Geography 813 – Graduate Seminar in Human-Environment
Interactions
A Focus on Island Ecosystems, Land Use/Land Cover Change &
Dynamic and Complex Systems Models
Stephen J. Walsh
Department of Geography
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Fall 2014
Mondays, 3:00 – 5:30 pm; Saunders Hall - Room 204
Increasingly, policymakers and researchers are confronted with problems at multiple
spatial and temporal scales, such as global climate change, land use/land cover change,
international tourism and population migration, changes in ecosystem goods and services, and
the introduction of new land use policies that have implications across socio-economic,
ecological, and geographical domains. The interactions between coupled human-natural
systems are played out through land development scenarios and land transformation activities
that often create feedbacks and thresholds among people, place, and environment. Yet a lack
of adequate tools and theoretical understanding across the social, natural, and spatial
sciences has traditionally led researchers to focus on relatively coarse grains of analysis where
aggregate data are available. But it is at the finer social, ecological, and spatial scales where
geospatial information may be more appropriately collected, derived, and applied because of
local decision-making about the use of the land with feedbacks to human behavior.
Furthermore, even where adequate data have been collected at appropriate spatial and
temporal scales, data analyses have tended to focus on either people or the environment,
without suitable integration across the social and ecological domains.
To reduce the geographic and thematic extent of the course, we will approach the study
of human-environment interactions through a focus on Island Ecosystems, Land Use/Land
Cover Change, and Dynamic & Complex Systems Models. We will also read and discuss a
series of papers clustered around associated topics, including, Biocomplexity, Land Use/Land
Cover Change, Islands Ecosystems & Protected Areas, Agent Based Models, Dynamic
Simulation Models, and Measurement & Observation Systems for assessing people and the
environment. The course will entail three short papers (~7-10 pages) and class discussions
that examine theories, practices, and human-environment interactions for selected case
studies or more synthetically across several case study sites. In addition, a special class
project will be designed that involves the study of island ecosystems and protected areas
through a study of human-environment interactions, particularly, land use/land cover change
and the characterization of places and contexts using dynamic and complex systems models.
Paper #1 (& presentation) is due on September 29th.
Paper #2 (& presentation) is due on November 3rd
Paper #3 (& presentation) is due on December 1st
For centuries, island ecosystems have animated the human imagination and challenged
science. Probably the most famous examples of scientific interest in islands are the impact of
the Galapagos Islands on Darwin’s theory of evolution, the subsequent development of island
biogeography, and the development of meta-population models to improve our understanding
of the flows of genetic material in a wide range of settings. However, human migration and
tourism (domestic and international) have brought profound changes to the natural
environment in places like the Hawaiian and Canary Islands. With the rise in global wealth,
pressure on exotic island ecosystems increases as more people seek to visit and experience
these “special” places. Islands are areas of considerable vulnerability to threats imposed by
human and natural forces, including, climate change, sea-level rise, hydrologic processes,
invasive species, tourism, and land use/land cover change caused by the direct and indirect
effects of the expanding human dimension.
We will use Island Biocomplexity as the lens to synthesize human-environment
relationships for island ecosystems that are distributed around the globe. Island Biocomplexity
encompasses the complex interactions within and among ecological systems, the physical
systems on which they depend, and the human systems with which they interact. Island
Biocomplexity combines social-ecological co-evolution and adaptive resilience with a new
island ecology that incorporates human impacts. Dynamic and complex systems models will
be examined as our integrative and synthetic test-bed. Dynamic systems models simulate,
predict, and mediate conditions given specified stocks, flows, exchange rates, and feedback
loops between key parameters, whereas Agent Based Models are used to examine complex
adaptive systems, critical thresholds, emergence, and feedback mechanisms linked to humanenvironment interactions and non-linear system dynamics.
Island ecosystems will be selected for study through a meta-analysis of island
vulnerability, defined as a perceived imminence of loss, degradation, and reduction of integrity,
often through a loss of site resilience imposed by threats to conservation and social-ecological
sustainability. Vulnerability is related to site exposure, physical setting, social context,
ecosystem sensitivity, and the ability and opportunity of island ecosystems to adapt to change.
From a diversity perspective, the following group of islands will be preliminarily considered and
a sample of island ecosystems will be selected for our purposes.
Hawaiian Islands (Central Pacific)
Galapagos Islands (Eastern Pacific)
Puerto Rico (Caribbean)
American Samoa (South Pacific)
Samoa (South Pacific)
Guam (Western Pacific)
Republic of Palau (Central Pacific)
Micronesia (Western Pacific)
US Virgin Islands (Caribbean)
Papua New Guinea (Western Pacific)
Solomon Islands (South Pacific)
Fiji (South Pacific)
Vanuatu (South Pacific)
Tonga (South Pacific)
Martinique (Caribbean)
Reunion (Central Pacific)
Tahiti (South Pacific)
Wallis and Futuna (South Pacific)
Saint Martin (Caribbean)
New Caledonia (SW Pacific)
Mauritius (Southwest Indian)
Fraser Island (Western Pacific)
Azores (East-Central Atlantic)
Canary Is. (East-Central Atlantic)
Madagascar (Indian)
Seychelles (Indian)
Our central goal is to create an approach to synthesize human-environment interactions
for island ecosystems through an Island Biocomplexity framework that examines the
behavioral shifts seen in social-ecological interactions that are perturbed through exogenous
and endogenous dynamics, complex adaptive systems, and emergent properties. Our intent is
to achieve a richer and fuller understanding of island ecosystems through a multi-site synthesis
using a new conceptual framework. Further, we develop dynamic and complex systems
models that are tested against a set island sites that vary by location, size, and character.
We will synthesize among case studies and island sites using dynamic and complex
systems models that are designed to study feedback systems through the collection of
interacting elements that function together in a specified system (see Figure 1). Properties of
dynamic systems include quantities that very over time, whose variability is described causally,
and whose influences are contained within a closed system feedback loop. Commonly,
dynamic systems models are developed through the creation of a causal graph that is
augmented with information on stocks, flows, rates of change, feedback loops, and rules of
behavior that are translated into a system dynamics flow graph (i.e., a boxes and arrows
diagram) and then translated into programs and/or equations. Thinking in terms of “cause and
effect” is not sufficient, as feedback loops are the key to understanding system dynamics as an
initial cause can ripple through a chain of causation factors ultimately to “re-affect” itself. A
static systems model is the representation of a system at a particular time, whereas dynamic
systems models represent a system as it evolves over time. Dynamic systems models
advance the understanding of feedback loops between social-ecological factors, expressed
through positive and negative relationships, endogenous and exogenous dynamics, and
continuous and discrete events that lead to emergent behavior and a richer understanding of
the drivers of land use/land cover change.
Figure 1. An example of a dynamic systems model in the Galapagos Islands, as a preliminary template to
synthesize LCLUC of a global set of island ecosystems.
Below are a group of topics and associated readings that are linked to the focus of the
course. While not all readings will be assigned, the intent is for the class to consider the breath
and diversity of readings and to add to the list of associated topics and selected readings for
new (or defined) topics early in the course so that high interest topics and readings can be
further identified for specific study areas, human-environment interactions, and measurement,
observation, and modeling approaches.
Biocomplexity
An, L., Linderman, M., Qi, J., Shortridge, A., Lui, J. 2005. Exploring complexity in a humanenvironment system: an agent based spatial model for multidisciplinary and multiscale
integration. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 95(1): 54-79.
Crawford, T.W., Messina, J.P., Manson, S.M., O’Sullivan, D. 2005. Complexity Science,
Complexity Systems and Land Use Research. Environment and Planning B 32: 857875.
González, J. A., Montes, C., Rodríguez, J. and, & Tapia, W. 2008. Rethinking the Galapagos
Islands as a Complex Social-Ecological System: Implications for Conservation and
Management. Ecology and Society 13(2): 1-25.
Manson, S.M. 2009. Complexity, Chaos and Emergence. A Companion to Environmental
Geography, Blackwell Publishing 66-80.
Manson, S.M. 2008. Does Scale Exist? An Epistemological Scale Continuum for Complex
Human-Environment Systems. GeoForum 39: 776-788.
Manson, S.M., Sun, S., Bonsal, D. 2012. Agent-Based Modeling and Complexity. Agent-Based
Models of Geographical Systems, Springer Science + Business Media, 125-139.
Messina, J.P., Evans, T.P., Manson, S.M., Shortridge, A.M., Deadman, P.J., Verburg, P.H.
2008. Complex Systems Models and the Management of Error and Uncertainty. Journal
of Land Use Science 3(1): 11-25.
Michener, W.K., Baerwald, T.J., Firth, P., Palmer, M.A., Rosenberger, J.L., Sandlin, E.A.,
Zimmerman, H. 2001. Defining and Unraveling Biocomplexity. Bioscience 51(12): 10181023.
Parker, D.S., Manson, S.M., Janssen, M., Hoffmann, M., Deadman, P. 2003. Multi-Agent
systems for the Simulation of Land Use and Land Cover Change: A Review. Annals of
the Association of American Geographers 93(2): 314–337.
Walsh, S.J., Malanson, G.P., Messina, J.P., Brown, D.G., Mena, C.F. 2011. Biocomplexity. In:
Handbook of Biogeography (Blumler, M., MacDonald, G., Millington, A., Schickhoff, U.,
editors), Sage Publications: London 469-487.
Wu, J., Marceau, D. 2002. Modeling Complex Ecological Systems: An Introduction. Ecological
Modelling 153: 1-6.
Land Use/Land Cover Change
DeFries, R.S., Foley, J.A., Asner, G.P. 2004. Land Use Choices: Balancing Human Needs and
Ecosystem Function. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 2(5): 249-257.
Foley, J.A., DeFries, R.S., Asner, G.P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S.R., Chapin, F.S.,
Coe, M.T., Daily, G.C., Gibbs, H.K., Helkowski, J.H., Holloway, T., Howard, E.A.,
Kucharik, C.J., Monfreda, C., Patz, J.A., Prentice, I.C., Ramankutty, N., Synder, P.K.
2005. Global Consequences of Land Use. Science 309: 570-574.
Grau, H.R., Aide, T.M., Zimmerman, J.K., Thomlinson, J.R., Helmer, E., Zou, X. 2003.
BioScience 53(12): 1159-1168.\
Haines-Young, R. 2009. Land Use4 and Biodiversity Relationships. Land Use Policy 26: 178186.
Laird, S.G, Wardell-Johnson, A. Ragusa, A.T. (2014) Exploring the Human–Environment
Connection: Rurality, Ecology and Social Well-Being. Rural Society 23:2.
Lu, F., Gray, C., Bilsborrow, R.E., Mena, C.F., Erlien, C.M., Bremner, J., Barbieri, A., Walsh,
S.J. 2010. Contrasting Colonist and Indigenous Impacts on Amazonian Forests.
Conservation Biology, Research Note, 24(3): 881-885.
Mena, C.F., Barbieri, A., Walsh, S.J., Erlien, C.M., Holt, F.L., Bilsborrow, R.E. 2006. Pressure
on the Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve: Development and Land Use/Cover Change in the
Northern Ecuadorian Amazon. World Development 34(10): 1831-1849.
Messina, J.P., Walsh, S.J., Mena, C.F., Delamater, P.L., 2006. Land Tenure and Deforestation
Patterns in the Ecuadorian Amazon: Conflicts in Land Conservation in a Frontier
Setting. Applied Geography 26: 113-128.
Metzger, M.J., Rounsevell, M.D.A., Acosta-Michlik, L., Leemans, R., Schtoter, D., 2006. The
Vulnerability of Ecosystem Services to Land Use Change. Agriculture, Ecosystems &
Environment 114: 69-85.
Mooney, H., Larigauderie, A., Cesario, M., Elmquist, T., Hoegh-Gulderg, Lavorel, S., Mace,
G.M., Palmer, M., Scholes, R., Yahara, T. 2009. Biodiversity, Climate Change, and
Ecosystem Services. Current Opinions in Environmental Sustainability 1: 46-54.
Pan, W.K.Y., S. J. Walsh, R.E. Bilsborrow, B.G. Frizzelle, C.M. Erlien, F.D. Baquero. 2004.
Farm-Level Models of Spatial Patterns of Land Use and Land Cover Dynamics in the
Ecuadorian Amazon. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 101: 117-134.
Rindfuss, R.R., Entwisle, B., Walsh, S.J., Mena, C.F., Erlien, C.M., Gray, C.L., 2007. Frontier
Land Use Change: Synthesis, Challenges, and Next Steps. Annals of the Association of
American Geographers 97(4): 739-754.
Rindfuss, R.R., Walsh, S.J., Turner II, B.L., Fox, J., Mishra, V., 2004. Developing a Science of
Land Change: Challenges and Methodological Issues. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Science 101(939): 13976-13981.
Turner II, B.L., Kasperson, R.E., Matson, P.A., McCarthy, J.J., Corell, R.W., Christensen, L.,
Eckley, N., Kasperson, J.X., Luers, A., Martello, M., Polsky, C., Pulsipher, A., Schiller,
A. 2003. A Framework for Vulnerability Analysis in Sustainability Science. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences 100(14): 8074-8079
Vitousek, P.M., Mooney, H.A., Lubchenco, J., Melillo, J.M. 1997. Human Domination of Earth’s
Ecosystems. Science 277: 494-499.
Walsh, S.J., W.F. Welsh, T.P. Evans, B. Entwisle, R.R. Rindfuss, 1999. Scale Dependent
Relationships between Population and Environment in Northeastern Thailand.
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 65(1): 97-105.
Wittemyer, G., Elsen, P., Bean, W.T., Burton, A.C.O., Brashares, J.S. 2008. Accelerated
Human Population Growth at Protected Area Edges, Science 321: 123-126.
Islands Ecosystems & Protected Areas
Cook, C.N., Carter, R.W., Hockings, M., 2014, Measuring the Accuracy of Management
Effectiveness Evaluations of Protected Areas. Journal of Environmental Management
139, 164-171.
Cruz, F., Carrion, V., Campbell, K.J., Lavoie, C., Donlan, C.J. 2009. Bio-Economics of LargeScale Eradiations of Ferasl Goats from Santiago Island, Galapagos. Journal of Wildlife
Conservation 73(2): 191-200.
Hannah, L. 2008. Protected Areas and Cliamte Change. New York Academy of Sciences
1134: 201-212.
Hein, L., Metzger, M.J., Moreno, A. 2009. Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Tourism: a
Case Study for Spain. Current Opinions in Environmental Sustainability 1: 170-178.
Hennessy, E. and McCleary, A.L. 2011. Nature’s Eden? The Production and Effects of
“Pristine” Nature in the Galapagos Islands. Island Studies Journal 6(2): 131-156.
Kier, G., Kreft, H., Lee, T.M., Jetz, W., Ibisch, P.L., Nowicki, C., Mutke, J., Barthlott, W. 2009.
A Global Assessment of Endemism and Species Richness across Islands and Mianland
Regions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(23): 9322-9327.
Miller, M.L., Carter, R.W., Walsh, S.J. In Review. A Conceptual Model for Studying Global
Change, Tourism and the Sustainability of Iconic National Parks. The George Wright
Forum, A Special Issue on Global Change and the World’s Iconic Protected Areas (P.
Eagles & P.A. Taylor).
Perry, J. 2011. World Heritage Hot Spots: a Global Model Identifies the 16 Natural Heritage
Properties on the World Heritage List Most “at risk” from Climate Change. International
Journal of Heritage Studies 17(5): 426-441.
Quiroga D. 2009. Crafting Nature: the Galapagos and the Making and Unmaking of a "natural
laboratory”. Journal of Political Ecology: Case Studies in History and Society 16: 123140.
Rozzi, R., Massardo, F., Cruz, F., Grenier, C., Munoz, A., Mueller, E., Elbers, J. 2010.
Galapagos and Cape Horn: Ecotourism or Greenwashing in Two Iconic Latin American
Archipelagoes? Environmental Philosophy 7(2): 1-32.
Schuhbauer, A. and Koch, V. 2013. Assessment of Recreational Fishery in the Galapagos
Marine Reserve: Failures and Opportunities. Fisheries Research (8-pages).
Trueman, M., Atkinson, R., Guezou, A., Wurm, P. 2010. Residence Time and HumanMediated Propagule Pressure at Work in the Alien Flora of Galapagos. Biological
Invasions 12: 3949-3960.
Velarde, S.J., Malhi, Y., Moran, D., Wright, J., Hussain, S. 2005. Valuing the Impacts of
Climate Change on Protected Areas in Africa. Ecological Economics 53: 21-33.
Walker, R., Moore, N.J., Arima, E., Perz, S., Simmons, C., Caldas, M., Vergara, D., Bohrer, C.
2009. Protecting the Amazon with Protected Areas. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 106(26): 10582-10586.
Walsh, S.J., Carter, R.W., Quiroga, D., Mena, C.F. In Review. Examining the Vulnerability of
Iconic National Parks through Modeling Global Change and Social and Ecological
Threats. The George Wright Forum, A Special Issue on Global Change and the World’s
Iconic Protected Areas (P. Eagles & P.A. Taylor).
Agent-Based Models & Dynamic Simulation Models for Tourism
Berland, A., Shuman, B., Manson, S.M. 2011. Simulated Importance of Dispersal, Disturbance,
and Landscape History in Long-Term Ecosystem Change in the Big Woods of
Minnesota. Ecosystems 14: 398-414.
Casagrandi, R., Rinaldi, S. (2002). A Theoretical Approach to Tourism Sustainability.
Conservation Ecology 6(1): 1-13.
Entwisle, B., Malanson, G.P., Rindfuss,k R.R., Walsh, S.J., 2008. An Agent-Based Model of
Household Dynamics and Land Use Change. Journal of Land Use Science 3(1): 73-93.
Hernandez, J.M. and Leon, C.J. 2007. The Interactions between Natural and Physical Capitals
in the Tourist Lifecycle Model. Ecological Economics 62: 184-193.
Johnston, R.J. and Tyrrell, T.J. 2005. A Dynamic Model of Sustainable Tourism. Journal of
Travel Research 44: 124-134.
Lacitignola, D., Pertrosillo, I., Cataldi, M., Zurlini, G. 2007. Modelling Socio-Ecological TourismBased Systems for Sustainability. Ecological Modelling 206: 191-204.
Malanson, G.P., Zeng, Y., Walsh, S.J., 2006. Landscape Frontiers, Geography Frontiers:
Lessons to be Learned. Professional Geographer 58(4): 383-396.
Malanson, G.R., Zeng, Y., Walsh, S.J., 2006. Complexity at Advancing Ecotones and
Frontiers. Environment and Planning A 38: 619-632.
Manson, WS.M. 2009. Simulation. Elesvier, 132-137.
Mena, C.F. Walsh, S.J., Frizzelle, B.G., Malanson, G.P., 2011. Land Use Change of
Household Farms in the Ecuadorian Amazon: Design and Implementation of an Agent
Based Model. Applied Geography 31(1): 210-222.
Miller, B.W., Breckheimer, I., McCleary, A.L., Guzman-Ramirez, L., Caplow, S.C., Walsh, S.J.
2010. Using Stylized Agent-Based Models for Population-Environment Research: A
Case from the Galapagos Islands. Population & Environment 31(6): 401-426.
Patterson, T., Gulden, T., Cousins, K., Kraev, E. 2004. Integrating Environmental, Social and
Economic Systems: a Dynamic Model of Tourism in Dominica. Ecological Modeling 175:
121-136.
Pizzitutti, F., Mena, C.F., Walsh, S.J. 2014. Modeling Tourism in the Galapagos Islands: An
Agent-Based Model Approach. Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation
17(1): 1-25.
Rindfuss, R.R., Entwisle, B., Walsh, S.J., An, L., Badenoch, N., Brown, D.G., Deadman, P.,
Evans, T.P., Fox, J., Geoghegan, J., Gutmann, M., Kelly, M., Linderman, M., Liu, J.,
Malanson, G.P., Mena, C.F., Messina, J.P., Parker, D.C., Robinson, D., Sawangdee, Y.,
Verburg, P., Zhong, G., 2008. Land Use Change: Complexity and Comparisons. Journal
of Land Use Science 3(1): 1-10.
Stephenne, N. and Lambin, E.F. 2001. A Dynamic Simulation Model of Land Use Change in
Sudan0-Sahelian Countries of Africa (SALU). Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment
85: 145-161.
Verburg, P.H., Veldkamp, T.A., Bouma, J. 1999. Land Use Chasnge under Conditions of High
Population Pressure: the case of Java. Global Environmental Change 9: 303-312.
Walsh, S.J., Malanson, G.P., Entwisle, B., Rindfuss, R.R., Mucha, P.J., Heumann, B.W.,
McDaniel, P.M., Frizzelle, B.G., Verdery, A.M., Williams, N., Xiaozheng, Y., Ding, D.
2013. Design of an Agent-Based Model to Examine Population-Environment
Interactions in Nang Rong District, Thailand. Applied Geography 39: 183-198.
Measurement & Observation Systems
Blaschke, T., Hay, G.J., Kelly, M., Lang, S., Hotmann, P., Addink, E., Feitosa, R.Q., van der
Meer, F., van der Werff, H., van Coillie, F., Tiede, D. 2014. ISPRS Journal of
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 87: 180-191.
Brewington, L. 2013. Mapping Invasion and Eradication of feral goats in the Alecedo Region of
Isabela Island, Galapagos. International Journal of Remote Sensing 34(7): 2286-2300.
Carlson, K.M., Asner, G.P., Hughes, R.F., Ostertag, R., Martin, R.E. 2007. Hyperspectral
Remote Sensing of Canopy Biodiversity in Hawaiian Lowland Rainforests. Ecosystems
10: 546-549.
Crews, K.A. and Walsh, S.J., 2009. Remote Sensing Links to the Social Sciences. Handbook
of Remote Sensing (Warner, T.A., Nellis, M.D., Foody, G.M.), Sage Publications:
London 437-445.
Heumann, B.W. 2011. Satellite Remote Sensing of Mangrove Forests: Recent Advances and
Future Opportunities. Progress in Physical Geography 35(1): 87-108.
Heumann, B.W., Walsh, S.J., Verdery, A., Entwisle, B., McDaniel, P.A., Rindfuss, R.R. 2013.
Land Suitability Modeling Using a Geographic Socio-Economical Niche-Based
Approach: A Case Study from Northeastern Thailand. Annals of the Association of
American Geographers 103(4): 764-784.
Jacobson, C., Carter, R.W., Thomsen, D.C., Smith, T.F., 2014, Monitoring and evaluation for
adaptive coastal management. Ocean & Coastal Management 89, 51-57.
Martinuzzi, S., Gould, W.A., Gonzalez, O.M.R. 2007. Land Development, Land Use, and
Urban Sprawl in Puerto Rico Integrating Remote Sensing and Population Census Data.
Landscape and Urban Planning 79: 288-297.
Mena, C.F. 2008. Trajectories of Land Use and Land Cover in the Northern Ecuadorian
Amazon: Temporal Composition, Spatial Configuration, and Probability of Change.
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing 74(6): 737-752
Otto, R., Krusi, B.O., Kienast, F. 2007. Degradation of an Arid Coastal Landscape in Relation
to Lnad Use Changes in Southern Tenerife (Canary Islands). Journal of Arid
Environments 70: 527-539.
Parker, D.C., Entwisle, B., Rindfuss, R.R., Vanwey, L.K., Manson, S.M., Moran, E., An, L.,
Evans, T.P., Linderman, M., Rizi, S.M.M., Malanson, G.P. 2008. Case Studies, CrossSite Comparisons, and the Challenge of Generalization: Comparing Agent Based
Models of Land –Use Change in Frontier Regions. Journal of Land Use Science 3(1):
41-72.
Walsh, S.J., McCleary, A.L., Mena, C.F., Shao, Y., Tuttle, J.P., Gonzalez, A., Atkinson, R.
2008. QuickBird and Hyperion Data Analysis of an Invasive Plant Species in the
Galapagos Islands of Ecuador: Implications for Control and Land Use Management.
Remote Sensing of Environment, Special Issue on Earth Observation for Biodiversity
and Ecology 112: 1927-1941.
Walsh, S.J., Shao, Y., Mena, C.F., McCleary, A.L. 2008. Integration of Hyperion Satellite Data
and a Household Social Survey to Characterize the Causes and Consequences of
Reforestation Patterns in the Northern Ecuadorian Amazon. Photogrammetric
Engineering & Remote Sensing 74(6): 725-735.
Walsh, S.J. and Welsh, W.F., 2003. Approaches for Linking People, Place, and Environment
for Human Dimensions Research. GeoCarto International 18(3): 51-61.