WHY WE CAN NOT MAKE ARTIFICIAL HUMANS?
Thomas Damberger
One of the most significant current discussions in transhumanism is the improvement of human beings. In the last decades, researchers have shown an increased
interest in various technical means to enhance humans. Genetic engineering is one
such technical mean. In the wake of in vitro fertilization, it is possible to manipulate the genes of embryos. It is only a small step from the manipulation of genetic
material to the artificial production of a human. So far, however, there has been
little discussion about ideas on the artificial production of human beings in German literature. This paper will focus on two literary examples which both address
the issue: creation of so called “homunculi” (i.e. artificial humans). The following
reflections have been divided into three parts. The first part deals with an overview of Paracelsus ideas of the alchemical creation of children. The second part
describes Goethe's homunculus, as presented in the second part of the tragedy
"Faust". Finally, the last part demonstrates educational theory reasons why people
can not be made completely artificial.
1. THE WISDOM OF THE ARTIFICIAL
About 500 years ago, a man named Paracelsus worked as a doctor and alchemist.
Paracelsus, whose real name was Philippus Aurealus Theophrastus Bombastus
von Hohenheim (approx. 1493–1541), was firmly convinced that the artificial
generation of humans is possible. To create a human, there must be a fundamental
understanding of the individual elements of life. According to Paracelsus, all life
consists of the same physical elements. However, these elements are arranged
differently in every living being. That is the reason why each single beings differ
from each other. Similarly, as there are different physical elements, there exist
three main components making up all animate and inanimate things: body, mind
and soul. However, only human beings have all three components. In his work
entitled "De generatione rerum naturalium" (1581), Paracelsus demonstrates that
God created men, women and animals. These are natural living beings, but, in
addition, there exist synthetic creatures; so called basilisks and homunculi.
Artificial living beings can be created using alchemy. In alchemy, we deal
with the changes of physical elements. Such changes take place in nature, but
through alchemy it is brought about deliberately. Let's first look at the natural processes of change. Paracelsus argued that everything that is natural originates from
2
Why We Can Not Make Artificial Humans?
the earth. For example, if a seed is placed in humid soil, a plant will grow out of
it. What happens to the seed in the ground, Paracelsus called “putrefaction”, and
by that he referred to a form of decay or rot. Putrefaction causes a transmutation,
that means that through moisture and heat, something can be changed into something different. Putrefaction and transmutation take place naturally, but it can also
be initiated artificially. If it's true, that things are transmuting from one form to the
other, then this must also be true for humans. In fact, Paracelsus was convinced
that the male seed transmuted within body of the woman.
The next step now is to initiate the transmutation of the male sperm outside
the uterus. For this, it is necessary to put the seed into a glass container. The glass
container must remain closed for a period of forty days. During this time, what
Paracelsus called putrefaction happens. The seed will change, transmute and become a small transparent being. The creature in the glass container looks similar
to a very small child. Paracelsus recommended to preserve the being in the glass
container for about forty weeks kept at a constant heat, and it needs to be fed daily
with a ration of “arcano sanguinis humani” (i.e. human blood). If the project succeeds, the creature will become a human child. It will look like a child who was
born of a woman, but it will be much smaller. Paracelsus called this artificially
generated child a "homunculus", and he suggests to educate the artificial child, as
it would be if naturally born.
It may be that such man-made creatures look similar to humans, but they have
a special property that distinguishes them from human children. At the end of the
educational process these children will not become normal adults. Paracelsus reported that they become "special creatures" who have secret, hidden abilities; abilities that normal humans will never have. But what is the reason for these special
abilities? Paracelsus believed the reason was that these creatures had been produced artificially. The artificial is not natural, it is in a sense supernatural, and the
supernatural is innate to these man-made children. This means that these special
creatures do not have to acquire the artificial, because they already know all the
arts. On the contrary, we humans who were born in the normal way, must learn
from them. The artificially produced human should be our teacher.
When looked at as a whole, Paracelsus´ findings suggest that it may be possible to generate the naturally occurring putrefaction in an artificial way. Thus,
transmutation of male semen can be initiated outside of the uterus. Under the influence of constant heat and humidity, and with the addition of food, the seed will
become a homunculus. The homunculus is an artificial being, and has secret abilities that he does not have to learn – they are innate. For this reason, the artificial
human should be the teacher of the natural human.
2. LIFE BEHIND GLASS
In 1828, the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler succeeded in an extraordinary experiment. He managed to produce a crystallized substance from ammonium cya-
Thomas Damberger
3
nate. This substance seemed identical to animal urea. Wöhler subsequently wrote
a letter to his teacher, Johann Jakob Berzelius, in which he reported enthusiastically that he could produce urea without the use of kidneys. What was so special
about transformation? Quite simply, urea is an organic material, but ammonium
cyanate is inorganic. It was considered impossible to obtain organic matter from
inorganic matter. Goethe knew about Wöhler's experiment, and it is possible that
this experiment inspired Goethe in his presentation of the figure “Homunculus” in
the second part of the tragedy "Faust". Even the generation of Homunculus is
reminiscent to Wöhler's experiment.
“What man mysterious in Nature once did hold
To test it rationally we make bold,
And what she erst constrained to organize,
That do we bid to crystallize” (Goethe [1832] 1914, 107)
The creation of Homunculus can be quickly described: Homunculus was made by
Wagner. Wagner is a scientist who seeks to know everything, and he is convinced
that the path of science will lead him to omniscience. In a medieval-looking laboratory, Wagner mixed together various substances. As soon as Mephistopheles
entered the lab, a chemical reaction occurred. So with the help of the devil it was
possible to create a human in an artificial way. However, this artificial man is
most peculiar. He is very small and can not leave the glass vial in which he is located. He can also speak, reflect, and he has more knowledge than Wagner and
even Mephistopheles. In the moment Homunculus comes to life, he has an overview of the situation. He knows that he is an artificial being who is trapped in a
glass vial. He also knows that Wagner is his creator and that Mephisto was involved in his production. Immediately Homunculus shows another special ability,
when he floats along with the vial to the sleeping Faust and watches his dreams.
He can not only look into Fausts dream, but he can also interpret it (Faust dreams
of the Helenas generation, a figure of Greek mythology). Even the devil cannot
look into other peoples dreams:
“Small as thou art, thou art a dreamer great. Naught see I” (Goethe
[1832] 1914, 110).
Maybe it is this superior knowledge (of which Paracelsus already wrote), which
led Mephisto to the following seemingly prophetic statement:
“Marry, at last we all depend
On creatures that ourselves created.” (Goethe [1832] 1914, 114).
Homunculus seems to know everything about himself and the world. Unfortunately, there is a very important thing that he does not know, namely: How to
get out of the vial? In search of an answer to this existential question, he embarks
to Walpurgis Night, looking for advice to the spirits of two philosophers: Thales
4
Why We Can Not Make Artificial Humans?
and Anaxagoras. The two philosophers are in a dispute, it concerns the question,
how something is created. Anaxagoras believes that power and domination are the
decisive factors. In his opinion, something as huge as a mountain is caused by
“[p]lutonic frenzied fire” (ibd., 151). With a mighty force it breaks through the
hard ground, so that a mountain results in a very short time. Basically Anaxagoras
represents the modern natural science and their progressive thinking. Through
power over things, great and much can be produced in a very short time. Thales,
however, argues as follows: “Well then, what wider issue doth it boot? It is there,
well and good!” (ibd.). Goethe used elsewhere the term "velociferous” (in the
original: veloziferisch). It is a portmanteau, which is based on two words: velocity
(speed; from Latin: velocitas) and luciferous (diabolical). With the term “velociferous” Goethe described the quick, hasty and violent producing of something. The
philosopher Thales represents a completely different view. He pleads for a patient
growing, instead of violence and haste:
“Nature, and Nature´s tide of life smooth-flowing
Naught recks of days´ and nights´ and seasons´ going.
Each several form she frames, a guiding fate,
And ‘tis not violence, e´en in the great.” (ibd.).
Anaxagoras recommends Homunculus to aspire to greatness and domination, so
he should be king of the pygmies. But Homunculus decides otherwise. Thales
notices really fast that Homunculus is a small man, but trapped in the vial. In a
sense, he has not entirely come into the world. So, Wagner was succeeded to produce a human. This artificial human has superhuman abilities. Nevertheless, the
experiment of making humans failed. Even though Homunculus knows everything, he has no idea how to leave his vial to become a complete human. The
question is, why does he not know this? One possibility is that there has never
been an artificial human produced. Since that has never happened before, Homunculus can not resort to this knowledge. This knowledge does not yet exist. Let
us recall what Paracelsus wrote: “Through art they get their lives; through art they
get body, flesh, bone and blood; through art they are born. That´s why art is innate
in them and why they never have to learn it.” (Paracelsus [1581] 1971, 49; translated by T.D.).
3. MISSION IMPOSSIBLE
Homunculus is the result of human workmanship. Instead of being born, he is
created by humans, so he is essentially an expression of human power. Because he
is an artificial creature, he has vast knowledge. But one genuinely human quality
will always remain alien to him: the non-available (das Unverfügbare). This sentence is important, we should analyse it more closely. The German educational
Thomas Damberger
5
scientist Werner Sesink argues in his book "Human and Artificial Intelligence"1
that “Bildung” means the individual human being abstracted from its individuality
and naturalness. This is important in order for him to be emancipated from fate.
He who frees himself from his fate, can develop a relationship with himself and
this means he can change himself through technology (ibd. Sesink 1993, 165f.). If
we look closely, we see that technology is a possibility which nature provides us.
Man can seize this opportunity to break free from the constraints of nature. Unfortunately, Homunculus can not free himself of the fact that he was made (but not
born). The non-available is that which always eludes the power and it´s essentially foreign to the artificial human.
Manfred Osten sees in the representation of Goethe's Homunculus, a significant difference to modern neuro-engineering optimization experiments and refers
to the famous visionary in artificial intelligence, Ray Kurzweil. Kurzweil argues:
We can send billions of tiny nanobots through the veins and through the capillaries into the brain to map it out from the inside. Once we have a complete overview, we can start to improve the brain technically. But from Osten´s point of
view, the Homunculus already has an improved brain. However, this improved
brain has a special feature, it surpasses Kurzweils depicted brain with the dimension of “Bildung” (vgl. Osten 203, 59). Bildung within a modern framework of
this term is not possible for Homunculus.
Wilhelm von Humboldts theory of Bildung assumes that man is essentially a
primitive force which moves towards the world. At the moment when the confrontation with the world occurs, the primitive force experiences the world´s resistance. Within this resistance, the primitive force (you can also say: the human)
find himself. In other words: the confrontation with something different is the
prerequisite that man can have a reflexive relationship to himself. Such a relationship is a necessary condition, that man has control over his life. However, it is
important to know that the control is not really comprehensive, for it is always the
result of a mediation. The one´s own is continuously mediated to the other (the
world). The underlying force which enables the mediation is the reason. For Homunculus Bildung is impossible, because the world is not foreign to him. And
therefore it does not occur a mediation with the other. The omniscient Homunculus has no idea of something that is beyond his knowledge forever. But that is
exactly the case for a non-artificial human; he has to live with the non-available,
because it is part of his world and also part of himself. Thus, Homunculus is faced
with a deficiency which he can not compensate, for an extension of knowledge is
firstly impossible and secondly it could not reach the non-available. The nonavailable is unreachable by definition.
Werner Sesink implicitly extended Humboldt's theory of Bildung by adding
another dimension which we can call the “humanity dimension”. In Donald W.
Winnicott's developmental psychology, he shows that in the first months of life,
the young child sees himself/ herself through the eyes of his or her mother. The
mother does not only see the child as an object and she does not perceive it only
1
The German title is: „Menschliche und künstliche Intelligenz“
6
Why We Can Not Make Artificial Humans?
in its positivity, but she sees more in her child than anything about the child that
actually exists. For example, she sees in her child a future pianist, a doctor, or
maybe even a story teller. Indeed, in her arms is neither a pianist nor a doctor nor
an artist, but a small child. However, in this little child is the potential for a pianist, etc. The mother´s view projects beyond the child´s current reality. This is
what Sesink calls the “transcendental view”. The child perceives itself through the
transcendental view of it´s mother. Whatever this actual view may be, it is always
of a human being, allowing the child to see it's own humanity through the eyes of
it's mother.
Homunculus is not human, despite his appearance of being a small man, as he
is (only) an artificial creature. There is no mother who is able to look and reflect
back to him his own humanity. Even Wagner and Mephistopheles as his creators
can not reflect his humanity, because he has no humanity. Homunculus is what he
is, just positivity without transcendence, without possibility.
The philosopher Martin Heidegger interprets modern technology as the biggest danger. He argues that in times of modern technology, man would only know
his own power, but not what he is. The being of things (you can also say: the essence of things) or the being of man is hidden by its power and by what that power generates. To get to the essence, you have to consider the power. In other
words, if you think about the power and follow it to its source, that which is hidden by the power comes into focus. This means: By thinking, being emerges
again.
Also Goethe´s Homunculus must return to the origin. This is done when Thales leads him to Proteus. Proteus said to homunculus, that everything which is
created by man is impermanent. Human power is finite and the same applies for
anything that is caused by this power:
“E´en let them sing and vaunt their folly,
For to the quick´ning sunbeams holy
Dead works are but a sorry jest.
Tireless they melt and mould, and flatter
Themselves, forsooth, ´tis some great matter
If once the thing in bronze is cast.
What have these vaunters for their wages?
The statues of the gods stood great,
An earthquake laid them desolate,
All have been melted down for ages.
All earthly word, be what it will,
A wearness of the flesh `tis still.
The wave is unto life more gracious;
Thee to the eternal waters spacious.” (Goethe [1832] 1914, 170)
Proteus sets Homunculus close, to return to the origin of being. This is necessary
as a human can only be human, if he has a relationship to his own nonavailability. This relationship is only possible if there is something that exists be-
Thomas Damberger
7
yond power and knowledge. Because Homunculus can not generate this, he must
go another way. The other way means that he must return to the source of being.
Proteus turns into a dolphin and carries the artificial man out into the sea.
“In spirit seek the liquid azure.
In length and breadth thou´lt live, at pleasure
Wilt move there, but good counsel hear:
Strive not to rise, for hast ascended
To man the scale of being, ended
For good and all is thy career. (ibd., 171)
Homunculus is carried out to the sea on the dolphin´s back. The vial shatters on
rocks and Homunculus becomes one with the sea. In this self-destructive act, a
reflexive character is recognizable. Homunculus can only become a man, if he
denies what he currently is. He is a creature that has been made by human´s (and
Mephistopheles´) power. The power must be abandoned. By abandoning the power, the being, which is beyond power, may arise. Thus - and only thus - a human
being can develop.
References
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von: Faust. Parts I and II, London, New York: J. M. Dent & Sons 4.
Aufl. 1914 (Tranlated by Albert G. Latham)
Osten, Manfred (2003): "Alles veloziferisch". Oder: Goethes Entdeckung der Langsamkeit. Zur
Modernität eines Klassikers im 21. Jahrhundert. Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig: Insel
Paracelsus, Theophrastus (1976): De generatione rerum naturalium (1581). In: Völker, Klaus
(Hg.), Künstliche Menschen. Dichtungen und Dokumente über Golems, Homunculi, Androiden und liebende Statuen, München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag
Sesink, Werner (1993): Menschliche und künstliche Intelligenz. Der kleine Unterschied. Stuttgart:
Klett-Cotta
About the author:
Thomas Damberger is lecturer of pedagogy at the Technical University of Darmstadt. He studied
pedagogy and philosophy and completed his doctorate with a work about pedagogical and technological improvement of humans. His main fields of research are the philosophy of education and
"Bildung", pedagogy and human enhancement, and digital media.
Contact: http://www.thomasdamberger.de
E-mail: [email protected]