FAULTY REASONING: FALLACIES IN ARGUMENT
Fallacies
Fallacy--An argument that relies upon faulty reasoning.
Term
Definition
Examples
a.
1.
Ad Hominem
2. Appeal to Force
3. Appeal to Pity
4. Bandwagon (appeal to Popular)
5. Appeal to Tradition
6. False Dilemma
7. False Cause
8. Poisoning the Well
9. Double Standard
10. Begging the question
Attacking the individual instead of the argument.
Telling the hearer that something bad will happen to
him if he does not accept the argument.
Urging the hearer to accept the argument based upon
an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc.
Urging the hearer to accept a new position because a
majority of people hold to it.
Trying to get someone to accept something because it
has been done or believed for a long time.
Giving two choices when in actuality there could be
more choices possible.
Comments or information that do not logically follow
from a premise or the conclusion.
Presenting negative information about a person before
he/she speaks so as to discredit the person's argument.
Applying a standard to another that is different from a
standard applied to oneself.
Assuming the thing to be true that you are trying to
prove. It is circular.
He’s not a great athlete; he’s a fraud, a cheat and
a liar.
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
If you don't want to get beaten up, you will agree
with what I say.
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
Oh, come on. I’ve been sick. That’s why I missed
the deadline.
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
Everyone else is doing it. Why shouldn't you?
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
This is the way we've always done it. Therefore, it
is the right way.
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
You either did knock the glass over or you’re
lying. Which is it? (Someone else could have
knocked the glass over)
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
We know why it rained today: because I washed
my car.
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
Don't listen to him because he is a loser.
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
Those rules don't apply to me since I am older
than you.
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
a.
I am a good worker because Frank says so. How
can we trust Frank? Simple: I will vouch for him.
b.
c.
From The Crucible:
Booby Traps
Booby trap--An argument, that while not a fallacy, might lead an inattentive reader to commit a fallacy.
Term
11. Vagueness
Definition
A lack of clarity or precision in language. Words or
groups of words are vague when their meanings are
inexact or when it is unclear to which things the word
applies.
Example
Wife: “I see Mr. Smith is cooking out on his new
barbecue grill.” Husband: “So his wife finally got fed
up with his unfaithfulness!”
Explanation:
12. Equivocation
13. Suppressed Evidence
14. Appeal to Authority
15. Questionable use of
Statistics
A subcategory of vagueness that consists of using a
term or expression in an argument in one sense in one
place in in another sense in another (in other words:
changing the definition of the word within the
argument).
Any law can be repealed by the proper legal authority.
The law of gravity is a law. Therefore, the law of
gravity can be repealed by the proper legal authority.
A failure to mention or otherwise acknowledge
important, relevant evidence. Suppressing evidence is
not always a fallacy (for instance, defense lawyers are
professionally obligated to ignore evidence of their
client’s guilt), but ignoring relevant facts is often a sign
of an attempt to mislead.
Accepting the word of authorities when we lack good
reasons for thinking that they have the information we
need or when we think that they might be biased, or
when we ought to figure the matter out for ourselves,
or when the authority in question is not really an expert
in the relevant area.
That type of car is poorly made; a friend of mine has
one, and it continually gives him trouble.
Employing statistics that are questionable without
further support. Subcategories include:
Hasty Conclusion: Accepting an argument on the basis
of too little evidence.
Small Sample: Drawing conclusions on the basis of a
sample that is too small to be reliable.
Unrepresentative Sample: Reasoning from a sample
that is not representative of the general population.
The store brand soda is cheap, so the Pepsi will be
cheap too.
Explanation:
Explanation:
I am not a doctor but I play one on the hit series Grey’s
Anatomy. Take it from me, there is no faster-acting pain
relief formula than Advil Liqui-Gels®.
Explanation:
Explanation:
Propaganda Tactics
Propaganda--The expression of opinion or action by individuals or groups deliberately designed to influence opinions or actions of other
individuals or groups with reference to predetermined ends.
Term
16. Name Calling
17. Glittering Generalities
18. Transfer
19. Testimonial
20. Plain Folks
Definition
The propagandist appeals to our hate and fear by
giving “bad names” to those individuals, groups,
nations, races, policies, practices, beliefs, and ideals that
he would have us condemn and reject.
By use of “virtue words,” the propagandist appeals to
our emotions of love, generosity, and brotherhood.
A device by which the propagandist carries over the
authority, sanction, and prestige of something or
someone we respect and revere to something he would
have us accept.
The technique involves a source the audience approves
of, trusts, or respects vouching for what the
propagandist wants to promote.
A device used to win our confidence by appearing to
be people like ourselves—“just plain folks,” “just an ole
country boy/gal,” “just an American citizen.”
Sources:
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http://www.roleplayingtips.com/readissue.php?number=389#T4
http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy/
http://carm.org/logical-fallacies-or-fallacies-argumentation
http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/identifying-understanding-fallacies-used-785.html?tab=4#tabs
http://literarydevices.net/ad-hominem/
http://atheism.about.com/od/logicalfallacies/fl/Suppressed-Evidence-Fallacy.htm
Ann T. Rudkin, Winston-Salem, College Board Presenter
Examples