0.004
0.950
0.605
0.457
156
p < 0.05
Table E.15
Hemoglobin
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
4.294
0.481
1.476
0.146
0.125
0.089
8.918
0.150
10.098
0.011
1.398
0.267
157
p < 0.05
*
Table E.16
Hematocrit
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
5.425
4.961
0.939
0.479
0.951
0.906
1.094
0.323
1.960
0.195
1.049
0.332
158
p < 0.05
Table E.17
Glucose Concentration
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
387.934
96.743
49.665
756.695
108.845
111.530
4.010
0.076
0.066
0.804
0.976
0.052
159
p < 0.05
Table E.18
Sodium Concentration
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
p < 0.05
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
2908.872
517.999
823.045
92.560
97.969
61.718
5.616
0.042
*
8.892
0.015
*
1.587
0.239
160
Table E.19
Potassium Concentration
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
0.005
0.437
0.313
0.032
0.182
0.052
0.010
0.921
9.689
0.012
3.534
0.093
161
p < 0.05
*
Table E.20
Performance Run
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
1
9
0.121
0.520
2.351
0.164
162
p < 0.05
Table E.21
Body Weight Change (g)
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
359707.500
164461.204
48166.667
79222.222
1400.833
258573.056
2.187
0.173
0.608
0.456
0.005
0.943
163
p < 0.05
Table E.22
Body Weight Change (%)
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
1
9
212415.000
152496.481
1.393
0.268
164
p < 0.05
Table E.23
Sweat Rate
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
Time
Error
Condition x Time
Error (Condition x Time)
1
9
1
9
1
9
58433.783
22863.223
1508324.033
15881.670
2433.471
40959.611
2.556
0.144
94.973
0.000
0.059
0.813
165
p < 0.05
*
Table E.24
Total Sweat Rate
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
1
9
0.235
0.073
3.208
0.107
166
p < 0.05
Table E.25
Plasma Volume Change
ANOVA Summary Table
Source
df
MS
F
p
Within
Condition
Error
1
9
8.778
13.424
0.654
0.440
167
p < 0.05
REFERENCES
Armstrong LE. Hydration Assessment Techniques. Nutr Rev 63: S40-S54, 2005.
Armstrong LE, Maresh CM, Castellani JW, Bergeron MF, Kenefick RW, LaGasse KE, and
Riebe D. Urinary indices of hydration status. Int J Sport Nutr 4: 265-79, 1994.
Barr S, Costill D, and Fink W. Fluid replacement during prolonged exercise: effects of water,
saline, or no fluid. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23: 811-817, 1991.
Below P, Mora-Rodriguez R, Gonzalez-Alonso J, and Coyle E. Fluid and carbohydrate ingestion
independently improve performance during 1 h of intense exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 27:
200-10, 1995.
Bergstrom J, Hermansen L, Hultman E, and Saltin B. Diet, muscle glycogen and physical
performance. Acta Physiol Scand 71: 140-150, 1967.
Billat V, Renoux JC, Pinoteau J, Petit B, and Koralsztein JP. Reproducibility of running time to
exhaustion at VO2max in subelite runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 26: 254-57, 1994.
Bishop D. Reliability of a 1-h endurance performance test in trained female cyclists. Med Sci
Sports Exerc 29: 554-59, 1997.
Borg GAV. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 14: 377-81, 1982.
Boulze D, Monstruc P, and Cabanao M. Water intake, pleasure and water temperature in
humans. Physiol Behav 30: 97-102, 1983.
Brand Miller JK, Foster-Powell S, and Colagiuri S. The GI factor (2nd ed.) Sydney: Hodder &
Stoughton, 1998.
Brener W, Hendrix TR, and McHugh PR. Regulation of gastric emptying of glucose.
Gastroenterol 85: 76-82, 1983.
Brisswalter J, Hausswirth C, Vercruyssen F, Collardeau M, Vallier JM, Lepers R, and Goubault
C. Carbohydrate ingestion does not influence the change in energy cost during a 2-h run in welltrained triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 81: 108-13, 2000.
Brouns F, Senden J, and Beckers E.. Osmolarity does not affect the gastric emptying rate of oral
rehydration solutions. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 19: 403-6, 1995.
Burke LM, Angus DJ, Cox GR, Cummings NK, Febbraio MA, Gawthorn K, Hawley JA,
Minehan M, Martin DT, and Hargreaves M. Effect of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration
on metabolism and performance during prolonged cycling. J Appl. Physiol. 89: 2413-21, 2000.
168
Burke LM, Claasesen A, Hawley JA, and Noakes TD. Carbohydrate intake during prolonged
cycling minimizes effect of glycemic index of preexercise meal. J Appl Physiol 73: 2220-2225,
1998.
Casa DJ. National athletic trainer’s association position statement: fluid replacement for athletes.
J Athl Train 35: 212-24, 2000.
Chen MJ, Fan X, and Moe ST. Criterion-related validity of the Borg ratings of perceived
exertion scale in healthy individuals: a meta-analysis. J Sports Sci 20: 873-99, 2002.
Cheuvront S, and Haymes E. Thermoregulation and marathon running: biological and
environmental influences. Sports Med 31: 743-62, 2001.
Cheuvront S, Carter R, and Sawka MN. Fluid balance and endurance exercise performance. Curr
Sports Med Rep 2: 202-8, 2003.
Chryssanthopoulos C, Williams C, Nowitz A, Kotsiopoulou C, and Vleck V. The effect of a high
carbohydrate meal on endurance running capacity. Clin J Sport Me 12: 157-71, 2002.
Cole KJ, Grandjean PW, Sobszak RJ, and Mitchell JB. Effect of carbohydrate composition on
fluid balance, gastric emptying, and exercise performance. Int J Sport Nutr 3: 408-17, 1993.
Coggan AR, and Coyle EF. Effect of carbohydrate feedings during high-intensity exercise. J
Appl Physiol. 65: 1703-9, 1988.
ConvertinoV, Armstrong L, Coyle E, Mack G, Sawka M, Senay LC Jr., and Sherman WM.
American College of Sports Medicine position stand: exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci
Sports Exerc 28: i-vii, 1996.
Coombes JS, and Hamilton KL. The effectiveness of commercially available sports drinks.
Sports Med. 29: 181-209, 2000.
Costill DL, and Saltin B. Factors limiting gastric emptying during rest and exercise. J Appl.
Physiol. 37: 679-683, 1974.
Coyle EF. Fluid and fuel intake during exercise. J Sports Sci 22: 39-55, 2004.
Coyle EF, and Montain SJ. Benefits of fluid replacement with carbohydrate during exercise. Med
Sci Sports Exerc 24: S324-330, 1992a.
Coyle EF, and Montain SJ. Carbohydrate and fluid ingestion during exercise: are there tradeoffs? Med Sci Sports Exerc 24: 671-73, 1992b.
Coyle E, Costill D, Fink W, and Hoopes D. Gastric emptying rates for selected athletic drinks.
Res Q 49: 119-124, 1978.
169
Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, and Ivy JL. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged
strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol. 61: 165-72, 1986.
Criswell D, Renshler K, Powers S, Tulley R, Cicale M, and Wheeler K Fluid replacement
beverages and maintenance of plasma volume during exercise:role of aldosterone and
vasopressin. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 65: 445-51,1992.
Daries HN, Noakes TD, and Dennis SC. Effect of fluid intake volume on 2-h running
performances in a 25 degrees C environment. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 32: 1783-9, 2000.
Davis JM, Lamb DR, Burgess WA, Bartoli WP. Accumulation of deuterium oxide in body fluids
after ingestion of D2O-labeled beverages. J Appl Physiol 63: 2060-2066, 1987.
Dill DB, and Costill DL. Calculation of percentage change in volumes of blood, plasma and red
cells in dehydration. J Appl Physiol. 37: 247-48, 1974.
Doyle JA, and Martinez AL. Reliability of a protocol for testing endurance performance in
runners and cyclists. Res Q. Exerc. Sport 69: 304-7, 1998.
Eichner E. Treatment of suspected heat illness. Int J Sports Med 19: S150-53, 1998.
Elias E, Gibson GJ, Greenwood LF, Hunt JN, and Tripp JH. The slowing of gastric emptying by
monosaccharides and disaccharides in test meals. J Physiol. 194: 317-26, 1968.
el-Sayed MS, Balmer J, and Rattu AJ. Carbohydrate ingestion improves endurance performance
during a 1 hour simulated cycling time trial. J Sports Sci 15: 223-30, 1997.
Febbraio MA, Keenan J, Angus DJ, Campbell SE, and Garnham AP. Preexercise carbohydrate
ingestion, glucose kinetics, and muscle glycogen use: effect of the glycemic index. J Appl
Physiol 89: 1845-51, 2000.
Febbraio MA, Snow RJ, Stathis CG, Hargreaves M, and Carey MF. Blunting the rise in body
temperature reduces muscle glycogenolysis during exercise in humans. Exp Physiol 81: 685-93,
1996.
Febbraio MA, Snow RJ, Hargreaves M, Statis CG, Martin IK, and Carey MF. Muscle
metabolism during exercise and heat stress: effect of acclimation. J Appl Physiol 76: 589-97,
1994.
Febbraio MA, Snow RJ, Stathis CG, Hargreaves M, and Carey MF. Effect of heat stress on
muscle energy metabolism during exercise. J Appl Physiol. 77: 2827- 2831, 1994.
Fordtran JS. Stimulation of active and passive sodium absorption by sugars in the human
jejunum. J. Clin. Lab Invest. 55: 728-37,1975.
170
Frayn KN. Calculation of substrate oxidation rates in vivo from gas-exchange. J Appl Physiol 55:
628-34, 1983.
Garcin M, Wolff M, and Bejma T. Reliability of rating scales of perceived exertion and heart
rate during progressive and maximal constant load exercises till exhaustion in physical education
students. Int J Sports Med. 24: 285-90, 2003.
Gisolfi CV, Summers RW, Schedl HP, and Bleiler TL. Intestinal water absorption from select
carbohydrate solutions in humans. J Appl Physiol 73: 2142-50, 1992.
Gisolfi CV, Summers RD, Schedl HP, and Bleiler TL. Effect of sodium concentration in a
carbohydrate-electrolyte solution on intestinal absorption. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 1414-20,
1995.
Gonzalez-Alonso J, Mora-Rodriguez R, Below PR, and Coyle EF. Dehydration reduces cardiac
output and increases systemic and cutaneous vascular resistance during exercise. J. Appl.
Physiol. 79: 1487-96, 1995.
Gonzalez-Alonso J, M Mora-Rodriguez R, Below PR, and Coyle EF. Dehydration markedly
impairs cardiovascular function in hyperthermic endurance athletes during exercise. J. Appl.
Physiol. 82: 1229-36, 1997.
Gonzalez-Alonso J. Separate and combined influences of dehydration and hyperthermia on
cardiovascular responses to exercise. Int J Sports Med 19: S111-14, 1998.
Hagerman FC. Energy metabolism and fuel utilization. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 24: S309-14,
1992.
Hargreaves M. Carbohydrates and exercise performance. Nutr Rev 54: S136-139, 1996.
Hargreaves M, Costill D, Burke L, McConell G, and Febbraio M. Influence of sodium on
glucose bioavailability during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 26: 365-8, 1994.
Hickey MS, Costill DL, McConell GK., Widrick JJ, and Tanaka H. Day to day variation in time
trial cycling performance. Int. J. Sports Med. 13: 467-70, 1992.
Hopkins WG. Measures of reliability in sports medicine and science. Sports Med 30: 1-15, 2000.
Hopkins WG, Schabort EJ, and Hawley JA. Reliability of power in physical performance tests.
Sports Med 31: 211-34, 2001.
Howley E, Bassett D, and Welch H. Criteria for maximal oxygen uptake: review and
commentary. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 1292-1301, 1995.
Hubbard RW, Sandick BL, Matthew WT, Francesco RP, Sampson JB, Durkot MJ, Maller O, and
Engell DB. Voluntary dehydration and alliesthesia for water. J Appl Physiol 57: 868-73, 1984.
171
Hunt JN, Smith JL, and Jiang CL. Effect of meal volume and energy density on the gastric
emptying of carbohydrates. Gastroenterol 89: 1326-30, 1985.
Jeukendrup A, Saris WH, Brouns F, and Kester AD. A new validated endurance performance
test. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28: 266-70, 1996.
Jimenez C, Koulmann N, Mischler I, Allevard AM, Launay JC, Savourey G, and Melin B
Plasma compartment filling after exercise or heat exposure. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 1624-31,
2002.
Jones BJ, Brown BE, and Loran JS. Glucose absorption from starch hydrolysates in the human
jejunum. Gut 24: 1152-60, 1983.
Kavouras SA. Assessing hydration status. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 5: 519-24, 2002.
Krebs PS and Powers SK. Reliability of laboratory endurance tests. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 21:
510, 1989.
Kyrolainen H, Pullinen T, Candau R, Avela J, Huttunen P, and Komi PV. Effects of marathon
running on running economy and kinematics. Eur J Appl Physiol 82: 297-304, 2000.
Ladell W. The effects of water and salt intake upon the performance of men working in hot and
humid environments. J. Physiol. 127: 11-26, 1955.
Lambert EV, Goedecke JH, and Zyle C. High-fat diet versus habitual diet prior to carbohydrate
loading: effects of exercise metabolism and cycling performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.
11: 209-25, 2001.
Leiper JB and Maughan RJ. Experimental models for the investigation of water and solute
transport in man: implications for oral rehydration solutions. Drugs 36 Suppl. 4: 65-79, 1988.
Leiper JB and Maughan RJ. Effect of bicarbonate or base precursor on water and solute
absorption from a glucose-electrolyte solution in the human jejunum. Digestion 41: 39-45, 1988.
Malhortra MS, Sridharan K, and Venkataswamy Y. Effect of restricted potassium intake on its
excretion and on physiological response during heat stress. Eur J Appl Physiol. 47: 169, 1981.
Maresh CM, Herrera-Soto JA, Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Kororous SA, Hacker FT, and Elliot TA.
Perceptual responses in the heat after brief intravenous versus oral rehydration. Med Sci Sports
Exerc. 33: 1039-45, 2001.
Maughan RJ. Effects of CHO-electrolyte solution on prolonged exercise. In: Lamb D.R., M.H.
Williams (Eds). Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine. Benchmark Press,
Carmel. 35-89, 1991.
172
Maughan RJ, Leiper JB and McGraw BA. Effects of exercise intensity on absorption of injested
fluids in man. Exp. Physiol. 75: 419-421, 1990.
Maughan RJ, Leiper JB, and Shirreffs SM. Restoration of fluid balance after exercise-induced
dehydration: effects of food and fluid intake. Eur J Appl Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 73: 317-25,
1996.
Maughan RJ, and Leiper JB. Sodium intake and post-exercise rehydration in man. Eur J Appl
Physiol.Occup. Physiol. 71: 311-9, 1995.
Maughan RJ and Noakes TD. Fluid replacement and exercise stress: a brief review of studies on
fluid replacement and some guidelines for the athlete. Sports Med 12: 16-31, 1991.
McConell G, Burge C, Skinner S, and Hargreaves M. Influence of ingested fluid volumes on
physiological responses during prolonged exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 160: 149-56, 1997.
McCutcheon L and Geor R. Sweating fluid and ion losses and replacement. Vet Clin North Am
Equine Prac 14: 75-95, 1998.
McLellan TM, Cheung SS, and Jacobs I. Variability of time to exhaustion during submaximal
exercise. Can. J. Appl. Physiol. 20: 39-51, 1995.
Millard-Stafford M, Sparling PB, Rosskopf LB, Hinson BT, and DiCarlo LJ. Carbohydrateelectrolyte replacement during a simulated triathlon in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 5: 621-8,
1990.
Millard-Stafford M, Sparling PB, Rosskopf LB, and DiCarlo LJ. Carbohydrate-electrolyte
replacement improves distance running performance in the heat. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24: 93440, 1992.
Millard-Stafford M, Sparling PB, Rosskopf LB, and Snow TK. Should carbohydrate
concentration of a sports drink be less than 8% during exercise in the heat? Int J Sport NutrExerc
Metab. 15: 117-130, 2005.
Mitchell JB, and Voss KW. The influence of volume on gastric emptying and fluid balance
during prolonged exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Ex. 23: 314-319, 1990.
Montain SJ and Coyle EF. Influence of graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular
drift during exercise. J Appl Physiol 73: 1340-50, 1992.
Montain SJ and Coyle EF. Influence of the timing of fluid ingestion on temperature regulation
during exercise. J Appl Physiol 75: 688-95, 1993.
Morgan DW, Martin PE, Krahenbuhl GS, and Baldini FD. Variability in running economy and
mechanics among trained male runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 23: 378-83, 1991.
173
Morgan RM, Patterson MJ, and Nimmo MA. Acute effects of dehydration on sweat composition
in men during prolonged exercise in the heat. Acta Physiol Scand. 182: 37-43, 2004.
Murray R. The effects of consuming carbohydrate-electrolyte beverages on gastric emptying and
fluid absorption during and following exercise. Sports Med 4: 322-51, 1987.
Murray R, Eddy DE, Murray TW, Seifert JG, Paul GL, Halaby GA. The effect of fluid and
carbohydrate feedings during intermittent cycling exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 19: 597-604,
1987.
Neufer PD, Young AJ, and Sawka MN. Gastric emptying during walking and running effects of
varied exercise intensity. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 58: 440-5, 1989b.
Nielsen B, Sjogaard G, Ugelvig J, Knudsen B, and Cohlmann B. Fluid balance in exercise
dehydration and rehydration with different glucose-electrolyte drinks. Eur J Appl Physiol. 55:
318, 1986.
Noakes T. Fluid replacement during marathon running. Clin J Sport Med 13: 309-18, 2003.
Noakes T and Martin D. IMMDA-AIMS advisory statement on guidelines for fluid replacement
during marathon running. New Studies in Athletics 17: 15-24, 2002.
Noakes TD, Myburgh KH, Du Plessia J, Lang L, Lambert M, Van Der Riet C, and Schall R.
Metabolic rate, not percent dehydration, predicts rectal temperature in marathon runners. Med.
Sci. Sports Exerc. 23: 443-9, 1991a.
Noakes TD, Rehrer NJ, and Maughan RJ. The importance of volume in regulating gastric
emptying. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 23: 307-13, 1991.
O’Brien K, Montain S, Corr W, Sawka M, Knapik J, and Craig S. Hyponatremia associated with
overhydration in U.S. Army trainees. Mil Med. 166: 405-10,2001.
Palmer GS, Dennis SC, Noakes TD, and Hawley JA. Assessment of the reproducibility of
performance testing on an air-braked cycle ergometer. Int. J. Sports Med. 17: 293-98, 1996.
Pitts GJ and Consolazio FC. Work in the heat as affected by intake of water, salt, and glucose.
Amercian J. Physiol. 142: 253-59,1944.
Pivarnik JM, Goetting MP, and Senay LC. The effects of body position and exercise on plasma
volume dynamics. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 55: 450-6, 1986.
Pollock ML, Schmidt DH, and Jackson AS. Measurement of cardiorespiratory fitness and body
composition in the clinical setting. Comp Ther 6: 12-27, 1980.
174
Popowski LA, Oppliger RA, Lambert GP, Johnson RF, Johnson KA, and Gisolf CV. Blood and
urinary measures of hydration staus during progressive acute dehydration. Med Sci Sports Exerc
85: 747-53, 2000.
Rehrer N. Fluid and electrolyte balance in ultra-endurance sport. Sports Med 31: 701-15, 2001.
Rehrer NJ, and Meijer GA. Biomechanical vibration of the abdominal region during running and
bicycling. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 31: 231-4, 1991.
Rehrer NJ, Beckers F, Brouns F, Ten Hoor F, and Saris WHM. Exercise and training effects on
gastric emptying of carbohydrate beverages. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 21: 540-9,1989.
Rehrer NJ, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, Saris WH, and Ten Hoor F. Effects of electrolytes in
carbohydrate beverages on gastric emptying and secretion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25: 42-51,
1993.
Rehrer NJ, Wagenmakers AJ, Beckers EJ, Halliday D, Leiper JB, Brouns F, Maughan RJ,
Westerterp K, and Saris WH. Gastric emptying, absorption, and carbohydrate oxidation during
prolonged exercise. J Appl Physiol. 72: 468-75, 1992.
Rehrer NJ, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, Ten Hoor F, and Saris WH. Effects of dehydration on gastric
emptying and gastrointestinal distress while running. Med Sci Sports Exec. 22: 790-5, 1990.
Riley ML, Israel RG, Holbert D, Tapscott EB, Dohn GL. Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on
exercise endurance and metabolism after a 1-day fast. Int J Sports Med 9: 320-4, 1988.
Rusmessen JJ. Fructose and related food carbohydrates: sources, intake, absorption, and clinical
implications. Scand J Gastroenterol 27: 819-28, 1992.
Russell RD, Redmann SM, Ravussin E, Hunter GR, and Larson-Meyer GE. Reproducibility of
endurance performance on a treadmill using a preloaded time trial. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36:
717-724, 2004.
Sasaki H, Maeda J, Usui S, and Ishiko T. Effect of sucrose and caffeine ingestion on
performance of prolonged strenuous running. Int J Sports Med. 8: 261-5, 1987.
Sato K, and Dobson RL. The effect of intracutaneous d-aldosterone and hydrocortisone on
human eccrine sweat gland function. J Invest Dermatol. 54: 450-462, 1970.
Sato K, Ohtsuyama H, and Sato F. Whole cell K and Cl currents in dissociated eccrine secretory
coil cells during stimulation. J Membr Biol 134: 93-106, 1993.
Schabort EJ, Hawley JA, Hopkins WG, Mujika I, and Noakes TD. A new reliable laboratory test
of endurance performance for road cyclists. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc 30: 1744-50, 1998.
175
Schabort EJ, Hopkins WG, Hawley JA. Reproducibility of self-paced treadmill performance of
trained endurance runners. Int. J. Sports Med. 19: 48-51, 1998.
Smith MF, Davison RC, Balmer J, and Bird SR. Reliability of mean power recorded during
indoor and outdoor self-paced 40-km cycling time trials. Int. J. Sports Med. 22: 270-274, 2001.
Schedl HP, Maughan R, and Gisolfi CV. Intestinal absorption during rest and exercise:
implications for formulating an oral rehydration solution(ORS). Med Sci Sports Exerc 26: 26780, 1994.
Sherman WM, Brodowicz G, Wright DA, Allen WK, Simonsen J, and Dernbach A. Effects of 4
h preexercise carbohydrate feedings on cycling performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 21: 598-604,
1989.
Sherman WM, Peden MC, and Wright DA. Carbohydrate feedings 1 h before exercise improves
cycling performance. Am J Clin Nutr 54: 866-70, 1991.
Shi X, Summers RW, Schedl HP, Flanagan SW, Chang R, and Gisolfi CV. Effects of
carbohydrate type and concentration and solution osmolality on water absorption. Med Sci Sports
Exerc 27: 1607-15, 1995.
Shirreffs SM, Armstrong LE, and Cheuvront SN. Fluid and electrolyte needs for preparation and
recovery from training and competition. J Sports Sci. 22: 57-63, 2004.
Shirreffs SM, and Maughan RJ. Volume repletion after exercise-induced volume depletion in
humans: replacement of water and sodium losses. Am J Appl Physiol. 274 (5 pt 2): F868, 1998)
Siri WE. Body composition from fluid spaces and density, analysis of methods. P. 223-244.
Brozek J. Henschel A. eds. Techniques for measuring body composition. National Academy of
Sciences Washington, DC, 1961.
Snyder AC, Moorhead K, Luedtke J, Small M. Carbohydrate consumption prior to repeated
bouts of high-intensity exercise. J Appl. Physiol. 66: 141-5, 1993.
Spiller RC. Intestinal absorption function. Gut 35: S5-9, 1994.
Spiller RC, Jones BJ, and Silk DB. Jejunal water and electrolyte absorption from two proprietary
enteral feeds in man: importance of sodium content. Gut 28: 681-7, 1987.
Sproule J. The influence of either no fluid or carbohydrate-electrolyte fluid ingestion and the
environment (thermoneutral versus hot and humid) on running economy after prolonged, high
intensity exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 77: 536-42, 1998.
Tan MH, Wilmshurst EG, Gleason RE, and Soeldner JS. Effect of posture on serum lipids. New
Eng J Med. 289: 416-9, 1973.
176
Tarnopolsky MA, Dyson K, Atkinson SA, MacDougall D, and Cupido C. Mixed carbohydrate
supplementation increases carbohydrate oxidation and endurance exercise performance and
attenuates potassium accumulation. Int J Sport Nutr. 4: 323-36, 1996.
Thomas J and Nelson J. Differences among groups. In: Research Methods in Physical Activity.
Champaign, IL. Human Kinetics, 1996.
Tsintzas K, Liu R, Williams C, Campbell I, and Gaitanos G. The effect of carbohydrate ingestion
on performance during a 30km race. Int J Sport Nutr. 3: 127-39, 1993.
Tsintzas OK, Williams C, Wilson W, and Burrin J. Influence of carbohydrate supplementation
early in exercise on endurance running capacity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28: 1373-9, 1996.
Vist GE, Maughan RJ. Gastric emptying of ingested solutions in man: effect of beverage glucose
concentration. Med Sci Sports Exerc 26: 1269-73, 1994.
Vrijens DMJ and Rehrer NJ. Sodium-free fluid ingestion decreases plasma sodium during
exercise in the heat. J. Appl. Physiol. 86: 1847-51, 1999.
Von Duvillard SP, Braun WA, Markofski M, Beneke R, and Leithauser R. Fluids and Hydration
in Prolonged Endurance Performance. Nutrition 20: 651-656, 2004.
Walsh R, Noakes T, Hawley J and Dennis S. Impaired high-intensity cycling performance time
at low levels of dehydration. Int J Sports Med 15: 392-98, 1994.
Wemple R, Morocco T, and Mack G. Influence of sodium replacement on fluid ingestion
following exercise-induced dehydration. Int J Sports Nutr. 7: 104-16, 1997.
Wilber RL, Moffatt RJ. Influence of carbohydrate ingestion on blood glucose and performance
in runners. Int J Sport Nutr. 2: 317-27, 1992.
Williams C, Nute MG, Broadbank L, and Vinall S. Influence of fluid intake on endurance
running performance. A comparison between water, glucose, and fructose solutions. Eur J Appl
Physiol Occup Physiol 60: 112-9, 1990.
Wilk B, Kriemler S, Keller H, and Bar-Or O. Consistency in preventing voluntary dehydration in
boys who drink a flavored carbohydrate-NaCl beverage during exercise in the heat. Int. J. Sports
Nutr. 8: 1-9, 1998.
Wolfe RR, Nadel ER, Shaw JH, Stephenson LA, and Wolfe MH. Role of changes on insulin and
glucagons homeostatis in exercise. J Clin Invest 77: 900-907, 1986.
Wright DA, Sherman WM, Dernbach AR. Carbohydrate feedings before, during, or in
combination improve cycling endurance performance. J Appl Physiol. 71: 1082-8, 1991.
177
Wyndham C and Strydom N. The danger of an inadequate water intake during marathon running.
South African Med J 43: 893-6, 1992.
178
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Melissa D. Laird, M.S.
Education
2004-2006
Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
Master of Science in Exercise Physiology
Overall G.P.A. 3.97/4.0
1998-2002
McGill University, Montreal, QC
Bachelor of Science in Physiology, Minor in Kinesiology
Professional Appointments
Jan. 2004-present
Project Coordinator, Department of Physical Therapy at the Medical
College of Georgia, Augusta, GA
Jan. 2004-Aug. 2006 Teaching Assistant, Department of Nutrition, Foods & Exercise Sciences
at Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
Jan. 2003-Sept. 2003 Research Scientist, Research and Development at Adolor Corporation,
Malvern, PA
Summers of 2001-2
Research Intern, Research and Development at Adolor Corporation,
Malvern, PA
May 2000-Aug. 2000 Research Intern, Department of Physiology at McGill University,
Montreal, QC
Certifications and Professional Memberships
American College of Sports Medicine
American Red Cross CPR and AED certified
IFPA Certified Personal Trainer
Kappa Omicron Nu (National Honors Society-Human Sciences)
Research Abstracts
Austin, K.G., Haymes, E., Hansen, J., & Laird, M. The effect of intermittent hypoxic exposure
on hematological markers and exercise performance. Poster presentation at the American
College of Sports Medicine Annual Meeting, June 2006, Denver, CO.
179
Stabley, G.J., Worm K., Zhou J.Q., Laird M., DeHaven R.N.
characterization of a biaryl cannabinoid mimetic, ADL-01-0763-1.
Society for Neuroscience, 2003, Washington, D.C.
In vitro and in vivo
Poster presentation at
Presentations
“Milk and resistance exercise” Master’s Seminar, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, July
15, 2005.
“Palatability and voluntary intake of sports beverages and water during exercise” Master’s
Seminar, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, March 28, 2005.
“Effects of different exposures to hypoxia on skeletal muscle adaptations and exercise” Master’s
Seminar, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, April 20, 2004.
Research Experience
Jan. 2006-present:
Staff member at Dr. Joseph Cannon’s Inflammation Core Laboratory at
the Medical College of Georgia. Perform ELISA assay for immune
markers: myeloperoxidase. Also perform creatinine and TNF-α assays.
Jan. 2006-present:
Sub-Investigator for “Physiological strain and perceptual differences
during repeated-bout exercise in young athletes.” Funded by Gatorade
Sports Science Institute ($38,281) and the United States Tennis
Association ($28,722). Responsibilities include recruitment of subjects,
obtain consent, schedule and conduct exercise tests, data collection, and
assist with manuscript preparation.
May 2005-present:
Principal Investigator for “Effects of a novel sports drink on hydration
status and running performance” conducted at Florida State University as
a Masters thesis. Responsibilities include research proposal and design,
recruitment of subjects, obtain consent, schedule and conduct exercise
tests, data collection, conduct hematological assays, data analysis, and
manuscript preparation.
Jan. 2003-Sept. 2003: In vivo Research Scientist for the Research and Development of Adolor
Corporation. Responsibilities include some animal husbandry, screening
of new opioid-derivative compounds through several in vivo assays
(formalin, paw pressure, hot plate, Hargreaves’, rotarrod), validation of
automated formalin assay, data analysis and presentation of results at
company meetings.
Summers of 2001-2: In vivo Research Intern for the Research and Development of Adolor
Corporation. Responsibilities are the same as listed previously.
180
May 2000-Sept. 2000: Research Intern for J.L. Henry, Ph.D. in the Department of Physiology at
McGill University. Responsibilities include assisting with rat intrathecal
catheter implant surgery, tissue sample preparation, in vivo testing of
agonists and antagonists of vanilloid receptors, data analysis and
presentation of results.
Teaching Experience
Jan. 2004-Aug. 2005: Teaching Assistant for 3rd and 4th-year undergraduate Exercise Science
students at Florida State University. Responsible for teaching and
conducting weekly exercise physiology labs for the course PET3380
Applied Exercise Physiology. Also responsible for grading students on
weekly quizzes and lab reports.
Academic Mentoring
Mentor: D. Tevis-Research Assistant (MCG); internship for completion of MS degree (MCG,
GA)
Mentor: C. Miller-Research Assistant (MCG); internship for completion of BS degree (Paine
College, GA)
181