LESSON
2
The Vietnam War and
Other Military Operations
Quick Write
List the actions that
made Capt Lance Sijan a
“model” prisoner of war.
One military historian has called Capt Lance Sijan
the “model on how to behave as a POW.” A POW
is a prisoner of war. Sijan was a US Air Force pilot in the
Vietnam War. He was only two years out of the Air Force
Academy when the North Vietnamese shot him down
on his 52nd mission. It was 9 November 1967.
Sijan landed with a broken leg, a damaged hand, and
a fractured skull. Yet when radioed by a search-and-rescue
team, he refused help. He said he didn’t want anyone
placed in mortal danger on his account. He tried without
success to grab a steel cable the rescue aircraft lowered
to pull him out of the jungle. Antiaircraft fire forced the
rescue aircraft to leave after 33 minutes. Sijan was stranded
in enemy territory.
For more than six weeks, Sijan eluded the North Vietnamese
in their jungles. He had to drag himself along the ground
because of his broken leg. Finally, the North Vietnamese
captured him. But Sijan escaped. When caught again, he
was tortured. But he never gave his captors more than
his name. They moved him to a POW camp in Hanoi, the
North Vietnamese capital. Because of the mistreatment,
his health gave out. He died 21 January 1968 as a POW.
1ST LT LANCE SIJAN
Courtesy of the the US Air Force
228
The United States took a number of steps to honor Sijan.
President Gerald Ford awarded him the Medal of Honor
in 1976. The Air Force promoted Sijan to the rank of captain.
The Air Force Academy named a cadet dormitory Sijan Hall.
And the Air Force grants the Lance P. Sijan Award to those
members who show similar bravery and professionalism.
CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
The Role of Air Power in the Cuban Missile Crisis
Many conflicts took place during the Cold War. There was
the bloodless Berlin Airlift. There was the bloody Korean War.
Then came the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. This event was
the closest the United States and the Soviet Union got to
nuclear war—war involving the atomic bomb or the hydrogen
bomb. The hydrogen bomb, invented in 1953, was even more
powerful than the atomic bomb.
Cuba had become a Communist country in 1960. In 1962
the Soviets sent bombers, fighters, and shiploads of equipment
and men to build missile sites there. The Soviets wanted
to intimidate the United States in its own backyard. Cuba
is only 90 miles south of the southernmost point of Florida.
Had the United States allowed the Soviet Union to keep
these missiles in Cuba, the Soviets could have struck the
US mainland with little warning.
B
Learn About. . .
• the role of air power in
the Cuban Missile Crisis
• the role of air power
in the Vietnam War
• how the USAF
gained an increasingly
significant role in
other US military
operations during
the Cold War
• key developments
in aircraft, missile
capability, and
nuclear capability
during the Cold War
How Aircraft Were Used
During the Cuban Missile Crisis
The United States carefully watched developments in Cuba.
US Air Force pilots went on aerial reconnaissance in the U-2.
These pilots were from Strategic Air Command’s (SAC) 4080th
Strategic Reconnaissance Wing. They took photographs of
Soviet missile bases in Cuba.
You read about the U-2 spy plane in the last lesson. It was a
single-engine, high-altitude aircraft. Its purpose was to gather
information on enemy activities. It could fly at altitudes above
55,000 feet. Its glider-like wings worked well in the thin upper
atmosphere. It was first tested in 1955.
Reconnaissance missions can be dangerous. Maj Rudolf
Anderson Jr. had already provided the US government with
photos of missile sites. He went on another mission over
Cuba on 27 October 1962. The Cubans shot him down
with a surface-to-air missile (SAM). Anderson was the only
American to die in the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Vocabulary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
B
POW
nuclear war
arms race
international waters
guerrilla warfare
solitary confinement
neutral
ballistic
warhead
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
229
Winnipeg
Seattle
San Francisco
Quebec
Denver
New York City
Chicago
St. Louis
Los Angeles
Dallas
Washington D.C.
Atlanta
Jacksonville
Miami
New
Orleans
Mexico City
Caracas
Panama Canal
Lima
Location
Jet Bombers & Fighters
(800-mile range)
U
Medium Range Missiles
(1,100-mile range)
C
Intermediate Range
Missiles
(2,500-mile range)
FIGURE 2.1
This map shows the location of Russian aircraft
and missiles around Cuba in 1962.
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
B
A
Guantanamo
U.S. Naval Base
Developing Flight
LAUNCH POSITION
MISSILE-READY TENTS
Courtesy of Bettmann/Corbis
MISSILE ERECTORS
A U-2
TOOK THIS PHOTO OF A MISSILE SITE IN
CUBA.
President John F. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba on 24 October.
A blockade is isolating a country, city, or harbor with ships or troops so that
no traffic can leave or enter. Soviet ships could no longer enter Cuban ports.
At the same time, SAC prepared to deliver nuclear bombs. These two moves
let the Soviets know how seriously the United States took the Soviet missiles.
Now a big question arose: would the Soviets try to break through the blockade
and risk war?
The Outcome of the Cuban Missile Crisis
Twenty Soviet ships were sailing toward Cuba when Kennedy set up the blockade.
About 500 miles from the United States, the Soviet ships turned away. One reason
the Soviets backed down: they had fewer nuclear weapons than the Americans.
A few days later Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the missile sites
dismantled. American U-2s flew over Cuba to make sure the Soviets kept their word.
The crisis had passed. But the standoff started an arms race between the Americans
and Soviets. An arms race is a competition for military supremacy. Each party in an
arms race tries to produce larger numbers of weapons and a better military force
than the other.
The Soviets wanted to make sure the United States could not force their hand
again. They poured money into building their nuclear stockpile. The United States
was equally determined to keep its superiority. The arms race accelerated after
the Cuban Missile Crisis. It continued until after the Cold War ended in 1989.
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
231
The Role of Air Power in the Vietnam War
America’s gradual entry into the Vietnam War marked another phase of the Cold
War. After World War II, France tried to regain control of its colonies in Indochina—
Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Japan had occupied these colonies during the war.
France was fighting Vietnamese forces led by Communist Ho Chi Minh. In July 1950
the United States supplied money to the French effort.
17th Parallel
In 1954 France withdrew from
Vietnam after a serious military defeat.
The Geneva Accords of 1954, an
international agreement, split Vietnam
in half along the 17th parallel. Soon
the country fell into a civil war as
the north tried to occupy the south.
To the north were the Communists.
Their allies were the Soviets and the
Chinese. To the south were Vietnamese
who opposed communism. The United
States soon began providing military
training and supplies to South Vietnam.
Not until 1961, however, did US forces
see combat in Vietnam. About 11,000
troops, including Airmen, saw action
in the early 1960s. They served mostly
as advisers to South Vietnamese forces.
In 1964 things really heated up.
North Vietnamese patrol boats
attacked the USS Maddox. The
American destroyer was off the North
Vietnamese coast in international
waters. International waters are areas of
the seas where ships from any nation have
the right to travel. The North Vietnamese
thought the destroyer was involved in
secret US raids along their coast.
FIGURE 2.2
The 17th parallel divided Communist
North Vietnam from Western-backed
South Vietnam.
Courtesy of DK Images
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
Congress quickly passed the Tonkin
Gulf Resolution. It allowed President
Lyndon Johnson to order the military
to strike back at North Vietnam. This
was not a declaration of war. But it led
to a huge land- and air-based campaign
that lasted until 1973. At the war’s
peak, the United States had more than
a half-million troops in Vietnam.
Courtesy of Hulton Archive/Getty Images
Developing Flight
THE US AIR FORCE
TRAINED MEMBERS OF THE
SOUTH VIETNAMESE AIR FORCE.
Ways the USAF Trained the Vietnamese Air Force
Communist ground troops were the main threat to South Vietnam. For much
of the war, these troops, called Viet Cong, conducted guerrilla warfare. That’s
a type of fighting in which small bands of fighters hit more-powerful forces by surprise.
The Communists didn’t have much air power. Even so, the US Air Force trained
members of South Vietnam’s Vietnamese Air Force (VNAF). Given their experience
in World War II and the Korean War, the US Air Force knew how to effectively
bomb supply routes and hit enemy troops.
The focus of the US Air Force was threefold. It gave the VNAF practice in tactical
air operations. VNAF pilots flew as passengers with American pilots to study
needed skills. And the US Air Force developed ways to fight guerrillas from the air.
Eventually, it introduced reconnaissance and airlift operations.
The Geneva Accords prohibited the use of fighter jets in Vietnam. So at first the
US Air Force trained the VNAF pilots to fly propeller aircraft. These slower-moving
aircraft were actually well suited for reconnaissance missions. The VNAF could buzz
low over the jungles to spot guerrilla movements. But the North Vietnamese kept
crossing the 17th parallel into South Vietnam. This was a violation of the Geneva
Accords. So the Air Force taught the VNAF how to fly jets. If one side could break
the rules, the United States reasoned, then so could the other.
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
233
Ways the US Used Air Power in the Vietnam War
The US Air Force conducted tactical air missions throughout the Vietnam War.
The theater was small. The targets were even smaller. In the end, however, it was
strategic bombing that forced the North Vietnamese to negotiate an agreement
to end the war.
Operation Rolling Thunder
President Johnson ordered the Air Force not to strike sites linked with the Soviets
or Chinese. Johnson didn’t want any Russian or Chinese advisers killed. He did not
want to draw those two powerful countries into a full-scale war. (This had happened
with Chinese troops during the Korean War.) The US conducted limited tactical air
strikes on railroads, oil depots, and warehouses. Their purpose was to wear down
the North Vietnamese without provoking the Soviets and Chinese.
These tactical strikes, called Operation Rolling Thunder, took place from 1965
to 1968. They weren’t as successful as the United States hoped. Because they were
limited, the strikes gave the north too much opportunity to rebuild and repair.
Several hundred US personnel were shot down and became POWs. These men were
held for many years and most were severely mistreated. Meanwhile, regular North
Vietnamese Army troops entered South Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia.
The Tet Offensive
In January 1968 the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong surprised US and South
Vietnamese forces with the Tet Offensive. The offensive got that name because
it occurred over the Tet holiday, which is when the Vietnamese celebrate the
lunar new year. Communist troops and guerrillas attacked 36 major cities in South
Vietnam. The US Air Force airlifted troops to the front lines, attacked enemy soldiers,
and bombed supply routes.
When the enemy surrounded 6,000 US Marines at their base in an area called
Khe Sanh, air power helped save the day. For two months, US cargo planes airlifted
supplies. US aircraft also dropped 110,000 tons of bombs around Khe Sanh and
blew up 3,000 enemy supply trucks. The Tet Offensive ended when US and South
Vietnamese forces expelled the North Vietnamese from the south’s major cities.
Many North Vietnamese troops retreated north across the 17th parallel.
Operations Linebacker I and II
When President Richard Nixon took office in 1969, US tactics in Vietnam changed.
Nixon wanted to get American troops out of Vietnam. He wanted to turn the effort
over to South Vietnamese forces. He began dramatically cutting the number of
US ground forces. But in 1972, the North Vietnamese tried another invasion similar
to the Tet Offensive. Nixon told his military leaders to do whatever was needed
to drive the North Vietnamese out of the south for good. The very short, but
devastating strategic-bombing phase of the war began.
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
Courtesy of George Hall/Corbis
Developing Flight
THE UH-1 HUEY
The UH-1 Huey was the most popular helicopter used in the Vietnam War.
In 1972 Air Force B-52s and Navy aircraft pounded North Vietnamese supply routes.
The United States called this action Operation Linebacker. During this phase, US
aircraft bombed many targets that were off limits during Operation Rolling Thunder.
For a while, the North Vietnamese seemed willing to discuss a treaty. But they
changed their minds.
In reply, Nixon ordered Operation Linebacker II in mid-December. B-52s flew over
North Vietnam with 15,000 tons of bombs. The B-52s relentlessly bombed targets
that had been off limits for years. Fifteen bombers were lost during the operation.
In January 1973 the North Vietnamese signed a peace treaty with the United States.
The final US troops withdrew. Unfortunately, in 1975, the Communist North
Vietnamese violated the treaty. They invaded the south, and took over South
Vietnam anyway. This time the US did not help. Congress prohibited President
Gerald R. Ford from spending money to do so.
Significant Aircraft Used by the USAF During the Vietnam War
A quiet star of the war was the helicopter. Vietnam saw a new use for these aircraft.
Units of helicopters transporting ground forces were referred to as “air cavalry.”
This was a reminder of the fighting units on horseback from previous centuries.
The helicopter is a delicate aircraft compared with fighters and bombers. The military
lost 5,000 of them in the war. But it was a very effective aircraft in the jungles of
Vietnam. It could drop troops at the front lines so they wouldn’t have to make
long marches through thick undergrowth. It could hover while delivering supplies.
Because it didn’t need a runway, it could pick up the wounded in the field.
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
235
A B-52
BOMBS
NORTH VIETNAM
Courtesy of the US Air Force
F-105F THUNDERCHIEF
The F-105F Thunderchief fighter jet dropped
bombs during Operation Rolling Thunder.
Courtesy of Ralph Morse/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
Other aircraft also saw action in
Vietnam. In the early years of the war
US and VNAF pilots flew B-26 bombers.
Another combat plane was the T-28,
an aircraft originally built to train pilots.
The “T” in T-28 stands for “trainer.”
But in 1964 and 1965 Communist
ground forces began to attack US bases.
The US Air Force brought over B-52
bombers and F-105 Thunderchief
fighter jets. It sent F-4 Phantoms
into aerial combat with Soviet-built
North Vietnamese MiGs.
F-4 PHANTOM
FIGHTER JET
The F-4 Phantom fighter jet went into
combat against Soviet-built MiGs.
Courtesy of George Hall/Corbis
Three other important aircraft were
high-tech. These were the EC-121,
the EB-66, and the F-100F Wild Weasel.
The EC-121 was a radar-equipped cargo
plane. The EC-121 searched for enemy
MiGs over the skies of Vietnam. EC-121
crews could tell US and VNAF fighters
where to find MiGs.
The EB-66 jammed enemy radar by
sending out electronic pulses. Radar
on the F-100F fighter could spot the
location of enemy radar and send
a missile right at it.
F-100F WILD WEASEL
The F-100F Wild Weasel targeted enemy
radar with missiles.
Courtesy of Bettmann/Corbis
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
Developing Flight
Flight Paths
A1C William Robinson:
From POW to Second Lieutenant
A1C William Robinson was a member of a search-and-rescue team during
the Vietnam War. He flew in an HH-43 helicopter.
On 20 September 1965 Robinson’s group set out to rescue a downed pilot in
North Vietnam. They flew 80 miles to the site with an armed escort. Enemy fire
hit both US aircraft. Rules from headquarters forbade the escort to return fire.
So it headed back to base. Enemy forces shot down Robinson’s helicopter.
It crashed into the jungle. The crew was taken prisoner.
Robinson spent eight years as a POW. The
captors didn’t treat the prisoners’ wounds. They
tortured the prisoners instead. They denied the
POWs adequate food. They exposed them to all
kinds of weather. All POWs spent time in solitary
confinement. During solitary confinement,
a prisoner is held in a cell alone and not allowed
to talk to anyone.
Robinson described this as “weeks, months,
and years of boredom punctuated by moments,
hours, and days of stark terror.” But he survived.
During his incarceration, he received “informal”
Officer Candidate School training. When he
returned to the United States, he was offered
and accepted a direct presidential appointment
to the rank of second lieutenant. He received
many awards, including the Air Force Cross.
A1C WILLIAM ROBINSON
The North Vietnamese parade
A1C William Robinson on his way
to the “Hanoi Hilton” POW camp.
Taken from the National
Prisoner of War Museum
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
237
Flight Paths
A1C William Pitsenbarger:
A First-Class Hero
A1C William Pitsenbarger (1944–1966) was
a crewman aboard an HH-43 helicopter that
went on search-and-rescue missions. He was
a pararescueman. His job was to care for the
wounded and get them out of the jungle.
Pitsenbarger performed this role bravely
on 11 April 1966 near Cam My, Republic
of Vietnam. On that day, his job was to care
for Soldiers who were under fire in South
Vietnam. He treated the wounded in the
middle of the action on the jungle floor.
He placed the casualties in hoists to lift
them 100 feet in the air to the chopper.
When the enemy launched a major assault,
he joined the firefight. Wounded three times,
he continued fighting and helping others.
He died in action that day.
The Air Force awarded Pitsenbarger the
Air Force Cross. But Soldiers who were
at the firefight that day asked that he
receive a higher honor: the Medal of Honor.
The secretary of the Air Force presented
the medal to Pitsenbarger’s father in 2000.
A1C WILLIAM PITSENBARGER
Courtesy of the US Air Force
Lessons the USAF Learned From the Vietnam War
During the first few years of the war, the United States did not use air power
consistently. From time to time it halted the bombing raids. During these pauses,
the United States tried to get the Communists to stop fighting. Instead, the North
Vietnamese used the time to repair their supply routes and communication lines.
This experience taught the US Air Force that it must thoroughly defeat an enemy.
It must not spare locations where Soviet and Chinese advisers might be stationed.
During Operations Linebacker I and II, B-52 bombers pounded supply routes
and Communist positions until the North Vietnamese were compelled to talk.
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
Developing Flight
The Top-Secret Mission of
CMSgt Richard Etchberger
CMSgt Richard Etchberger (1933–1968)
started out as a radar operator. He learned
fast. During the Vietnam War, his superiors
asked if he’d like to join a top-secret mission
called Project Heavy Green.
The project was a joint mission of the
US Air Force and the Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA). The military needed a radar
site close to the border of North Vietnam
to better direct bombing runs. The site
was in Laos, a country that was neutral,
not taking sides. Because Laos was neutral,
no US military member could be stationed
there. So anyone wanting to take part in
the mission had to resign from the military
and secretly join the CIA. Etchberger
did just this.
CMSGT RICHARD ETCHBERGER
CMSgt Richard Etchberger
in jungle fatigues
Courtesy of the Air Force Heritage Research Institute
From 1967 to 1968, Etchberger and 18
other Americans worked at the secret radar
station in Laos. They directed 25 percent
of all bombing missions over North Vietnam.
But then the North Vietnamese forces
learned of their site. They launched an
air attack on 12 January 1968. That didn’t
succeed. So they launched a ground attack
from 10 March to 11 March 1968.
Etchberger and his fellow workers fought
as best they could. But many were injured
or killed. Etchberger escaped enemy fire.
He continued to fight until a helicopter
came to pick up the survivors. He loaded
his fallen friends one by one until it was
his turn. He was fatally shot only after
he boarded the copter.
THE
RADAR SITE IN
LAOS
BEFORE THE ATTACK
Courtesy of Ron Haden
After his death the Air Force awarded
Etchberger the Air Force Cross. In a secret
Pentagon ceremony in 1969, it was accepted
by his wife Katherine.
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
239
A1C John Levitow Earns a Medal of Honor
A1C John Levitow (1945–2000) was a gunship loadmaster in Vietnam.
His duties included working with flares. On 24 February 1969 he displayed
extraordinary courage on a night mission near Long Binh, South Vietnam.
The AC-47 gunship he was on came under heavy fire. (The crew later found
out their ship had 3,500 punctures from enemy fire.) A mortar shell exploded
on the ship’s right wing. The explosion sent shrapnel through the body of
the plane. It wounded many crewmen.
Forty pieces of shrapnel hit Levitow. Even so, he saved the life of one of his
comrades who was about to fall through an open cargo door. When Levitow
saw a loose flare headed toward the ammunition supply, he threw himself on top
of it. He threw the flare out the cargo door barely a second before it exploded.
Levitow spent two months recuperating. Then he went on 20 more missions.
For his brave act in 1969, he received the Medal of Honor in 1970. No other
Airman of his rank or lower had ever received that award—the nation’s
highest military medal.
SGT JOHN LEVITOW
Sgt John Levitow receives the Medal of Honor
from President Richard Nixon in 1970.
Courtesy of the Air Force Heritage Research Institute
240
CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
Developing Flight
Maj Robert Undorf and
the Rescue of the Mayaguez
Maj Robert Undorf was another Airman who served with honor during
the Vietnam War.
Undorf was an on-scene commander in 1975 for the rescue of the US merchant
ship S.S. Mayaguez and its crew. Cambodian Communists grabbed the ship
in May 1975. It was 60 miles off the Cambodian coast.
The Cambodian Communists took the Mayaguez to Koh Tang Island off the
Cambodian coast. President Gerald R. Ford dispatched a force of roughly 200
Marines to retake the vessel and rescue the crew. The Marines expected light
resistance on Koh Tang. But they soon found themselves in a tough firefight
with up to 200 Cambodian troops. Three of their eight helicopters crashed
and two others were disabled.
Meanwhile, a Marine boarding party seized the Mayaguez but found no crew
members aboard. US aircraft carried out a bombing strike on the Cambodian
mainland. After that, the Cambodians released the Mayaguez’s crew.
Getting the Marines off Koh Tang
was another matter. While they fiercely
defended their position, Maj Undorf
flew above the battle in an OV-10
forward-air-control aircraft. He directed
supporting fire from USAF aircraft
and helicopters on the scene. He then
directed the rescue of the Marines
from the island while continuing
to bring in supporting fire. This was
tricky, because at the end only three
helicopters were available to pick up
the Marines. More than once, Undorf
himself made several strafing passes
against Cambodian troops.
For his intelligent and brave execution
of duties Undorf earned the Silver Star
and the Mackay Trophy. The Air Force
gives the trophy for the most outstanding
flight by an Airman each year.
US MARINES
STORM THE
MAYAGUEZ
Courtesy of Time Life Pictures/US Navy/Time Life Pictures/
Getty Images
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
241
TSgt Wayne Fisk and the
Last Firefight in Southeast Asia
TSgt Wayne Fisk earned two Silver Stars
in the Vietnam War. He was a pararescueman.
Fisk earned his first Silver Star for taking part
in a raid to try to rescue POWs in 1970 from the
Son Tay POW camp in North Vietnam, in enemy
territory. He earned his second Silver Star helping
US Marines fight Cambodian Communist forces.
Fisk was a member of the assault force that
recovered the Mayaguez, its crew, and the
entrapped Marines. During this operation,
he traded fire with an enemy sniper while
trying to recover a Marine’s body. This made
Fisk the last US serviceman to engage
the enemy in Southeast Asia.
CMSGT WAYNE FISK
Courtesy of the US Air Force
Gen Daniel James Jr.:
The Military’s First AfricanAmerican Four-Star General
Gen Daniel “Chappie” James Jr. (1920–1978)
was the first African-American to attain four-star
general rank. He received a bachelor of science
degree in 1942 from Tuskegee Institute and
completed the Civilian Pilot Training Program.
During World War II James trained pilots, including
the famous Tuskegee Airmen. He flew 101 combat
missions in Korea. He went on 78 missions in
Vietnam. He led one operation in Vietnam in which
US Airmen shot down seven MiGs. This was a
record during the Vietnam War.
GEN DANIEL “CHAPPIE” JAMES JR.
Gen Daniel “Chappie” James Jr.
set a record as a pilot in the
Vietnam War.
James received his fourth star in 1975. At that time,
he was commander in chief of the North American
Air Defense Command and the Aerospace Defense
Command. He directed all strategic aerospace
defense forces in the United States and Canada.
He retired in 1978 as a special assistant to the Air
Force chief of staff.
Courtesy of the US Air Force
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
Developing Flight
How the USAF Gained an Increasingly Significant Role
in Other US Military Operations During the Cold War
The mission of the US Air Force expanded during the Cold War. Although its main
role was still to deliver the atomic bomb, it took on new missions. These included
a lead role in the Berlin Airlift, rescuing US citizens in harm’s way, and securing
Europe by helping rearm Germany.
The US public’s desire to avoid heavy casualties led to more reliance on air power
to support US goals. In addition, the Air Force’s ability to attack more precisely
and with less risk of losing aircraft made air power an attractive option.
US and NATO Military Operations
The United States and NATO nations had two big fears during the Cold War:
a Soviet ground attack and Soviet nuclear weapons.
The US and NATO took steps to increase security. They accepted West Germany
into NATO in 1955. West Germany bordered Soviet-controlled East Germany.
As a member of NATO, West Germany was a geographic barrier to Communist
expansion. The US and NATO also rearmed West Germany to a limited extent.
Remembering World War II, most people were still wary of Germany.
Starting in 1957 the United States began placing nuclear bombs all over Western
Europe. It was the Air Force’s job to deliver these weapons if needed. The purpose
was to keep Soviet ground forces at bay. Soviet ground forces were far more
numerous than NATO forces.
Other Significant Military Operations During the Cold War
Besides coordinating operations with NATO, the United States conducted missions
of its own during the Cold War. Four of these involved saving civilian lives or
establishing democracies.
Operation Eagle Claw
On 4 November 1979 Islamic “students” raided the US embassy in Iran. They took
more than 90 US diplomats hostage. In return for the hostages’ release, the Iranians
demanded the US government return the Shah of Iran. He was in the United States
for surgery. The unpopular Iranian leader had fled his country earlier that year.
Negotiations to gain the hostages’ release failed. So President Jimmy Carter ordered
a military rescue. Operation Eagle Claw began—and ended—on 24 April 1980. Eight
Navy helicopters took off from the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz in the Persian Gulf.
They headed for a patch of Iranian desert from which they planned to launch the
rescue. Three of the helicopters had mechanical problems. The mission was
canceled. As the remaining aircraft were leaving Iran, one of the helicopters and a
USAF cargo plane collided. Five Airmen and three Marines died.
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
243
FIGURE 2.3
Iran and the Middle East
Courtesy of Maps.com
Months later on 20 January 1981—the day President Ronald Reagan assumed
office—the US and Iran reached an agreement to free the last 52 hostages.
(Iran had released some earlier.)
The US military learned from the experience. It needed to better coordinate
joint ventures between different branches of the military. In 1987 Congress passed
a law that set up the US Special Operations Command. Its purpose was to conduct
special operations, which often involve more than one branch of the military.
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
FIGURE 2.4
Grenada and the Caribbean Sea
Courtesy of Maps.com
Operation Urgent Fury
On 13 October 1983 Communists in the government of Grenada overthrew the
prime minister and took over the island in the Caribbean. Many suspected Cuba
and the Soviet Union were behind the plot.
The Communist takeover put at risk some 600 American students attending
a medical college in Grenada. It also endangered hundreds of other Americans living
on the island. President Ronald Reagan sent US troops into Grenada on 25 October
to rid it of communism and to bring home the American citizens. The mission
was dubbed Operation Urgent Fury.
LESSON 2 | The Vietnam War and Other Military Operations
245
AMERICAN STUDENTS BOARD
A C-141B STARLIFTER ON
THEIR WAY OUT OF GRENADA.
Courtesy of Corbis Images
Many US Air Force aircraft took part in the mission. One was the AC-130,
a gunship that gave cover to troops securing an airfield in Grenada. The AC-130
took on enemy foot soldiers and attacked antiaircraft systems. Another aircraft
was the EC-130, which can broadcast to enemy radio and TV receivers. In Grenada,
the EC-130 crews relayed radio messages to local people so they’d know what
was happening. The C-141 Starlifter ferried home the students, plus nearly
11,000 other Americans.
The US and troops from several Caribbean nations ousted the would-be Communist
government. By 15 December they restored security. The US troops could go home.
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
FIGURE 2.5
Libya and the Mediterranean Sea
Courtesy of Maps.com
Operation El Dorado Canyon
Libya, a country in North Africa, was a center of anti-US terrorism in the 1980s.
In one Libyan bombing of a club in Germany, for instance, two US servicemen
died. On 14 April 1986 Operation El Dorado Canyon targeted five military sites
in Libya. President Reagan authorized the mission. The operation was a joint
venture of the US Air Force and Navy.
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F-111 AARDVARK
Courtesy of the US Air Force
Britain let the Air Force use one of its bases as
a launching pad for the operation. US aircraft
flew seven hours to reach Libya. The flight
took longer than usual because France wouldn’t
let the Air Force fly over French airspace. This
added more than 1,000 miles each way to the
trip. One plane involved was the F-111 Aardvark,
whose wings sweep back in flight to enable the
craft to reach faster speeds. KC-10 and KC-135
refueling tankers accompanied these fighters on
the 6,400-mile round-trip flight. The flight was
the longest for any combat mission in Air Force
history up to this time.
Other aircraft played a role as well. The EF-111
jammed Libyan radar. Navy aircraft such as the
A-7, A-6, and F-14 joined the Air Force aircraft
from carriers in the Mediterranean Sea.
The mission succeeded, although the Libyans
shot down one US aircraft. Libya eased off
from backing terrorism for several years.
But it continued to pose a terrorist threat.
Operation Just Cause
Panamanian military leader (and dictator)
Manuel Noriega held power in his Central
American country in the 1980s. At the time,
Courtesy of Aero Graphics, Inc./Corbis
the United States protected the Panama Canal
in accord with a long-standing treaty with Panama. The canal is a 50-mile route
through which ships travel between the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.
Members of Noriega’s Panama Defense Forces (PDF), however, regularly seized,
beat, and harassed US military personnel. In 1989 the PDF even detained nine
school buses filled with American children from nearby US bases. Noriega was
also involved with smuggling illegal drugs.
F-117 NIGHTHAWK
In response to these threats, the United States undertook Operation Just Cause.
President George H. W. Bush said the purpose was to “safeguard the lives of
Americans, to defend democracy in Panama, to combat drug trafficking, and
to protect the integrity of the Panama Canal treaty.”
Just Cause was a joint operation of the Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marines. The Air
Force’s new F-117 Nighthawk stealth fighter saw its first combat duty. Furthermore,
the Air Force delivered 9,500 paratroopers in the largest airdrop since D-Day in 1944.
The mission ran from December 1989 until February 1990. US forces arrested Noriega
on 3 January 1990. He was convicted in a US court of drug trafficking and money
laundering. A Panamanian court convicted him of murder. In February 2007, he was
still in a US prison in Miami, with one report saying he might be released in September.
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Key Developments in Aircraft, Missile Capability,
and Nuclear Capability During the Cold War
Between 1945 and 1989, both the United States and the Soviet Union spent
billions on defense. Because of this huge investment, the United States made
several advances in aircraft, missiles, and nuclear power during those years.
Aircraft Developments
The Douglas X-3 Stiletto was introduced in 1952. It was different from
the X-1 and X-2, which you read about in Chapter 6, Lesson 1. While the X-1
and X-2 were rocket-driven, the X-3 was jet-driven. And while the X-1 and X-2
had to be launched like a glider in mid-air, the X-3 took off from the ground.
Engineers built the X-3 to be the
first jet aircraft to break Mach 3.
But in 20 tries, it failed to do so.
So the designers went back to the
drawing board. They came up
with three new aircraft: the F-104
Starfighter, the experimental X-15,
and the reconnaissance aircraft
SR-71 Blackbird.
The F-104 flew 1,404 mph in 1958
and reached an altitude of 103,395
feet in 1959.
The X-15 tested two kinds of limits:
speed and altitude. Like the first jets
in the X-series, the rocket-propelled
X-15 had to be carried into the air
for release. But it soon broke records.
The X-15 flew at speeds that exceeded
4,000 miles an hour. It soared
more than 50 miles into the sky.
Pilots tested the X-15s from 1959
until 1968.
F-104 STARFIGHTER
Courtesy of George Hall/Corbis
THE X-15
UNDER THE WING OF A
B-52
Courtesy of Dean Conger/Corbis
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249
The SR-71 was the fastest
(2,193 mph) and could reach
the highest altitudes (85,068 feet)
of all reconnaissance planes.
SR-71 BLACKBIRD
Courtesy of George Hall/Corbis
BELL X-5
Courtesy of Loomis Dean/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
B-1 LANCER
Courtesy of George Hall/Corbis
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CHAPTER 6 | The Modern Air Force
The Bell X-5 first flew in 1951.
It had a jet engine. Its main
experimental function was its
wing design. The X-5 had wings
that could sweep back up to
60 degrees during flight. The
sweptback-wing design meant
faster flight. The F-111 that
dropped bombs over Libya during
Operation El Dorado Canyon
in 1986 had the same swing-back
wing design.
As the B-52 fleet aged, the Air
Force modernized its bomber fleet.
It upgraded the B-52s to accept
air-launched cruise missiles.
And in 1984 it accepted the first
B-1 Lancer long-range bomber.
The B-1 could carry twice the
payload of a B-52. The Air Force
thought the B-1’s range, speed,
and ability to attack at low altitude
would allow it penetrate Soviet
defenses. Its design called for a
maximum speed of Mach 2.1
(1,400 mph) and a range of
6,100 miles without refueling.
Developing Flight
Missile and Nuclear
Developments
V-2
Warhead
1945
Control
Section
Center
Section
Alcohol
Liquid
Oxygen
Pumps
and
Steam
Chamber
“Rose
Tail
Cups”
Section
Burner
Compressed
Nitrogen
Bottles
Stabilizing
Fins
External
Control
Valve
Carbon Jet Vanes
FIGURE 2.6 V-2
BALLISTIC MISSILE
The Germans dropped thousands
of V-2 ballistic missiles on England
during World War II.
At the end of World War II,
the Germans invented and used
the V-2 ballistic missile. A ballistic
missile is one that free-falls after
a self-powered flight. During the
final months of the war Germany
fired thousands of these rocket-driven
missiles. The missiles flew 100 miles
into the sky before plunging to
Earth at speeds as high as 3,600 mph.
They carried 2,000-pound warheads.
A warhead is the explosive tip
of a missile.
Based on captured V-2 technology,
the US developed its own ballistic
missiles after the war. Their purpose
was to deliver nuclear weapons
on the Soviet Union and its allies.
Ballistic missiles were rocket or
jet propelled. They weren’t guided
by radar. Once they finished their
forward, upward motion, they
plummeted to Earth much like
a bomb dropped from a plane.
The Soviets likewise developed
a series of increasingly effective
missiles aimed at the US and
other NATO countries.
Other Cold War era inventions were smart bombs and cruise missiles. Smart bombs
are dropped from an aircraft and guided to their targets by laser or other precisiondelivery devices. They have fins to stabilize them in flight. Cruise missiles are both
guided and propelled. The first cruise missile was the German V-1 from World War II.
In the 1950s US researchers invented a jet-propelled missile. The Northrop SM62
Snark could fly for 6,300 miles at Mach 0.94. This was nearly the speed of sound.
The rocket-propelled GAM 63 Rascal was smaller and more controllable than
the Snark. SAC bomber crews could guide the Rascal by radar from up to 100 miles
away. This distance better protected bombers from antiaircraft fire.
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Both the Snark and the Rascal carried nuclear
warheads, although the Snark was originally fitted
with conventional explosives. The Northrop SM62
Snark led to more-advanced cruise missile designs.
The US used cruise missiles in 1991 during the
first Persian Gulf War. They can fly low and turn
sharp corners. They are so accurate they can
be directed to fly through a specified window
of a building.
NORTHROP SM62 SNARK
Courtesy of the US Air Force
In an effort to cool Cold War tensions, the United
States and the Soviet Union entered into a series
of arms-control agreements. These accords limited
and reduced the numbers of specific types of
nuclear weapons—especially ballistic missiles.
How the Cold War Ended
In the decades of the Cold War, the United States
and the Soviet Union never fought face to face.
Neither side used nuclear weapons. They avoided
total war.
But each side spent billions of dollars building
up arms. This meant billions of dollars weren’t
going toward the everyday needs of civilians:
GAM 63 RASCAL
better schools, better roads, and better power
plants. This failure to pay attention to its people’s
Courtesy of the US Air Force
needs severely weakened the Soviet Union.
The country’s economy suffered. People had to wait in line to buy basic foods, such
as bread. The people in the Communist countries of Europe also began to demand
more respect for human rights. They wanted freedom of speech, freedom of religion,
and the freedom to travel to other countries.
The Cold War came to a critical point in 1989. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev
had come to power in 1985. He tried to reform the Communist system by freeing
the economy and improving human rights. But the effort came too late for Soviet
communism. The Soviets’ Eastern European allies saw their Communist governments
fall one by one. In most cases, democracies took their place. East Germany and
West Germany reunited into one democratic country. The Soviet Union broke apart
into 15 independent countries, including Russia. Gorbachev was unable stop the
disintegration of the Soviet Union.
After four decades of tension, the contest of wills was over. The United States and
its democratic allies in NATO had won.
Some people thought the Cold War’s end would bring a long period of peace. But
instead, the ending of the Cold War ushered in a whole new era of regional conflicts.
This would challenge the US and NATO in a much different way than the Cold War did.
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CHECKPOINTS
Lesson 2 Review
Using complete sentences, answer the following questions
on a sheet of paper.
1. What was an aircraft used during the Cuban Missile Crisis
and how was it used?
2. What did President John F. Kennedy set up around Cuba
when the Soviets were building missile sites on the
island nation?
3. Which country was better equipped with nuclear weapons
during the Cuban Missile Crisis—the United States or the
Soviet Union?
4. What did Congress pass that gave President Lyndon Johnson
the right strike at North Vietnam?
5. Which aircraft was the new quiet “star” of the Vietnam War?
6. What lessons did the USAF learn from the Vietnam War?
7. What important lesson did the US military learn from
Operation Eagle Claw?
8. What was special about the X-5 aircraft?
Applying Your Learning
9. Why do you think the US and NATO won the Cold War?
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