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Volume 21, Issue 27
• Week of JuLY 25, 2016
THE STRATEGIC NEWS SERVICE
©
GLOBAL REPORT ON
TECHNOLOGY AND
™
THE ECONOMY
SPECIAL LETTER:
Where are the
sensors for
taste and smell?
by Chris Hanson
SNS SPECIAL LETTER:
WHERE ARE THE SENSORS FOR SMELL AND TASTE?
[Please open the attached .pdf for best viewing.]
by Chris Hanson
In This Issue
Week of 7/25/2016 Vol. 21 Issue 27
FEATURE:
Special Letter: Where Are
the Sensors for Smell and
Taste?
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So How Does the Nose Work?
How Do You Identify a Smell?
Do Dogs Really “Smell Better”
Than Humans?
What About Manmade eNoses?
About Chris Hanson
September 27-30
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SNS: Special Letter: Chris Hanson
Week of July 25, 2016
1
Publisher’s Note: For hundreds of years, if not longer, humans have had the dream
of understanding, and then re-creating, the power behind the sense of smell. All of
us are aware of the near-hypnotic power of this “fifth” sense, which seems to have a
direct path not only to the brain, but also to our emotional associations with the past
and present. Who would not want to finally “crack the code” on how it works, as
Linda Buck and Richard Axel did, earning them the Nobel Prize in 2004?
I had the opportunity to spend an evening over dinner with Linda a few years ago,
and to hear firsthand how she did her groundbreaking work, and what she found.
Her description of our olfactory system was both complex and mesmerizing. While
most of us are more focused on the senses of hearing, touch, and seeing, there is
something special about the related senses of smell and taste: in both cases, one is
actually consuming the molecules of the thing being sensed. When you see a wet
dog, you are having a remote sensing experience. But when you smell it, a very small
part of that dog has just become part of you – at least for a while.
In this week’s discussion, SNS members will learn of a groundbreaking new
technology and company that allow us to reproduce the exquisite sensibility and
sensitivity of human smell and taste, in an organic microarray that does not require
living cells. It’s hard to believe, but true. And that, alone, is why every member will
want to read on.
We are very proud that Aromyx has been selected as one of our 2016 FiReStarter
companies. If you want to learn more, read on. And if you want to meet the founders,
join us for FiRe 2016. – mra.
WHERE ARE THE SENSORS FOR SMELL AND TASTE?
by Chris Hanson
Food, beverage, and consumer product companies are constantly facing the need to
reformulate their products for cost control and the loss of key flavor and fragrance
ingredients. There are some 35,000 commercial flavors and fragrances in common
use today, and it’s been estimated that up to one-third of those will be lost to the
industry over the next five years due to conflicts or climate change in countries from
which they are sourced, increased regulatory scrutiny about their safety, and
Internet rumors that they are unhealthy or unsafe. Rapid reformulation is becoming
key for the industry to maintain its flagship brands. But how is the challenge of
providing the necessary sensors – human noses or other – to be met in order to
service this and other painful industry needs?
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So How Does the Nose Work?
Yeast, insects, animals, and humans all have the senses of smell and taste. Richard
Axel and Linda Buck shared the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine by
solving the longstanding enigma of “odorant receptors and the organization of
olfactory system”i (i.e., how we smell and taste at a cellular level). Fundamentally,
our senses of smell and taste are based on the same basic G-protein coupled
receptor (GPCR) signal transduction system that we inherited from those primordial
yeast cells eons ago. Our senses of smell and taste are based on the same cellular
biochemistry as all our other human senses (sight, sound, and touch) and are
fundamentally the same as the GPCR targets which are 30% of all marketed
pharmaceutical products.ii
The olfactory GPCR signal transduction system (Figure 1) starts with the surface of
an olfactory neuron embedded in the main olfactory epithelium of the nose. Each
neuron expresses an individual GPCR. The GPCR is a transmembrane protein that
embeds itself in the outer cell membrane of the neuron. It is able to bind with high
affinity to a certain part of a chemical molecule (a chemical epitope). When the right
odorant molecule is breathed into the nose, it can bind to the GPCR on the outside of
the neuronal cell membrane. That binding causes a change in the GPCR structure on
the inside of the cell membrane, causing the GPCR to activate its associated Gprotein.
The same olfactory G-protein may be used by multiple or all the olfactory GPCRs. It
is an intermediate player in the signal transduction system that acts like an
attenuator. In the presence of high concentrations of the guanidine nucleotide
triphosphate (GTP), the G-protein gain knob is turned up to “Full.” As GTP is slowly
converted to its guanidine nucleotide diphosphate (GDP) analog, the GDP acts to
turn the gain knob down, or attenuate the signal. It turns off when no more GTP is
present.
The third player in the signal transduction cascade is the adenylate cyclase (AC)
enzyme. When both GTP and an odorant-bound GPCR have activated the G-protein,
the G-protein triggers AC to start converting the small molecule adenine nucleotide
triphosphate (ATP) into cyclic adenine nucleotide monophosphate (cAMP). As the
cAMP builds up inside the cell, it triggers a calcium ion channel located in another
part of the cell membrane to release calcium ions, triggering an electrical signal
from the neuron to the brain.
The ingenious beauty of this biochemical system is two-fold. First, tens of thousands
of cAMP molecules may be produced for the binding of a single odorant molecule,
thus amplifying the signal. Second, the ability of the G-protein to transduce the
signal from the activated GPCR to the AC is attenuated by the GTP-to-GDP ratio
inside the cell. The activated G-protein actually converts GTP to GDP over time, so as
the GTP concentration drops, the neuron stops producing a signal, even if the
odorant is still around. It’s only when the odorant concentration increases that the
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Week of July 25, 2016
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nose starts to signal the brain again. As a consequence, this simple biochemical
system is up to 1 million times more sensitive to odor molecules than any manmade
chemical sensor,iii and it can adapt itself to be able to detect small changes in the
odorant molecule over a wide dynamic range in concentration.
Individual neurons, whether they are animal, insect, or human, bind to a specific
chemical epitope (or part of a chemical molecule). There is more than one GPCR of
the same type in that neuron, so the more epitopes present, the more GPCRs will
find one to which they can bind. The fact that a GPCR binds to an epitope doesn’t
mean that it will transduce a signal all the way through to the brain, however. This
requires that the intervening G-protein be activated by the binding of GTP, that
there be an ample reserve of ATP for conversion by cAMP, and that there be an
ample reserve of calcium ions inside the neuron.
Figure 1. The biochemistry of the olfactory G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signal transduction
system in humans. The receptor protein (R) is a transmembrane GPCR protein (cell membrane is
shown in green). The binding of an extracellular odorant molecule (O) produces a change in the
receptor shape on the inside of the cell (i.e., transduces the signal), triggering the activation of the
olfactory G-protein (Golf). In the presence of the guanidine nucleotide triphosphate (GTP), the Gprotein complex then activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase (AC), which then catalyzes the
conversion of adenine nucleotide triphosphate (ATP) to cyclic adenine monophosphate (cAMP),
which is called the secondary messenger. Guanidine nucleotide diphosphate (GDP) appears to
inhibit G-protein activation or transduction of the signal to activate AC. The buildup of cAMP
triggers a calcium ion channel protein to release calcium ions from the cell, which produces an
electrical signal that goes to the brain.
The adaptive nature of this signal transduction process is key for an organism to
track chemical gradients in its environment. If you observe sniffer dogs, you’ll notice
that they move back and forth randomly until they find an increase in the scent they
are seeking. Then they move in that direction, and then stop and move about
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randomly again until they find the next increase. Yeast do the same thing with their
flagella. They move about randomly (called tumbling) until they enter a region of
increased chemical concentration. At that point, the tumbling stops and the flagella
propel the yeast briefly ahead in that direction. Then they begin tumbling again until
the next increase is found. The obvious evolutionary advantage in this system is
seeking a source of food or fleeing in the correct direction from the scent of an
enemy. The ability of the nose to desensitize itself is also why the guy next to you at
the gym has no clue that he stinks.
How Do You Identify a Smell?
All the various GPCR proteins operate in the same manner, so there would be no
way for the brain to discriminate an electrical signal triggered from one GPCR from
that of another. However, there are multiple olfactory neurons in the nose organized
into what is called the main olfactory epithelium (MOE), which is an organelle up
inside the sinus cavity. Since each olfactory neuron in the nose expresses a different
type of GPCR, and each type of GPCR binds to different parts of odorant molecules,
the relative positions of the active neurons effectively provide a picture for the brain
of a particular odor.
This array of olfactory neurons in the MOE is similar to the array of light-sensitive
GPCRs in the retina of the eye. So when you smell an orange, a subset of the
olfactory neurons fires off their signals to the brain. The brain “sees” that pattern
and learns to associate it with the name “orange” your brain learned from the
auditory GPCR pattern of your mother’s voice telling you “It’s an orange” and the
pattern of color and shape of the object that your eye records from the pattern of
light-sensitive GPCRs in your retina. Therefore, the ability to discriminate one odor
from another is a learned response by the brain of the spatial pattern of electrical
signals that the olfactory neurons are sending it.
Do Dogs Really “Smell Better” Than Humans?
Now that the genomes of many mammals have been sequenced, we know that mice
have some 1,300 different olfactory GPCR proteins, dogs have about 1,000, and
humans have only around 350.
So, humans can detect fewer odors than dogs or mice. However, the concentrations
of those chemicals that man can detect at the limits of detection (LOD) are similar to
the ranges that dogs can detect (Table 1). That range is very high. But lacking
genetically identical GPCRs, it’s very difficult to determine “who smelt it better.”
Man can’t hear sounds of as high a frequency as a dog or see as full a range of blue
and ultraviolet light as a bird. Nor can man echolocate like a bat or a porpoise. These
differences may simply be attributed to differences between GPCRs expressed in the
genomes of the different organisms.iv
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Chemical
acetaldehyde
acetone
acetylene
ammonia
benzene
butane
butyl mercaptan
butylamine
ethyl acetate
ethyl alcohol
ethyl mercaptan
formaldehyde
methyl chloroform
ozone
phenol
toluene
xylene
cyclohexanone
methyl benzoate
2,4-dinitrotoluene
nitroglycerin
n-amyl acetate
limonene
dimethyl-dinitro-butane
Week of July 25, 2016
Human LOD
ppb
0.15
36,378.00
510,840.00
23.22
3,483.00
2,167.20
1.24
2,322.00
15.48
263.16
0.25
1,161.00
420,282.00
0.77
139.32
6,192.00
270.90
5
Dog LOD
ppb
10.00
10.00
0.50
9.00
2,000,000.00
10,000.00
0.55
Table 1. The threshold limits of animal detection (LOD) of various chemicals have been established
v
iv
in the literature for both humans and canines. The threshold limits for the dog are based on
detection 50% of the time. The corresponding 90% detection limits are typically five-fold higher than
these thresholds.
What About Manmade e-Noses?
The first photograph was taken by Nicéphore Niépce in ca. 1816, reproducing
chemically in a permanent form what the human eye could see. Bell invented the
telephone in 1876, and Edison the phonograph in 1877, reproducing electronically
and storing for posterity what the ear could hear. E.E. Simmons and Arthur Ruge
shared the patent for the strain gauge in 1938, allowing us to electronically measure
and record the human sense of touch. Why are we still saying “It tastes like chicken”
and “It smells like a rose” to explain what we taste and smell to others?
It’s not for lack of trying for more specificity. Using liquid and gas chromatography
and mass spectrometry, analytical chemists have been separating, identifying, and
quantifying all the chemical constituents of foods and beverages for decades. The
problem they’ve faced, however, is that in all but a few cases (e.g., vanillin), it was
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the few trace components that determined the scent or taste, and they couldn’t find
the “needle in the haystack” of the other components. Their major challenges: 1) The
human nose is orders-of-magnitude more sensitive than any analytical method; 2)
It’s rarely a single compound that is responsible for the human sense of odor or
taste.
During the 1980s and 1990s, a number of academics and startup companies tried to
apply microchip manufacturing techniques to make electrochemical microarrays of
various materials with different redox (reduction-oxidation) potentials to measure
odors and tastes (Table 2). The challenges with this technology was that the major
chemical constituents of material dominated the signal, and the signal measured
(the reductive or oxidative decomposition of chemicals) had nothing to do with
what the human nose was detecting. Of these companies, alpha MOS is the major
survivor. It was founded in 1996, reached financial breakeven at $3 million in sales
in 2002, and still had just 73 employees in 2015.
Company (Location)
For-Profit Companies
AromaScan (UK)
Neotronics Technologies,
Plc. (UK)
BloodHound Sensors (UK)
Mastiff Electronic Systems,
Ltd. (UK)
ArrayTec (Ireland)
Alpha MOS (France)
ix
NeuralWare (PA)
(Recently merged with
Aspen Technologies)
DATU (NY)
Academic
x
NIST (MD)
Argonne National
Laboratory
Membrane and
Biotechnology Res. Inst.
(Australia)
Washington State Univ.
(WA)
CalTech (CA)
Stanford Univ. (CA)
Univ. of Texas (TX)
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Technology Basis
Sales
vi
Conducting organic polymer electrochemical
arrays
Conducting polymer electrochemical arrays
(acquired by Zellweger Analytics Division,
Switzerland)
Bloodhound, semiconducting polymer
electrochemical arrays (Univ. of Leeds
spinoff)
Odor detection systems for security
applications (collaboration with the Univ. of
Leeds)
Scanmaster II, absorbent polymer coatings
on piezoelectric elements
Metal oxide and conducting organic polymer
electrochemical arrays
Artificial Intelligence software for ceramic
metallic electrochemical sensors (CRADA
with Argonne National Laboratory)
GC separation and purification with
subsequent human scent identification
(collaboration with Cornell Univ.)
200 units sold
£3M sales
vii
£0.3M
Active semiconductor electrochemical arrays
Ceramic Metallic (cermet) electrochemical
arrays (CRADA with NeuralWare)
Biosensor with coded ion channels
N/A
N/A
Biosensor with coded ion channels
N/A
Polymer sponges (selective adsorption)
Neuron on a chip biosensor
Neuron on a chip biosensor
N/A
N/A
N/A
www.stratnews.com
viii
£1.2M
Service
30-40,000
analyses/yr
N/A
Copyright © 2016
SNS: Special Letter: Chris Hanson
Texas A&M (TX)
Tufts Univ. (MA)
Univ. of Leeds (UK)
Week of July 25, 2016
Metal oxide electrochemical arrays
Fiber-optic sensor array with absorptive
polymer coatings
Metal oxide electrochemical arrays
7
N/A
N/A
N/A
Table 2. A short list of startup electronic nose companies and academic research efforts.
David Walt (Tufts University) pioneered the use of a fiber-optic detector composed
of individual fiber tips coated with different chemical-absorbing polymers. The
absorption of chemicals into these coatings would change the reflected light signal
sent up the fiber. This technology was eventually licensed to the life-science giant
Illumina (San Diego), which adapted it for DNA detection and left the chemical
sensing business behind.
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), with the need to develop
high-sensitivity chemical and biological agent–detecting point sensors, looked at the
failure of these chemical-sensing technologies and launched a “canary on a chip”
project in the late 1990s. This technology involved placing individual live neurons
on an electronic chip and measuring the firing pattern in response to different
chemical agents. But it was hard to keep the neurons alive using this approach, the
firing pattern didn’t vary with the chemical agent they were exposed to, and almost
any environmental change (e.g., small temperature changes) caused the neurons to
fire.
Senomyx (San Diego), founded in 1999, and Chromocell (North Brunswick, NJ),
founded in 2002, went down the live mammalian cell assay route and successfully
developed laboratory services for taste measurement. Senomyx is famous for
discovering and patenting the “umami” (glutamate) taste receptor. Sentigen, cofounded by Richard Axel to commercialize the tango™ GPCR live cell assay, was
quickly bought by Invitrogen (now Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA) for the
development of life-science research products. ChemCom (Brussels) developed
proprietary GPCR screening assays for pharmaceutical research and formed a joint
venture (TecnoScent) with Givaudan (an international flavors and fragrance
company) to expand their screening technology into olfaction in 2008. The
TecnoScent joint venture dissolved by 2014.
The challenge with this technology has been maintaining the live cell lines and
getting reproducible results from the screening assays. The live mammalian cell
technology requires highly trained personnel and will likely never move beyond a
service business. While taste is represented by five receptors (sweetness, sourness,
saltiness, bitterness, and umami), olfaction requires about 365. The challenge of
scaling the live cell technology is illustrated by a Duke University study.xi Duke
researchers cloned 464 olfactory receptors into a live mammalian cell system and
screened these against 93 different odorants. They performed three replicate
screening assays, with only one-third of the clones responding positive to at least
one odorant in all three assays.
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Aromyx Corp. (Palo Alto, CA), founded in 2013 and part of the Stanford StartX
initiative, is attempting to solve the live cell problem by reconstructing the olfactory
signal transduction system ex vivo in microarrays. [Disclosure: The author is the
founder and CEO of Aromyx.] By cloning the human olfactory GPCR proteins in
yeast, Aromyx can recreate a functional human olfactory GPCR signal transduction
system through the production of cAMP in the yeast cell membranes via proprietary
techniques, which are purified and arrayed one-GPCR-per-well in standard ELISA
plates. An ELISA assay is used to quantify the rate of cAMP production in each well
upon exposure to an odorant. The resulting optical signal produces an Aromagraph
(Figure 2) of which GPCRs are responding to the odorant and how much they are
responding. The technology being used is borrowed from the $20 billion clinical
diagnostics industry. Since there are no live cells required, it can be readily scaled
for mass use by anyone with a plate reader.
The Aromagraph effectively represents the quantitative signals being sent by the
human nasal receptors to the brain, reproducing the olfactory picture interpreted as
a specific odor by the brain. There is a strong analogy between the signals of the
Aromagraph and color perception. Therefore, the company believes that its
technology will ultimately enable the development of a multi-dimensional
AromaSpace that can be used like RGB or CMYK color spaces to formulate consumer
products with new ingredients, adjust off-specification batches, and ultimately
transmit odors over the Internet and “print” them at the other end. Digiscents
(Oakland, CA) had already developed a prototype Aroma printer in 2000, before
going bankrupt.
Figure 2. An example of the Aromyx Aromagraph produced from its functional GPCR
(EssenceChip™) microarray.
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Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet, Press Release (4Oct2004).
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/press.html.
ii Hu, M., Schultz, K., Sheu, J., and Tschopp, D., “The innovation gap in pharmaceutical drug discovery & new
models for R&D success” (Kellogg School of Management, March 12, 2007),
http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/biotech/faculty/articles/newrdmodel.pdf.
iii David Walt, Tufts University, quoted in: Photonics Spectra, p31 (Nov. 1996).
ivMarshall, M., Oxley, J.C., and Waggoner, L.P., in Aspects of Explosive Detection, Marshall, M. and Oxley, J. (eds.).
Chpt. 3 (Elsevier, in press).
v Wray, T.K., Environmental Solutions, pg. 30 (1995).
vi “Electronic Noses Grow Slower Than Hoped,” Instrument Business Outlook (April 15, 1997).
vii “AromaScan is beginning to do real business, but its losses also mount,” Computergram International (June 27,
1996).
viii Control & Instrumentation, p45 (Sept. 1, 1995).
ix “NeuralWare And Argonne National Lab Agree To Develop Intelligent Chip,” News Release (March 29, 1996).
x DiMeo, Jr., F., S. Semancik, R.E. Cavicchi, N. Tea., J.S. Suehle, and P.C. Chaparala, in “Microsensor Array
Fabrication Using Self-Lithographic CVD on CMOS Microplates,” presented at the Sixth International Meeting on
Chemical Sensors, Gaithersburg, MD (July 1996).
xi Saito et al., “Odor coding by a mammalian receptor repertoire,” ScienceSignalling, 2:1-11 (2009).
I
About Chris Hanson
Chris Hanson is the founder and CEO of Aromyx. He has
been involved with early-stage technologies for more than
20 years and has strong sales and management expertise. He
has a successful background in moving new technologies
from R&D to productization, then to market and ramping
revenue.
Earlier in his career, Chris worked for Seagate Technology
and a number of Silicon Valley startups, as well as for the
National Security Agency and the US Department of State. In the decade prior to
founding Aromyx, he was at the IBM Almaden Research Center in San Jose,
California. At IBM, he helped orchestrate the start of several R&D programs while
obtaining US government funding from NIH, NSF, IARPA, DARPA, and other agencies
of the Department of Defense and the US Army, Navy, and Air Force. Program areas
included machine learning, neural networks, distributed computing in space, big
data, visual analytics, cyber security, advanced materials research, and quantum
computing.
Chris has extensive experience starting new ventures and a proven sales and sales
management track record specializing in complex sales to large accounts. At
Aromyx, he established the company’s IP strategy and is actively growing its
impressive intellectual property portfolio.
Chris received undergraduate and graduate degrees at Stanford University.
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Copyright © 2016 Strategic News Service and Chris Hanson. All rights reserved. Redistribution
prohibited without written permission.
I would like to thank Chris for explaining an arcane and complex biological and
technical solution in ways that our members can both understand and appreciate.
I also want to thank Editor-in-Chief Sally Anderson for putting all of these thoughts
into perfect shape. – mra.
Your comments are always welcome.
Sincerely,
Mark R. Anderson
CEO
Strategic News Service LLC
Tel.: 360-378-3431
P.O. Box 1969
Fax: 360-378-7041
Friday Harbor, WA 98250 USA Email: [email protected]
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