Tlingit Grammar Handbook
James A. Crippen Dzéiwsh
Kaaḵáak’w Hít yeedáx̱ , Deisheetaan naax̱ , Shtax’héen ḵwáan
Department of Linguistics, University of British Columbia
[email protected]
May
Copyright ©
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This handbook is a summary of various aspects of Tlingit grammar and
grammatical analysis in tabular form. It is abstracted from work by Naish
and Story (
,
,
, etc.), Leer (
,
, etc.), Cable (
,
,
etc.), and from the author’s own research.
The tables here aim to be comprehensive for all Tlingit dialects except
where they are explicitly noted to be speci ic for a single dialect. Where
space is limited, dialectal forms are indicated with a subscript uppercase
letter: x Tongass Tlingit, x Southern Tlingit (but x Sanya Tlingit versus x
Henya Tlingit when the two are distinct), x Northern Tlingit, x Transitional
Tlingit (Wrangell, Kake, etc.), x Gulf Coast Tlingit (Yakutat, Dry Bay, etc.), x
Inland Tlingit. Lack of dialect speci ication indicates that an element is either identical in all dialects (except for certain details like variable vowel
length) or that the element has only been documented in Northern Tlingit.
Tongass Tlingit forms are often presented in opposition to forms which are
identical in all the other dialects, in which case the latter forms are left unmarked.
The Tongass dialect has only been published in an orthographic form
once (Williams, Williams & Leer
). That system depends on distinguishing the vowels VVʻ and VVʼ from ordinary VV, a dif icult reading requirement.
The revised orthography used here is based on the Revised Popular orthography with adaptations from Michael Krauss’s Eyak orthography which has
a similar vowel system. Thus Vh is used for prior VVʻ and Vʼ for prior VVʼ.
Leer’s use of Vʻ in transcription has been converted to Vh as well. Since h
cannot occur at the end of a syllable in Tlingit this new system is unambiguous. Note however that the old Naish-Story system used h for single-letter
vowels at the end of words, though this did not indicate a different length or
quality.
Southern Tlingit has never been written extensively in an orthography
that preserves its tone distinctions. The system used here is adapted from
the Revised Popular orthography. It represents falling tone as an acute accent on the irst letter and a grave accent on the second letter of long vowels,
i.e. VV, which is conceptually a sequence of high and low tones.
This document has been designed to be printed and bound as a pocketbook so it can be easily carried everywhere. The ideal format is two logical
pages per printed page (“ up”), double sided, folded in half widthwise and
stapled along the fold. To keep the printed form small, there is no discussion
other than what is presented in the tables.
This is a living document. Contributions are welcome and encouraged.
Na-Dene language family relationships:
• Na-Dene (Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit) family
– Tlingit
– Athabaskan–Eyak family
⋄ Eyak
⋄ Athabaskan family
· Northern Athabaskan: Ahtna, Carrier, Gwichʼin, Slave, …
· Paci ic Coast Athabaskan: Hupa, Mattole, Tolowa, …
· Southern Athabaskan (Apachean): Navajo, W. Apache, …
Tlingit dialects and major settlements:
• Tongass Tlingit (T): Duke Island Yiʼx̱ , Metlakatla Tahkw Ahni (Coast
Tsim. Maxɬakxaaɬa), Port Stewart G̱ ahnax̱ , Tongass Katuḵx̱ uka
• Southern Tlingit (S)
– Sanya Tlingit (S): Cape Fox G̱ áàsh, Kah Shakes Cove G̱ unéiḵʼan
Héènakʼu, Naha Bay Náà.á, Unuk River Jóònáx̱ , Chickamin River
X̱ éèl, Yes Bay Yéès G̱ éèyí
– Henya Tlingit (H): Craig Sháànséet, Klawock Laawaak, Tuxekan
Tʼaḵjik.áàn, ? Kuyu Kooyú
• Northern Tlingit (N)
– Transitional Tlingit (R): Wrangell Ḵaachx̱ ana.áakʼw,
Petersburg Gantiyaakw Séedi, Kake Ḵéex̱ ʼ, ? Kuyu Kooyú,
?
Sumdum Sʼaawdáan, some in Angoon Aangóon
– Greater Northern Tlingit (N)
⋄ Central Tlingit (N): Sitka Sheetʼká, Angoon Aangóon,
Killisnoo Kenasnoow, Tenakee Tʼanag̱eiy, Hoonah Xunaa,
Auke Bay Áakʼw, Juneau Dzántikʼi Héeni ~ Jóonu, Douglas
Xʼaatʼtʼáak, Taku Tʼaaḵú, ? Sumdum Sʼaawdáan, Haines
Deishú, Klukwan Tlaakw.aan, Skagway Shg̱agwéi
⋄ Gulf Coast Tlingit (G): Lituya Bay Ltu.áa, Dry Bay G̱ unax̱ oo,
Yakutat Yaakwdáat, Icy Bay Ÿaasʼé, Kaliakh G̱ alyáx̱
⋄ Inland Tlingit (I): ? Sumdum Sʼaawdáan, Atlin Áatlein,
Teslin Deisleen, Tagish Taagish, Carcross Naadaashaahéeni
labial-glottal
glottal
labial-uvular
uvular
labial-velar
velar
lateral
palatal
postalveolar
alveolar
bilabial
unaspirated stop
(p) t
k
aspirated stop
tʰ
kʰ
ejective stop
tʼ
kʼ
nasal stop
(m) n
plain fricative
s ʃ ɬ
x
ejective fricative
sʼ
ɬʼ
xʼ
unaspirated affricate
ts tʃ tɬ
aspirated affricate
tsʰ tʃʰ tɬʰ
ejective affricate
tsʼ tʃʼ tɬʼ
approximant
(l) j (ɰ)
kʷ q qʷ
kʰʷ qʰ qʰʷ
kʼʷ qʼ qʼʷ ʔ (ʔʷ)
xʷ χ χʷ h (hʷ)
xʼʷ χʼ χʼʷ
w
Tlingit consonants in IPA transcription.
See also http://www.drangle.com/~james/tlingit/transcription-conventions.html
Cons. Explanation
p
m
l
ɰ
ʔʷ
hʷ
only occurs in Inland [pátʰàː] ‘butter’, elsewhere [kʷátʰàː]
occurs for some /w/ in Carcross-Tagish and Teslin Inland Tlingit
only occurs in Inland [tàːlèːjí] ‘lake trout’ (Ath. borrowing?); also
Jennie Manton (Hoonah) consistently used [l] for /n/ everywhere
split merged with /j/ and /w/ except in Tongass and some elsewhere
idiosyncratic: onset [ʔʷe…] of apophonic /ʔu…/ roots for some people
idiosyncratic, as [ʔʷ]; also [ʔùˑhʷàːn] ‘us’ and [jìˑhʷàːn] ‘you (pl.)’ for
more usual [ʔùˑhàːn]~[ʔùˑwàːn] and [jìˑhàːn]~[jìˑwàːn] etc.
Explanation of marginal consonants in Tlingit.
labial-glottal
glottal
labial-uvular
uvular
labial-velar
lateral
palatal
velar
alveolar
postalveolar
bilabial
unaspirated stop
(b) d
aspirated stop
t
ejective stop
tʼ
nasal stop
m n
plain fricative
s sh l
ejective fricative
sʼ
lʼ
unaspirated affricate
dz j dl
aspirated affricate
ts ch tl
ejective affricate
tsʼ chʼ tlʼ
approximant
(ḻ) y
g gw g̱ g̱w
k kw ḵ ḵw
kʼ kʼw ḵʼ ḵʼw . .w
x xw x̱ x̱ w h hw
xʼ xʼw x̱ ʼ x̱ ʼw
ÿ w
unaspirated stop
b d
aspirated stop
t
ejective stop
tʼ
nasal stop
m n
plain fricative
s sh ł
ejective fricative
sʼ
łʼ
unaspirated affricate
dz j dl
aspirated affricate
ts ch tł
ejective affricate
tsʼ chʼ tłʼ
approximant
l y
labial-glottal
glottal
labial-uvular
uvular
labial-velar
lateral
palatal
velar
bilabial
alveolar
postalveolar
Tlingit consonants in the Revised Popular orthography.
g gw gh ghw
k kw kh khw
kʼ kʼw khʼ khʼw . .w
x xw xh xhw h hw
xʼ xʼw xhʼ xhʼw
ÿ w
Tlingit consonants in the YNLC orthography.
g gw gh ghw
k kw kh khw
kʼ kʼw khʼ khʼw . .w
x xw xh xhw h hw
xʼ xʼw xhʼ xhʼw
ÿ w
d
t
t!
n
s
s!
dz
ts
ts!
lateral
palatal
velar
labial-velar
uvular
labial-uvular
glottal
labial-glottal
bilabial
alveolar
postalveolar
Tlingit consonants in the E-mail orthography.
unaspirated stop
aspirated stop
ejective stop
nasal stop
plain fricative
ejective fricative
unaspirated affricate
aspirated affricate
ejective affricate
approximant
g gᵒ g̣ g̣ᵒ
k kᵒ q qᵒ
k! k!ᵒ q! q!ᵒ —
c
ł
—
dj ʟ̣
tc ʟ
tc! ʟ!
Tlingit consonants in Swanton
labial-glottal
glottal
labial-uvular
uvular
labial-velar
lateral
palatal
velar
bilabial
alveolar
postalveolar
unaspirated stop
b d
aspirated stop
t
ejective stop
tʼ
nasal stop
m n
plain fricative
s sh l
ejective fricative
sʼ
lʼ
unaspirated affricate
dz j dl
aspirated affricate
ts ch tl
ejective affricate
tsʼ chʼ tlʼ
approximant
(ll) y
x xᵒ x̣ x̣ ᵒ h
k! k!ᵒ q! q!ᵒ
y ỵ w
. Occasionally ᵘ for ᵒ.
bilabial
alveolar
postalveolar
lateral
palatal
velar
labial-velar
uvular
labial-uvular
glottal
labial-glottal
d
tʻ
tʼ
n
s
sʼ
dz
ts
tsʼ
g gᵘ g̣ g̣ᵘ
kʻ kʻᵘ qʻ qʻᵘ
kʼ kʼᵘ qʼ qʼᵘ ʼ
c ł
łʼ
dj ʟ̣
tc ʟ
tcʼ ʟʼ
x xᵘ x̣ x̣ ᵘ h
xʼ xʼᵘ x̣ ʼ x̣ ʼᵘ
y ỵ w
unaspirated stop
aspirated stop
ejective stop
nasal stop
plain fricative
ejective fricative
unaspirated affricate
aspirated affricate
ejective affricate
approximant
d
t
dt
n
s
sz
—
ts
dts
glottal
labial-glottal
labial-uvular
.
labial-velar
velar
lateral
palatal
postalveolar
bilabial
alveolar
Tlingit consonants in Boas
uvular
unaspirated stop
aspirated stop
ejective stop
nasal stop
plain fricative
ejective fricative
unaspirated affricate
aspirated affricate
ejective affricate
approximant
g gᵒᵒ ġ ġᵒᵒ
c~k kᵒᵒ ḵ~ḳ qu
g ́ g ́ᵒᵒ ḵ~ḳ — —
sh hl
dl
j dl
ch tl
dj ᴅʟ
ch chᵒᵒ
g` g`ᵒᵒ
y
ʻh ʻhᵒᵒ h
g̈ g̈ ᵒᵒ
w~ŭ
Tlingit consonants in Willard & Kelly
.
bilabial
alveolar
postalveolar
lateral
palatal
velar
labial-velar
uvular
labial-uvular
glottal
labial-glottal
unaspirated stop
aspirated stop
ejective stop
nasal stop
plain fricative
ejective fricative
unaspirated affricate
aspirated affricate
ejective affricate
approximant
d
t
t̓
n
s
s̓
dz
ts
ts̓
g gʷ ɢ ɢʷ
k kʷ q qʷ
k kʷ q̓ q̓ ʷ ʼ
c ł
ł
ǰ dł
tc tł
tc̓ tł
x xʷ x̣ x̣ ʷ h
x̓ x̓ ʷ x̣̓ x̣̓ ʷ
y ỵ w
.
bilabial
alveolar
postalveolar
lateral
palatal
velar
labial-velar
uvular
labial-uvular
glottal
labial-glottal
Tlingit consonants in De Laguna
unaspirated stop
aspirated stop
ejective stop
nasal stop
plain fricative
ejective fricative
unaspirated affricate
aspirated affricate
ejective affricate
approximant
d
t
t̓
n
s
s̓
ʒ
c
c̓
g gʷ g̣ g̣ʷ
k kʷ q qʷ
k kʷ q̓ q̓ ʷ ˀ
š ł
ł
ǯ λ
č ƛ
č̓ ƛ
x xʷ x̣ x̣ ʷ h
x̓ x̓ ʷ x̣̓ x̣̓ ʷ
y ỵ w
Tlingit consonants in Emmons & De Laguna
.
tone
high
high
mid
low
í
é
low
short
height
high
mid
low
ì
è
long
front back front back
ú
íː
éː
úː
á
ù
áː
ìː
èː
ùː
à
àː
Northern Tlingit vowels in IPA.
tone
high
í
é
high
mid
low
ì
è
falling
high
mid
low
low
short
height
long
front back front back
ú
íː
éː
úː
á
ù
áː
ìː
èː
ùː
à
high
mid
low
àː
îː
êː
ûː
âː
Southern Tlingit vowels in IPA.
IPA Leer
V
Vː
Vʰ
Vˀ
V
Vˑ
Vʻ
Vʼ
Leer
V
VV
VV`
VVˊ
New Orthography Name
i, e, a, u
ee, ei, aa, oo
ih, eh, ah, uh
iʼ, eʼ, aʼ, uʼ
short
long
fading
glottalized
Description
plain vowel
long vowel
breathy in last half
followed by glottal stop
Tongass Tlingit vowel types. Vowel qualities {i, e, a, u} as other dialects.
tone
high
high
mid
low
í
é
low
short
height
high
mid
low
i
e
long
front back front back
ú
ée
éi
óo
á
u
áa
ee
ei
oo
a
aa
Northern Tlingit vowels in Revised Popular orthography.
tone
high
high
mid
low
í
é
low
short
height
high
mid
low
i
e
long
front back front back
ú
î
ê
û
á
u
â
ì
è
ù
a
à
Northern Tlingit vowels in YNLC orthography.
tone
front
back
high
high
mid
low
í(h)
é(h)
ó(h)
low
short
height
high
mid
low
i(h)
e(h)
long
front back
ée
éi
ú(h)
o(h)
u(h)
óo
á(h)
ee
ei
oo
a(h)
Northern Tlingit vowels in old Naish-Story (
s).
Southern
Tongass
Northern
Leer
V
V~V
V
V
V
V
Vː
VVR
Vː
VVR
Vː
VːR
Vʻ
VʻR
Vˀ
VV
VV
Vː
Vʼ
Vː
VːR
Vː
VVR
Vː
VVR
Vː
VːR
Vˑ
VˑR
Vː
VːR
Vː
VːR
Vː
VːR
Vː
VːR
Vˑ
VˑR
Sanya
Henya
V
V
V
V
Vʰ
VʰR
Dialect tone correspondences in IPA. R = {/n/, /ɰ/, /j/, /w/}.
Tongass
V
V
Southern
Sanya
ta
V
ta ḵaʼ V
Henya
tá
V
tá ḵáa V
Northern
tá
V
ta ḵáa V
Leer
Meaning
tá
tá
sleep
ta ḵáa ta qáʼ sleeping man
Vʰ shah
VʰR ahn
Vː shaa
VVR áàn
Vː shaa
VVR áàn
Vː shaa
Vː aan
šaʻ
aʻn
mountain
land, town
Vʼ
VV ḵáà
VV ḵáà
Vː ḵáa
qáʼ
man
Vː aa
VːR heen
Vː áa
VVR héèn
Vː áa
VVR héèn
Vː áa
VːR héen
áˑ
híˑn
lake
fresh water
Vː haa
VːR
Vː haa
VːR
Vː haa
VːR
Vː haa
VːR
haˑ
us, our
ḵaʼ
Examples of tone correspondences between dialects.
Position Theme elements
In lectional elements
Order theme pre ix
Order yaOrder kaOrder Benefactive pre ix
Order Irrealis pre ix
Order Continuative pre ix
Order (Im)perfective pre ix
Order Distributive pre ix
Order Pronominal pre ix
Member of extensor series
In lected stem form
Order
Order
Extensor series
Invariable stem component
Naish
Position Name
& Story
verb template.
Type
Examples
Theme pre ixes
tu-, ji-, x̱ ʼaÿaka-
Irrealis
Continuative
Aspectival
In lectional pre ixes
Distributive
Subject
Consonantal
Functional
una-, ga-, g̱ag̱a-, ÿudag̱ax̱ a-, i-, tu-
Extensors
Stem
ÿa-, di-, si-, dli.ee, goo, x̱ aa
In lectional suf ixes
-ch, -kw, -x̱
-een, -eeḵ, -nee
Naish & Story
verb template.
Cable & Crippen
Leer
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
—
+
+
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
bound phrasal adjuncts
preverbs ( – , , , )
reciprocal & outer distributive
plural number has= ~ sobjects
areal ḵualienable incorporates
inalienable incorporates
vertical surface ÿahorizontal surface kaself-benefactive gaouter conjugation/aspect
irrealis
inner conjugation/aspect
perfective and g̱ainner distributive
subjects
classi iers
root
stem variation
derivation
duration ( ?, ?)
inner modals
outer modals
clause type
bound auxiliaries
+
—
+
+
+
+
+
−
−
−
−
−
—
b
a
b
—
proclitic adjunct phrases
number pre ixes
incorp. obj. pronominals
—
incorp. alienable nouns
incorp. inalienable nouns
a
c
b
a
e schetic pre ixes
d
c
b
a
distributive pre ix
subject pronominals
classi ier
inner mode suf ixes
derivational suf ixes
durative suf ixes (a, b)
outer mode suf ixes
epimode and
clause type suf ixes
—
Verb template structure.
Position Af ixes
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
P-xʼ, P-t, P-x̱ , P-dé, P-náx̱ , P-dáx̱ , N x̱ ʼéi, N daséi(xʼ), N eetéenax̱ , …
g̱unayéi~g̱unéi=, áa=, shóo=, héeni=, gági=, éeg̱i=, daag̱i=
ḵut=, yux̱ =, yaax̱ =, héenx̱ =, ux̱ =, ḵwáaḵx̱ =, yedx̱ =, ÿaanax̱ ~ÿahnax̱ =
ÿan*=, neil *=, haa*=, yóo*=, ḵux̱ *=, kux *=
kei~keh =, yei~yeh =, ÿeiḵ~ÿeeḵ ~ihḵ =, daaḵ~dahḵ =, daak~dahk =
yéi~yeh =
ÿaa~ÿah =
ÿaa~ÿah =, yoo~yuh =
woosh=
, dax̱ =
has= ~ sx̱ at~ax̱ -, haa-~hah , i-, yi-, a~-, ash-, ḵaa~ḵu-, at-, aa-, sh~ḵuyaan-, shakux-, yata-, x̱ ʼasakw-, g̱ax̱ -, xee~xei-, ḵee~ḵei-, yee~yei-,
kanik-, yaḵa-, saa-, aan-, naa-, sha.ax̱ w-, yakw-, hinji-, x̱ ʼa-, ḵʼa-, tu-, sha-, shu-, lu-, se~sa-, x̱ a-, gu-, ta-, daa-, x̱ oo-, x̱ an-,
x̱ ʼaa-, tʼéi-, tʼaa-, yik-, yee-, ḵi-, gin-, x̱ i-, sʼaan-, lidíx̱ ʼ, waḵ-, sʼaḵ-, x̱ ʼus-,
sʼee-, duk-, laka-, tlʼiḵ-, keey-, tóoxʼ-, x̱ ʼatu-, tuḵx̱ ʼe~tuḵʼe-, daa.it-, tax̱ ʼ ÿakagagau-, w-, oo- (all
)
, na, g̱a- ̱
ÿu, u. , g̱a- ̱
dag̱a~dax̱ x̱ a. , tu. , i. , yi. , - . , du. , du.
[±D, S, ±I]: D ∊ {+ , − }, S ∊ {, s, l, sh}, I ∊ {+ , − }
root
-ʼ, -ː, -h, -n, -ÿ (all
)
-án, -shán, -ch, -áḵw, -aa, -x̱ aa, -ÿí, -ee, -k, -álʼ~chʼálʼ, -ḵ, -nas, -násʼ, -kátʼ
( ?) -h, -k, -x̱ , -ch; ( ?) -t, -xʼ, -tʼ, -sʼ, -lʼ
-ch, -(n)ee~(n)ih , -ín
-een~ihn , -eeḵ~ihḵ ~ḵ
-ee~ih
, -i
=nóok ~néekw ~neekw , =nooch ~neech ~nihch ~nukch , =noojeen
~neejeen ~? nihjihn , =núknee ~níkwnee ~níkwni ~nikwnih ,
=g̱anúgun ~g̱anígun ~g̱aníkw ~g̱anikw
Verb morphemes.
Gloss
Conj.
Grp.
Preverb
Description
g̱unaÿéi~g̱unéi~g̱unaÿeʼ
aa~aʼ
áa~aʼ (+ ÿax̱ )
shóo~shuʼ (+ ÿax̱ )
héeni~heeni
gági
éeg̱i~eeg̱i
dáag̱i~daag̱i

?






inceptive: beginning, starting
locative: there
rotatory: turning over
adrotatory: turning over endwise
inaquative: into water
abumbrative: from shadow into open
absilvative: from woods to shore
abaquative: from water to shore
ḵut
ÿan, ÿax̱ , ? ÿande
yux̱
out
yaax̱ ~yahx̱
héenx̱ ~heenx̱
ux̱ (+ kei~keh )
ḵwáaḵx̱ (+ daaḵ~dahḵ ) wrong
yetx̱ ~yedax̱
ÿanax̱ ~ÿahnax̱
under
ga

na
g̱a
g̱a



g̱a
errative: astray, lost, excessively (-t)
completive: completing, inishing (-x̱ ?)
outside (-x̱ )
invehicular: into vehicle (-x̱ )
inaquative: into water (-x̱ )
uncontrolled: blindly, out of control (-x̱ )
by mistake, wrongly (-x̱ )
initial: starting off, taking off (-dáx̱ )
underground (-náx̱ )
ÿan, ÿax̱ , ÿánde
neil(t), neilx̱ , neildé
haat, haax̱ , haadé
yóot, yóox̱ , yóode
ḵux̱ , ? ḵux̱ x̱, ḵúx̱ de
kux , kuxx̱ , kúxde






abmarine: ashore, onto ground, resting
inside, homeward, into building
hither, this way, toward speaker
hence, away, off (inde inite location)
revertive: aback, reversed direction
aground, into shallow water (IT only)
kei~kéi~keh
yei~yéi~yeh
ÿeiḵ~ÿéèḵ ~ihḵ
daaḵ~dáàḵ ~dahḵ
home
hither
hence
up
down




thus
? manner: thus, so (yeh = is thematic)
daak~dáàk ~dahk
yéi~yeʼ ~yeh
ÿaa~ÿa~ÿah
yoo~yuh
ÿaa~ÿah
upward
downward, out of vehicle
adlitoral: down to shore, beachward
ablitoral: inland from shore, back from
open, off of ire
 admarine: seaward, into open, falling
from sky, onto ire
? mental state or activity
 alternating: back and forth, to and fro
along na? along, down, obliquely, progressive
Preverbs (+
).
Gloss
Source
Unmarked
Tongass
Southern
Northern
Form Trans.
Punctual Pertingent Allative
-t
-x̱
-dé
ÿanneil—
yóo?
ḵux̱ ?
kux -
ÿanneilthaatyóotḵux̱ kux -
ÿax̱ neilx̱ haax̱ yóox̱ ḵux̱ kuxx̱ -
ÿándeneildéhaadéyóodeḵúx̱ dekúxde -
home
hither
hence
ÿannéìl?
háà?
yóo?
ḵux̱ -
ÿannéìltháàtyóotḵux̱ -
ÿax̱ néìlx̱ háàx̱ yóox̱ ?
ḵux̱ x̱-
yándeinéìldéiháàdéiyóodéìḵúx̱ déì-
home
hither
hence
ÿan?
nehl?
hah?
yoo?
ḵux̱ -
ÿannehlthahtyootḵux̱ -
ÿax̱ nehlx̱ hahx̱ yoox̱ ?
ḵux̱ x̱-
yandehnehldeihahdeiyoodehḵux̱ deh-
ÿán
home
neil
hither
haa ?
hence
yóo
?
aground ?
Group
‘shore’
‘home’
‘us’ ?
‘distal’
?
?
preverb (+
) variants. kux only in Inland Tlingit.
Pre ix
Source noun
yaan ~yáàn ~ÿahn - yaan ‘hunger’
shakuxshakoox~shakuhx ‘thirst’
ÿata–ÿá ‘face, vertical surface’ (?) + tá ‘sleep’
x̱ ʼasakwx̱ ʼaséikw ‘breath, life’
g̱ax̱ g̱aax̱ ‘crying, weeping’
xei ~xee ~xih xee ‘dusk, shadow’ (cf. shaa xeiyí ‘mtn. shadow’)
ḵei ~ḵee ~ḵih ḵee ‘dawn’ (cf. ḵee.á ‘dawn’, ḵeex̱ ʼé ‘daybreak’)
?
yei ~ yee ~ÿih ÿee ‘time’ (cf. yeedát ‘moment’)
kanikkaneek~? kanéèk ~kanihk ‘report, news’
kayikkayéik ‘noise’
yaḵayaḵá ‘curse, reproach, rebuke’
saa~sah saa ‘name’
aan ~áàn ~ahn aan‘land, town, settlement’
naa~nah naa ‘clan, nation, people’
sha.ax̱ wsha.aax̱ w ‘bundle’
yakwyaakw~yáàkw ~yahkw ‘canoe, boat’
hinhéen ‘fresh water, river, stream’
Alienable incorporated nouns (+
).
Pre ix
Source noun
jix̱ ʼa~ḵʼatushashuluse(i)~sax̱ agutadaa ~dáà ~dah x̱ oox̱ anx̱ ʼaatʼéitʼaayikyeeḵiginx̱ isʼaanlidíx̱ ʼ waḵ- (+ ka-)
sʼaḵ- (+ ka-)
x̱ ʼus- (+ ka-)
sʼee- (+ ka-)
duk- (+ ka-)
la- (+ ka-)
tlʼiḵ- (+ sha-)
keeytóoxʼ- (+ ka-)
x̱ ʼatutuḵx̱ ʼe~tuḵʼedaa.ittax̱ ʼ -
–jín ‘hand, arm’, –jee ‘possession’
–x̱ ʼéi ‘mouth’
–tú ‘inside, mind, emotions’
–shá ‘head’
–shú ‘end’
–lú ‘nose, point’
–séi ‘voice’
–x̱ aaw ‘fur’
–gú ‘base, butt’
–tá ‘bottom’
–daa ~dáà ~dah ‘around, surrounding, periphery’
–x̱ oo ‘among, amidst, within’
–x̱ án ‘vicinity, near’
–x̱ ʼaa ‘space between, interstice’
–tʼéi ‘behind, screened by, obscured by’
–tʼáa~tʼáak ‘landward side’
–yík ‘inside (concave)’
–yee ‘underneath, beneath’
??
–geen ‘tail lipper’
–x̱ ee ‘shoulder’
?? ‘limb’
–lidíx̱ ʼ ‘neck, throat’
–waaḵ ‘eye’
sʼaaḵ ‘bone’(alienable; a sʼaag̱í ‘its bone’)
–x̱ ʼoos ‘foot, leg’
–sʼee ‘eyebrow’
dook ‘skin’(alienable; a doogú ‘its skin’)
–laká ‘inside of mouth’ (cf. –leitóox̱ ʼ ‘in the throat’)
–tlʼeeḵ ‘ inger’ + –shá ‘head’ = –tlʼiḵshá ‘ ingertip’
–keey ‘knee’
–tóoxʼ-ká ‘kneeling’
–x̱ ʼéi ‘mouth + –tú ‘inside’
–tuḵx̱ ʼé ‘anus’ (< –túḵ ‘butt’ + –x̱ ʼéi ‘mouth’)
–daa.éet ‘joint’
–téix̱ ʼ ‘heart’
Inalienable incorporated nouns (+
).
S (Series)
−D

s
l
sh
+D
−I
+I
−I
+I
salasha-
ÿasilishi-
daslsh-
didzidliji-
Classi ier pre ixes (+ ).
CiForm
Ca-
Features
disidzilidlishiji-
+
−
+
−
+
−
+
 +
s
s
l
l
sh
sh
+
+
+
+
+
+
Form
C-
Features
dasa-
+
−
 −
la-
−
l −
sha-
−
Form
Features
s −
s-
+
s −
l-
+
l −
sh-
+
sh −
sh −
Classi iers by phonological shape, excluding - and ÿa-.
CaC-

l
s
sh
da- +
- −
la- −
l- +
sa- −
s- +
sha- −
sh- +
Phonological shapes of classi iers with − .
Classi ier shape
Pre ixes
Ci-
Ca-
C-
-
ÿa-
ÿu-x̱ aÿu-tuÿu-iÿu-ÿiÿu-duÿu--
x̱ waCi
wutuCi
ÿiCi
ÿeeÿCi
wuduCi
wuCi
x̱ waCa
wutuCa
ÿiCa
ÿeeCa
—
—
x̱ waC
wutooC
ÿiC
ÿeeÿC
wuduC
wuC
x̱ wa
wutoo
ÿi
ÿeeÿ
wudu
wu
x̱ waa
wutuwa
ÿee ~ iÿa*
ÿeeÿ
wuduwa
woo ~ uwa*
CV-ÿu-x̱ aCV-ÿu-tuCV-ÿu-i
CV-ÿu-ÿiCV-ÿu-duCV-ÿu--
CVx̱ wCi
CVwtuCi
CVÿCi
CVÿeeÿCi
CVwduCi
CVwCi
CVx̱ waCa
CVwtuCa
CVÿCa
CVÿeeÿCa
—
—
CVx̱ waC
CVwtooC
CVÿiC
CVÿeeÿC
CVwduC
CVwuC
CVx̱ wa
CVwtoo
CVÿi
CVÿeeÿ
CVwdu
CVwu
CVx̱ waa
CVwtuwa
Ceeÿa
CVÿeeÿ
CVwduwa
CVːwa
Northern pre ix contractions with + perfective ÿu-.
*: actually + telic perfective u- rather than ÿu-.
Classi ier shape
Pre ixes
Ca-
C-
-
ga-w-g̱a-ÿiga-w-g̱a-du-
kuḵaCa
kḵwaCa
gax̱ tuCa
gag̱iCa
kg̱iCa
gax̱ ÿiCa
gax̱ duCa
ga-w-g̱a--
gux̱ Ca
kuḵaC
kḵwaC
gax̱ tooC
gag̱eeC
kg̱eeC
gax̱ ÿiC
gax̱ duC
gug̱aC
kg̱waC
kuḵa
kḵwa
gax̱ too
gag̱ee
kg̱ee
gax̱ ÿi
gax̱ du
gug̱a
kg̱wa
CV-ga-w-g̱a-x̱ aCV-ga-w-g̱a-tuCV-ga-w-g̱a-iCV-ga-w-g̱a-duCV-ga-w-g̱a--
CVkwḵaCa
CVgax̱ tuCa
CVkg̱iCa
CVgax̱ duCa
CVgux̱ Ca
CVkwḵaC
CVgax̱ tooC
CVkg̱eeC
CVgax̱ duC
CVkwg̱aC
CVkwḵa
CVgax̱ too
CVkg̱ee
CVgax̱ du
CVkwg̱a
ga-w-g̱a-x̱ a-
{
ga-w-g̱a-tu{
ga-w-g̱a-i-
Northern pre ix contractions with future ga-w-g̱a-… [− ]-.
Classi ier shape
Pre ixes
-x̱ a-tu-i-ÿi-du-u--x̱ a-
{
u--u--du-
{
CV--x̱ aCV--tuCV--iCV--ÿiCV--duCV--ka--CV-u--x̱ aCV-u---
Ci-
Ca-
C-
-
ÿa-
x̱ aCi
tuCi
iCi
ÿiCi
duCi
Ci
x̱ aCa
tuCa
iCa
ÿeeÿCa
—
Ca
x̱ aC
tooC
eeC
ÿiC
duC
iC
x̱ a
too
ee
ÿi
du

x̱ aa
tuwa
iÿa
ÿeeÿ
duwa
ÿa
x̱ waCi
ux̱ Ci
uCi
—
—
x̱ waCa
ux̱ Ca
—
—
—
uC
uduC
duC
x̱ wa
ux̱ a
u
udu
du
x̱ waa
ux̱ aa
uwa
—
—
CVx̱ Ci
CVtuCi
CeeCi
CVÿeeÿCi
CVduCi
CVCi
kaCi
CVx̱ Ca
CVtuCa
CeeCa
CVÿCa
—
CVCa
kaCa
CVx̱ aC
CVtooC
CeeC
CVÿiC
CVduC
CVC
kaC
CVx̱ a
CVtoo
Cee
CVÿ
CVdu
CV
ka
CVx̱ aa
CVtuwa
Ceeÿa
CVÿeeÿ
CVduwa
CVÿa
kaa
CUːx̱ aC
CUːC
CUːduC
CVduC
Cux̱ aC
CooC
CuC
CUːx̱ a
CUː
CUːdu
CVdu
Cux̱ a
Coo
Cu
CUːx̱ aa
CUːÿa
—
—
Cux̱ aa
Cuwa
Coo
CUːx̱ Ci
CUːCi
{ —
CV-u--du—
CV-oo--x̱ a- Cux̱ Ci
CV-oo--CooCi
CV-w--CuCi
CUːx̱ Ca
—
—
Cux̱ Ca
CooCa
CuCa
x̱ waC
Northern pre ix contractions with + -conjugation.
Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.
Pre ixes
Classi ier shape
Ci-
Ca-
C-
-
ÿa-
g̱a-x̱ ag̱a-tug̱a-ig̱a-ÿig̱a-dug̱a--
ḵaCi
g̱atuCi
g̱iCi
g̱aÿCi
g̱aduCi
g̱aCi
ḵaCa
g̱atuCa
g̱iCa
g̱aÿCa
—
—
ḵaC
g̱atooC
g̱eeC
g̱aÿiC
g̱aduC
g̱aC
ḵa
g̱atoo
g̱ee
g̱aÿ
g̱adu
g̱a
ḵaa
g̱atuwa
g̱iÿa
g̱aÿeeÿ
g̱aduwa
g̱aa
u-g̱a-x̱ au-g̱a--
ḵwaCi
g̱waCi
ḵwaCa
g̱waCa
ḵwaC
g̱waC
ḵwa
g̱wa
ḵwaa
g̱waa
CV-g̱a-x̱ aCV-g̱a-tuCV-g̱a-iCV-g̱a-ÿiCV-g̱a-duCV-g̱a--
CVḵaCi
CVx̱ tuCi
CVg̱iCi
CVx̱ ÿiCi
CVx̱ duCi
CVx̱ Ci
CVḵaCa
CVx̱ tuCa
CVg̱iCa
CVx̱ ÿiCa
—
CVx̱ Ca
CVḵaC
CVx̱ tooC
CVg̱eeC
CVx̱ ÿiC
CVx̱ duC
CVg̱aC
CVḵa
CVx̱ too
CVg̱ee
CVx̱ ÿi
CVx̱ du
CVg̱a
CVḵaa
CVx̱ tuwa
CVg̱iÿa
CVx̱ ÿeeÿ
CVx̱ duwa
CVg̱aa
CV-u-g̱a-x̱ aCV-u-g̱a-CV-oo-g̱a-x̱ aCV-oo-g̱a--
CUːḵaCi
CUːx̱ Ci
CuḵaCi
Cux̱ Ci
CUːḵaCa
CUːx̱ Ca
CuḵaCa
Cux̱ Ca
CUːḵaC
CUːg̱aC
CuḵaC
Cug̱aC
CUːḵa
CUːg̱a
Cuḵa
Cug̱a
CUːḵaa
CUːg̱aa
Cuḵaa
Cug̱aa
Northern pre ix contractions with + g̱a-conjugation or + g̱a-mode.
Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.
Classi ier shape
Pre ixes
Ci-
Ca-
C-
-
ÿa-
nax̱ Ci
natuCi
niCi
naÿCi
naduCi
naCi
nax̱ Ca
natuCa
niCa
naÿCa
—
—
nax̱ aC
natooC
neeC
naÿiC
naduC
naC
nax̱ a
natoo
nee
naÿ
nadu
na
nax̱ aa
natuwa
niÿa
naÿeeÿ
naduwa
naa
u-na--
unax̱ Ci
nax̱ wCi
unCi
unax̱ Ca
nax̱ wCa
—
unx̱ aC
nax̱ waC
unaC
unx̱ a
nax̱ wa
una
unx̱ aa
nax̱ waa
unaa
CV-na-x̱ aCV-na-tuCV-na-iCV-na-ÿiCV-na-duCV-na--
CVnax̱ Ci
CVntuCi
CVniCi
CVnaÿCi
CVnduCi
CVnCi
CVnax̱ Ca
CVntuCa
CVniCa
CVnaÿCa
—
CVnCa
CVnx̱ aC
CVntooC
CVneeC
CVnaÿiC
CVnduC
CVnaC
CVnx̱ a
CVntoo
CVnee
CVnaÿ
CVndu
CVna
CVnx̱ aa
CVntuwa
CVniÿa
CVnaÿeeÿ
CVnduwa
CVnaa
CUːnax̱ Ca
CVnax̱ wCa
CUːnCa
Cunax̱ Ca
CunCa
CUːnx̱ aC
CVnx̱ waC
CUːnaC
Cunx̱ aC
CunaC
CUːnx̱ a
CVnx̱ wa
CUːna
Cunx̱ a
Cuna
CUːnx̱ aa
CVnx̱ waa
CUːnaa
Cunx̱ aa
Cunaa
na-x̱ ana-tuna-ina-ÿina-duna-u-na-x̱ a-
{
{ CUːnax̱ Ci
CV-u-na-x̱ aCVnax̱ wCi
CV-u-na-CUːnCi
CV-oo-na-x̱ a- Cunax̱ Ci
CV-oo-na-- CunCi
Northern pre ix contractions with + na-conjugation.
Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.
Classi ier shape
Pre ixes
Ci-
Ca-
C-
-
ÿa-
ga-x̱ aga-tuga-iga-ÿiga-duga--
gax̱ Ci
gatuCi
giCi
gaÿCi
gaduCi
gaCi
gax̱ Ca
gatuCa
giCa
gaÿCa
—
—
gax̱ aC
gatooC
geeC
gaÿiC
gaduC
gaC
gax̱ a
gatoo
gee
gaÿ
gadu
ga
gax̱ aa
gatuwa
giÿa
gaÿeeÿ
gaduwa
gaa
ga-u-x̱ aga-u--
goox̱ Ci
?
gooCi
goox̱ Ca
—
goox̱ aC
gooC
goox̱ a
goo
goox̱ aa
?
goowa
CV-ga-x̱ aCV-ga-tuCV-ga-iCV-ga-ÿiCV-ga-duCV-ga--
CVgax̱ Ci
CVktuCi
CVgiCi
CVgaÿCi
CVkduCi
CVkCi
CVgax̱ Ca
CVktuCa
CVgiCa
CVgaÿCa
—
CVkCa
CVkx̱ aC
CVktooC
CVgeeC
CVgaÿiC
CVkduC
CVgaC
CVkx̱ a
CVktoo
CVgee
CVgaÿ
CVkdu
CVga
CVkx̱ aa
CVktuwa
CVgiÿa
CVgaÿeeÿ
CVkduwa
CVgaa
CV-ga-u-x̱ aCV-ga-u--
CVgoox̱ Ci
?
CVgooCi
CVgoox̱ Ca
—
CVkwx̱ aC
CVgooC
CVkwx̱ a
CVgoo
CVkwx̱ aa
CVgoowa
?
Northern pre ix contractions with + ga-conjugation.
Pre ixes
Classi ier shape
Ci-
Ca-
C-
-
ÿa-
g̱a-g̱a-x̱ ag̱a-g̱a-tug̱a-g̱a-ig̱a-g̱a-ÿig̱a-g̱a-dug̱a-g̱a--
ḵaaḵaCi
g̱aax̱ tuCi
g̱aag̱iCi
g̱aax̱ ÿiCi
g̱aax̱ duCi
g̱aax̱ Ci
ḵaaḵaCa
g̱aax̱ tuCa
g̱aag̱iCa
g̱aax̱ ÿiCa
—
g̱aax̱ Ca
ḵaaḵaC
g̱aax̱ tooC
g̱aag̱eeC
g̱aax̱ ÿiC
g̱aax̱ duC
g̱aag̱aC
ḵaaḵa
g̱aax̱ too
g̱aag̱ee
g̱aax̱ ÿi
g̱aax̱ du
g̱aag̱a
ḵaaḵa
g̱aax̱ tuwa
g̱aag̱iÿa
g̱aax̱ ÿeeÿ
g̱aax̱ duwa
g̱aag̱aa
g̱a-u-g̱a-x̱ ag̱a-u-g̱a--
ḵwaaḵaCi
g̱waax̱ Ci
ḵwaaḵaCa
g̱waax̱ Ca
ḵwaaḵaC
g̱waag̱aC
ḵwaaḵa
g̱waag̱a
ḵwaaḵaa
g̱waag̱aa
CV-g̱a-g̱a-x̱ aCV-g̱a-g̱a-tuCV-g̱a-g̱a-iCV-g̱a-g̱a-ÿiCV-g̱a-g̱a-duCV-g̱a-g̱a--
CVḵaaḵaCi
CVg̱aax̱ tuCi
CVg̱aag̱iCi
CVg̱aax̱ ÿiCi
CVg̱aax̱ duCi
CVg̱aax̱ Ci
CVḵaaḵaCa
CVg̱aax̱ tuCa
CVg̱aag̱iCa
CVg̱aax̱ ÿiCa
—
CVg̱aax̱ Ca
CVḵaaḵaC
CVg̱aax̱ tooC
CVg̱aag̱eeC
CVgaax̱ ÿiC
CVg̱aax̱ duC
CVg̱aag̱aC
CVḵaaḵa
CVg̱aax̱ too
CVg̱aag̱ee
CVg̱aax̱ ÿi
CVg̱aax̱ du
CVg̱aag̱a
CVḵaaḵaa
CVg̱aax̱ tuwa
CVg̱aag̱iÿa
CVg̱aax̱ ÿeeÿ
CVg̱aax̱ duwa
CVg̱aag̱aa
CV-g̱a-u-g̱a-x̱ aCV-g̱a-u-g̱a-CV-g̱a-oo-g̱a-x̱ aCV-g̱a-oo-g̱a--
CUːḵaaḵaCi
CUːg̱aax̱ Ci
CuḵaaḵaCi
Cug̱aag̱aCi
CUːḵaaḵaCa
CUːg̱aax̱ Ca
CuḵaaḵaCa
Cug̱aag̱aCa
CUːḵaaḵaC
CUːg̱aag̱aaC
CuḵaaḵaC
Cug̱aag̱aC
CUːḵaaḵa
CUːg̱aag̱a
Cuḵaaḵa
Cug̱aag̱a
CUːḵaaḵaa
CUːg̱aag̱aa
Cuḵaaḵaa
Cug̱aag̱aa
Northern pre ix contractions with g̱a-conjugation and g̱a-mode.
Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.
Pre ixes
Classi ier shape
Ci-
Ca-
C-
-
ÿa-
na-g̱a-x̱ ana-g̱a-tuna-g̱a-ina-g̱a-ÿina-g̱a-duna-g̱a--
naḵaCi
nax̱ tuCi
nag̱iCi
nax̱ ÿiCi
nax̱ duCi
nax̱ Ci
naḵaCa
nax̱ tuCa
nag̱iCa
nax̱ ÿiCa
—
nax̱ Ca
naḵaC
nax̱ tooC
nag̱eeC
nax̱ ÿiC
nax̱ duC
nag̱aC
naḵa
nax̱ too
nag̱ee
nax̱ ÿi
nax̱ du
nag̱a
naḵaa
nax̱ tuwa
nag̱iÿa
nax̱ ÿeeÿ
nax̱ duwa
nag̱aa
{
u-na-g̱a-x̱ a{
u-na-g̱a--
unḵaCi
naḵwaCi
unax̱ Ci
nax̱ wCi
unḵaCa
naḵwaCa
unax̱ Ca
nax̱ wCa
unḵaC
naḵwaC
unḵa
naḵwa
ung̱a
nag̱wa
unḵaa
naḵwaa
ung̱aa
nag̱waa
CV-na-g̱a-x̱ aCV-na-g̱a-tuCV-na-g̱a-iCV-na-g̱a-ÿiCV-na-g̱a-duCV-na-g̱a--
CVnḵaCi
CVnax̱ tuCi
CVng̱iCi
CVnax̱ ÿiCi
CVnax̱ duCi
CVnax̱ Ci
CVnḵaCa
CVnax̱ tuCa
CVng̱iCa
CVnax̱ ÿiCa
—
CVnax̱ Ca
CVnḵaC
CVnax̱ tooC
CVng̱eeC
CVnax̱ ÿiC
CVnax̱ duC
CVng̱aC
CVnḵa
CVnax̱ too
CVng̱ee
CVnax̱ ÿi
CVnax̱ du
CVng̱a
CVnḵaa
CVnax̱ tuwa
CVng̱iÿa
CVnax̱ ÿeeÿ
CVnax̱ duwa
CVng̱aa
CUːnḵaCa
CVnḵwaCa
CUːnax̱ Ca
CVnax̱ wCa
CunḵaCa
Cunax̱ Ca
CUːnḵaC
CVnḵwaC
CUːng̱aC
CVng̱waC
CunḵaC
Cung̱aC
CUːnḵa
CVnḵwa
CUːng̱a
CVng̱wa
Cunḵa
Cung̱a
CUːnḵaa
CVnḵwaa
CUːng̱aa
CVng̱waa
Cunḵaa
Cung̱aa
{ CUːnḵaCi
CV-u-na-g̱a-x̱ aCVnḵwaCi
{ CUːnax̱ Ci
CV-u-na-g̱a-CVnax̱ wCi
CV-oo-na-g̱a-x̱ a- CunḵaCi
CV-oo-na-g̱a-- Cunax̱ Ci
nag̱waC
Northern pre ix contractions with na-conjugation and g̱a-mode.
Uː represents oo if V is a, or lengthened V otherwise.
Pre ixes
Classi ier shape
Ci-
Ca-
C-
-
ÿa-
ga-g̱a-x̱ aga-g̱a-tuga-g̱a-iga-g̱a-ÿiga-g̱a-duga-g̱a--
gaḵaCi
gax̱ tuCi
gag̱iCi
gax̱ ÿiCi
gax̱ duCi
gax̱ Ci
gaḵaCa
gax̱ tuCa
gag̱iCa
gax̱ ÿiCa
—
gax̱ Ca
gaḵaC
gax̱ tooC
gag̱eeC
gax̱ ÿiC
gax̱ duC
gag̱aC
gaḵa
gax̱ too
gag̱ee
gax̱ ÿi
gax̱ du
gag̱a
gaḵaa
gax̱ tuwa
gag̱iÿa
gax̱ ÿeeÿ
gax̱ duwa
gag̱aa
u-ga-g̱a-x̱ au-ga-g̱a--
gooḵaCi
goox̱ Ci
gooḵaCa
goox̱ Ca
gooḵaC
—
gooḵa
goog̱a
gooḵaa
goog̱aa
CV-ga-g̱a-x̱ aCV-ga-g̱a-tuCV-ga-g̱a-iCV-ga-g̱a-ÿiCV-ga-g̱a-duCV-ga-g̱a--
CVkḵaCi
CVgax̱ tuCi
CVkg̱iCi
CVgax̱ ÿiCi
CVgax̱ duCi
CVgax̱ Ci
CVkḵaCa
CVgax̱ tuCa
CVkg̱iCa
CVgax̱ ÿiCa
—
CVgax̱ Ca
CVkḵaC
CVgax̱ tooC
CVkg̱eeC
CVgax̱ ÿiC
CVgax̱ duC
CVkg̱aC
CVkḵa
CVgax̱ too
CVkg̱ee
CVgax̱ ÿi
CVgax̱ du
CVkg̱a
CVkḵaa
CVgax̱ tuwa
CVkg̱iÿa
CVgax̱ ÿeeÿ
CVgax̱ duwa
CVkg̱aa
CV-u-ga-g̱a-x̱ a- CVkwḵaCi CVkwḵaCa CVkwḵaC CVkwḵa CVkwḵaa
CV-u-ga-g̱a-- CVgoox̱ Ci CVgoox̱ Ca CVkwg̱aC CVkwg̱a CVkwg̱aa
Northern pre ix contractions with ga-conjugation and g̱a-mode.
Closed roots
Stem type
closed plain stem
main clause
relative clause
Open roots
CVC
CVCʼ
CVʼC
CVC
CVC
CVCʼ
CVCʼ
CVC
CVC
open ʼ-stem
unsuf ixed
decessive -een
other sfxs with i
auxiliary or -ḵ
ː-stem
n-stem
ÿ-stem
habitual -ch
otherwise
h-stem
imperative
otherwise
CVh
CV
CV
CVʼ-een CVʼ-een
CVh-… CVh-…
CVː-…
CVː-…
CVːC
X-stem
two suf ixes
otherwise
CVː
CVːCʼ
CVʼC
CVː
CVː
CVC-X CVCʼ-X CVC-X
CV-X-X
CVː-X
CV-X-X
CVh-X
CVC
CVCʼ
CVC
CVː-n
CVː-n*
CVC
CVCʼ
CVC
CVːÿ-ch CVːÿ-ch
CVː
CVː
CVhC
CVʼCʼ
CVʼC
CVh
CV
CVh
CV
* Exception: CVh stems √ni-h ‘become’ and √ÿa-h ‘resemble’ have nihn and
ÿehn instead of *níːn and *ÿéːn.
Stem variation (Leer
Plain
CVC
short
CVC
long -ː
CVːC
fading -h CVhC
Ejective Glottalized
CVCʼ
CVʼC
CVCʼ
CVːCʼ
CVʼCʼ
CVC
CVʼC
CVʼC
:
).
Stem type
closed/X/n-stem
ː-stem
h-stem
Tongass variable closed root variation.
short
long
long low
Low
CVC
High
CVC⁽ʼ⁾
Stem type
CVC
CVːC
CVːC
CVC⁽ʼ⁾
CVːC⁽ʼ⁾
CVːC⁽ʼ⁾
closed/X/n-stem
ː-stem
h-stem
Northern variable closed root variation.
Stem type Tongass
Northern
Translation
X-stem
ÿ-stem
ː-stem
h-stem
kei=O-()-S- [− ,l]-.at ‘S pick up plural O’
keh x̱ la.atch
kei x̱ la.átch
‘I keep picking them up’
keh x̱ wli.at
kei x̱ li.át
‘I picked them up’
keh kwḵala.aat
kei kwḵala.áat
‘I will pick them up’
tleil keh kwḵala.aht tléil kei kwḵala.aat ‘I won’t pick them up’
X-stem
ÿ-stem
ː-stem
h-stem
kei=O-()-S- [− ,l]-lʼatʼ ‘S pick up O with tongs’
keh x̱ lalʼatʼch
kei x̱ lalʼátʼch
‘I keep picking it up with …’
keh x̱ wlilʼatʼ
kei x̱ wlilʼátʼ
‘I picked it up with tongs’
keh kwḵalalʼaatʼ
kei kwḵalalʼáatʼ
‘I will pick it up with tongs’
tleil keh kwḵalalʼaʼtʼ tléil kei kwḵalalʼaatʼ ‘I won’t pick it up with tongs’
kei=O-()-S- [− , ]-shat ‘S pick up O quickly’
‘I keep grabbing it up’
X-stem keh x̱ ashatch
kei x̱ ashátch
ÿ-stem keh x̱ wahshat
kei x̱ waashát
‘I grabbed it up’
ː-stem keh kwḵashaʼt
kei kwḵasháat
‘I will grab it up’
h-stem tleil keh kwḵashaʼt tléil kei kwḵashaat ‘I won’t grab it up’
Illustration of closed stem variation in Tongass and Northern Tlingit.
Themes are derived with kei=()- ‘upward’.
Forms shown are (-X) Realis -ch Repetitive Imperfective, (-ÿ) Realis Telic
Perfective, (-ː) Realis Future, and (-h) Irrealis Future.
Mode
Preverb Asp./Conj. I-Cpnt. Var Suff.
+
+ –+
+
−
−
Imperfectives
-ː Active & -ː Positional
realis
irrealis
-h Active & -h Repetitive
realis
irrealis
-ʼ Active (open roots only)
realis
irrealis
-n Active & -n Positional
realis
irrealis
-X Active (-sʼ, -lʼ ,-t, -xʼ, -tʼ) & -X Repetitive (-x̱ , -ch, -k)
realis
( =)
irrealis
( =)
yoo=…-k Active & Repetitive
realis
yoo=
irrealis
yoo=
Progressive
realis
=
nairrealis
=
na-
−
−
-ː
-h
−
−
-h
-h
−
−
-ʼ
-ʼ
−
−
-n
-n
−
−
-X
-X
+
−
-k
-k
−
−
-n
-n
Non-stative imperfective (declarative) modes.
= ∈ {= if -; yoo= if na-; kei= if ga-; yei= if g̱a-}
X ∈ {-x̱ , -ch, -k, -sʼ, -lʼ, -t, -xʼ, -tʼ}
Active = “act”, “eventive”, “processive”; Repetitive = “iterative”
The -X Repetitive suf ix is thematically speci ied.
-X Active is derived but such verbs are treated as distinct themes.
Mode
Imperfectives (cont’d)
-ː Stative
realis
irrealis
-ÿ Stative
realis
realis √ti-h ‘be’
irrealis
closed root
open root
Stative with invariable root
realis
irrealis
-h Extensional Stative
realis
irrealis
-ÿ Extensional Stative
realis
irrealis
-k Multipositional Stative
realis
closed root
open root
irrealis
closed root
open root
Preverb Asp./Conj. I-Cpnt.
+
+ –+
+
Var
−
+
−
-ː
-h
+
+
-ÿ
-h
−
−
-ÿ
-ʼ
Suff.
−
+
−
-
+
−
-h
-h
-
+
−
-ÿ
-ʼ
-
+
+
-k
-kw-t
-
−
−
-k
-kw-t
Stative imperfective (declarative) modes.
- ∈ {-, na-, ga-, g̱a-}
Stative = “state”, “neuter”; Multipositional = “multiple-positional”
Mode
Preverb
+
Asp./Conj. I-Cpnt.
+ –+
+
Perfectives
Telic (-) Perfective
realis
ÿu- ~ uirrealis
open root
ÿu- ~ uclosed root
ÿu- ~ uAtelic (na-, ga-, g̱a-) Perfective
realis
ÿuirrealis
ÿuRealizational — always realis
realis
Future
realis
irrealis
=
=
ga-u-g̱aga-u-g̱a-
Var
−
+
-ÿ
−
−
-ʼ
-h
+
−
-h
-h
+
-ː
−
−
-ː
-h
Potential
closed root
non-decessive
u- -g̱a+
−
decessive
u- -g̱aopen root
non-decessive
u- -g̱a+
−
decessive
u- -g̱asome Active Telic (-) themes with open root
non-decessive
u--g̱a+
decessive
u--g̱a−
Habituals
Telic (-) Habitual
closed root
u−
open root
u−
−
Atelic (na-, ga-, g̱a-) Habitual
Suff.
−
-h
-h
-h
-h
-ÿ
-ÿ
-h ~ -ÿ
-ÿ
Non-imperfective declarative modes.
- ∈ {-, na-, ga-, g̱a-}
= ∈ {= if -; yoo= if na-; kei= if ga-; yei= if g̱a-}
-ch
-ch
-ch
Mode
Preverb Asp./Conj. I-Cpnt.
+
+ –+
+
Deontic modes
Imperatives — always realis
Telic (-) Imperative
open root
closed with
=
=
closed otherwise
Atelic (na-, ga-, g̱a-) Imperative
Hortative — always realis
Admonitive
-g̱au- -
Var
−
−
−
−
−
-h ~ -ÿ
-h
-ÿ
-h
−
-h ~ -ÿ
−
-ː
Suff.
−
(-ih)
Circumstantial modes
Consecutive
-
−
-ː
Conditional
-
−
-n
-(n)ih
Contingent
-g̱a-
−
-n
-ín
Deontic and circumstantial (non-declarative) modes.
- ∈ {-, na-, ga-, g̱a-}
= ∈ {kei= up, yei= down, ÿeeḵ=
, daaḵ=
, daak=
home, g̱unayéi=
}
, neil-
Prohib.-Opt.
Subordinate
Attributive
Realis
Clause type
Decessive
Epimode
Declarative modes
Imperfectives
Perfectives
Realizational
Future
Potential
Habitual*
±
±
−
±
±
±
±
±
−
−
−
−
±
±
−
±
−
±
±
±
−
±
±
±
±
±
+
±
±
±
Deontic modes
Imperative*
Hortative*
Admonitive
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
+
+
±
Circumstantial modes
Consecutive
Conditional
Contingent
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
±
±
±
Composite modes with auxiliaries
Imperfective habitual
−
Imperfective consecutive
−
Imperfective conditional
−
Imperfective contingent
−
Future habitual
±
Future consecutive
−
Future conditional
−
Future contingent
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
±
−
−
−
±
−
−
−
±
−
−
−
±
−
−
−
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
Mode
Modes and their subtypes.
Epimodes are mutually exclusive as are clause types. Habituals lack realis
subordinate and realis decessive subordinate. Imperatives and hortative
irrealises are replaced by the imperfective and perfective prohibitives.
Note imperative and hortative are [− ] despite being realis.
Suf ix
Name
Gloss
-án
-x̱ aa
-áḵw
-aa
-jaa
-shán
-ḵ
-í
-k
-(á)chʼ
-álʼ
-g̱ákw
-nás
-násʼ
-átʼ
-x̱
restorative
amissive
deprivative
play
radiative ?
intensive ?
coplural ?
property
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Meaning
restore previous state
miss the target of action
remove, deprive, lacking
playing, pretending
give off something?
intensi ies meaning?
occurs with plural -xʼ
have, have the property of
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
Derivational suf ixes (− ).
Sfx. Stem
Pg.
Root
Stem meaning
haanán
naag̱án
-án taanán
xeexán
x̱ eenán
haan
naaḵ
taan
xeex
x̱ een
(sg.) restore con idence by reelection
(pl.) restore con idence by reelection
reconsider; reset bone/joint
be restored to normality; become normal
get back into joint by itself
.únx̱ aa
tʼáchx̱ aa
dzéix̱ aa
-x̱ aa shátx̱ aa
gwálx̱ aa
ḵʼíshx̱ aa
x̱ íchx̱ aa
.oon
tʼaach
dzoo
shaat
gwaal
ḵʼeesh
x̱ eech
miss target when shooting
miss target when slapping
miss target when throwing round object
miss target when grabbing something
miss target when punching with ist
miss target when hitting with stick
miss target when hitting with stick
Some verbs with – derivational suf ixes in Naish & Story
.
Sfx. Stem
Pg.
.éiyáḵw
nóoxʼáḵw
chʼéeyáḵw
-áḵw tlʼéiláḵw
g̱eiyáḵw
x̱ aayáḵw
x̱ oonáḵw
S
séewchʼáḵw S
héix̱ waa
wéinaa
tʼáaxʼaa
tʼájaa
tsʼígwaa
-aa tsʼíxaa
chʼéitʼaa
dlénx̱ aa
kítsʼaa
kʼéinaa
góolʼaa
sáyjaa
-jaa g̱íx̱ ʼjaa
xʼéelʼjaa
Stem meaning
.eik ?
nóoxʼn
have a useless/injured limb
remove shell, esp. from gumboots
be slow
remove milt from ish
scoop out, esp. from clamshell
shed hair, esp. of animal in spring
drowning ?
tasteless, rain- lavoured
tlʼeiln
:
:
x̱ aaw
x̱ oon ?
seewn
heex̱ w
woo₂
tʼaaxʼ
tʼaach
tsʼeek
S
S
:
dlaan ?
keetsʼ
kʼein
goolʼ
make magic, perform positive rites
powder face; have face powdered
play with marbles
play at swimming
be a delicate issue, require diplomacy
sneeze (onomatopoetic?)
play with ball, esp. basketball
tempt, try out, test
play on seesaw
play at jumping or twirling around
wink
:
saay
g̱eex̱ ʼ
xeelʼ ?
give off lots of heat; be sweaty
creak, squeak; play bowed instrument
groan
.aax̱
teesʼ
x̱ eetlʼ
x̱ ʼwaasʼ₁?
be fascinating to listen to
be fascinating to watch; be fascinated
be dangerous
be soft like down; (neg.) lack softness
.áax̱ chʼán
téesʼshán
-shán
x̱ éetlʼshán
x̱ ʼwáalʼshán
xʼwásʼḵ
yátʼḵxʼ
-ḵ
tsínḵxʼ
yáshḵ
Root
S
S
S
:
:
:
be numb
yaatʼ
be long (pl.)
tseen
be expensive (pl.)
yaachʼ ? be scarce
More verbs with – derivational suf ixes in Naish & Story
. xn noun.
Sfx. Stem
lʼeedí
jíni
-í x̱ ʼoosí
saayí
koodzí
tleilkʼú
Pg.
S
S
:
:
sʼóoshkw
tléḵwk
-k tlʼúnkw
xwáchk
ḵáchk
-(á)chʼ
g̱eig̱áchʼ
séewchʼáḵw S
-álʼ
-g̱ákw
-nás
-násʼ
-átʼ
-x̱
néegwálʼ
seig̱ákw
ḵéenás
x̱ aanásʼ
tlʼéekátʼ
chʼáchʼx̱
Root
Stem meaning
lʼeetn
jínn
x̱ ʼoosn
saa₂
have a tail or handle
have arms or sleeves
have feet or legs
have an important name
be amazing, awesome
make string igures
pinch with ingers and thumb
tleiḵw ? be greedy, eat fast, eat like a pig
murmur, grumble
xwaach be paralyzed by sickness
ḵaach
be lame, limp
:
g̱eiḵ₁
seewn
swing
tasteless, rain- lavoured
paint; make jam, preserve fruit
saa₂
regain breath, get one’s wind back
ḵei₁
in-law property exchange
x̱ aa₂
travel by raft
tlʼeen ? thread stick through to stiffen
chʼaachʼ be spotted (inanimate) (≡
?)
Even more verbs with – derivational suf ixes in Naish & Story
.
Form
Name
Gloss Meaning
-ch
-k ~ -kw
-x̱ ~ -x̱ w
habitual
repetitive
frequentive
usually, always
repeatedly, over and over
frequently, often
-xʼ ~ -xʼw
-tʼ
plural object
more than one object
-sʼ
serial
repeatedly in sequence
-lʼ
?
unknown (≡ serial?)
-t
serial?
repeatedly in sequence
Durational suf ixes (− ).
The -ch, -k~kw, and -x̱ ~x̱ w are thematically speci ied repetitives as well.
Form
Name
Gloss
-ch
-(n)ee ~ -(n)ih
-ín ~ -in
habitual
conditional
contingent
Meaning
usually, always
if
whenever
Inner modal suf ixes (− ).
Form
Name
-een ~ -ihn
decessive
optative
prohibitive
-éeḵ ~ -eeḵ ~ -ḵ
Gloss
Meaning
used to
hopefully
don’t, hopefully not (neg.)
Outer modal suf ixes (− ). (Leer’s ‘epimodes’.)
Form
Name
Gloss Function
-í ~ -i ~ -ih
subordinate
marks subordinate clauses ( [− ])
-i
attributive
relative
marks attributive verbs and
relative clauses
Clause type suf ixes (– ).
Form
Name
Gloss
Meaning
nóok
néekw
neekw
repetitive auxiliary
nooch
neech
nukch
nihch
habitual auxiliary
.
often, always, habitually
noojeen
neejeen
?
nihjihn
decessive habitual aux.
.
always used to
núknee
níkwnee
níkwni
nikwnih
conditional auxiliary
g̱anúgun
g̱anígun
g̱aníkw
g̱anikw
contingent auxiliary
.
repeatedly, over and over
.
if, when
.
whenever
Bound postverbal auxiliaries (− ).
Pronominals
}
( )
Pronouns
Object
Subject Possessive
Independent Postpositional
x̱ at~ax̱ haa-
x̱ atu-
ax̱
haa
x̱ át
uháan
ax̱ =ee ~ x̱ ahaa=ee ~ haa(n)-
iyi-
iyi-
i
yi
wa.é
yiháan
i=ee
yi=ee
- ~ a-
-
ash—
—
du-
du
a
ash
?
hú
á
?
?
du=ee
á
ash=ee
?
ḵu~ḵaaat-
du—
ḵaa
at
ḵáa
át
ḵu=ee
?
sh~woosh-+
—
—
chush ~ sh ?
woosh
wóosh
chush=ee
woosh=ee
aa-
—
?
aa
?
has-+
—
has-du
hás
has-du=ee
Pronouns and pronominals in Northern Tlingit.
grm.
Description
-ch
—
transitive verb subject, agent
transitive verb object, patient
oblique cases
Abbv.
-xʼ ~ -ː ~ -i
-t
-x̱
-dé
-dáx̱ ~ -dx̱
-náx̱
-g̱áa
-een ~ -n
-teen
-u
locative, ‘at, in, by, on’
punctual, ‘at, to, about’ (telic)
pertingent, ‘at, form of, concerning’
allative, ‘to, toward, until, in manner of’
ablative, ‘from, out of’
perlative, ‘along, by, via, during, across’
adessive, ‘around, about, by, after, for’
instrumental, ‘with, using, as soon as’
comitative, ‘along with, accompanying’
locative-predicate, verbless locative
postpositions
Form
ÿáx̱
yís ~ -s
g̱óot
náḵ
ÿáanáx̱
ḵín
similative, ‘like, as, similar to’
benefactive, ‘for, bene iting’
abessive, ‘without, lacking’
elative, ‘away from, leaving behind’
superlative, ‘more than’
sublative, ‘less than’
more
less
Case suf ixes and postpositions.
Class Form
Gloss
Name
-ː
-ː
locative
-CV*
-dé
-dáx̱
-náx̱
-g̱áa
-teen
allative
ablative
perlative
adessive
instrumental
-C*
-xʼ
-ch
-t
-x̱
-dx̱
-n
locative
ergative
punctual
pertingent
ablative
instrumental
Classi ication of case suf ixes by phonological shape.
Nom.
Dial.
Unsuf.
-CV*
-C*
-ː (đĔĈ)
N
S
T
á
á
a
aa-CV*
áà-CV*
ah-CV*
á-C*
á-C*
a-C*
áa
áa
aʼ
N
S
T
–ká
–ká
–ka
–kaa-CV*
–káà-CV*
–kah-CV*
–ká-C*
–ká-C*
–ka-C*
–káa
–káa
–kaʼ
N
S
T
–ÿá
–ÿá
–ÿa
–ÿaa-CV*
–ÿáà-CV*
–ÿah-CV*
–ÿá-C*
–ÿá-C*
–ÿá-C*
–ÿáa
–ÿáa
–ÿaʼ
N
S
T
x̱ ax̱ ax̱ a-
x̱ aa-CV*
x̱ áà-CV*
x̱ ah-CV*
x̱ áa-C*
x̱ áa-C*
?
x̱ áa
x̱ áa
?
N
S
T
=ee
=ee
=ee
=ee-CV*
=éè-CV*
?
=ée-C*
=ée-C*
?
=ée
=ée
?
Unpredictable nominal allomorphy with case suf ixes.
Note that
is often ax̱ =ee… instead.
Northern
Meaning
yáa ~ yá
héi ~ hé
wéi ~ wé
yóo ~ yú
proximal: ‘this near me’, ‘here’
mesioproximal: ‘this not so near me’, ‘the other’
mesiodistal: ‘that near you’, ‘there’
distal: ‘that far away from us’, ‘yonder’
Southern
Gloss
yáà ~ yá
héì ~ hé
wéì ~ wé
yóò ~ yú
proximal: ‘this near me’, ‘here’
mesioproximal: ‘this not so near me’, ‘the other’
mesiodistal: ‘that near you’, ‘there’
distal: ‘that far away from us’, ‘yonder’
Tongass
Form
yaa
hei
wei
yoo
proximal: ‘this near me’, ‘here’
mesioproximal: ‘this not so near me’, ‘the other’
mesiodistal: ‘that near you’, ‘there’
distal: ‘that far away from us’, ‘yonder’
Demonstratives.
Noun
Noun + dé Noun + naa Preverb Meaning
(di)kée
(di)yée
naakée
éex ~ ixkée
éeḵ ~ éiḵ
dáaḵ
deikée
diyáa
ÿán
neil
gáan
—
—
—
(di)kínde
(di)yínde
nánde
íxde
íḵde
dáḵde
dákde
diyáade
ÿánde
néilde
gá(a)nde
(gánde)
ḵúx̱ de
kúxde
(di)kéenaa
(di)yéenaa
naan(ÿ)aa
ixinaa
ig̱inaa
dag̱inaa
daginaa
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
kei=
yei=
—
—
ÿeiḵ=
daaḵ=
daak=
yaa=
ÿan*=
neil*=
—
—
ḵux̱ *=
kux* =
up above
down below
upstream, north (naa ‘river’)
downstream, south
landward, to land from sea
inland, back from open
seaward, out into open
across, along, other side
ashore, onto ground
inside, home
outside
(outhouse, toilet)
revertive, back from
aground, into shallow water
Northern Tlingit directionals.
Note that naa < nyaa < niÿaa ‘direction’ ≠ naa ‘river’.
Northern
Southern
Tongass
Direction
Preverb Noun
out to sea from shore
in to shore from sea
daak=
ÿan=
deikée
ÿán
↑
⤓
down to shore from land ÿeiḵ=
up into land from shore daaḵ=
éeḵ~éiḵ
dáaḵ
⤒
↓
out to sea from shore
in to shore from sea
?
deikée
ÿán
↑
⤓
éeḵ
dáaḵ
⤒
↓
deikee
ÿan
↑
⤓
ihḵ
dahḵ
⤒
↓
dáàk=
ÿan=
down to shore from land ÿéèḵ=
up into land from shore dáàḵ=
out to sea from shore
in to shore from sea
dahk=
ÿan=
down to shore from land ihḵ=
up into land from shore dahḵ=
?
Shore-centered directional system.
Form
Translation
aakʼé
yées
chʼáagu
tlagu
ḵáa
sheech ~ shich
ḵustín
ḵúnáx̱
aatlein
shóogu
tatgéiÿi
‘good, well’
‘young, new’
‘old, ancient’
‘ancient, archaic, long ago’
‘male, he-’
‘female, she-’
‘giant, humongous’
‘very, actual, real’
‘much, lots of’
‘ irst, initial’
‘of yesterday’
ÿéisʼ
tlein ~ tlen
tlénxʼ
ḵʼáatlʼ
kʼwátʼ
xook
sákw
ÿéeÿi
shaan
yádi
lélʼk
‘immature, dusky, dark’
‘large, big’
‘large, big’(plural)
‘thin and lat’
‘spherical, egg shaped’
‘dry, dried’
‘future, to be, for’
‘past, former, ex-’
‘old, elderly’
‘small, little, childlike’
‘soft’
Tlingit prenominal and postnominal adjectives.
Form
Name
Gloss
Meaning
sá
gé
Q-particle
YN-particle
áá-gé
ásé
ásgé
focus particle
focus question
deductive
reportative
ḵu.aa ~ ḵu.ah
~ ḵwaa ~ ḵwa
x̱ á ~ x̱ áa
shéi (-gé)
gu.áa ~ gwáa
(s)dágáa
shágdé
gushéi ~ kwshé
óosh ~ uhsh
contrastive
‘but’, ‘however’
softening
mirative
admirative
assertive
dubitative
tentative
hypothetical
softens assertion, ‘you see’
mild surprise
strong surprise
‘indeed’, ‘for sure’, ‘certainly’
likelihood, ‘perhaps’, ‘probably’
unlikelihood, ‘maybe’, ‘I wonder’
‘if only’, ‘as if’, ‘even if’
marks wh-questions
marks yes-no questions
-
focuses or topicalizes phrase
focuses a yes-no question
understanding of something
secondhand information, hearsay
Form
Name
Northern
-yá ~ -ya
-hé ~ -he
-wé ~ -we
-yú ~ -yu
proximal
mesioproximal
mesiodistal
distal
‘this’, ‘here’
‘this other’, ‘there’
‘that’, ‘over there’
‘that way off’, ‘yonder’
Southern
-ya ~ -yáà
-he ~ -héì
-we ~ -wéì
-yu ~ -yóò
proximal
mesioproximal
mesiodistal
distal
‘this’, ‘here’
‘this other’, ‘there’
‘that’, ‘over there’
‘that way off’, ‘yonder’
-ya
-he
-we
-yu
proximal
mesioproximal
mesiodistal
distal
‘this’, ‘here’
‘this other’, ‘there’
‘that’, ‘over there’
‘that way off’, ‘yonder’
Demonstratives (-
Gloss
) suf ix.
Tongass
Focus particles. All can take a demonstrative (-
Meaning
) in focus particles.
Form
Name
Meaning
tléil ~ tlél ~ hél ~ l
lí (+ l neg.)
ilí ~ eelí ~ ihí
gu.aal ~ gu.ahl
gwál
ḵashde ~ ḵashdeh
aÿáx̱
ách
chʼa.aan ~ chʼa.áàn
x̱ ach ~ ḵach
~ x̱ aju ~ ḵaju
chaa
negative
prohibitive
nd. sg. prohib.
optative
dubitative
cogitavissive
interpretive
explanatory
resumptive
no, not; none, not any
don’t; let it not be that
don’t! don’t you dare! stop!
hopefully
perhaps, maybe
it seemed that; I had thought
and so; thus; that’s how; right
because; that’s why
however; anyway; nonetheless
counterfactual
actually, in fact
??
“denoting duration” (N
Sentence-initial discourse particles.
Form
Meaning
chʼa
chʼas
chʼu
yéi
tlax̱
just, the very, simply
only, just
even, exactly
thus, so, as such
very, really, emphatically
chʼu tle
chʼu tleix̱
chʼu shóogu
chʼu déix̱
chʼu násʼk
then, when (not ques.), just then
forever
the same
both
all three
chʼa tléixʼ
chʼa ldakát
chʼa tlákw
chʼa yóokʼ
chʼa g̱óot
chʼa yéi
just one
all, every
always, forever, continually
suddenly, immediately, all of a sudden
other, different
ordinary, usual, typical, plain, just so
Prephrasal discourse particles in Northern Tlingit.
:
)
Form
Gloss
Meaning
tsá
only.then
tsú ~ tsóo also
sʼé
irst
dé ~ déi
xʼwán
tsé
only then, just then
also, additionally
irst, initially
now, immediately, this time; right now!
be sure to (imperative or hortative verbs)
be sure not to (admonitive verbs)
Note: xʼwán & tsé cannot occur after focus particles.
Postphrasal discourse particles in Northern Tlingit.
Form
Northern
Southern Tongass
tle ~ tlei
tle
de ~ dei
de
tsu ~ tsoo tsu
tleh
deh
tsuh
Meaning
just, simply, just then
already, by now
again, still, some more
Mobile (pre-/postphrasal) discourse particles.
Form
Meaning
tléixʼ
déix̱ ~ déex̱
násʼk ~ násʼ
daaxʼoon ~ daax.oon
keijín ~ keejín
tleidooshú ~ tleitwooshú
dax̱ .adooshú ~ dax̱ .atwooshú
nasʼgadooshú ~ nasʼgatwooshú
gooshúḵ
jinkaat
jinkaat ḵa tléixʼ
..
.
one
two
three
four
ive
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
eleven
..
.
tleiḵáa
tleiḵáa ḵa tléixʼ
..
.
twenty
twenty-one
..
.
násʼk jinkaat ~ tleiḵáa ḵa jinkaat
..
.
thirty
..
.
daaxʼoon jinkaat ~ nasʼkḵáa
forty
Cardinal number examples.
No. Times
tledahéen
dax̱ dahéen
nasʼgidahéen
daaxʼoondahéen
keijindahéen
People
At a time
Ppl. at a time
Groups
tléináx̱
dáx̱ náx̱
násʼgináx̱
daaxʼoonínáx̱
keijínináx̱
tlékʼg̱aa
dáx̱ g̱aa
násʼgig̱áa
daaxʼoong̱áa
keijíng̱aa
tlékʼg̱aanáx̱
dáx̱ g̱aanáx̱
násʼgig̱áanáx̱
daaxʼoong̱áanáx̱
keijíng̱aanáx̱
tleiyeeká
dax̱ yeeká
nasʼgiyeeká
daaxʼoonyeeká
keijinyeeká
Ordinal number examples.
Abbreviations
XX=
-X
=X
–X
, ,
+
+
pre ix X
proclitic X
suf ix X
enclitic X
inalienable noun X when cited without a possessor
person
abaquative, ‘from water to shore’
abessive, ‘without, lacking’
ablative case, ‘away from, departing’
ablitoral, ‘inland from shore, back from open, off of ire’
abmarine, ‘ashore, aground, onto ground, resting’
absolutive (unmarked or logically - )
absilvative, ‘out of forest to shore’
abumbrative, ‘from shadow into open’
adessive case, ‘about, around, near, by, for’
adlitoral preverb, ‘down to shore from upland’
admarine preverb, ‘out to sea from shore, falling from sky, onto ire’
admirative, strong surprise
admonitive, ‘don’t you dare; be sure not to’
adrotatory, ‘turning over endwise’
aground
allative case, atelic, ‘to, towards’
alternative, ‘back and forth, to and fro’
assertive, ‘indeed, for sure, certainly’
attributive, relativizing suf ix
benefactive postposition, ‘for, bene iting’
meaningless postposition base
counterfactual, ‘actually, in fact’
classi ier: voice, valency, realis, noun class, lexical
D component: middle voice or lexical
S component: {, s, l, sh}; valency, noun classi ication, or lexical
I component: realis or conjugational
cogitavissive, ‘it seemed that, I had thought that’
comitative case, ‘along with, accompanying’
conditional, ‘if’
coplural, occurs on verb stems with plural suf ix
contrastive, ‘but, however, nevertheless’
completive, ‘completing, inishing’
̱
̱
conjugation
contingent, ‘whenever’
decessive, ‘used to, was the case that’
deductive, understanding reason for something
directional preverb
distal deictic or demonstrative, ‘yonder’
dubitative, ‘perhaps, probably’
elative postposition, ‘leaving behind’
errative, ‘astray, lost, excessively’
ergative -ch, subject of transitive verb, agent
explanatory, ‘because, that’s why, since’
focus
frequentive, ‘often, repeatedly, frequently’
ga-conjugation, +
g̱a-conjugation, +
g̱a-mode pre ix, +
human (possessor, pronoun, pronominal object)
habitual, ‘usually, always’
hortative, ‘you’d better; be sure to’
horizontal surface, ‘top’ (noun and incorporated noun)
hypothetical, ‘if only, as if, even if’
inalienable
inaquative, ‘into water’
inceptive, ‘beginning, starting’
inde inite (no explicit de inite marking)
initial, ‘starting, taking off’
instrumental case, ‘with, by, using’
intensive, ‘stronger, moreso than normal’
invehicular, ‘into vehicle’
locative-predicate (verbless locative)
locative
mental state or activity
mesiodistal deictic or demonstrative, ‘there’
mirative, mild surprise
amissive, ‘missing the target’
mesioproximal deictic or demonstrative, ‘near here’
nonhuman (possessor, pronoun, pronominal object)
negative, ‘no, not; none, not any’
na-conjugation, +
nominalizer
object
obviate (backgrounded discourse pronoun or pronominal subject)
optative, ‘hopefully’
partitive, ‘some, one’ (pronoun or pronominal)
perlative case, ‘through, via, along’
pertingent case, atelic, ‘in contact with, a part of, member of a set’
perfective, +
plural
play suf ix, ‘playing, pretending’
punctual case, telic, ‘at a point, around a point’
property, ‘have, have the property of’
prohibitive, ‘don’t, let it not be that’
proximal deictic or demonstrative, ‘here’
proximate (foregrounded discourse pronoun or pronominal object)
possessive
purposive, ‘in order to do something’
preverb
wh-question
radiative, ‘giving off, making noise’
reciprocal
relative, marks verb of a relative clause
repetitive, ‘repeatedly, over and over’
reportative, secondhand information, hearsay
restorative, ‘back into place, back to proper state’
resumptive, ‘however, anyway, nonetheless, in any case’
revertive, ‘aback, reversed’
rotatory, ‘turning over’
re lexive
subject, +
serial, ‘repeatedly in sequence’
softening, ‘you see, you know’
singular ( st and nd person only)
similative postposition, ‘like, similar to’
subordinate
tentative, ‘maybe, possibly, I wonder’
uncontrolled, ‘blindly, out of control’
verb root variation; one of {-ː, -ʼ, -h, -ÿ, -n}
vertical surface, ‘face’ (noun and incorporated noun)
yes/no-question, polar question
-conjugation