Most common causes of calf
diarrhea
Protozoa.
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Contents
Articles
Protozoa
1
Cryptosporidiosis
3
Coccidia
15
References
Article Sources and Contributors
20
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
21
Article Licenses
License
22
Protozoa
Protozoa
Protozoa (from the Greek words proton, meaning
"first", and zoa, meaning "animals") is a subkingdom[1]
of microorganisms that are generally classified as
unicellular non-fungal eukaryotes. Protozoans play a
key role in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem.[1]
The word protozoan is originally an adjective and is
used as a noun. While there is no exact definition for
the term protozoan, most scientists use the word to
refer to a unicellular heterotrophic protist, such as the
amoeba and ciliate. The term algae is used for
microorganisms that photosynthesize. However, the
Leishmania donovani, (a species of protozoa) in a bone marrow cell
distinction between protozoa and algae is often vague.
For example, the algae Dinobryon has chloroplasts for photosynthesis, but it can also feed on organic matter and is
motile. Protozoans are generally referred to as animal-like protists.
Protozoa are paraphyletic their own kingdom under the Integrated Taxonomic Information System 2009
classification.[2]
Characteristics
The most important Protozoans usually range from 10 to 52 micrometers, but can grow up to 1 mm, and are easily
seen under a microscope.
They formerly fell under the protista family. Over 30,000 different types of protozoa have been found. Protozoa exist
throughout aqueous environments and soil, occupying a range of trophic levels.
Motility and digestion
Tulodens are one of the slow moving form of protozoans. They move around with whip-like tails called flagella,
hair-like structures called cilia, or foot-like structures called pseudopods. Others do not move at all.
As predators, they prey upon unicellular or filamentous algae, bacteria, and microfungi. Protozoa play a role as both
herbivores and consumers in the decomposer link of the food chain. Protozoa also play a vital role in controlling
bacteria populations and biomass. Protozoa may absorb food via their cell membranes, some, e.g. amoebas, surround
food and engulf it, and yet others have openings or "mouth pores" into which they sweep food. All protozoa digest
their food in stomach-like compartments called vacuoles.[3]
1
Protozoa
Ecological role
As components of the micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food source for microinvertebrates. Thus, the
ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of bacterial and algal production to successive trophic levels is important.
Protozoa such as the malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.), trypanosomes and leishmania are also important as
parasites and symbionts of multicellular animals.
Life cycle
Some protozoa have life stages alternating between proliferative stages (e.g. trophozoites) and dormant cysts. As
cysts, protozoa can survive harsh conditions, such as exposure to extreme temperatures and harmful chemicals, or
long periods without access to nutrients, water, or oxygen for a period of time. Being a cyst enables parasitic species
to survive outside of the host, and allows their transmission from one host to another. When protozoa are in the form
of trophozoites (Greek, tropho=to nourish), they actively feed and grow. The process by which the protozoa takes its
cyst form is called encystation, while the process of transforming back into trophozoite is called excystation.
Protozoa can reproduce by binary fission or multiple fission. Some protozoa reproduce sexually, some asexually,
while some use a combination, (e.g. Coccidia). An individual protozoon is hermaphroditic.
Classification
Protozoa were previously often grouped in the kingdom of Protista, together with the plant-like algae and fungus-like
slime molds and animal-like protozoa. In the 21st-century systematics, protozoa, along with ciliates, mastigophorans,
and apicomplexans, are arranged as animal-like protists. However, protozoa are not Metazoa (with the possible
exception of the enigmatic Myxozoa).Protozoans are one-celled, or unicellular, organisms. They often are called the
animal-like protists because they can not make their own food. They need to get food by eating other organisims.
Most protozoans can move about on their own. Amoebas, Paramecia, and Trypanosomes are all examples of
animal-like Protists.
Sub-groups
Protozoa have traditionally been divided on the basis of their means of locomotion, although this character is no
longer believed to represent genuine relationships:
• Flagellates (e.g. Giardia lamblia)
• Amoeboids (e.g. Entamoeba histolytica)
• Sporozoans (e.g. Plasmodium knowlesi)
• Apicomplexa
• Myxozoa
• Microsporidia
• Ciliates (e.g. Balantidium coli)
2
Protozoa
3
Human disease
Some protozoa are human parasites, causing diseases.
Examples of human diseases caused by protozoa:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Malaria
Amoebiasis
Giardiasis
Toxoplasmosis
Cryptosporidiosis
Trichomoniasis
Leishmaniasis
Sleeping Sickness
dysentery
References
[1] Protozoa (http:/ / www. mercksource. com/ pp/ us/ cns/ cns_hl_dorlands_split. jsp?pg=/ ppdocs/ us/ common/ dorlands/ dorland/ seven/
000087548. htm) at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
[2] Catalogue of Life (http:/ / www. catalogueoflife. org/ browse_taxa. php)
[3] "Protozoa" (http:/ / www. microbeworld. org/ microbes/ protista/ protozoa. aspx). MicrobeWorld. American Society for Chemistry. 2006. .
Retrieved 15 June 2008.
Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidium
Cryptosporidium muris oocysts found in human
feces.
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Chromalveolata
Superphylum:
Alveolata
Phylum:
Apicomplexa
Class:
Conoidasida
Subclass:
Coccidiasina
Order:
Eucoccidiorida
Suborder:
Eimeriorina
Family:
Cryptosporidiidae
Cryptosporidiosis
4
Genus:
Cryptosporidium
Species
Cryptosporidium andersoni
Cryptosporidium bailey
Cryptosporidium bovis
Cryptosporidium canis
Cryptosporidium cichlidis
Cryptosporidium cuniculus
Cryptosporidium felis
Cryptosporidium galli
Cryptosporidium hominis
Cryptosporidium meleagridis
Cryptosporidium muris
Cryptosporidium nasoris
Cryptosporidium parvum
Cryptosporidium pestis
Cryptosporidium reichenbachklinkei
Cryptosporidium saurophilum
Cryptosporidium scophthalmi
Cryptosporidium serpentis
Cryptosporidium suis
Cryptosporidium varanii
Cryptosporidium wrairi
Cryptosporidiosis
Classification and external resources
Cryptosporidium muris
[1]
ICD-10
A 07.2
ICD-9
007.4
DiseasesDB
3221
eMedicine
med/484
[2]
[3]
[4]
Cryptosporidiosis, also known as crypto,[5] is a parasitic disease caused by Cryptosporidium, a protozoan parasite
in the phylum Apicomplexa. It affects the intestines of mammals and is typically an acute short-term infection. It is
spread through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water;[5] the main symptom is self-limiting diarrhea
in people with intact immune systems. In immunocompromised individuals, such as AIDS patients, the symptoms
are particularly severe and often fatal. Cryptosporidium is the organism most commonly isolated in HIV positive
patients presenting with diarrhea. Treatment is symptomatic, with fluid rehydration, electrolyte correction and
management of any pain. Despite not being identified until 1976, it is one of the most common waterborne diseases
and is found worldwide. The parasite is transmitted by environmentally hardy microbial cysts (oocysts) that, once
Cryptosporidiosis
5
ingested, exist in the small intestine and result in an infection of intestinal epithelial tissue.
General characteristics of Cryptosporidium
Cryptosporidium is a protozoan pathogen of the Phylum Apicomplexa and causes a diarrheal illness called
cryptosporidiosis. Other apicomplexan pathogens include the malaria parasite Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma, the
causative agent of toxoplasmosis. Unlike Plasmodium, which transmits via a mosquito vector, Cryptosporidium does
not use an insect vector and is capable of completing its life cycle within a single host, resulting in microbial cyst
stages which are excreted in feces and are capable of transmission to a new host.
A number of Cryptosporidium infect mammals. In humans, the main causes of disease are C. parvum and C. hominis
(previously C. parvum genotype 1). C. canis, C. felis, C. meleagridis, and C. muris can also cause disease in humans.
Cryptosporidiosis is typically an acute short-term infection but can become severe and non-resolving in children and
immunocompromised individuals. In humans, it remains in the lower intestine and may remain for up to five weeks.
The parasite is transmitted by environmentally hardy microbial cysts (oocysts) that, once ingested, excyst in the
small intestine and result in an infection of intestinal epithelial tissue.
The genome of Cryptosporidium parvum was sequenced in 2004 and was found to be unusual amongst Eukaryotes
in that the mitochondria seem not to contain DNA [6] . A closely-related species, C. hominis, also has its genome
sequence available [7] . CryptoDB.org [8] is a NIH-funded database that provides access to the Cryptosporidium
genomics data sets.
Transmission
Terms
Foodborne illness
HACCP
Critical control point
Critical factors
FAT TOM
pH
Water activity (W )
a
Pathogens
Clostridium botulinum
E. coli
Hepatitis A
Norovirus
Parasitic
infections
Blastocystis
Cryptosporidiosis
6
Cryptosporidiosis
Trichinosis
Infection is through contaminated material such as earth, water, uncooked or cross-contaminated food that has been
in contact with the feces of an infected individual or animal. Contact must then be transferred to the mouth and
swallowed. It is especially prevalent amongst those in regular contact with bodies of fresh water including
recreational water such as swimming pools. Other potential sources include insufficiently treated water supplies,
contaminated food, or exposure to feces.[5] The high resistance of Cryptosporidium oocysts to disinfectants such as
chlorine bleach enables them to survive for long periods and still remain infective .[9] Some outbreaks have happened
in day care related to diaper changes.
Symptoms
Symptoms appear from two to ten days after infection, with an average of 7 days [5] , and last for up to two weeks, or
in some cases, up to one month [5] . There are 3 possible forms of the illness in immunocompetent people. The
disease can be asymptomatic or cause acute diarrhea or persistent diarrhea that can last for a few weeks. Diarrhea is
usually watery with mucus. It is very rare to find blood or leukocytes in the diarrhea [10] . As well as watery diarrhea,
there is often stomach pains or cramps and a low fever. Other symptoms include nausea, vomiting [11] ,
malabsorption [12] and dehydration.[13] Anorexia can occur, as can weight loss.[14] The individuals who are
asymptomatic (have no symptoms) are nevertheless infective, and thus can pass on the infection to others. Even after
symptoms have finally subsided an individual is still infective for some weeks.
Severe diseases, including pancreatitis, can occur.[15]
Immunocompromised people, as well as very young or very old people, can develop a more severe form of
cryptosporidiosis.[16] There are 4 clinical presentations for patients with AIDS. 4% have no symptoms, 29% have a
transient infection, 60% have chronic diarrhea, and 8% have a severe, cholera-like infection. With transient
infections diarrhea ends within 2 months and Cryptosporidium is no longer found in the feces. Chronic diarrhea is
diarrhea that lasts for 2 or more months. The most severe form results in the patients excreting at least 2 liters of
watery diarrhea per day.[10] They can lose up to 25 liters per day.[14] AIDS patients can have up to 10 stools per day.
They experience severe malabsorption and can have 10% weight loss. Many of them never completely eliminate
Cryptosporidium from their bodies.[10]
When Cryptosporidium spreads beyond the intestine, as it can predominantly in patients with AIDS, it can reach the
lungs, middle ear, pancreas, and stomach. Thus, one symptom is pain in the right upper quadrant.[17] The parasite
can infect the biliary tract, causing biliary cryptosporidiosis. This can result in cholecystitis and cholangitis.[14]
Cryptosporidiosis
7
Life cycle
Cryptosporidium has a spore phase (oocyst) and
in this state it can survive for lengthy periods
outside a host. It can also resist many common
disinfectants,
notably
chlorine-based
disinfectants.[18]
The life cycle of Cryptosporidium parvum
consists of an asexual stage and a sexual stage.[5]
After being ingested, the oocysts excyst in the
small intestine. They release sporozoites that
attach to the microvilli of the epithelial cells of
the small intestine. From there they become
trophozoites that reproduce asexually by
multiple fission, a process known as schizogony.
The trophozoites develop into Type 1 meronts[1]
that contain 8 daughter cells.[14] These daughter
cells are Type 1 merozoites, which get released
by the meronts. Some of these merozoites can
cause autoinfection by attaching to epithelial
cells. Others of these merozoites become Type II
meronts [17] , which contain 4 Type II
merozoites.[14] These merozoites get released
and they attach to the epithelial cells. From there
they become either macrogamonts or
Life cycle of Cryptosporidium spp.
microgamonts.[17] These are the female and
[14]
male sexual forms, respectively.
This stage, when sexual forms arise, is called gametogony.[19] Zygotes are
formed by microgametes from the microgamont penetrating the macrogamonts. The zygotes develop into oocysts of
two types.[17] 20% of oocysts have thin walls and so can reinfect the host by rupturing and releasing sporozoites that
start the process over again.[14] The thick-walled oocysts are excreted into the environment.[17] The oocysts are
mature and infective upon being excreted.[14] They can survive in the environment for months.[20]
Pathogenesis
The oocysts are ovoid or spherical and measure 5 to 6 micrometers across. When in flotation preparations they
appear highly refractile. The oocysts contains up to 4 sporozoites that are bow-shaped.[12]
As few as 2 to 10 oocysts can initiate an infection.[17] The parasite is located in the brush border of the epithelial
cells of the small intestine.[16] They are mainly located in the jejunum. When the sporozoites attach the epithelial
cells’ membrane envelops them. Thus, they are “intracellular but extracytoplasmic”.[14] The parasite can cause
damage to the microvilli where it attaches.[12] The infected human excretes the most oocysts during the first
week.[14] Oocysts can be excreted for weeks after the diarrhea subsides.[5]
The immune system reduces the formation of Type 1 merozoites as well as the number of thin-walled oocysts.[14]
This helps prevent autoinfection. B cells do not help with the initial response or the fight to eliminate the parasite.[17]
Cryptosporidiosis
Diagnostic tests
There are many diagnostic tests for Cryptosporidium. They include microscopy, staining, and detection of
antibodies. Microscopy [5] can help identify oocysts in fecal matter.[16] To increase the chance of finding the oocysts,
the diagnostician should inspect at least 3 stool samples.[19] There are several techniques to concentrate either the
stool sample or the oocysts. The modified formalin-ethyl acetate (FEA) concentration method concentrates the
stool.[12] Both the modified zinc sulfate centrifugal flotation technique and the Sheather’s sugar flotation procedure
can concentrate the oocysts by causing them to float.[19] Another form of microscopy is fluorescent microscopy done
by staining with auramine.[16]
Other staining techniques include acid-fast staining[17] , which will stain the oocysts red.[12] One type of acid-fast
stain is the Kinyoun technique.[20] Giemsa staining can also be performed.[14] Part of the small intestine can be
stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H & E), which will show oocysts attached to the epithelial cells.[12]
Detecting antigens is yet another way to diagnose the disease. This can be done with direct fluorescent antibody
(DFA) techniques.[5] It can also be achieved through indirect immunofluorescence assay.[19] Enzyme-Linked
ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA) also detects antigens.[16]
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is another way to diagnose cryptosporidiosis. It can even identify the specific
species of Cryptosporidium.[5] If the patient is thought to have biliary cryptosporidiosis, then an appropriate
diagnostic technique is ultrasonography. If that returns normal results, the next step would be to perform endoscopic
retrograde cholangiopancreatography.[17]
Treatment
There is no reliable treatment for cryptosporidium enteritis; certain agents such as paromomycin, atovaquone,
nitazoxanide,[21] and azithromycin are sometimes used, but they usually have only temporary effects.
Treatment is primarily supportive. Fluids need to be replaced orally. A lactose-free diet should be taken as tolerated .
In rare situations, intravenous fluids may be required. Antibiotics are not usually helpful, and are primarily reserved
for persons with severe disease and a weak immune system. Sometimes relapses happen.
In the immunocompetent
The majority of immunocompetent individuals suffer a short (less than 2 weeks) self-limiting course that requires
supportive care with rehydration and occasionally antidiarrhoeal medication, and ends with spontaneous recovery.
Nitazoxanide is one drug that the US FDA has approved for use in immunocompetent people to combat diarrhea.[5]
Spiramycin can help shorten the amount of time oocysts are passed, as well as the duration of diarrhoea in
children.[17]
In the immunocompromised
In immunocompromised individuals, such as AIDS patients, cryptosporidiosis resolves slowly or not at all, and
frequently causes a particularly severe and permanent form of watery diarrhea coupled with a greatly decreased
ability to absorb key nutrients through the intestinal tract. The result is progressively severe dehydration, electrolyte
imbalances, malnutrition, wasting, and eventual death. Spiramycin can help treat diarrhea in patients who are in the
early stages of AIDS.[19] The mortality rate for infected AIDS patients is generally based on CD4+ marker counts;
patients with CD4+ counts over 180 cells/mm³ generally recover with supportive hospital care and medication, but in
patients with CD4+ counts below 50 cells/mm³, the effects are usually fatal within three to six months. During the
Milwaukee cryptosporidiosis epidemic (the largest of its kind), 73% of AIDS patients with CD4+ counts lower than
50 cells/mm³ and 36% of those with counts between 50 and 200 cells/mm³ died within the first year of contracting
the infection.[22] . In one AIDS patient from Iran, who had pulmonary cryptosporidiosis in addition to intestinal
cryptosporidiosis, azithromycin and paromomycin helped to clear the infection [23] .
8
Cryptosporidiosis
Currently, the best approach is to improve the immune status in immunodeficient individuals. The probiotic
Saccharomyces boulardii sold over the counter in pharmacies and health shops (brand name Florastor in the US and
DiarSafe in the UK) has been found to be a helpful natural treatment in managing diarrhoea of various infectious
origins, including cryptosporidium.[24] Parenteral octreotide acetate can help decrease the number of stools
passed.[14] A treatment for patients with biliary cryptosporidiosis who have cholangitis in addition to papillary
stenosis is endoscopic sphincterotomy.[17]
Currently, research is being done in molecular-based immunotherapy. For example, synthetic isoflavone derivates
have been shown to fight off Cryptosporidium parvum in vitro and in a gerbil. Derivates of nitazoxanide, which are
synthetic nitro- or nonnitrothiazolide compounds, have also shown promising results in vitro.[25]
Treatment of drinking water
Many treatment plants that take raw water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs for public drinking water production use
conventional filtration technologies. This involves a series of processes, including coagulation, flocculation,
sedimentation, and filtration. Direct filtration, which is typically used to treat water with low particulate levels,
includes coagulation and filtration, but not sedimentation. Other common filtration processes, including slow sand
filters, diatomaceous earth filters and membranes will remove 99% of Cryptosporidium.[26] Membranes and bag and
cartridge filters remove Cryptosporidium product-specifically.
While Cryptosporidium is highly resistant to chlorine disinfection,[27] with high enough concentrations and contact
time, Cryptosporidium will be inactivated by chlorine dioxide and ozone treatment. The required levels of chlorine
generally preclude the use of chlorine disinfection as a reliable method to control Cryptosporidium in drinking water.
Ultraviolet light treatment at relatively low doses will inactivate Cryptosporidium. Water Research
Foundation-funded research originally discovered UV's efficacy in inactivating Cryptosporidium.[28] [29]
One of the largest challenges in identifying outbreaks is the ability to identify Cryptosporidium in the laboratory.
Real-time monitoring technology is now able to detect Cryptosporidium with online systems, unlike the spot and
batch testing methods used in the past.
The most reliable way to decontaminate drinking water which may be contaminated by Cryptosporidium is to boil
it.[30] [31]
Non-human examples
The most important zoonotic reservoirs are cattle, sheep and goats. Additionally, in recent years, cryptosporidiosis
has plagued many commercial Leopard gecko breeders. Several species of the Cryptosporidium family (C. serpentes
and others) are involved, and outside of geckos it has been found in monitor lizards, iguanas and tortoises, as well as
several snake species. Cryptosporidiosis has no vectors.[20]
Exposure risks
Cryptosporidiosis is found worldwide. It causes 50.8% of water-borne diseases that are attributed to parasites.[20] In
developing countries, 8-19% of diarrheal diseases can be attributed to Cryptosporidium.[32] Ten percent of the
population in developing countries excretes oocysts. In developed countries, the number is lower at 1-3%. The age
group most affected is children from 1 to 9 years old.[17]
The following groups have an elevated risk of being exposed to Cryptosporidium:
• People who swim regularly in pools with insufficient sanitation (certain strains of Cryptosporidium are
chlorine-resistant)
• Child care workers
• Parents of infected children
9
Cryptosporidiosis
•
•
•
•
•
•
10
People who take care of other people with cryptosporidiosis
International travelers
Backpackers, hikers, and campers who drink unfiltered, untreated water
People, including swimmers, who swallow water from contaminated sources
People who handle infected cattle
People exposed to human feces through sexual contact
Cases of cryptosporidiosis can occur in a city that does not have a contaminated water supply. In a city with clean
water, it may be that cases of cryptosporidiosis have different origins. Testing of water, as well as epidemiological
study, are necessary to determine the sources of specific infections. Note that Cryptosporidium typically does not
cause serious illness in healthy people. It may chronically sicken some children, as well as adults who are exposed
and immunocompromised. A subset of the immunocompromised population is people with AIDS. Some sexual
behaviours can transmit the parasite directly.
Statistics for the United States - number of cases [20] :
Year Cases
2006
5,936
2007 11,170
2008
7,749
Public health and prevention strategies
In the US the law requires doctors and labs to report cases of cryptosporidiosis to local or state health departments.
These departments then report to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention.[5] The best way to prevent getting
and spreading cryptosporidiosis is to have good hygiene and sanitation.[19] An example would be hand-washing.[5]
Prevention is through washing hands carefully after going to the bathroom or contacting stool, and before eating.
People should avoid contact with animal feces.[16] They should also avoid possibly contaminated food and water.[5]
Additionally, people should refrain from engaging in sexual activities that can expose them to feces.[19]
Standard water filtration may not be enough to eliminate Cryptosporidium; boiling for at least 1 minute (3 minutes
above 6500 feet (2000 m) of altitude) will decontaminate it. Heating milk at 71.7 °C for 15 seconds pasteurizes it
and can destroy the oocysts' ability to infect.[33] Water can also be made safe by filtering with a filter with pore size
not greater than 1 micrometre, or by filters that have been approved for “cyst removal” by the US National Science
Foundation (NSF).[5] Bottled drinking water is less likely to contain Cryptosporidium, especially if the water is from
an underground source.[33]
People who have cryptosporidiosis should not swim in communal areas because the pathogen can reside in the anal
and genital areas and be washed off. They should wait until at least two weeks after diarrhea stops before entering
public water sources, since oocysts can still be shed for a while. Also, they should stay away from
immunosuppressed people.[5] Immunocompromised people should take care to protect themselves from water in
lakes and streams.[17] They should also stay away from animal stools and wash their hands after touching animals.
To be safe, they should boil or filter their water. They should also wash and cook their vegetables.[5]
Cryptosporidiosis
Notable cases
• In 1993, a waterborne cryptosporidiosis outbreak occurred in southeastern Wisconsin, USA. An estimated
403,000 people became ill, including 4,400 people hospitalized. More than 100 people died during the
outbreak.[34]
• The UK's biggest outbreak occurred in Torbay in Devon in 1995.
• In the summer of 1996, Cryptosporidium affected approximately 2,000 people in Cranbrook, British Columbia,
Canada. Weeks later, a separate incident occurred in Kelowna, British Columbia, where 10,000 to 15,000 people
got sick.[35]
• In April 2001, an outbreak occurred in the city of North Battleford, Saskatchewan, Canada. Between 5800 and
7100 people suffered from diarrheal illness, and 1907 cases of cryptosporidiosis were confirmed. Equipment
failures at the city's antiquated water filtration plant following maintenance were found to have caused the
outbreak.[36]
• In the summer of 2005, after numerous reports by patrons of gastrointestinal upset, a water park at Seneca Lake
State Park, in the Finger Lakes region of upstate New York, USA was found to have two water storage tanks
infected with Cryptosporidium. By early September 2005, over 3,800 people reported symptoms of a
Cryptosporidium infection.[37] The "Sprayground" was ordered closed for the season on August 15.
• In October 2005, the Gwynedd and Anglesey areas of North Wales (UK) suffered an outbreak of
cryptosporidiosis. The outbreak may have been linked to the drinking water supply from Llyn Cwellyn, but this is
not yet confirmed. As a result, over 200 people fell ill and the company Welsh Water (Dwr Cymru) advised
61,000 people to boil their water before use.
• In March 2007, a suspected outbreak occurred in Galway, Ireland, after the source of water for much of the
county, Lough Corrib, was suspected to be contaminated with the parasite. A large population (90,000 people),
including areas of both Galway City and County, were advised to boil water for drinking, food preparation and for
brushing teeth. On 21 March 2007, it was confirmed that the city and county's water supply was contaminated
with the parasite. The area's water supply was finally given approval on 20 August 2007, five months after
Cryptosporidium was first detected. Around 240 people are known to have contracted the disease; experts say the
true figure could be up to 5,000.[38]
• Hundreds of public pools in 20 Utah, USA counties were closed to young children in 2007, as children under 5
are most likely to spread the disease, especially children wearing diapers. As of September 10, 2007 the Utah
Department of Health had reported 1302 cases [39] of cryptosporidiosis in the year; a more usual number would be
30. On September 25, the pools were reopened to those not requiring diapers, but hyperchlorination requirements
were not lifted.
• On September 21, 2007, a Cryptosporidium outbreak attacked the Western United States: 230 Idaho residents,
with hundreds across the Rocky Mountain area; in the Boise and Meridian areas; Utah, 1,600 illnesses; Colorado
and other Western states - Montana, decrease.[40]
• On 25 June 2008, Cryptosporidium was found in England in water supplies in Northampton, Daventry and some
surrounding areas supplied from the Pitsford Reservoir, as reported on the BBC [41]. People in the affected areas
were warned not to drink tap water unless it had been boiled. Anglian Water confirmed that 108,000 households
were affected, about 250,000 people. They advised that water might not be fit for human consumption for many
weeks.[42] The boil notice was lifted for all the affected customers on 4 July 2008.[43]
• Throughout the summer of 2008; many public swimming areas, water parks, and public pools in the Dallas/Fort
Worth Metroplex of Texas, USA suffered an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis. Burger's Lake in Fort Worth was the
first to report such an outbreak. This prompted some, if not all, city-owned and private pools to close and
hyperchlorinate. To date, there have been 400 reported cases of Cryptosporidium[44]
11
Cryptosporidiosis
• A gym in Cambridge, UK was forced to close its swimming pool until further notice after health inspectors found
an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis. Environmental Health authorities requested that the water be tested after it was
confirmed that a young man had been infected.[45]
• 1998 Sydney water crisis
• 2002 Glasgow floods
See also
• 1993 Milwaukee Cryptosporidium outbreak
• Cryptosporidium was the basis of the 1998 TV film, Thirst[46] , in which it mutates and passes through a town's
water filters.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
http:/ / apps. who. int/ classifications/ apps/ icd/ icd10online/ ?ga00. htm+ a072
http:/ / www. icd9data. com/ getICD9Code. ashx?icd9=007. 4
http:/ / www. diseasesdatabase. com/ ddb3221. htm
http:/ / www. emedicine. com/ med/ topic484. htm
"Cryptosporidiosis" (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ crypto/ ). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009-02-05. .
[6] Abrahamsen, M. S.; Templeton, TJ; Enomoto, S; Abrahante, JE; Zhu, G; Lancto, CA; Deng, M; Liu, C et al. (2004). "Complete Genome
Sequence of the Apicomplexan, Cryptosporidium parvum". Science (Science/AAAS) 304 (5669): 441. doi:10.1126/science.1094786.
PMID 15044751.
[7] Xu, Ping; Widmer, G; Wang, Y; Ozaki, LS; Alves, JM; Serrano, MG; Puiu, D; Manque, P et al. (2004). "The genome of Cryptosporidium
hominis". Nature 431 (7012): 1107. doi:10.1038/nature02977. PMID 15510150.
[8] http:/ / cryptodb. org
[9] Carpenter C, Fayer R, Trout J, Beach M (1999). "Chlorine disinfection of recreational water for Cryptosporidium parvum" (http:/ / www.
pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=2627758). Emerg Infect Dis 5 (4): 579–84. doi:10.3201/eid0504.990425.
PMID 10458969. PMC 2627758.
[10] Chen XM, Keithly JS, Paya CV, LaRusso NF (May 2002). "Cryptosporidiosis" (http:/ / content. nejm. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=short&
pmid=12037153& promo=ONFLNS19). N. Engl. J. Med. 346 (22): 1723–31. doi:10.1056/NEJMra013170. PMID 12037153. .
[11] Harvey, Richard A., Pamela C. Champe, and Bruce D. Fisher. Lippincott’s Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology. 2nd ed. Philadelphia:
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007: 367, 388.
[12] Winn Jr., Washington, Stephen Allen, William Janda, Elmer Koneman, Gary Procop, Paul Schreckenberger, and Gail Woods. Koneman’s
Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 1267-1270.
[13] "Cryptosporidiosis" (http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ medlineplus/ cryptosporidiosis. html). Medline Plus. 2009-01-16. . "A service of the U.S.
National Library of Medicine (NLM) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH)"
[14] Ryan, Kenneth J. and C. George Ray. Sherris Medical Microbiology: An Introduction to Infectious Disease. 4th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2004: 727-730.
[15] Hawkins S, Thomas R, Teasdale C (1987). "Acute pancreatitis: a new finding in cryptosporidium enteritis" (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral.
nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=1245527). Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 294 (6570): 483–4. doi:10.1136/bmj.294.6570.483-a.
PMID 3103738. PMC 1245527.
[16] Brooks, Geo. F., Janet S. Butel, and Stephen A. Morse. Jawetz, Melnick, & Adelberg’s Medical Microbiology. 23rd ed. New York: Lange
Medical Books/McGraw Hill, 2004: 684-685.
[17] Chen W, Harp JA, Harmsen AG (April 2003). "Cryptosporidium parvum infection in gene-targeted B cell-deficient mice". J. Parasitol. 89
(2): 391–3. doi:10.1645/0022-3395(2003)089[0391:CPIIGB]2.0.CO;2. PMID 12760662.
[18] "Chlorine Disinfection of Recreational Water for Cryptosporidium parvum" (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ ncidod/ eid/ vol5no4/ carpenter. htm).
CDC. . Retrieved 2007-05-06.
[19] Murray, Patrick R., Ken S. Rosenthal, and Michael A. Pfaller. Medical Microbiology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Inc., 2005: 855-856.
[20] "Cryptosporidiosis" (http:/ / web. gideononline. com/ web/ tox_diseases/ index. php?disease=355& view=General). Gideon. 2009-02-23. .
"Trial subscription required to access"
[21] Smith HV, Corcoran GD (December 2004). "New drugs and treatment for cryptosporidiosis" (http:/ / meta. wkhealth. com/ pt/ pt-core/
template-journal/ lwwgateway/ media/ landingpage. htm?issn=0951-7375& volume=17& issue=6& spage=557). Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 17
(6): 557–64. doi:10.1097/00001432-200412000-00008. PMID 15640710. .
[22] Gilson M.D., Ian; Buggy, Brian P. M.D. (10 1996:). "Cryptosporidiosis in Patients with HIV Disease: Is It Safe to Drink the Water?" (http:/ /
www. thebody. com/ content/ art12553. html). HIV Newsline (San Francisco General Hospital). .
[23] Meamar AR, Rezaian M, Rezaie S, et al. (May 2006). "Cryptosporidium parvum bovine genotype oocysts in the respiratory samples of an
AIDS patient: efficacy of treatment with a combination of azithromycin and paromomycin". Parasitol. Res. 98 (6): 593–5.
12
Cryptosporidiosis
doi:10.1007/s00436-005-0097-4. PMID 16416289.
[24] Ochoa TJ, Salazar-Lindo E, Cleary TG (October 2004). "Management of children with infection-associated persistent diarrhea" (http:/ /
linkinghub. elsevier. com/ retrieve/ pii/ S1045187004000524). Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 15 (4): 229–36. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2004.07.003.
PMID 15494946. .
[25] Gargala G (September 2008). "Drug treatment and novel drug target against Cryptosporidium". Parasite 15 (3): 275–81. PMID 18814694.
[26] "The Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule – What Does it Mean to You?" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ safewater/ mdbp/
ieswtrwhatdoesitmeantoyou. pdf) (pdf). USEPA. . Retrieved 2007-05-06.
[27] Korich DG, Mead JR, Madore MS, Sinclair NA, Sterling CR (May 1990). "Effects of ozone, chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and
monochloramine on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability" (http:/ / aem. asm. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=2339894). Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 56 (5): 1423–8. PMID 2339894. PMC 184422. .
[28] Rochelle, PAUL A.; Fallar, D; Marshall, MM; Montelone, BA; Upton, SJ; Woods, K (2004 Sep-October). "Irreversible UV inactivation of
Cryptosporidium spp. despite the presence of UV repair genes". J Eukaryot Microbiol 51 (5): 553–62.
doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2004.tb00291.x. PMID 15537090.
[29] "Ultraviolet Disinfection and Treatment" (http:/ / www. waterresearchfoundation. org/ research/ TopicsAndProjects/ topicSnapshot.
aspx?topic=uv). WaterResearchFoundation (formerly AwwaRF). . Retrieved 2007-05-06.
[30] "Boil water warning 'precaution'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ wales/ 7589839. stm). BBC. 2008-09-02. . Retrieved 2009-09-07.
[31] "Boil water 'into January' warning" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ wales/ 4484946. stm). BBC. 2005-11-30. . Retrieved 2009-09-07.
[32] Gatei W, Wamae CN, Mbae C, et al. (July 2006). "Cryptosporidiosis: prevalence, genotype analysis, and symptoms associated with
infections in children in Kenya" (http:/ / www. ajtmh. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=16837712). Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 75 (1):
78–82. PMID 16837712. .
[33] John, David T. and William A. Petri, Jr. Markell and Voge’s Medical Parasitology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Inc., 2006: 68-71.
[34] Corso P, Kramer M, Blair K, Addiss D, Davis J, Haddix A (2003). "Cost of illness in the 1993 waterborne Cryptosporidium outbreak,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin". Emerg Infect Dis 9 (4): 426–31. PMID 12702221.
[35] CBC News Indepth: Health - Cryptosporidium (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ news/ background/ health/ cryptosporidium. html)
[36] "Waterborne Cryptosporidiosis Outbreak, North Battleford, Ssaskatchewan, Spring 2001" (http:/ / www. phac-aspc. gc. ca/ publicat/
ccdr-rmtc/ 01vol27/ dr2722ea. html). Public Health Agency of Canada. 2001-11-15. . Retrieved 2008-01-25.
[37] "State Health Department Issues Update on Seneca Lake State Park Gastrointestinal Outbreak" (http:/ / www. health. state. ny. us/ press/
releases/ 2005/ 2005-09-01_school_precautions_seneca_lake_release. htm). New York State Health Dept. . Retrieved 2006-09-29.
[38] RTÉ News - Galway water now safer than ever - HSE (http:/ / www. rte. ie/ news/ 2007/ 0820/ galway. html)
[39] http:/ / health. utah. gov/ uthealthnews/ 2007/ 20070911-Restrictions. htm
[40] Yahoo.com, Cryptosporidium outbreak hits the West (http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ s/ ap/ 20070921/ ap_on_he_me/
crypto_outbreak;_ylt=Ajt3IgBUbvpzpZeQjE_4Jpus0NUE)
[41] http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ england/ northamptonshire/ 7472619. stm
[42] Northampton Chronicle and Echo (http:/ / www. northamptonchron. co. uk/ news/ People-in-Northampton-and-Daventry. 4218816. jp)
[43] Anglian Water-lifting of boil notice (http:/ / www. anglianwater. co. uk/ index. php?contentid=1135& sectionid=135& parentid=0)
[44] Crypto spreads to private pools (http:/ / www. wfaa. com/ sharedcontent/ dws/ wfaa/ latestnews/ stories/ wfaa080813_lj_stjames. 42d762e2.
html) - WFAA-TV (retrieved August 13, 2008).
[45] Gym closes pool in danger bug alert (http:/ / www. cambridge-news. co. uk/ cn_news_cambridge/ DisplayArticle. asp?ID=350905)
[46] Thirst (1998) IMDB (http:/ / uk. imdb. com/ title/ tt0163337/ )
• White, A. Clinton, Jr. "Cryptosporidiosis". In Mandell, G et al., eds., Principles and Practice of Infectious
Diseases, 6th edition; Elsevier, 2005, pp 3215–28.
• Upton, Steve J. (2003-09-12). "Basic Biology of Cryptosporidium" (http://www.k-state.edu/parasitology/
basicbio) (Website). Kansas State University: Parasitology Laboratory.
• "The Taxonomicon & Systema Naturae" (http://www.taxonomy.nl/taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=660)
(Website database). Taxon: Genus Cryptosporidium. Universal Taxonomic Services, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands. 2000.
13
Cryptosporidiosis
External links
• Aquatics International Article Regarding Infection via Spray Parks (http://www.aquaticsintl.com/2008/
novdec/0811_infectious.html)
• Monroe County Health Dept. Fact Sheet (http://www.monroecounty.gov/org1.asp?storyID=6051)
• NYSDOH Crypto Fact Sheet (http://www.health.state.ny.us/nysdoh/communicable_diseases/en/crypto.
htm)
• NYS Dept. of State Parks Update, 8/26/05 (http://www.health.state.ny.us/press/releases/2005/
2005-08-26_seneca_release.htm)
• Treatment of Cryptosporidiosis from the AidsMeds site (http://www.aidsmeds.com/OIs/Crypto3.htm)
• Azithromycin information (http://www.atdn.org/access/drugs/azit.html)
• Summary of treatment results with Azithromycin (http://www.hivpositive.com/f-Oi/OppInfections/
4-Protozoal/4-Pro-Crypto.html#TREATMENT RESULTS)
• Galway City Council notice (http://www.galwaycity.ie/PublicNotices/MainBody,3558,en.html)
• Boil Check: Postcode checker for contaminated areas (http://www.boilcheck.co.uk)
• CryptoDB: The Cryptosporidium Genome Resource (http://cryptoDB.org)
• Boil Check: Postcode check for contaminated water areas (http://www.boilcheck.com) UK site
14
Coccidia
15
Coccidia
Coccidia
Coccidia oocysts
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Kingdom:
Chromalveolata
Superphylum:
Alveolata
Phylum:
Apicomplexa
Class:
Conoidasida
Subclass:
Coccidiasina
Order:
Eucoccidiorida
Suborder, Family, Genera & Species
Adeleorina
•
•
•
•
Adeleidae
Dactylosomatidae
Haemogregarinidae
Hepatozoidae
•
•
•
• Hepatozoon
Karyolysidae
Klossiellidae
Legerellidae
Eimeriorina
Coccidia
16
•
Aggregatidae
•
• Aggregata
• Merocystis
• Selysina
Calyptosporiidae
•
• Calyptospora
Cryptosporidiidae
•
• Cryptosporidium
Eimeriidae
•
• Atoxoplasma
• Barrouxia
• Caryospora
• Caryotropha
• Cyclospora
• Diaspora
• Dorisa
• Dorisiella
• Eimeria
• Grasseella
• Isospora
• Mantonella
• Ovivora
• Pfeifferinella
• Pseudoklossia
• Tyzzeria
• Wenyonella
Elleipsisomatidae
•
• Elleipsisoma
Lankesterellidae
•
• Lankesterella
• Schellackia
Sarcocystidae
•
Sarcocystinae
•
• Frenkelia
• Sarcocystis
Toxoplasmatinae
•
• Besnoitia
• Hammondia
• Neospora
• Toxoplasma
Selenococcidiidae
•
• Selenococcidium
Spirocystidae
•
Spirocystis
Coccidia are microscopic, spore-forming, single-celled parasites belonging to the apicomplexan class
Conoidasida.[1] Coccidian parasites infect the intestinal tracts of animals[2] , and are the largest group of
apicomplexan protozoa.
Coccidia are obligate, intracellular parasites, which means that they must live and reproduce within an animal cell.
Coccidia
Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is the disease caused by coccidian infection. Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease of the intestinal tract of
animals, caused by coccidian protozoa. The disease spreads from one animal to another by contact with infected
feces or ingestion of infected tissue. Diarrhea, which may become bloody in severe cases, is the primary symptom.
Most animals infected with coccidia are asymptomatic; however, young or immuno-compromised animals may
suffer severe symptoms, including death.
While coccidian organisms can infect a wide variety of animals, including humans, birds, and livestock, they are
usually species-specific. One well-known exception is toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii.
People often first encounter coccidia when they acquire a young puppy or kitten who is infected. The infectious
organisms are canine/feline-specific and are not contagious to humans (compare to zoonotic diseases).
Coccidia in dogs
Young puppies are frequently infected with coccidia and often develop active Coccidiosis -- even puppies obtained
from diligent professional breeders. Infected puppies almost always have received the parasite from their mother's
feces. Typically, healthy adult animals shedding the parasite's oocysts in their feces will be asymptomatic because of
their developed immune systems. However, undeveloped immune systems make puppies more susceptible. Further,
stressors such as new owners, travel, weather changes, and unsanitary conditions are believed to activate infections
in susceptible animals.
Symptoms in young dogs are universal: at some point around 2-3 months of age, an infected dog develops
persistently loose stools. This diarrhea proceeds to stool containing liquid, thick mucus, and light colored fecal
matter. As the infection progresses, spots of blood may become apparent in the stool, and sudden bowel movements
may surprise both dog and owner alike. Other symptoms may include poor appetite, vomiting, dehydration, and
sometimes death. Coccidia infection is so common that any pup under 4 months old with these symptoms can almost
surely be assumed to have coccidiosis.
Fortunately, the treatment is inexpensive, extremely effective, and routine. A veterinarian can easily diagnose the
disease through low-powered microscopic examination of an affected dog's feces, which usually will be replete with
oocysts. One of many easily administered and inexpensive drugs will be prescribed, and, in the course of just a few
days, an infection will be eliminated or perhaps reduced to such a level that the dog's immune system can make its
own progress against the infection. Even when an infection has progressed sufficiently that blood is present in feces,
permanent damage to the gastrointestinal system is rare, and the dog will most likely make a complete recovery
without long-lasting negative effects.
If one dog of a litter has coccidiosis, then most certainly all dogs at a breeder's kennels have active coccidia
infections. Breeders should be notified if a newly-acquired pup is discovered to be infected with coccidia. Breeders
can take steps to eradicate the organism from their kennels, including applying medications in bulk to an entire
facility.
17
Coccidia
Genera and species that cause coccidiosis
• Genus Isospora is the most common cause of intestinal coccidiosis in dogs and cats and is usually what is meant
by coccidiosis. Species of Isospora are species specific, meaning they only infect one type of species. Species that
infect dogs include I. canis, I. ohioensis, I. burrowsi, and I. neorivolta. Species that infect cats include I. felis and
I. rivolta. The most common symptom is diarrhea. sulfonamides are the most common treatment. [3]
• Genus Cryptosporidium contains two species known to cause cryptosporidiosis, C. parvum and C. muris. Cattle
are most commonly affected by Cryptosporidium, and their feces are often assumed to be a source of infection for
other mammals including humans. Recent genetic analyses of Cryptosporidium in humans have identified
Cryptosporidium hominis as a new species specific for humans. Infection occurs most commonly in individuals
that are immunocompromised, e.g. dogs with canine distemper, cats with feline leukemia virus infection, and
humans with AIDS. Very young puppies and kittens can also become infected with Cryptosporidium, but the
infection is usually eliminated without treatment.[3]
• Genus Hammondia is transmitted by ingestion of cysts found in the tissue of grazing animals and rodents. Dogs
and cats are the definitive hosts, with the species H. heydorni infecting dogs and the species H. hammondi and H.
pardalis infecting cats. Hammondia usually does not cause disease.[3]
• Genus Besnoitia infect cats that ingest cysts found in the tissue of rodents and opossum, but usually does not
cause disease.[3]
• Genus Sarcocystis infect carnivores that ingest cysts from various intermediate hosts. It is possible for Sarcocystis
to cause disease in dogs and cats.[3]
• Genus Toxoplasma has one important species, Toxoplasma gondii. Cats are the definitive host, but all mammals
and some fish, reptiles, and amphibians can be intermediate hosts. Therefore, only cat feces will hold infective
oocysts, but infection through ingestion of cysts can occur with the tissue of any intermediate host.
Toxoplasmosis occurs in humans usually as low-grade fever or muscle pain for a few days. A normal immune
system will suppress the infection but the tissue cysts will persist in that animal or human for years or the rest of
its life. In immunocompromised individuals, those dormant cysts can be reactivated and cause many lesions in the
brain, heart, lungs, eyes, etc. Without a competent immune system, the animal or human will most likely die from
the infection. For pregnant women, the fetus is at risk if the pregnant woman becomes infected for the first time
during pregnancy. If the woman had been infected during childhood or adolescence, she will have an immunity
that will protect her developing fetus during pregnancy. The most important misconception about the transmission
of toxoplasmosis comes from statements like 'ingestion of raw or undercooked meat, or cat feces.' Kitchen
hygiene is much more important because people do tend to taste marinades or sauces before being cooked, or
chop meat then vegetables without properly cleaning the knife and cutting board. Many physicians mistakenly put
panic in their pregnant clients and advise them to get rid of their cat without really warning them of the likely
sources of infection. Adult cats are very unlikely to shed infective oocysts. Symptoms in cats include fever,
weight loss, diarrhea, vomiting, uveitis, and central nervous system signs. Disease in dogs includes a rapidly
progressive form seen in dogs also infected with distemper, and a neurological form causing paralysis, tremors,
and seizures. Dogs and cats are usually treated with clindamycin.[3]
• Genus Neospora has one important species, Neospora caninum, that affects dogs in a manner similar to
toxoplasmosis. Neosporosis is difficult to treat.[3]
• Genus Hepatozoon contains one species that causes hepatozoonosis in dogs and cats, Hepatozoon canis. Animals
become infected by ingesting an infected Rhipicephalus sanguineus, also known as the brown dog tick.
Symptoms include fever, weight loss, and pain of the spine and limbs.
The most common medications used to treat coccidian infections are in the sulphonamide family. Although unusual,
sulphonamides can damage the tear glands in some dogs, causing keratoconjunctivitis sicca, or "dry eye", which may
have a life-long impact. Some veterinarians recommend measuring tear production prior to sulphonamide
administration, and at various intervals after administration. Other veterinarians will simply avoid using
sulphonamides, instead choosing another product effective against coccidia.
18
Coccidia
Left untreated, the infection may clear of its own accord, or in some cases may continue to ravage an animal and
cause permanent damage or, occasionally, death.
See also
• cryptosporidiosis
• List of parasites (human)
• Zoalene is a fodder additive for poultry, used to prevent infections from coccidia.
External links
Coccidiosis treatment [4] Coccidiosis treatment for Calves and Lambs
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mar Vista Animal Medical Center [5].
Mar Vista Animal Medical Center [5].
Mar Vista Animal Medical Center [5].
The Coccidia of the World [6], Donald W. Duszynski, Steve J. Upton, Lee Couch, Feb. 21, 2004.
Life Cycle EIMERIA [7], Andreas Weck-Heimann, 1996-2005
FarmingUK [8], Information about Coccidiosis
• Lillehoj, Hyun S. (October 1996). "Two Strategies for Protecting Poultry From Coccidia" [9]. Agricultural
Research magazine (United States Department of Agriculture: Agricultural Research Service) (October 1996).
Describes using live-parasite vaccine versus a monoclonal antibody to block the sporozoite from invading a host's
cell.
References
[1] "The Taxonomicon & Systema Naturae" (http:/ / www. taxonomy. nl/ taxonomicon/ TaxonTree. aspx?id=660) (Website database). Taxon:
Genus Cryptosporidium. Universal Taxonomic Services, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 2000. .
[2] "Biodiversity explorer: Apicomplexa (apicomplexans, sporozoans)" (http:/ / www. museums. org. za/ bio/ apicomplexa/ index. htm). Iziko
Museums of Cape Town. .
[3] Ettinger, Stephen J.; Feldman, Edward C. (1995). Textbook of Veterinary Internal Medicine (4th ed.). W.B. Saunders Company.
ISBN 0-7216-6795-3.
[4] http:/ / www. takingcareofcoccidiosis. com
[5] http:/ / www. marvistavet. com/ html/ body_coccidia. html
[6] http:/ / biology. unm. edu/ biology/ coccidia/ home. html
[7] http:/ / www. saxonet. de/ coccidia/ index. htm
[8] http:/ / www. farminguk. com/ vet/ poultry/ husbandry/ vet6. htm
[9] http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ is/ AR/ archive/ oct96/ coccidia1096. htm
19
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Protozoa Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=361396966 Contributors: 2004-12-29T22:45Z, 3ni9m4tic, Aashka, AdRock, Adambro, Addshore, Adrade, Adrian.benko,
Ahoerstemeier, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alexander ktn, Alfio, Alphachimp, Amgine, Anclation, Ansariamutan, Antandrus, Aqua lem, Arcadian, AuburnPilot, AxelBoldt, Aznshark4, Balsa10,
Becciimee, Belg4mit, Bensaccount, Bjcairns, Bob Burkhardt, Bobo2396, Bok269, Bomac, BorgQueen, Bradjamesbrown, Broississy, Buck Mulligan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CapitalR,
Catfoo, Cephal-odd, Ching-3, Chira, Chochopk, Colonies Chris, Conversion script, D, Dainis, Danny, Delldot, Demiurge, Derek Ross, Dj Capricorn, Dmr2, DocWatson42, Dr.Bastedo,
Dvunkannon, Edward Tremel, Eetvartti, El C, Eleassar, Eric-Wester, Fabrictramp, FireBrandon, Fribbler, Fuzzbox, GDonato, Gartenzwerg 99, Glamgirl1250, Glenn, Gregorius Pilosus, Gwernol,
Hadal, Halmstad, Hegster, Hobartimus, Ihope127, Imperial Monarch, Insentient, Invertzoo, Irbisgreif, Iridescent, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JForget, JYolkowski, Jacek Kendysz, Jack Merridew, Japanese
Searobin, Jauerback, Jdvelasc, JedOs, Jfdwolff, Jjtigg, Jmundo, John of Reading, Jon Cates, Joseolgon, Josh Grosse, Jredmond, KC109, Keilana, Khajidha, Kingdon, Klow, Kostmo, KyraVixen,
Lambiam, Lesgles, Lexor, MARKELLOS, MK8, MKen, Madhero88, Mandarax, Mani1, Mapetite526, Markmat, MarshallKe, Mgiganteus1, Miborovsky, Momirt, MoogleDan, Moshe
Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mrdectol, NRWGNjesus, Narayanese, NawlinWiki, Nergus, NewEnglandYankee, Newone, Nihiltres, Nishkid64, Noahchang, Omnipedian, Ooglesthedog,
Otisjimmy1, Pagw, Paul-L, Pb30, Penbay, Pere prlpz, Phenomenart, Phil1988, PigFlu Oink, Pilotguy, Postglock, Pyrochem, Qblik, QuinnT, Quintote, RJHall, RK, Radon210, RainbowOfLight,
Raven in Orbit, Raz1el, Reconsider the static, Rich Farmbrough, Robin S, Rohitrrrrr, Ronhjones, RossMM, SchfiftyThree, Sean D Martin, Seba5618, Serita09, Shadowjams, Shanes, Shanoman,
Shimeru, Shingra, Shoefly, Shoshonna, Silencekid, Silverxxx, SimonP, Sir Lestaty de Lioncourt, Sivadrake, SlipKnotMask, Smartse, Spamburgler, SpookyMulder, Srittau, Srtxg, Stefan,
Stemonitis, Summerhawk, Syncategoremata, ThinkBlue, Tianxiaozhang, Tide rolls, TimVickers, Tipiac, Tobias Hoevekamp, TomViza, Tonicthebrown, Twinsday, Tychotesla, Ulric1313, Uncle
Dick, Uncle Milty, Uq, Vanished188, Vchorozopoulos, Vina, Vmatikov, Voyagerfan5761, WadeSimMiser, Wetman, Wham Bam Rock II, WikiJaZon, Woodsstock, WriterHound, Xcentaur,
Xenmorpha, Xeno, Z10x, Zachorious, Zrs 12, Zythe, АлександрВв, ‫קאלדנב הנוי‬, 459 anonymous edits
Cryptosporidiosis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=361276524 Contributors: A3RO, Alansohn, Alex.tan, [email protected], Arcadian, Axl, Bachrach44, Bullzeye, CDN99,
Canthusus, Casmith 789, Catgut, Chris the speller, Cpl Syx, DanielDeibler, David Thrale, Drm310, Dysprosia, Emt14, Eritain, Facts707, Fconaway, Gigemag76, Graham87, GregorB, HollyAm,
Immunize, J.delanoy, Jackal irl, Jerem43, Josh Grosse, Julesd, Kauczuk, Kitty53, LizGere, MarcoTolo, Mattximus, Mgrien, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mimihitam, Mithent, Mythdon, Nabokov,
Neutrality, Pansesus, Permacultura, Peterl, PigFlu Oink, Pol098, Pro bug catcher, RDBrown, RattBoy, Rhysdux, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rsabbatini, Salvadorjo, Sbmehta, Squids and Chips,
Strebe, Stucam01, TRosenbaum, Taxman, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thespiain, Thinboyslim, Tigerpaw24601, Touque, Urbanempire, Velela, Versalius, Viriditas, Wachholder0,
WurmWoode, ²¹², 115 anonymous edits
Coccidia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=357094630 Contributors: Allen3, Arcadian, AzaToth, BarkingFish, DerHexer, Doc9871, GregorB, Irishguy, Ixfd64, Joelmills,
JohnI, Jóna Þórunn, Kaarel, Kubigula, Lucyin, MWStowe, Malo, McSly, Mimihitam, Muriel Gottrop, Myanw, Mycroft.Holmes, Nathanlarson32767, NawlinWiki, NickW557, Pengo, Plattler01,
Renice, Screen stalker, SeanMack, Shoefly, Stepheng3, Thejerm, Tonedeafidiot, Viriditas, WAS 4.250, Webmasterjohnny, Xanthippe, 75 anonymous edits
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
Image:Leishmania donovani 01.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leishmania_donovani_01.png License: Public Domain Contributors: CDC/Dr. L.L. Moore, Jr.
file:Cryptosporidium muris.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cryptosporidium_muris.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dietzel65, Kkkdc, Redattore,
Wlodzimierz
File:Cryptosporidium muris.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cryptosporidium_muris.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dietzel65, Kkkdc, Redattore,
Wlodzimierz
Image:Food Safety 1.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Food_Safety_1.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Pbroks13
Image:Cryptosporidiosis 01.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cryptosporidiosis_01.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was MarcoTolo at
en.wikipedia
file:Coccidia.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coccidia.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Joelmills
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License
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/
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