INTRODUCTION TO WARRIOR STUDIES; COURSE DEVELOPMENT
By
JAY McCOY
Integrated Studies Project
submitted to PROF. TOM GROULX
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts – Integrated Studies
Athabasca, Alberta
January 15th, 2009
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Course Outline
Course Title: Introduction to Warrior Studies
Course Code:
Released:
Course Duration: 14 weeks
Course Credits: 3
Lecture time: 3 hours/week
Category: Humanities
PreRequisite(s): None
Subject Area:
Cultural Studies, History, Global Studies, Philosophy
Department: Faculty of Arts
Chair:
Academic Level: First Year
Course Developed By: Jay McCoy, B.A. B.Ed.
Date: Fall, 2008
Course Last Revised By: N/A
Date:
Course Description:
An interdisciplinary study of the warrior caste and/or sub-culture within world
cultures, introducing concepts of warriorship and honour through the examination
of warrior codes, rituals, philosophies, spiritualities, stratagems, and tactics
throughout history. This course will also examine warrior concepts as they apply
to various facets of contemporary life. This will be accomplished through an
examination of literature, historical texts and artistic presentations.
Course Outcomes:
Upon successful completion of this course, the student will be able to:
1. Recall the definitions of warrior and honour.
2. List historical examples of true warrior-ship and false warrior-ship.
3. Express an understanding of the terms courage, justice and obligation.
4. Identify and evaluate examples of honour and dishonour in literature and
contemporary media.
5. Identify and evaluate examples of honour and dishonour in politics, commerce,
social issues and/or local or global issues.
6. Be able to argue your stance on the aforementioned identifications.
7. Compare and contrast various concepts of warrior-ship and honour between
different cultures.
8. Compose as strategy for victory or betterment in any aspect of your life.
9. Confidently discuss various aspects of warriorship and honour.
10. Apply warrior qualities and insight to their own life through a greater
understanding of the history.
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As its title suggests this manual is designed to offer the teacher of the
undergraduate level university course, Introduction to Warrior Studies full
preparation and instruction on how the course may be taught. It can be used in
its exact entirety as a fully comprehensive step-by-step manual or as a suggested
basic outline. The teacher’s manual is designed, of course, to coincide with the
students’ guide. All black print represents recommendations for discussions and
for delivery of the course material. Blue print shows the exact written material
within the students’ handbook.
The evaluative methods of the course involve two tests, an 1200-1500 word
essay, and a group presentation. Both the essay and the presentation can be on
any aspect of Warrior Studies. This is a wide range of opportunity. Examples of
possible topics include: an examination of the life of Genghis Khan; the
effectiveness and ineffectiveness of the strategies and tactics of Hannibal Barca;
contrasting and comparing the warrior culture of the Iroquois and the Apache;
Beowulf as a guide to success in professional sports; Joan of Arc and Norma Rae
- the spirit of the woman warrior in the workplace; or a contrast and comparison
of two characters from a source of pop culture demonstrating why one is to be
considered a true warrior and the other is inaccurately depicted as such.
Teaching supplements (hand-outs, video disc, tests) are included in the
appendix.
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Introduction of the course and its themes; codes of honour.
Following roll call and determining how each student prefers to be addressed,
the instructor should make an effort to understand the students. Rather than starting
with the course outline, glossary of definitions and expectations of the course, the
instructor should try to illicit discussion regarding the general topics of the course and
take an opportunity to get know the students and allow them to express themselves.
What are you hoping to get out of this course? What inspired you to take it?
What does the term „warrior‟ mean? or What does it mean to be a warrior?
Examples?
Give the definition as established for this course by the course designer (me):
Warrior:
One who:
A) Understands honour, values honour, and possesses honour
B) Recognizes that her/his abilities carry a responsibility and has the
courage to act on that responsibility
and
C) Trains diligently in the arts and sciences of survival and defence.
(This last aspect should be noted, as it separates warriors from
non-warriors, who have warrior spirit. For example, Terry Fox
was not a warrior, but it could be said that he possessed a warrior
spirit.)
Note that the definition of warrior hinges on comprehension of the term
―honour‖. Ask for the students‘ definitions of honour; or, if that proves to be difficult,
ask for aspects of honour.
Courage, honesty, loyalty, patriotism, chivalry (gentlemanly behaviour),
altruism are some of the qualities likely to be mentioned. List them on the board and
after you have compiled a list, address each attribute individually - advocating and
arguing for each.
For example;
Should honesty be on this list? Aren‟t there times when being honest is shameful?
Two examples: you significant other (romantic partner) spends hours cooking a
special birthday meal for you -it‟s awful. what should you say?
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More extreme: your mother runs into the house in a panic, shouting that there are men
trying to kill her. She runs and hides in the closet. A moment later three men with
guns show up and ask you if you have seen a woman fitting your mother‟s description
anywhere in the area. Do you respond HONESTLY?
Following this discussion give the definition of honour established for this course,
expressed by author Major Forrest E. Morgan:
Honour:
Honour is composed of three tenets; justice, obligation and courage.
-Justice is simply, knowing the difference between right and wrong
and doing what’s right.
-Obligation is the requirement that you repay every kindness and
assistance that you have accepted from others.
-Courage is the willingness to act justly and fulfill your duties, despite
fear of personal loss or harm. 1
Next discussion:
Is there anyone you would deem a warrior? How has that person influenced you?
and
Why is a course such as this one beneficial or even necessary?
Following this discussion, offer the students Sun-Tzu`s explanation regarding the
study of war:
The art of war is of vital importance to the state. It is a matter of
life and death; a road to either safety or to ruin. Hence, under no
circumstances can it be neglected.
Sun Tzu, The Art of War 2
What did he mean? Does it apply in any way to this course?
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Table of Contents:
Unit 1: Codes of Honour
Unit 2: African and Middle Eastern Concepts of Warriorship
Unit 3: Asian Concepts of Warriorship
Unit 4: European Concepts of Warriorship
Unit 5: North and South American Concepts of Warriorship
Unit 6: Oceanic Concepts of Warriorship
Unit 7: Women Warriors
Unit 8: The Metaphysics
Unit 9: Warriorship in Contemporary Vocations
Unit 10: Warriorship in Contemporary Media
and Pop Culture
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Unit 1:
Codes of Honour
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Unit 1:
Codes of Honour:
Explain to the students:
A warrior class exists in almost every culture all over the world. It is rare to
find such a caste without a governing code of honour imbedded in its lifestyle.
Although some of the warrior castes within earth‘s history have developed amongst
spiritual people in sacred places it should not be assumed that these codes are merely
an extension of religious beliefs.
Have volunteers (or choose students to) read aloud this opening section on codes of
honour:
Warrior codes of honour are a pragmatic development of warrior culture.
Warriorship has been an integral part of history. The history of our world is filled with
life revolving around struggle. The development of codes of conduct, which help
define warriors, was a pragmatic evolution. As dangerous as the world is, a world void
of the codes of honour would be far grimmer.
Regarding Sub Tzu‘s The Art of War, historical literature author, James Clavell,
wrote:
I truly believe that if our military and political leaders in recent times had
studied this work of genius, Vietnam could not have happened…the Bay of Pigs
could not have occurred; the British empire could not have been dismembered;
and in all probability, World War I and II would have been avoided—certainly
they would not have been waged as they were waged, and the millions of
youths obliterated unnecessarily and stupidly by monsters calling themselves
generals would have lived out their lives.3
Clavell‘s words, as well as, my own, may seem an exaggeration, but consider that
the misuse of power from those who possess ability without possessing a deep moral
code is often as evident in world history as it is watching a bully on a playground. The
largest crimes against humanity took place during World War II. Therein, was an
obvious absence of virtue on the part of Nazis. No true warriors would see fit to the
execution of one harmless civilian, let alone, the attempted extermination of a race of
people beginning with their women, elderly and children. This is in contrast to a
portion of German history, which finds its origins in Prussia, championed by the
valiant warrior, Fredrick the Great. Some historians portray Fredrick as an amoral
leader. Perhaps, a true historian with experience that humbles mine could explain that;
but until then, it seems an unfit description of a ruler, who was a motivator of his
people and an effective administrator, who has been given credit for extending the
Academy of Science and for promoting elementary education. He, also, revamped the
judicial system of his realm. Greater proof of Fredrick‘s benevolence is documented in
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his letters written during his time in Potsdam. One letters tells of a woman who lost
her husband during one of Fredrick‘s campaigns, and after Fredrick expresses his
sorrow, he agrees to compensate her and her family by continuing to send the soldier‘s
salary despite his demise. Another letter declares a veto to a double execution for two
young men who have wronged their nation. 4These acts carry with them honour.
The Japanese military, despite implications that it had adopted its philosophies
from the Samurai, also committed crimes that belied that noble heritage. Guilty of the
torturing of defeated enemies, such as the p.o.w.s and guilty of rape of the women in
occupied areas of Korea, these soldiers did not live years of their lives in pursuit of the
way of the warrior, thus they did not follow the Samurai‘s code of bushido.
For Bushido, the three qualities of loyalty, right conduct and bravery are
essential. We speak of the loyal warrior, the righteous warrior, and the valiant
warrior, and it is he who is endowed with all three of these virtues who is the
warrior of the highest class.
Daidoji, Budo Soshishu (17th century) 5
Bushido, * their rigid code of ethics, taught them that benevolence and self
control were virtuous elements of honor. Indeed, it was the samurai warrior‟s
sense of restraint and honor that protected the commoners of feudal Japan.
Major Forrest E. Morgan, USAF
Living the Martial Way 6
Throughout this course we will be examining the warrior class as it existed,
and in some ways still exists, as a caste or subculture within cultures from various
regions around the world. As well as culturally, warriorship can be examined
historically, sociologically, psychologically, philosophically, and practically. As an
introductory course, we can only touch on each of these perspectives. An in depth
look into any of these avenues of study will require enrolment into those courses in the
Warrior Studies program that are specific to the area of interest. Of course,
independent research is also recommended.
One such example of the limitations of an introductory course is the lack of
depth in the historical evolution of the warrior philosophies. Case in point, when
examining the codes of honour within a country or region, this course gives a general
overview of those ideas; more accurately, concepts evolved (or were reduced) over
centuries, adapting to the social climates of each era. In particular, what were codes of
honour among the warrior class often became established chivalrous or gentlemanly
behaviour among non-warrior citizens as they sought to acquire the noble attributes of
the warriors they admired. Throughout the centuries; however, true honour stayed
fundamentally the same.
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Give each student a piece of paper and ask them to write down one thing that
they hope to learn about in this course: a person, a people, an event, an idea.
Examining their responses may encourage the instructor to incorporate one or more of
their common interests into the curriculum.
The students should be made aware of that while it is easy to be swept up in the
romantic ideas perpetuated by literature and cinema, those belonging to the class of
warrior under any terms, may not have been ideal models of their positions. Consider
that despite very codified terms regarding honour as those which existed in medieval
Europe, for example, many knights were corrupt. Nevertheless, when examining
concepts of warriorship, it is fair to begin with the ideal held in place by society.
Inform the students that on their own time, they are expected to read the
remainder of unit one, Sharon French‘s essay: Why Do Warriors need a Code? and the
Introduction to Living the Martial Way, by Major Forrest E. Morgan before the next
lesson.
Hand out the course outline and agenda. Explain in detail the expectations of
the course including the assignments and their due dates.
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Why Do Warriors Need a Code?
by Dr. Shannon E. French
Part 1: Defining the Warrior‘s Code
Warrior cultures throughout history and from diverse regions around the globe
have constructed codes of behaviour, based on that culture‘s image of the ideal
warrior. These codes have not always been written down or literally codified into a set
of explicit rules. A code can be hidden in the lines of epic poems or implied by the
descriptions of mythic heroes. One way or another, it is carefully conveyed to each
succeeding generation of warriors. These codes tend to be quite demanding. They are
often closely linked to a culture‘s religious beliefs and can be connected to elaborate
(and frequently death defying or excruciatingly painful) rituals and rites of passage.
In many cases this code of honor seems to hold the warrior to a higher ethical
standard than that required for an ordinary citizen within the general population of the
society the warrior serves. The code is not imposed from the outside. The warriors
themselves police strict adherence to these standards; with violators being shamed,
ostracized, or even killed by their peers. One historical example comes from the
Roman legions, where if a man fell asleep while he was supposed to be on watch in
time of war he could expect to be stoned to death by the members of his own cohort.
The code of the warrior not only defines how he should interact with his own
warrior comrades, but also how he should treat other members of his society, his
enemies, and the people he conquers. The code restrains the warrior. It sets boundaries
on his behavior. It distinguishes honorable acts from shameful acts. The Homeric hero
Achilles must seek vengeance for the death of his friend Patroclus, yet when his rage
drives him to desecrate the corpse of his arch nemesis, Hector, he angers the gods.
Under the codes of chivalry, a medieval knight has to offer mercy to any knight who
yields to him in battle. In feudal Japan, samurai are not permitted to approach their
opponents using stealth, but rather are required to declare themselves openly before
engaging combat. Muslim warriors engaged in offensive jihad cannot employ certain
weapons unless and until their enemies use them first.
But why do warriors need a code that ties their hands and limits their options?
Why should a warrior culture want to restrict the actions of its members and require
them to commit to lofty ideals? Might not such restraints cripple their effectiveness as
warriors? What‘s wrong with, ―All‘s fair in love and war?‖ Isn‘t winning all that
matters? Why should any warrior want to be burdened with concerns about honor and
shame?
One reason for such warriors‘ codes may be to protect the warriors themselves
from serious psychological damage. To say the least, the things that warriors are asked
to do to guarantee their cultures‘ survivals are far from pleasant. There is truth in the
inescapable slogan, ―War is hell.‖ Even those few who seem to feel no revulsion at
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spilling another human being‘s guts on the ground, severing a limb, slicing off a head,
or burning away a face are likely to be affected by the sight of their friends or kinsmen
suffering the same fate. The combination of the warriors‘ own natural disgust at what
they must witness in battle and the fact that what they must do to endure and conquer
can seem so uncivilized, so against what they have been taught by their society,
creates the conditions for even the most accomplished warriors to feel tremendous
self-loathing.
In his powerful work, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to
Kill in War and Society, Lt. Col. Dave Grossman illuminates the process by which
those in war and those training for war attempt to achieve emotional distance from
their enemies. The practice of dehumanizing the enemy through the use of abusive or
euphemistic language is a common and effective tool for increasing aggression and
breaking down inhibitions against killing. Grossman notes:
It is so much easier to kill someone if they look distinctly different than you. If your
propaganda machine can convince your soldiers that their opponents are not really
human but are “inferior forms of life,” then their natural resistance to killing their
own species will be reduced. Often the enemy‟s humanity is denied by referring to him
as a “gook,” “Kraut,” or “Nip.”(1)
Grossman has interviewed many U.S. veterans of the Vietnam War. Grossman
found that some of the men he interviewed had never truly achieved emotional
distance from their former foes, and seemed to be the better for it. These men
expressed admiration for Vietnamese culture. Some had even married Vietnamese
women. They appeared to be leading happy and productive post-war lives. In contrast,
those who persisted in viewing the Vietnamese as ―less than animals‖ were unable to
leave the war behind them.
Grossman writes about the dangers of dehumanizing the enemy in terms of
potential damage to the war effort, long-term political fallout, and regional or global
instability:
Because of [our] ability to accept other cultures, Americans probably committed
fewer atrocities than most other nations would have under the circumstances
associated with guerrilla warfare in Vietnam. Certainly fewer than was the track
record of most colonial powers. Yet still we had our My Lai, and our efforts in that
war were profoundly, perhaps fatally, undermined by that single incident.
It can be easy to unleash this genie of racial and ethnic hatred in order to facilitate
killing in time of war. It can be more difficult to keep the cork in the bottle and
completely restrain it. Once it is out, and the war is over, the genie is not easily put
back in the bottle. Such hatred lingers over the decades, even centuries, as can be
seen today in Lebanon and what was once Yugoslavia.(2)
The insidious harm brought to the individual warriors who find themselves
swept up by such devastating propaganda matters a great deal to those concerned with
the warriors‘ own welfare. In a segment on the ―Clinical Importance of Honoring or
Dishonoring the Enemy,‖ psychologist Jonathan Shay describes an intimate
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connection between the psychological health of the veteran and the respect he feels for
those he fought. He stresses how important it is to the warrior to have the conviction
that he participated in an honorable endeavor:
Restoring honor to the enemy is an essential step in recovery from combat PTSD.
While other things are obviously needed as well, the veteran‟s self-respect never fully
recovers so long as he is unable to see the enemy as worthy. In the words of one of our
patients, a war against subhuman vermin “has no honor.” This is true even in victory;
in defeat, the dishonoring absence of human themis [shared values, a common sense
of “what‟s right”] linking enemy to enemy makes life unendurable(3).
Jonathan Shay, psychologist and author of Achilles in Vietnam: Combat
Trauma and the Undoing of Character, finds echoes of these sentiments in the
words of J. Glenn Gray from Gray‘s modern classic on the experience of war, The
Warriors: Reflections on Men in Battle(4). With the struggle of the Allies against the
Japanese in the Pacific Theater of World War II as his backdrop, Gray brings home the
agony of the warrior who has become incapable of honoring his enemies and thus is
unable to find redemption himself:
The ugliness of a war against an enemy conceived to be subhuman can hardly be
exaggerated. There is an unredeemed quality to battle experienced under these
conditions, which blunts all senses and perceptions. Traditional appeals of war are
corroded by the demands of a war of extermination, where conventional rules no
longer apply. For all its inhumanity, war is a profoundly human institution(5).
By setting standards of behavior for themselves, accepting certain restraints,
and even ―honoring their enemies,‖ warriors can create a lifeline that will allow them
to pull themselves out of the hell of war and reintegrate themselves into their society,
should they survive to see peace restored. A warrior‘s code may cover everything from
the treatment of prisoners of war to oath keeping to table etiquette, but its primary
purpose is to grant nobility to the warriors‘ profession. This allows warriors to retain
both their self-respect and the respect of those they guard.
Part 2: Warriors and Society
This brings us back to my earlier line of reasoning. It is not enough to ask,
―Can our warriors still get the job done if they do not have a code?‖ We must also
consider the related question: ―What will getting the job done do to our warriors if
they do not have a code?‖ Accepting certain constraints as a moral duty, even when it
is inconvenient or inefficient to do so, allows warriors to hold onto their humanity
while experiencing the horror of war — and, when the war is over, to return home and
reintegrate into the society they so ably defended. Fighters who cannot say, ―this far
but no farther,‖ who have no lines they will not cross and no atrocities from which
they will shrink, may be effective. They may complete their missions, but they will do
so at the loss of their humanity.
Those who are concerned for the welfare of our warriors would never want to
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see them sent off to face the chaotic hell of combat without something to ground them
and keep them from crossing over into an inescapable heart of darkness. A mother and
father may be willing to give their beloved son or daughter‘s life for their country or
cause, but I doubt they would be as willing to sacrifice their child‘s soul. The code is a
kind of moral and psychological armor that protects the warrior from becoming a
monster in his or her own eyes.
Nor is it just ―see-the-whites-of-their-eyes‖ front-line ground and Special
Forces troops who need this protection. Men and women who fight from a distance –
who drop bombs from planes and shoot missiles from ships or submarines – are also at
risk of losing their humanity. What threatens them is the very ease by which they can
take lives. As technology separates individuals from the results of their actions, it
cheats them of the chance to absorb and reckon with the enormity of what they have
done. Killing fellow human beings, even for the noblest cause, should never feel like
nothing more than a game played using the latest advances in virtual reality.
In his book Virtual War: Kosovo and Beyond, Michael Ignatieff airs his
concerns about the morality of asymmetric conflicts in which one side is able to inflict
large numbers of casualties from afar without putting its own forces at much risk (e.g.
by relying primarily on long-range precision weapons and high-altitude air assaults).
In such a mismatched fight, it may be easy for those fighting on the superior side to
fail to appreciate the true costs of the war, since they are not forced to witness the
death and destruction first-hand. Ignatieff warns modern warriors against the ―moral
danger‖ they face if they allow themselves to become too detached from the reality of
war:
Virtual reality is seductive. …We see war as a surgical scalpel and not a bloodstained
sword. In so doing we mis-describe ourselves as we mis-describe the instruments of
death. We need to stay away from such fables of self-righteous invulnerability. Only
then can we get our hands dirty. Only then can we do what is right.(6)
I have argued that it can be damaging for warriors to view their enemies as
sub-human by imagining them like beasts in a jungle. In the same way, modern
warriors who dehumanize their enemies by equating them with blips on a computer
screen may find the sense that they are part of an honorable undertaking far too fragile
to sustain. Just as societies have an obligation to treat their warriors as ends in
themselves, it is important for warriors to show a similar kind of respect for the
inherent worth and dignity of their opponents. Even long-distance warriors can
achieve this by acknowledging that some of the ―targets‖ they destroy are in fact
human beings, not demons or vermin or empty statistics.
More parallels can be drawn between the way that societies should behave
towards their warriors and how warriors should behave towards one another. Societies
should honor their fallen defenders. Warriors should not desecrate the corpses of their
enemies, but should, whenever possible, allow them to be buried by their own people
and according to their own cultural traditions. Among his therapy patients, Jonathan
Shay found several veterans suffering from ―the toxic residue left behind by
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disrespectful treatment of enemy dead.(7)‖ And while societies must certainly show
concern for the after-effects of war on their own troops, victorious warriors can also
maintain the moral highground by helping to rebuild (or in some cases create) a solid
infrastructure, a healthy economy, an educational system, and political stability for
their former foes.
Part 3: Honor and Terrorists
These imperatives I have put forward apply to relations among warriors and
nations defended by warriors. The moral requirements become much murkier when
warriors must battle murderers.
The warriors of today will increasingly find themselves pitted against
adversaries who fight without any rules or restraints. Because they see no other way to
advance their objectives, these desperate men and women are likely to employ
methods that are rightfully viewed as horrific and appalling by the rest of the civilized
world, such as terror attacks on civilian populations. They will take ―fighting dirty‖ to
unimaginable depths, and since they are already willing to die, they will not be
deterred by any threat of punishment for continuing to disregard the laws of war.
As Ariel Merari, director of the Project on Terrorism at the Jaffee Center for
Strategic Studies at Tel Aviv University points out in his essay, ―The Readiness To
Kill and Die: Suicidal Terrorism in the Middle East,‖ old ideas about tit-for-tat and the
applications of rational decision theory are worthless when dealing with those who are
ready – if not anxious – to sacrifice their lives for The Cause. Merari quotes Lord
Chalfont, an authority on counter-terrorism:
The whole time that I have been involved in terrorist operations, which now goes back
to 30 years, my enemy has always been a man who is very worried about his own skin.
You can no longer count on that, because the terrorist [today] is not just prepared to
get killed, he wants to get killed. Therefore, the whole planning, tactical doctrine,
[and] thinking [behind antiterrorism measures] is fundamentally undermined(8).
How should stronger sides in asymmetric conflicts respond when their weaker
opponents resort to terrorist tactics? One perfectly understandable reaction would be
for the stronger sides to want to ―take off the gloves,‖ too, especially when the
terrorists seem to be banking on the fact that they will not. It seems natural to say, ―If
they will not respect the rules of war and use some restraint, then neither will we.‖
Of course, one of the most serious ―cons‖ that the West must consider before
―taking the gloves off‖ is that it would be a violation of our own values to engage in a
war with no rules. It is beyond infuriating that some of the people who claim to hate
who we are and what we represent are yet able to benefit from our commitment to
restraint. The more they push us and the more suffering we endure, the harder it is for
us to fight with one hand tied behind our back rather than unleashing the full extent of
our power to wipe them from the earth. But if we give up who we are in order to
destroy our enemies, what sort of victory will we have secured for ourselves? Even the
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noblest of ends can be tarnished if base means are used to achieve them.
It is truly disturbing to consider how easy it may be for a person to rationalize
the terrible transition from warrior to murderer. An individual may be persuaded to
become a murderer by a single charismatic personality, by a group or movement that
answers some psychological need, or by the effects of a traumatic event (such as
witnessing the death of a close friend or family member). I must stress that the line
between a warrior and a murderer is profoundly important, but very thin. Once it has
been crossed, the harm to the individual may be irrevocable.
It is easier to remain a warrior when fighting other warriors. When warriors
fight murderers, they may be tempted to become the mirror image of the evil they
hoped to destroy. Their only protection is their code of honor. The professional
military ethics that restrain warriors – that keep them from targeting those who cannot
fight back, from taking pleasure in killing, from striking harder than is necessary and
that encourage them to offer mercy to their defeated enemies and even to help rebuild
their countries and communities – are also their own protection against becoming what
they abhor.
Everyone who cares about the welfare of warriors wants them not only to live
through whatever fighting they must face, but also to have lives worth living after the
fighting is done. The warriors‘ code is the shield that guards our warriors‘ humanity.
Without it, they are no good to themselves or to those with whom and for whom they
fight. Without it, they will find no way back from war.
About the author: Dr. Shannon E. French teaches in the Ethics Section at the U.S. Naval
Academy. Her book, The Code of the Warrior: Exploring Warrior Values, Past and Present
(2003, Rowman and Littlefield) features a foreword by Senator John McCain. In 2000 she was
awarded USNA‟s campus-wide Apgar Award for Excellence in Teaching. This essay is
reprinted on the website http://www.chivalrytoday.com/Essays/French/Warrior-Code-1.html
by permission of the author.
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Unit 1 -Endnotes:
1 Morgan, Forrest E. and USAF, Maj; Living the Martial Way: A Manual for the Way a Modern
Warrior Should Think, Barricade Books Inc, Fort Lee, 1992.
2 Sun Tzu; The Art of War, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1994.
3 Ibid.
4 Snyder, Louis L., Fredrick the Great. Prentice-Hall, 1971.\
5 Daidoji, Budo Soshishu (17th century) .
6 Morgan, Forrest E. and USAF, Maj; Living the Martial Way: A Manual for the Way a Modern
Warrior Should Think, Barricade Books Inc, Fort Lee, 1992.
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Unit 2:
African and
Middle Eastern
Concepts of
Warriorship
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Unit 2: African Concepts of Warriorship,
Middle Eastern Concepts of Warriorship
Africa martial arts instructor and scholar of African culture, Kilindi Iyi, shared
this African story with me:
A young warrior went to the appointed time and place to meet with an
elder warrior from another village with whom he was to battle. As he neared
the older man, the young warrior notice how similar in appearance and
demeanour the old man was to the young man‟s father. It was too emotionally
challenging and spiritually disabling for the young warrior to kill the other.
He felt that it would be akin to killing his own father. He expressed this to the
old warrior and offered him a deal, “I will offer you three shots from your
weapon. If you fail to kill me with those three shots, you must surrender to
me.” The old warrior agreed. The young man stood several yards away while
the elder raised his rifle and fired at him. Three shots fired and all three
seemed either not to find their target or were somehow ineffective. At this the
elder warrior surrendered his weapon and accompanied the younger warrior
back to his village as his prisoner.
Ask the students for their impressions of the tale. Is there anything to be
learned from it?
Following this short discussion, ask if anyone in the class knows anything
about Africa that might relate to this course. If relevant information arises, go with it.
Allow for an in depth discussion if it seems achievable. However, one should
recognize that it is highly possible that not much information will be shared as it has
often been difficult to acquire information regarding African warrior classes. It would
not hurt to make the students aware of this challenge.
Africa has not been referred to as the ―Dark Continent‖ due to the tall lush
trees which inhibit the sun in its more tropical areas. Nor has this reference anything to
do with the darker skin pigmentation of those descended from its countries in
comparison to those from other parts of the world. The ―darkness‖ of Africa refers to
its mysteries. Even after most of the known world had been charted, Africa remained
mysterious. Many of its people were hesitant to divulge certain sacred aspects of their
cultures. Even today, many tribal people outside the Westernized cities of various
African nations live in a manner similar to their ancestors generations before them,
despite being well aware of the sophistications of modern technology. As people still
living by these tribal traditions, they do not treat their customs as a matter for
historians. As such, they are not always eager to expose details regarding their rituals
and philosophies to outsiders.
20
One aspect that would be helpful to keep in mind is that it is rare in most
regions of the continent to find ideas about honour codified or listed. Concepts of
honour are delivered to aspiring warriors at different stages of their development
through stories such as the one above. Young warriors are expected to distil honour
from the story in much the same way a child learns of morals through Aesop‘s fables.
Egypt
Africa is believed by many anthropologists to be the birthplace of humankind
and the cradle of civilisation, making it a sound choice to begin our global
examination. Within the continent, Egypt is as good place as any other nation to begin
this unit. After all, Egyptian history and culture has not been as hidden as those of
other regions of Africa. Also, it is a society whose civil, cultural and artistic
development evolved much quicker than most others in the world. Furthermore, it is
home to one of oldest records of a martial system.
The Beni Hasan Tombs in the Mahez region on the east bank of the Nile reveal
facets of Egypt‘s Middle kingdom ( 2040-1785 BC ). Tomb 15 houses what may be
most intriguing to warrior-scholars, such as yourself. The hieroglyphics depict the
ancient Egyptian martial style of wrestling (with some striking) and stick fighting
styles, known as Sebekkha and Tahtib respectively. Wrestling styles exist not only in
cultures all over the African continent, but, indeed, all over the world. It would be
irresponsible to state that the Egyptian systems are the sole origins of all forms of
African wrestling.
No doubt techniques began to develop independent of one another in various
regions. However, it is likely that the nomadic lifestyles and inter-cultural trade
encouraged mixing and influencing of theses systems. And that the Egyptians‘
influence was strongest in the Northern regions where they were the stronghold of
power.
21
Other martial styles in Africa include:
Evala (of the Kabye tribe of Togo): a wrestling style;
Kokowa and Dambe (of the Hausa people most of whom reside in Nigeria): Kokowa is a
wrestling style practiced in conjunction with their striking style, Dambe (also known as Hausa
Boxing);
Laamb (from Senegal): another wrestling style;
Yoruba Wrestling (of the Yoruba people of Nigeria): resembles most other wrestling styles of
African heritage, but includes training in swimming, hunting and equestrianism;
Suri Stick Fighting (from Ethiopia);
Testa (also from Ethiopia): this system endorses vicious techniques such as head-butting, eyegouging, strikes to the windpipe and even biting;
Nuba Stick Fighting (of the Nub tribe of Sudan): combines stick and fighting and wrestling;
Nguni Stick Fighting: the Nguni people had been several tribes most of which eventually
became conquered by Shaka Zulu. These tribes had an ineffective method of spear fighting;
launching spears at each pother from some distance. King Shaka revolutionized warfare in
Southern Africa when he developed new weapons and a renovated fighting method to
accompany them. The practice of training in this method was made safe by replacing the
shortened staff ( iklwa) with sticks. Hence, Nguni stick fighting was born.
For a more in depth look at these martial arts or systems, The Way of the
Warrior; Martial Arts and Fighting Styles from Around the World by Chris Crudelli is
recommended reading.
At this point the instructor may want to give a summary of the life of Shaka
Zulu which includes his aspirations, his strategies and his tactics.
Shaka Zulu may sit a bit strangely in our discussions of warriors, as he often
appeared to be more of a war-monger than warrior. Indeed, Shaka has been portrayed
as bloodthirsty in many accounts. It is possible that these early accounts of his attitude
and behaviour were concocted as a matter of White colonial propaganda . However,
certainly Shaka was brutal in much of his dealings. He was hell-bent on unifying all
the Nguni tribes under his rule. He managed to achieve this by renovating warfare
through revamped weapons and new martial techniques.
Prior to Shaka‘s reign most battles were waged over open fields by throwing
spears at the enemies‘ platoon. Shaka designed a shorter sturdier spear, the iklwa, to
be held with the palm faced downward, so that it could be easily manoeuvred into high
and low positions. He insisted that his soldiers fight barefoot so that they could better
grip the ground, as their hide moccasins sometime slipped on the terrain. Shaka also
redesigned the shield to cover most of the length of the body. Shaka taught his troops
that when advancing on the enemy they should slide their shields over the opponents‘
shields immediately after contact. This way they could then pull their opponents‘
shields across their bodies, exposing their sides to attack.
22
Some other interesting facts involving African warriors that the
instructor may want to share with the students:
Within some tribes (mostly in the West central and East central regions) there are
secret societies, based on animal emulation, such as the Leopard People, Boar People,
or the Porcupine warriors. They imitate their totem beast in lifestyle and fighting
styles. Boar people, for example, are group oriented where as Leopard People
separate and take to the trees - they live in isolation for a good portion of their lives.
Porcupine warriors pride themselves on being prepared for defence from all directions.
In the past, some of these groups were allegedly cannibals.
Within The Asanti tribe of Ghana, warriors where a special hat with a loose brim.
Inside the brim gemstones are held. The various positions of the gemstones against the
head assist the warrior in achieving his goals. For example, if the brim is forward, this
holds the gemstones against the forehead stimulating the superior partial lobe. A
warrior would hold them in this position to aid him in an intellectual or creative
endeavour: poetry, song, intellectual debate, etc. If heading into a battle the warrior
may wear his brim to the back of the skull; thereby stimulating the medulla oblongata
which encourages aggression. The brim worn to the side is ideal for relaxing.
Most tribes practice their martial skills to music; dance is even incorporated into their
patterns. In some groups, like the Asanti tribes, each warrior has his own personal
rhythm or ―dgeli bak―.
Some tribes, such as the Massai, do not have an elite class of warriors. Rather
warriorship is viewed as a stage in life. The Massai view each stage as seven years in
duration. At fourteen, they undergo an initiation ritual which includes circumcision.
The teenage boys are expected to handle this affair without so much as wincing. Any
show of pain is considered weak and shames the boy and his family. After the
ceremony he is consider to have entered the phase of a young warrior. At 21 he is a
full warrior. At a later stage he will be considered a warrior instructor.
Circumcision at this late age is common to many tribes. Female circumcision also
occurs, but many modern health and awareness groups are trying to abolish this
torturous practice.
As part of the initiation of young warriors in Gambia ,the teenage boy is kidnapped by
throwing a bag over his head and carrying him into the wilderness where he receives
his secretive training.
*
*
*
23
As one example of a great African warrior, I offer an outline of the history of
the brilliant strategist, General Hannibal Barca:
In 247 B.C. Hannibal, was born in Carthage. At that time, Carthage was ruled by its own
people, the Carthaginians. They also ruled the Mediterranean Islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily
(then know as Syracuse). Italy was ruled by the Romans. Unfortunately for the Carthaginians, the
Romans were expansionists. The First Punic war began when the Romans broke their treaty with
Carthage and conquered Sicily. The commander of the Carthaginian army, Hamilacar Barac battled
against the mightier Romans well, but eventually lost a decisive sea battle. The Carthaginians were
forced to surrender Corsica and Sardinia along with Sicily. Furthermore, they were expected to pay
large tribute .
The Carthaginians decided to relocate in Spain. Hamilcar spent nine years defeating the tribes
in that region before forming the new city-state, New Carthage. Under his wing throughout his
campaign was Hamilcar‘s son, Hannibal. Following his father‘s death, Hannibal continued to learn the
skills of warfare from his brother-in-law, Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal was murdered in 221 B.C. and
Hannibal, at the age of 26, was chosen to succeed him as chief commander of the army.
Included in the realm of New Carthage was the province on Saguntum. At one point, the many
Greeks who resided in Saguntum attacked some of tribes there. The Romans sided with the Greeks on
this matter and declared that they were the protectorates of Saguntum. Realizing that the Romans were
planning to take control of Saguntum as they had elsewhere, Hannibal decided that the best defence was
strong offence. Hannibal devised a daring plan of attack. Rather than attack the Romans by marching
through relatively flat land, Hannibal surprised the Romans by taking his t troops of 50,000 around the
long way through the Pyrenees, across the Rhone River and over the Swiss Alps into Italy from the
other side. He managed this endeavour using elephants.
Hannibal‘s army first arrived in Turin, which was occupied by Gauls who had been conquered
and oppressed by the Romans. They were quick to join Hannibal‘s cause. He added 14000 Gaul
volunteers to his ranks and laid claim to much of Italy‘s country sides. Over the next 16years the
Romans and Carthaginians waged battles in various areas of Italy wherein Hannibal despite being out
numbered won most. Hannibal left a path of destruction as he overtook more and more of Italy.
However, the battles over the aforementioned islands were won by the Romans and remained in their
hands.
Eventually, the Romans made a more concentrated effort against Hannibal‘s army. Heavily
outnumbered, cut off from supplies from Africa and no longer having the element of surprise, the
Romans defeated the Carthaginian army. Hannibal sent word to Carthage to accept the terms of
surrender.
The Romans remained wary of Carthage‘s recovery, believing the would eventually strive for
independence again- more so they were afraid that the army would again be lead by the ingenious
Hannibal. In 195 B.C. they demanded his arrest. Hannibal escaped from Carthage and remained a
fugitive until 182 B.C. when soon to be arrested, Hannibal chose suicide by poison over capture by the
Romans.
*
*
*
24
The Middle East
As we venture into the Middle East, the connection between warrior concepts
and religion becomes evident. Here is the birthplace of the three major Western
religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Discussion and debates regarding the actions of religious zealots claiming to be
God‘s warriors can be dismissed until a later lesson. In this unit we can examine the
religious scripture of each group for references to warriors and honour. Each religion
has its doctrinal text. The Jews have their Torah; the Christians have their Bible; and
the Muslims have their Koran. The Torah is the first half of the Christian Bible, the
Old Testament. It pertains mostly to the Father; where as the New Testament portion
of the Bible deals primarily with the Son, Jesus Christ. The Koran includes mostly the
same cast of characters as the other books; the focus is different. Jesus appears in all
three religions; however, the Jews and Muslims see Jesus as a profit, but not the divine
incarnation of God Almighty. Within Islam, Jesus is said to be one of a series of
profits and Mohammed is the final profit. They consider the Christian perspective of
Jesus to be a contradiction to the monotheistic idea expressed in all three religions.
Indeed, it is sometimes a difficult concept to grasp.
As a group, discuss some of the stories within these scriptures which denote
warriorship in a positive way. Also, where in these texts is violence denounced as
sinful, and how are these two ideas are differentiated.
Some stories to consider:
-David and Goliath
-Samson
-Gideon
-Simon Peter defends Jesus against arrest
-Jesus in the temple with a whip
- Battle of al-Qādisiyyah
- S‘ad: Mohammed Before Medina
- Sabaha‘s First Blood
- Battle of Badr
- Battle of Uhud
We can, of course, go further back in time to examine the region prior to the
development of these religions, back to a time even before the region became known
as Persia. Mesopotamia was in existence 5000 years earlier. Within this intriguing
civilization were famous city-states: Byzantine, Sumer and Babylonia. For an idea as
to why this, now lost, civilization was so impressive, students are recommend to do
some research. One helpful reference is the Wikipedia website:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia. From this era comes one for he earliest
warrior epics, the Sumerian saga of Gilgamesh. The Epic of Gilgamesh is still famous
25
among academic circles today.
One of the interesting points regarding this time period was that the city-states
held one of the earliest system of laws. The conquering warrior, Hammurabi who
ruled Babylonia developed his judicial code, and, although it still had barbaric
elements, it was the first legal system to allow for legal equality, thus protecting such
marginalized and often oppressed peoples such as widows and orphans. This relates
to our discussions of honour in that laws in a democratic society are designed to reflect
the ethical standards of that community. In a monarchy, the laws protect the interests
of the ruler. Hammubi‘s code is an exception because of its altruistic design. Thus, not
only does Hammurbi‘s system govern the behaviour of his citizens (mostly), it also
sets a standard by which others can appreciate honour- he becomes a role model to
which people can aspire. The History of Nations; Iraq (editor: David Schaefer), has
this to say:
At the start of the history of Babylon stands the great figure of Hammurabi
1792-1750BC, a conqueror and law-giver through a reign of some forty-three years.
He was depicted on seals and inscriptions as a youth fill of fire and skill, a great
warrior who crushes all his enemies, who marches over mountains and never loses a
battle. Under Hammurabi the tumultuous states famous Code. The diorite cylinder
the engraved Code of Hammurabi, conveyed from Babylon to Elam around 1100 BC,
was unearthed as Susa in 1902 (it is now in the Louvre [museum in Paris]).
There is full acknowledgement of the role of the gods but the Code is essentially a
body of secular legislation. Enlightened laws accompany barbarous punishments,
and the primitive lex talionis and trial by ordeal are set against complex judicial
procedures that have a modern ting. In all there are 285 laws arrayed systematically
under the headings of Personal Property, Real estate, Trade and Business, the
Family, Injuries, and Labour. The Code, from which the Mosaic Code borrows or
with which it shares a common source, is more enlightened than many judicial
systems that were to follow in the centuries ahead.
Hammurabi retained the principle of the lex talionis („an eye for an eye‟) but he
sought to reduce its impact. Misdemeanours that formerly attracted mutilation or
even death were now punished by fines, an advance that has been interpreted as a
great civilising influence. The Sumerians long before had discovered the advantages
of paying a wronged person compensation instead of waiting for the aggrieved party
to exact revenge, and Hammurabi developed this idea into a penal sanction. It has
been suggested that this development encouraged the emergence of the entire fabric
of law, with all the associated apparatus of lawyers, solicitors, juries and the
complex fabric of jurisprudence in civilised societies.
The idea that justice should be tempered with mercy was a Babylonian innovation, a
vital contribution to the morality of law. But the idea was expected to apply only in
domestic situations: there was no thought that one‟s enemies should be treated with
26
compassion. This attitude accords well with how Middle Eastern rulers were in
general expected to slaughter their opponents, even innocent non-combatants….
However, in urging a just approach to family morality Hammurabi laid the basis for
a moral general social compassion, a position that is well represented (though often
impotent) in the modern world. Here Hammurabi followed a much earlier Sumerian
code, the earliest known legal canon, that attributed to Ur-Nammu who founded the
Third Dynasty of Ur (2113-2096 BC), and who included the stipulation that „the
orphan is not to be given over to the rich, nor the widow to the powerful, nor the man
of one shekel over to him of one mina‟. it is clear that there were compassionate lawgivers long before Hammurabi.
The Code bears importantly on aspects of marriage and women‟s rights
(innovations here are sometimes contrasted with much repressive legislation in later
Christendom). The 136th clause, for example, declares that if a man abandons his
wife, leaving her without proper support, she is then free to remarry without being
involved in the complexities of the courts. In the same spirit the 124th clause of the
Code states: „if a woman hates her husband and refuses him his conjugal rights. Her
case shall be examined in the district court. If she can prove she has kept herself
chaste and has no fault while her husband has been unfaithful and so has demeaned
her, she shall not be punished but may take her dowry and return to her father‟s
house‟/ (though this still smacks of sexism it should be set against a grossly antifeminist Christianity happy for almost two millennia to tolerate marital rape.)
Hammurabi concludes his code with the words:
In my bosom I carried the people of the land of Sumer and Akkad…in my
wisdom I restrained them, that the strong might not oppress the weak, and
that they should give justice to the orphan and the widow… Let any
oppressed man, who has a cause, come before my image as king of
righteousness! … In the days that are yet to come, for all future time, may
the king who is in the land observe the words of righteousness which I have
written upon my monument! 1
When topics of ethics in government or true justice within judicial systems
arise, those aspiring warriors among us can state proudly that the first leader to allow
for mercy, compassion and equality among its people within his legal system, was, of
course, a noble warrior-king.
The instructor should give the students a synopsis of the legend of Gilgamesh
and then discuss what heroic qualities were present in the story. Have the concepts
changed in modern times?
27
India
India which borders between the Middle East and Asia also has a rich martial
history. Contrary to its current destitution, India was a nation of wealth, sophistication
and culture during its Chola and Tamil dynasties (10th, 11th and 12th centuries).
Understandably, it was during these periods, when a considerable amount of economic
trade was going on, that combative sciences flourished. Of course, some systems of
defence had developed prior to these dynasties and others would evolve after their
conclusion; nevertheless, Kalarippayttu, the most popular and celebrated of Indian
martial arts was developed during the Chola era. Those interested in this exotic art,
can ask your instructor for a more thorough outline, or read the Kalarippayttu section
of Chris Crudelli‘s The Way of the Warrior; Martial Arts and Fighting Styles from
Around the World.
Similar to what is seen in Africa, some of India‘s martial arts involve music
and dance. Gatka, an art of Punjabi origin developed by Sikh warriors, is one such art.
It, like Kalarippayattu and others, also employs yoga-style postures in its training. In
this way, almost all of these Indian arts connect martial ability to meditation and prana
cultivation. India is second only to China as the nation with largest array of martial
arts. As well as Kalarippayattu and Gatka, India boasts of Aki Kiti, Angamopora,
Bandesh, But Marma Atti, Bothati, Cheena Adi, Inbuan Wrestling, Kuttu Varisai,
Kushti, Lathi, Mukni Boxing, Mukna, Nata, Shaster Vidiya, Silambam,Thang-Ta, and
Vajira Mushti.
Unit 2 - Endnotes:
1 Wikipedia - http://www.wikipedia.org/ .
28
Asian Concepts
Unit 3:
Asian
Concepts
of
Warriorship
29
Unit 3: Asian Concepts of Warriorship
Of all the regions of the world, Asia has one of the most obvious collections of
warrior castes, separate from non-warrior citizens. Undeniably, it has the most obvious
collection of martial arts. To peak the interest of the students and to increase their
confidence in the subject matter have them list as many Asian martial arts as they can.
Once they have expelled themselves, offer a list on the overhead projector (see
appendix). For contrast the instructor can offer a list of non-Asian martial arts (also in
the appendix). These lists do not offer every martial art every created, but are inclusive
enough to demonstrate how the Asian systems outweigh those of the remainder of the
world.
Make the students aware that it is difficult to discuss concepts of warriorship in
Asian without including spirituality in the discussion. Have them read the following
chapter in their student manuals; this should be done prior to the lesson as opposed to
during class time:
* * *
It is probably easiest to begin discussion on warrior ideals with India and
China, whose philosophies and codes and martial arts most strongly influenced other
cultures. India was covered in the previous lesson, as it borders between the Middle
east and Asia. No discussion on social constructs in China (or other countries
primarily of Chinese culture) is possible without an examination of the three teachings.
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism have been a major influence on all aspects of
Chinese culture, including warriorship. As such, I believe discussion of the
development of warrior concepts needs to be prefaced with some study of these
fundamental aspects. It is impossible to discuss just one of the famous theologies
without the other two, as the Chinese have not felt a need to delineate them as often
happens in the West. Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have some aspects woven
into the practices of each other‗s philosophies.
Confucianism
Confucius was born in during the Warring States period and his teachings, after
being recorded by his disciple, Mencius, held great influence over Chinese societies
for centuries later. Although, Confucianism, of the three teachings, is the least popular
conversational topic in the West, it has had the greatest influence on Chinese social
structure. In fact, his system of structure has been incorporated into every Chinese
government‘s system since it was adopted by a Han emperor as the official court
system because of its ability to stabilize society. Confucianism carries less spirituality
than Taoism and Buddhism; however, its hierarchal structure and model of role
responsibility has remained the basis of ethical considerations, moral cultivation and
30
education even today.
Confucianism‘s perspective on the aspects defined as warrior traits is more
obvious than those of its rival philosophies; particularly in terms of responsibility and
obligation. Confucianism is all about responsibility and obligation, viewing each
member of society as having a significant role and obliged to fulfill that role as
effectively as possible. Confucius saw a system of dutiful relationships, beginning
with the parent/child relationship and expanding to the rest of society from there. In
Eastern Religions, Jennifer Oldstone-Moore describes it thusly, ―Each relationship has
its specific roles and responsibilities: a parent owes a child education, care, and moral
formation; a child owes a parent obedience, respect, and care in old age and after
death. The parent/child relationship – thus, the virtue of filiality (xiao) is the basis for
social structure. A husband and wife are to care for each other, with the husband
protecting and providing, and the wife being obedient and maintaining the household.
The elder brother has responsibility for younger siblings who owe him deference (birth
order is very clearly delineated in East Asian kinship terms). The relationship between
ruler and subject parallels that of parent and child, for the ruler is to provide care and
guidance, and the subject is to be obedient as well as loyal. Friends are to be loyal—
this is the only relationship that has the potential of being between people of equal
rank, but even here, a hierarchy of age is often reflected.‖ 1 In Chinese countries still
today, the significance of age as a measure of rank is noticeable in the language used.
The Chinese refer to siblings as ―guh-guh, di-di, jie-jie‖ and ―mei-mei‖: big brother,
little brother, big sister and little sister, respectively. Words, which translate simply as
―brother‖ and ―sister‖ without reference to birth order, exist, but are rarely used.
This view on virtue is very pragmatic; suggesting that the whole of society is
strengthened by a single individual recognizing his obligation to that society and
acting accordingly. This being at the core of his teaching it is most often expressed in
the very first chapter of Confucius‘ analects.
―A man who respects his parents and his elders would hardly be inclined to
defy his superiors. A man who is not inclined to defy his superiors will never foment a
rebellion. A gentleman works at the root. Once the root is secured, the Way unfolds.
To respect parents and elders is the root of humanity…
In intercourse with my friends, have I been faithful? Have I practiced what I was
taught?
At home, a young man must respect his parents; abroad, he must respect his elders. He
should talk little, but with good faith; love all people, but associate with the virtuous.
Having done this, if he still has energy to spare, let him study literature…
A man who values virtue more than good looks, who devotes all his energy to serving
his father and mother, who is willing to give his life for his sovereign, who in
intercourse with friends is true to his word—even though some may call him
uneducated, I still maintain he is an educated man…
31
A gentleman puts loyalty and faithfulness foremost; he does not befriend his moral
inferiors. When he commits a fault, he is not afraid to amend his ways…
When the father is alive, watch the son‘s aspirations. When father is dead, watch the
son‘s actions. If three years later, the son has not veered from the father‘s way, he may
be called a dutiful son indeed…
If your promises conform to what is right, you will be able to keep your word. … The
best support is provided by one‘s own kinsmen.‖ 2
Confucius furthers his explanation on obligation in 15:16 .
―A gentleman takes justice as his basis, enacts it in conformity with the ritual,
expounds it with modesty, and through good faith, brings it to fruition. This is how a
gentleman proceeds.‖ 3
Justice
Chapter Four of his analects clearly demonstrates the value Confucius places
on justice.
―In the affairs of the world, a gentleman has no parti pris: he takes the side of
justice… A gentleman seeks virtue; a small man seeks land. A gentleman seeks
justice; a small man seeks favours… Do not worry if you are without a position; worry
lest you do not deserve a position… The doctor of the Master is: Loyalty and
reciprocity, and that‘s all…A gentleman considers what is just.‖ 4
The Master had more to say on justice in 15:18, ―A gentleman takes justice as
his basis, enacts it in conformity with the ritual, expounds it with modesty, and
through good faith, brings it to fruition. This is how a gentleman proceeds.‖ 5
Courage
―A good man is always brave; a brave man is not always good.‖ 6 These words
leave no room for misinterpretation regarding courage as a compulsory ingredient of
virtue.
Additional commentary draws the connection between courage and justice:
―Not to act as justice commands, that is cowardice.‖ 7 Or as stated in the translation
provided by Major Forrest E. Morgan, ―To do what is right and not to do it is to want
of courage.‖ 8
―Nowadays, one may perhaps qualify less: he who does not lose his sense of
justice at the sight of profit, who remains ready to give his life amidst all dangers, and
who keeps his words through long tribulations may also considered an accomplished
man.‖ 9
32
Martial Training
Nothing is said of martial prowess directly. Confucius only gives us
implications that each individual must strive to do his finest at whichever his vocation
and station in life. Thusly, martial training is part of a warrior‘s responsibility. It
should be considered his craft. As such, highly valued and worthy of praise if such a
warrior excels in his craft.
Taoism
The Tao Te Ching, which is attributed to Lao Tzu, is written and translated in
poetic verse. This can lead to a lack of clarity particularly considering the author‘s
intent was often to create ambiguity with his word choice. In this manner, the writings
of the Tao more accurately reflect the paradox of the philosophy. This allows for a
variety of interpretation and leaves us, as researchers, unclear. The Tao Te Ching
speaks of honour, justice, courage, prowess and responsibility, but it offers no opinion
on how to define these terms, nor what actions represent them.
Herein, I have included a few of the verses which directly or indirectly refer to
the ethics being considered in this essay: Verses: 8, 9, 18, 31, 38, 68, 69, 81
Verse 8
The best way to live
is to be like water
For water benefits all things
and goes against none of them
It provides for all people
and even cleanses those places
a man is loath to go
In this way it is just like Tao
Live in accordance with the nature of things:
Build your house on solid ground
Keep your mind still
When giving, be kind
When speaking, be truthful
When ruling, be just
When working, be one-pointed
When acting, remember—timing is everything
Verse 9
Grabbing and stuffing—
this is no end to it
Sharpen a blade is too much
and its edge will soon be lost
Fill a house with gold and jade
and no one can protect it
Puff yourself with honour and pride
and no one can save you from a fall
Complete the task at hand
Be selfless in your actions
This is the way of Heaven
This is the way to Heaven 34
One who lives in accordance with nature
does not go against the way of things
He moves in harmony with the present moment
always knowing the truth of just what to do 33
33
Verse 18
When the greatness of Tao is present
action arises from one‟s own heart
When the greatness of Tao is absent
action comes from the rules
of “kindness” and “justice”
If you need rules to be kind and just,
if you are virtuous,
this is a sure sign that virtue is absent
Thus we see the great hypocrisy
Only when the family loses its harmony
do we hear of “dutiful sons”
Only when the state is in chaos
do we hear of “loyal ministers”
Verse 31
Even the finest warrior is defeated
when he goes against natural law
By his own hand he is doomed
and all creatures are likely to despise him
One who knows Tao
never turns from life‟s calling
When at home he honors the side of rest
When at war he honors the side of action
Peace and tranquility are what he holds most
dear
so he does not obtain weapons
But when their use is unavoidable
he employs them with fortitude and zeal
Do not flaunt your excellence
Do not rejoice over victory
With the loss of others
weep with sorrow and grief
After winning a battle
do not celebrate,
observe the rites of funeral
One who is bound to action, proud of victory,
and delights in the misfortune of others
will never gain a thing
from this world below Heaven
Verse 38
To give without seeking reward
To help without thinking it is virtuous—
therein lies great virtue
To keep account of your actions
To help with the hope of gaining merit—
therein lies no virtue
The highest virtue is to act without a sense of self
The highest kindness is to give without condition
The highest justice is to see without preference
When Tao is lost one must learn the rules of
virtue
When virtue is lost, the rules of kindness
When kindness is lost, the rules of justice
When justice is lost, the rules of conduct
And when the high-blown rules of conduct are
not followed
people are seized by the arm and it is forced
on them
The rules of conduct
are just an outer show of devotion and
loyalty— quite confusing to the heart
And when men rely on these rules for guidance—
Oh, what ignorance abounds!
The great master follows his own nature
and not the trapping of life…
Verse 68
The best warrior
leads without haste
fights without anger
overcomes without confrontation
He puts himself below
and brings out the highest in his men
This is the virtue of not confronting
of working with the abilities you have
of complying with the laws of Heaven
This is the ancient path that leads to
perfection
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Verse 69
The great warriors have a saying,
“I dare not act as host
but would rather be a guest
I dare not advance an inch
but would rather retreat a foot”
Verse 81
Words born of the mind are not true
True words are not born of the mind
So advance but do not use your feet
Seize but do not use your arms
Cut but do not use your sword
Fight but not use your own power
Those who come to know it
do not rely on learning
Those who rely on learning
do not come to know it
The sage sees the world
as an expansion of his own self
So what need has he to accumulate things?
By giving to others
he gains more and more
By serving others
he receives everything
Heaven gives,
and all things turn out for the best
The sage lives,
and all things go as Tao goes
all things move as the wind blows 10
There is no greater misfortune than feeling
“I have an enemy”
For when “I” and “enemy” exist together
there is no room left for my treasure
Thus, when two opponents meet
the one without an enemy will surely
triumph
Those who have virtue do not look for faults
Those who look for faults have no virtue
Chuang Tzu‘s parables are a little clearer. Chuang Tzu is considered to be Lao
Tzu‘s most notable disciple (although the two never met). His writings offer his
interpretations of the teachings in the form of parables. These short tales and anecdotes
provide layman with more easily digested lessons on the Tao. They also provide the
researcher with slightly more concrete text to analyze.
Obligation
A sense of obligation can be found hidden slightly within the tale of ―Lao
Tzu‘s Wake.‖ Chin Shih speaks coldly of his mentor, but in doing so, he is being
faithful to Lao Tzu‘s ideology.
Justice
―The Inner Law, Good Fortune‖ and ―Flight from Benevolence‖ provide
Taoism‘s unique outlook on justice. These stories do not suggest that justice is
unimportant, only that it need not be sought as it naturally occurs.
―When justice and benevolence are in the air, a few people are really
concerned with the good of others, but the majority are aware that this is a good thing,
ripe for exploitation. They take advantage of the situation. For them, benevolence and
justice are traps to catch birds. Thus benevolence and justice rapidly come to be
associated with fraud and hypocrisy. Then everybody doubts. And that is when trouble
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really begins‖ 11
Courage
―The True Man‖ and ―The Kingly Man‖ both discuss overcoming fear and thus
illuminate the virtue of courage.
Martial Training
―The Need to Win‖ provides insight in how to develop prowess in martial
training.
Responsibility
Little is said on responsibility in either text. This may have given way to the
modern jibes that Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu were the first and second hippies of the
world.
Buddhism
Contrary to most philosophies and theologies, Buddhism does not have one
book as the defining manual of its doctrine; no Bible, no Torah, no Koran, no Tao Te
Ching, no Analects of Confucius. This, however, does not restrict Buddhism to
ambiguity equal to that of Taoism. Through its oral tradition and its vast lexicon
composed by the higher ranks of its followers, the Buddhist doctrine can be considered
more tangible and exact. Not to say that this philosophy has absolute prescriptions of
behaviour, such as commandments. Buddhism which likens our physical world to an
illusion, concerns itself more with the intent behind actions rather than the actions
themselves.
All books on Buddhism, as well as lectures of any considerable length, touch
on the two fundamental concepts of Buddhism: The Four Noble Truths and The EightFold Path.
The Four Noble Truths are expressed to help one gain a healthy, realistic
perspective on life, as seen by Buddhists. These truths are duhkha (suffering exists),
trishna (attachment is the cause of suffering), nirvana (liberation from the suffering),
marga (the path of liberation/the method).
This essay is more concerned with the path of liberation as expressed in
the Eight-Fold Path, as this path influenced the Chinese in terms of what behaviour is
considered noble. The Eight-Fold Path is: Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech,
36
Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right
Concentration. Buddhist writer, Gary Gach explains, ―The eight steps… can be
grouped in three. Wisdom: view and thought. Conduct: speech, action and livelihood.
Meditation: effort, mindfulness, concentration.‖12 Speech, action and livelihood are
not cultivated without attention to the other steps of the path. However, our focus here
is conduct. Conduct according to Buddhist beliefs is not governed by a set of rules.
Rather, it is a product of what is in your heart. Love and compassion within result in
speech and actions and a choice of vocations that sincerely express that love and
compassion. This is quite easily said, but not necessarily substantial in affecting the
behaviour of people, particularly men-at-arms. Thus, the wisdom must prelude the
conduct. This wisdom includes, among other things, the understanding that attachment
causes suffering; ergo, one must strive to give up attachment. Secondly, wisdom
includes recognition of karma. Karma is spiritual baggage that stems from one‘s
actions and intent. Compassion will lead to harmony in this life or the next. Cruelty
carries with it negative karma that will be revisited on the individual.
This manner of thinking does not insist that one may never kill (although a true
Buddhist monk would never kill). It does mean that if one should kill, that negativity
will be revisited on him unless there was a pure intent and only a pure intent attached
to it, such as saving the life of a child.
With this understanding established, we can examine the alleged warrior
attributes from the Buddhist perspective in the following way.
Obligation
Following the Buddhist perspective that all things are connected, our obligation
to each other is an obligation to ourselves and vice versa. All compassionate acts done
for us will result in betterment for the practitioner of that act. Does this remove an
obligation for us to repay that kindness? Why should we not repay, since in
reciprocating the compassion we reward the other and ourselves?
Justice
Karma is cosmic justice, and as such we are a ware of its high significance to
Buddhists. However, as karma is a given inevitability a person would not be required
to seek justice. Viewed this way, a warrior‘s concern with justice appears to be
inconsistent with Chinese culture. Viewed another way, we are always a part of the
system of justice.
―The belief in reincarnation shows us that there is some kind of ultimate justice
or goodness in the universe. It is that goodness that we are all trying to uncover and to
free. Whenever we act positively, we move toward it; whenever we act negatively, we
obscure and inhibit it. Whenever we can not express it in our lives and actions we feel
miserable and frustrated… Develop this good heart that longs for other beings to find
lasting happiness, and acts to secure that happiness. Nourish and practice kindness.‖ 13
37
Courage
Ideally, when one releases himself from attachment, he has overcome his only
true fear, the fear of loss. In following the Eight-Fold Path, one reaches a stage that
requires courage. To release oneself from attachment, particularly from the attachment
to one‘s own sense of self, is not as easy as it might sound. Even the most devoted of
monks are still in the process of awakening to this more and more. Only a completely
enlightened being, a Buddha, is absolutely void of attachment. As one moves further
along the path he has less to fear and therefore less need of courage. In the meantime,
courage is valued in the Buddhist methodology.
Martial Prowess
I have found nothing in my research to suggest martial training is considered a
noble endeavour within the Buddhist precepts.
Responsibility
Because of the understanding that we are all connected, in effect, we are all
one, responsibility becomes the same as obligation. My duty is no longer to my father,
my employer, the old woman who fed me once during my travels, or the child that
gave me directions. My duty is to all and in treating every living thing with
compassion, I fulfill my duty to my father, my employer, the old woman, the child,
myself and everyone and everything that lives in the universe.
Soygul Rinophe, Buddhist monk and author of The Tibetan Book of Living
and Dying, gives this summation in his subchapter on responsibility:
―I have been very moved by how the near-death experience reports confirm, in
a very precise and startling way, the truth about karma. One of the common elements
of the near-death experience that has occasioned a great deal of thought, is the
―panoramic life renew.‖ It happens that people who undergo this experience not only
review in the most vivid detail the events of their past life, but also can witness the
fullest possible implications of what they have done. They experience, in fact, the
complete range of effects their actions had on others and all the feelings, however
disturbing or shocking, they aroused in them.
Everything in my life went by for review—I was ashamed of a lot of the things I
experienced because it seemed I had a different knowledge … Not only what I had
done, but how I had affected other people … I found out that not even your thoughts
are lost.
It was total reliving of every thought I had thought, every word I had ever
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spoken, and every deed I had ever done; plus the effect of each thought, word, and
deed on everyone and anyone who had every come within my environment of sphere of
influence whether I knew them or not …; plus the effect of each thought, word, and
deed on weather, plants, animals, soil, trees, water, and air.
These testimonies should be taken very seriously. They will help all of us to
realize the full implications of our actions, words, and thoughts, and impel us to
become increasingly responsible. I have noticed that many people feel menaced by the
reality of karma because they are beginning to understand they have no escape from its
natural law… Both the East and West have their characteristic ways of evading the
responsibilities that come from understanding karma. In the East people use karma as
an excuse not to give others a helping hand, saying that, whatever they suffer, it is
―their karma.‖ In the ―free-thinking‖ Western world, we do the opposite. Westerners
who believe in karma can be exaggeratedly ―sensitive‖ and ―careful,‖ and say that
actually to help others would be to interfere with something they have to ―work out for
themselves.‖ What an evasion and betrayal of our humanity! Perhaps it is just as likely
that it is out karma to find a way to help. I know several rich people: Their wealth
could be their destruction, in encouraging sloth and selfishness; or they could seize the
chance that money offers to really help others, and by doing so help themselves.
We must never forget that it is through our actions, words, and thoughts that
we have a choice. And if we choose we can put an end to suffering and the cause of
suffering and help our true potential, our Buddha nature, to awaken in us.‖ 14
*
*
*
39
The instructor should explain the history of martial arts in China:
Any discussion on the history of Kung Fu needs to begin by remembering that
we are basing our knowledge on ancient artefacts - it‘s like piecing together a puzzle
but we can‘t be sure of the whole picture. No one can claim to know the exact history
of Kung Fu. What is presented here is based on the evidence I have been given and
logical assumptions. There‘s always room for argument - some arguments are more
logical than others.
The first recorded use of kung fu techniques dates back to 2697 BC. The army
of the yellow emperor used Shuai-Chiao techniques to defeat the rival armies,
including his greatest rival Chi Yeo, thereby conquering all the regions and unifying
China for the first time. This would seem to indicate that the Shuai-Chiao (then called
Jiao-ti) was the first martial art. But even if this historical conclusion is correct. It may
have only been the first martial system.
It can be reduced to a question of semantics. What‘s the difference between an
art and just a system? Art implies something artistic; something poetic. Does that
mean a system is an art when there is an inclusion of forms? Or maybe just when one
movement is open to interpretation as with dance or other arts: red is a colour that can
be used to paint many different picture; the note G can be used for many different
song; this one movement can be used for many different martial application. Maybe
that‘s what makes a system an art.
Shuai-Chiao most likely had no forms at that time; and even when it gained
forms they were limited on poetry - they were just repetitive patterns. So, by THAT
definition, maybe it was not the first martial art.
Maybe Chang Chuan was the first - by some accounts it existed before Shaolin
and then was adopted into the temples… but I have also heard otherwise.
In 495 BC the shaolin temple was built at the convergence of revered
mountains. In 502 AD Bodiharma (or Tamo) arrived at the temple after his long
journey from India. He found the monks at the temple to be in sorry shape; they could
not even hold a meditative posture without falling asleep. So, he helped them by
teaching them meditative movements to get into better physical condition. HE DID
NOT TEACH THEM KUNG FU. The movements were probably akin to Indian yoga
and apparently many were based on the movements of animals.
It is an accurate to call Bodiharma the inventor or the founder of Shaolin Kung
Fu - it may be right to call him the father of Shaolin Kung Fu, because his teachings
lead to its development. Monks were often the victims of attacks; at some point they
began to realize these movements, based on animals, could be used to defend
themselves. No doubt it helped that many of the men who joined the temple later in
40
life were retiring from other fields -most often military men looking to find a more
peaceful end to their days: they probably aided in the recognition of usefulness and
development of the systems.
Most Shaolin systems are based on the movements of animals. One of the
earliest being the Five Animal System based on: tiger, crane, leopard, snake and
dragon. Other systems were formed based on only one animal; but even these
branched in separate systems. For example, within tiger there is at least Black Tiger,
Servant‘s Tiger Claw, etc. Within crane there is Tibetan White Crane, Fukien White
Crane and Black Crane.
I have even heard of a dog system and a duck system - but I doubt their
authenticity. I read articles about a man teaching Bando Scorpion- a rare system
which had been passed down to him - it turned out he was a fraud the system never
existed.
Some animals had techniques based on their movements but possibly not entire
systems such as bear and, I believe, white ape (or gibbon).
On rare occasions systems meshed losing one or both of the originals: I have
heard that there was a leopard system, but that it merged with tiger in the 1700‘s.
There was deer system but it has been lost in antiquity. Cobra and python were
originally two separate systems, but later were merged into simply snake. Snake may
have various subsystems.
The shaolin temple has been destroyed and rebuilt periodically. The first time
being in 680 AD by Imperial troops the reigning emperor feared the monks were to
powerful.
The Ming Dynasty:
Legend has it that Tai Chi Chuan was developed by Zhang San Feng. The
Wu Tang Mountain monastery had not yet been built. So in effect Tai Chi is also a
shaolin form adopted by the Wu Dang School after Zhang San Feng and others left the
shaolin order to start a monastery of only Taoist teachings.
In 1644 the Manchurians took over China: Mantis developed this same year,
even though martial arts had been outlawed:
There are different versions of the story, but they are only slight trivial
differences. The basic skeleton is this: Wong Long was already a great swordsman and
tiger stylist. He often tested his skill challenging people to combat. These were not
death matches simply friendly sparring. He was always praised; but would receive
many compliments like ―You‘re very good - almost as good as the shaolin monks.‖
Frustrated he went to the temple IN SHANGTUNG (not Hunan)to challenge them. It
took a lot persuasion, but eventually he was allowed to spar with a low ranking student
- who bested him. He went into seclusion for many months to train diligently. When
he returned he was then able to beat everyone that faced him, but one - their best
41
fighter (some stories say it was the head abbot). He went into seclusion again. One
day while meditating he was distracted by the shrill shriek of a cicada. He looked to
see the cicada attacking a mantis. The mantis was smaller and skinnier, but it awaited
the attack then moved its arms lightening fast, trapped and flipped the cicada… and
then ate it. Wong Long was impressed, so he took the mantis away to his camp and
tested it by prodding it with straw and began copying its techniques. After he felt
proficient with these techniques he returned to the temple and defeated the senior
monk.
The abbot implored Wong Long to develop a full system from these
techniques. Legend has it that he developed the Bung Bo form and possibly Er Lo
Bung Bo, as well .
At some point in his story Wong Long became a monk. Wherein the story that
happens is a matter of conjecture. In some tellings, he was a monk before he even
reached Shantung. In any case, he and the abbot became friends; he had permission to
have other monks, experts in various styles, assist in developing mantis. This is why it
is considered an advanced system. All systems have been influenced by others; but in
mantis there is the deliberate influence of advanced techniques from experts.
Some are easy to spot: Tiger techniques probably brought in from Wong Long,
himself; Goose or crane techniques; Long fist; Dragon; White Ape and many ShuaiChiao techniques. The footwork added is that of the monkey -quick and sprightly. It is
not from the monkey system as some ignorantly print in books. The monkey system
did not develop until the mid 1800‘s , thus it would be impossible.
The Ching Dynasty:
The temple was destroyed again in the mid- 1670‘s when the legendary villain,
Pai Mei betrayed them to the emperor for their political belief: ―Destroy the Ching
restore the Ming.‖ Ng Mui, and Jee Shin are allegedly two of the monks who escaped.
They are significant names in Kung Fu history.
A monk who developed a system outside the temple was Ng Mui. She did not
name the system after herself, however, but after first student: Wing Chun.
Wing Chun was a beautiful teen in small village who had been spotted by a
Prince (nephew of the royal family). He wanted to marry her or take her as one of his
concubines. She didn‘t want to marry him so her father being a good man bought her
some time. He insisted that she was too young an that she need another year. The
Prince agreed.
The father asked Ng Mui to teach her Kung Fu and Ng agreed. But one year
isn‘t much time so she constructed an abbreviated system. It was close range because
the over confident man would certainly move in close to grab a small woman. Also,
one does not want to risk damaging the face of a future concubine.
42
After a year of training the Prince returned to collect his bride but the father
said that Wing Chun would only go with him if he could defeat her in hand to hand
combat. He accepting thinking he was at no real risk of losing, but she beat him and he
agreed to the deal. And left her alone.
The temple was damaged again around the time of the boxer rebellion
beginning in the late 1800 and continuing until 1900; when their failed ambush caused
most of them to be killed -- I strongly suspect someone betrayed them and informed
the foreigners of their plan. As retribution for their involvement the Shaolin temple in
Honan was partly destroyed. The Fukien temple was completely destroyed.
The last time was during Mao‘s so-called cultural revolution… It should have
been called the anti-cultural revolution… all symbols of culture and tradition were to
be destroyed. The temple was not completely destroyed, but its land was taken away
except for the acre on which it still sits.
During the 1900‘s the Southern Shaolin Temple was also destroyed. It was
from here that five monks escaped.. Legend has it only five but there may have been
more. There names were Hung Choy, Li , Mok and Lau.
Hung adapted his tiger style blending it with his wife‘s crane style to create
Hung gar. Choy and Li had a common student who blended their teachings together.
He named the system after them and Buddha; Choy Li Fut (Fut is Cantonese for
Buddha). Mok and Lay also adapted their styles to create their own family styles.
The monkey style was invented around 1842 A.D. The martial artist, Kau See
was conscripted, that is drafted into the army,. He refused to enter service, not
because he was pacifist but because he did not trust the government to make moral
decisions for him about whom to fight. When a military officer came for him he tried
to arrest Kau See and they fought. Things got out of hand and Kau See unintentionally
killed him. There was death penalty at that time (and there still is), but because Kau
See turned himself in and admitted what had happened, he received prison time
instead.
From the prison, Kau See could see monkeys living in the tress on the hill by
the prison walls and he studied them everyday because he could see how skilful they
were when they fought each other or fought off predators. He designed monkey
systems based on what he mimicked from them. Some describe it as one system with
different styles in it others describe it as a few styles that are generally taught together
because there is only one or two forms in each: In any case they are Wooden Monkey,
Stone Monkey, Tall Monkey, Frightened Monkey and Drunken Monkey. Drunken
monkey was created after Kau saw a monkey drink from a bottle of wine dropped
from a drunkard on his way home then ,when confronted by several other monkeys, he
fended them off because his movements were both soft and hard, erratic and
unpredictable.
43
Many believe that Eagle Claw was created by General Yue Fei who lived at a
time of warfare between the Southern Song Dynasty and the Jurchen tribes of the Jin
Dynasty. Yue credited his martial skills as the product of his training under a monk
named Zhou Tong at a Shaolin temple. Zhou Tong taught Yue Fei a style of jointlocks called ―elephant‖ techniques. The General later expanded them to create the
"108 Chin Na locks" Yue taught these techniques to his soldiers and they were
victorious in battle. The elephant style in question is believed to be a mistranslation of
xiang, which sounds like the Chinese word for elephant but probably refers to Xiang
Xing Quan - "Imitation Boxing". Possibly referring to mimicking actions of a certain
animal or celestial personage. In the late Ming Dynasty, Yue Fei's material is said to
have made a re-appearance at the temple in Hunan. The techniques were in place but it
had been given the name, Ying Quan (Eagle Fist), as the grasping techniques seemed
to mimic the eagle more than any other animal. This style was later merged with the
Fanziquan system.
* * *
Following this rather lengthy explanation, the students should be given a short
break (5 minutes) followed by a Kung Fu demonstration from a local school (roughly
15 minutes). This should provided some entertainment which will maintain student
interest, as well as giving the students a firmer understanding and appreciation for the
intricacies and martial applications of these arts. An astute student will notice that
certain martial applications will have developed in some Kung Fu styles which differ
from others and may be able to reason why these differences developed. This can lead
to an opening discussion for the next lesson.
After the demonstration, class is dismissed. Before they depart, be sure that the
students know they are to read the aforementioned chapter from their handbooks, as
well as Chapter 6, The Foundations of Honor and Chapter 7 Honor In Action
(American spellings) from the text, Living the Martial Way.
44
Unit 3:
Asian Concepts
of
Warriorship
Continued
45
Unit 3:
Asian Concepts continued:
Discuss last week‘s presentation. Include a discussion regarding the differences
in Kung Fu styles; in particular Northern vs. Southern styles; Hong Kong vs. Taiwan
styles - differences which occur even within the different lineages of the same system.
For example; the short spacing and hand open palm movements of Lo Gwan Yu‘s
Seven Star Praying Mantis (adapted to living in Hong Kong) compared to the long
spacing and grappling hand movements of Lin Ching San‘s Seven Star Praying Mantis
(adapted to Taiwan).
Discuss the codes of honour below, after the students have read them aloud:
Regarding Honour in China
Given below is some indication of what was considered honourable behaviour among
three warrior groups in China‘s history.
The Shaolin Monks:
Kung Fu (Wu Yi);
Kung Fu is a series of methods to strengthen the body and mind; to develop
the fighting spirit; to increase mental and physical endurance and sensory
awareness. At its highest level in can help one to better understand oneself,
one’s neighbour and to lead a better, more productive and full life.
The principle of Kung Fu:
Follow the ways to preserve rather than destroy; avoid rather than check; check
rather than hurt; hurt rather than maim; and maim rather than kill - for all life is
precious and none can be replaced.
The virtue: the mind of all creatures, the low and the high, is the master of its
own body; but only when the mind is at one with the flow of nature may this
system be exercised to its fullest. We may use this system to become unto a
small forest.
Imperial Guards:
As well as a being loyal to the royal family, the
guardsmen were expected to follow the principles of
Confucianism Additionally, they were expected to follow
46
the examples of classic literature which would include
emulation of the three heroes of Romance of the Three
Kingdoms. Within each dynasty since the epic was written,
the story would have slight variations so that the lessons
contained within best addressed the expectations of the
empire. Nevertheless, the overall standard of
responsibility, courage, justice and obligation remained
the same. Loyalty to one‘s monarchy and to one‘s friends
is prominent in the novel. In particular, General Gwan was
used as a role model for aspiring warriors. He was
canonized as deity and holds a role similar to that of the
Archangel Michael in Judeo-Christian theology. Still
today, statuettes of General Gwan can be found in military
schools and bases, police colleges and stations; and Kung
Fu schools in China and other Chinese countries.
Knights-Errant:
Knight-Errant is a translation chosen because of the obvious similarities
to European Knights-Errant (or Cavaliers), as both were a type of
chivalrous hero. The Chinese Knight-Errant was referred to as „You Xia‟
which means “wandering force” or “Chuang-Tzu” which means superior man.
These knights came into existence during the Han Dynasty and
disappeared during the Qing Dynasty. The travelled the land operating in
a fashion similar to Robin Hood… or The A-team, in that they were
vigilantes righting wrongs to the commoners and nobility, accepting
payment when it could be afforded. They are described in the poem, The
Swordsman by Jia Dao:
For ten years I have been polishing this sword;
Its frosty edge has never been put to the test.
Now I am holding it and showing it to you, sir:
Is there anyone suffering from injustice? 15
Again, as in Europe, there are legends and fables written of their
adventures; mostly in what are known as Wu Xia novels.
Is anyone familiar with Wu Xia novels?
Explain:
Some people like to claim that Chinese Kung Fu was the root of all Asian
martial arts - while no doubt it had influence on many conflict existed everywhere and
some arts probably developed independently.
47
Korean arts had some Chinese influence as they are geographical neighbours,
but there are significant differences. Tung Soo Do, in fact, translates as ‗Way of the
Chinese Hand‖. It developed into the more sport-oriented Tae Kwon Do, has a
different method to its high kicks. Practitioners are encouraged to lean back and go on
their toes for extra height. They are also more often acrobatic in their kicking. Kung
Fu practitioners may find these techniques ill advised but one must recognize the
origins. The Korean commoners needed to defend themselves against people on
horseback. Removing them from them horses was very practical. It sounds
impossible, but remember that horses in Korea at that time were not the giant stallions
we see in Canada.
Korean Hapkido seems very closely related to Chin Na. Clearly this was
learned from the close connection to China. Both are fine grappling (or joint
manipulating) systems executed with circular fluid movements. Many Korean based
schools offer both Tae Kwon Do and Hapkido which complement each other well in
that they are opposite in nature. Tae Kwon Do (The way of Hands and Feet) is hard,
linear and flashy, whereas, Hapkido is softer, circular and economic in its movements.
By offering both a student becomes a more well-rounded practitioner with a greater
arsenal at her/his disposal.
One country wherein there is no denial of the borrowing of Chinese Kung fu is
Vietnam; whenever I have asked a practitioner about the roots of Vietnamese martial
arts I have been told, ―it‘s Chinese Kung Fu - learned in Vietnam.‖
In contrast, the Japanese society of the past was very xenophobic and denied
any foreign influence even when it was obvious - at one time the entire island was
closed off to the world. The Japanese, in fact, did not develop karate or jujitsu. These
were developed on Okinawa before it was occupied and subsequently taken by Japan.
The Okinawan fisherman travelled frequently to China, by choice or by act of nature,
and there they learned Kung Fu techniques. As their time was limited, they
abbreviated these techniques into karate and jujitsu. Everyone ―knows‖ that karate
means empty hand … but this is not so. Te means ‗hand‗; kara means ‗empty‗, but its
is a homophone for ‗China‘ - originally kara-te meant ‗China hand‗. The writing has
since been altered to deny any roots outside of Japan.
Regarding Jujitsu, there is some evidence of techniques being used around 25
BC; but it was not developed into a system until 13 centuries later.
Even Judo and Aikido are not entirely of Japanese origin. What is often left out
of the histories of their founders is their trips to China.
* Jigoro Kano, was a jujitsu master, who travelled to China for many months,
witnessed Shuai-Chiao and then invented Judo.
48
* Morehei Ushiba, was also a Jujitsu master, who went to China for many months,
witnessed Chin Na and then invented Aikido.
Still, to say they are not Japanese arts would be comparable to stating that the
Hawaiian Martial Arts, Lima-Lama and Luo, are not American. All of these arts which
find their roots in China have evolved to become uniquely Japanese.
Only the weapons arts may be 100% Japanese: Kendo and Iado are based on
the use of the Japanese sword and Naginato was a marital art women developed from
brooms (now hooked sticks) to defend from bandits and rapists while there husbands
were away.
Regarding Honour in Korea and Japan:
Both the warriors of Korea and Japan had codes of honour which resembled
those of China, as all three nations were heavily influenced by the three teachings.
Be loyal to your king.
Be obedient to your parents.
Be honourable to your friends.
Never retreat in battle.
Make a just kill.
-6th century Hwarang Warriors‘ Code of Conduct 16
The Hwarang were a Korean caste of warriors. Korean Martial Historian, Choi
Hong Hi informs us this caste founded its ethical underpinning on the teachings of
Confucius. The only one of the five commandments of their code which does not sit
well with this author is the remark, ―Never retreat in battle.‖ The extreme ‘Never‘
seems to lack some military savvy. However, it is possible this was a superfluous
statement intended to strongly connote the insistence of courage.
The Bushi of Japan seem to have the most organized and clearly presented
honour codes of any warrior caste in Asian and possibly the world.
Before explaining the term Bushi, ask if anyone else can do so.
Bushi - The same symbols are used in Chinese and are pronounced Wu Shr. In both
cases, bu (wu) refers to a relation to war or ‗martial‗; shi (shr) has no direct translation
in English, but can be best summed as gentlemanly, scholarly, expert-sage. Thus,
Bushi (Wu Shr) means warrior. Bushido means ‗way of the warrior‘.
What are some of the other ‗warrior‘ terms which come from Japan?
Explain: Samurai: a member of the elite class of warriors, born into this heritage
within feudal Japan;
Ronin: a masterless Samurai;
49
Ninja: an ―invisible‖ warrior-agent, practiced in the stealthy application of Japanese
martial arts so as to be employable as a spy or assassin.
The Bushido (Way of the Warrior) has been written by many respected
samurai (or descendents thereof) over the centuries often with very slight variations.
Each is the same; however, in its adherence to respect, loyalty, benevolence, and
courage. Most were general ideas much like those provided by China and Korea; Hojo
Soun, a samurai of the Ashikaga shogunate (1336—1573) proclaimed a more exact
doctrine to follow:
1. Believe in Buddha and the Shinto gods.
2. Get up early in the morning in order to set a good example for your servants and
to carry. Out your own duties well. If you begin to be lax, you‟ll be fired.
3. Go to bed at a reasonable hour. Don‟t waste fuel for lighting while you hang out
with other guys until late at night. Remember that robbers usually break in two
hours before and after midnight, so you aren‟t around, you‟ll fall victim to them.
It‟s not worth getting a bad name for irresponsible behavior. Get up a couple of
hours before dawn, wash in cold water, and say your prayers. Get yourself ready,
and then give your wife, children and servants their instructions for the day. Arrive
at work early, before the sun rises, so that you can do all the work allotted to you. If
you don‟t keep up, you won‟t be able to do everything you‟re responsible for.
4. Before washing your face and hands, go and check out the washroom, the gates,
stables, and gardens. Get someone to clean up the places that need cleaning. Then
go and wash your face and hands. Don‟t expectorate loudly, because this will
disturb the people asleep in your house.
5. Saying prayers is for your own sake. Be honest, sincere, and law-abiding.
Respect your superiors and treat your subordinates compassionately. Accept your
lot, in accordance with Buddha and the Shinto gods: accept what you have and
what you don‟t have -- this will give you divine protection, even if you don‟t pray.
Remember if a dishonest person prays, he will not be given divine protection.
Beware!
6. Don‟t try and compete with others in the quality of your clothes and weapons. As
long as they look reasonable, you are fine. If you go into debt to but expensive
things, people will deride you.
7. Fix your hair first thing, whether you go to work or stay at home. There is no
way you can appear among people when you‟re all dishevelled -- and if your
servants see that you don‟t care about your appearance, they‟ll begin to neglect
theirs, too. It also looks ridiculous for you to rush to fix your hair if an unexpected
guest arrives.
8. When you arrive at work, don‟t go straight to the boss‟s office. Wait in the
50
waiting area and see how the other workers behave. Go to the boss when he calls
you, otherwise there may be an unpleasant surprise in store for you.
9. When the boss calls you, answer “Yes, sir!” promptly, even if you are at some
distance from him. Hurry forward, and then, when you get close to him, crawl to
him on your hands and knees. Then rush off to do what he has told you to do, and
when you‟re done, come back and give him an accurate report. Don‟t try and show
how clever you are. If necessary, consult with other people as to how to present
your report to the boss. Don‟t take all the credit.
10. When you are with your boss, don‟t listen to gossips. Keep well away from
them. You must also not talk about yourself or laugh loudly -- this will make your
cronies and your boss ostracize you.
11. Rely on others -- don‟t try to do things alone.
12. Carry a book with you wherever you go, so that if you have a free moment, you
can read and revise the characters surreptitiously. If you don‟t get into the habit of
reviewing them, you‟ll forget them. Do the same for writing.
13. When there is a line of VIP‟s waiting to consult with your boss, do not walk past
them arrogantly, but bow at the waist and hold your hands low. Samurai must
behave with humility and deference.
14. Always tell the truth to everyone -- whether they are superior or subordinate to
you. Even when you are joking, tell the truth, otherwise telling half-truths and lies
will become a habit and you will be ostracized. If someone accuses you of lying, it
is a disgrace that will never leave you.
15. If you don‟t know tanka composition, you are ignorant and ungifted. You must
study it. Always watch what you say. One word can betray your thoughts.
16. During your free time, practice your equestrian skills. Get an expert to show
you the basic stuff, and learn all the rest on your own.
17. Spend your time on studying an writing. Avoid go, chess, and musical
instruments. It‟s not that there‟s anything wrong with these things -- they‟re just a
waste of time. Remember that the type of person you are -- good or bad -- depends
on your friends. Remember, too, that when you are traveling with two other people,
one of them will be worth listening to. Choose him. The other one can serve as an
example of what not to do.
18. When you‟re off work and go home, check out certain things, such as whether
the walls of your house, behind the stables, are intact. Repair the holes in the fence
made by dogs. If the thatch from the roof has been used for heating, replace it.
19. At sunset, lock the gate. Open it only if someone comes or goes. This will
51
prevent trouble.
20. Before going to sleep, check out all the fires in the kitchen and your wife‟s
room, as well as ensuring that your house can‟t be harmed by a neighbour‟s fire.
Do this every night, since wives tend to forget this, and leave their clothes and
jewellery lying around. It is important for you to know what it‟s like to do things.
21. It is imperative for you to constantly practicing reading, writing, martial arts,
archery, and equestrian skills. Literary skills belong to your left hand, martial skills
to your to your right. 17
Many people believe with the end of the samurai, so too fell the Bushido code.
However, there are those, particularly those engaged in the study of Japanese martial
arts who strive to keep this warrior code alive. A brief explanation of modern bushidō
can be found in James William‗s article, "Virtue of the sword‖:
The warrior protects and defends because he realizes the value of others.
He knows that they are essential to society and, in his gift of service,
recognizes and values theirs... take the extra moment in dark parking lots at
night to make sure that a woman gets into her car safely before leaving
yourself. Daily involvement in acts such as these are as much a part of training
as time spent in the dojo, and indeed should be the reason for that time spent
training... When faced with a woman or child in a situation in which they are
vulnerable, there are two types of men: those who would offer succour and aid,
and those who would prey upon them. 18
Morihei Ueshiba, founder of Aikido, expressed his epiphany following the
horrors of World War II:
The Way of the Warrior has been misunderstood. It is not a means to kill
and destroy others. Those who seek to compete and better one another are
making a terrible mistake. To smash, injure, or destroy is the worst thing a
human being can do. The real Way of a Warrior is to prevent such slaughter - it
is the Art of Peace, the power of love. 19
Codes of the Samurai can be highlighted with stories such as The Forty-Seven
Faithful Ronin. Have students read the story aloud from the text, Living the Martial
Way. Ask for opinions of the story.
Again the students should be given a short break before witnessing a demonstration of
(a) Japanese art(s).
52
Unit 3- Endnotes:
1 Coogan, Michael D.; Eastern Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto,
(section author: Oldstone, Jennifer), Duncan Baird Publishers, London, 2005.
2 Confucius, The Analects of Confucius, Trans. Leys, Simon, (1997), New York, London, W.W.
Norton & Company. p. 67,68.
3-9 Ibid
10 Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching. Trans. Star, Jonathan, (2001) New York, Penguin.
11 Chuang Tzu, The Way of Chuang Tzu. trans.: Merton, Thomas, (1992) Boston & London,
Shambhala. p. 219
12 Gach, Gary, The Complete Idiot‘s Guide to Understanding Buddhism, (2004) New York, Alpha. p.
97
13 Sogyal (Rinopoche), The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. (2002) New York,
HarperSanFrancisco,(HarperCollinsPublishers). P.99
14 Ibid p. 101,102
15 wikipedia
16 Choi, Hong Hi, Taekwondo, (1972). Cedar Knolls, N.J. Wehman Brothers Inc. p.17
17 Samuel Robert T.; The Samurai: The Philosophy of Victory, Barnes & Noble, New York, 2004.
18 http://www.bugei.com/virtue.html
19 Wikipedia
53
Unit 4: European Concepts
of
Warriorship
54
Unit 4:
European Concepts of Warriorship
Many of this author‘s generation, and the generations preceding it, received a
very Euro-centric education. History began in Greece, which, with its great
philosophers and universal ideal of education, was a highly evolved society by
comparison to the rest of Europe. Greece lead to Rome and eventually into the
remainder of Europe as they caught up in civilization (a loosely used term). Although
this is the wrong approach to world history, our discussion of European concepts of
warriorship can follow this familiar path. Most specifically, the Greek city-state of
Sparta had very solid terms of what it meant to be a warrior.
300, released by Warner Brothers in 2006, was a widely popular retelling of
the Battle of Thermopylae. The film was based on the comic cook of the same name
written by Frank Miller. Ask which students have seen the movie and get their
response to it. Enquire: ―What portions of this version of the legend do think were
true to life in Sparta?‖
Following their answers the instructor can point out these differences between fact and
fiction:
Film: 300 stand against more than a million.
Life: 300 Spartans plus a few hundred other Greeks, totalling roughly a thousand,
stood against a quarter of a million Persians - still impressive.
Film: Elephants, rhinoceroses are included in the battle.
Life: It is highly unlikely that they faced anything other common soldiers (some on
horseback). But Xerxes really did have `mystical` royal guard called the Immortals.
Film: Spartans fought nearly naked.
Life: Obviously body armour would have been considered a must.
Something left out of the movie Bisexuality was the norm in Sparta. Most men were involved in homosexual activities
prior to experiencing women. This is important to note because it rebukes any
prejudicial thinking regarding homosexuals‘ inability to be tough warriors.
`Hollywood, however, did not seem to be on board with that idea. Shortly before, the
film, Alexander, was released which depicts the Warrior-King as a bisexual, as he was
in true history.
55
Surprising truths in the film:
The Persians succeeded in taking the pass but sustained losses disproportionate to
those of the Greeks. Nevertheless, in doing so, they conquered Boeotia and Attica,
burning Athens in the process. However, the fierce resistance of the Spartan-led army
had given the Allies valuable time to prepare the defence of the Peloponnesus, and
later that year the Athenian-led navy was able to win a decisive naval battle that
would do much to determine the outcome of the war. The Greek victory at the Battle of
Salamis prevented a naval invasion of the Peloponnesus, and therefore prevented the
completion of the Persian conquest. Demoralised, Xerxes retreated to Asia, leaving a
force in Greece under Mardonius to complete the subjugation of the Greeks. The
following year, however, a full-strength Allied army defeated the Persian force at the
Battle of Plataea, ending the expansion of the Persian Empire into Europe.1
Life in Sparta began harshly and was not alleviated until old age. Newborns deemed
weak or disfigured really were tossed over a cliff. Young boys really were taken from
their families at the age of seven to be trained as warriors.
The women of Sparta were as tough and athletic as portrayed in the film. Although
Sparta was a society that indulged in rampant slavery, Spartan women were
surprisingly liberated and were encouraged to be involved in martial training, even
wrestling with the boys. The rest of Greece was not nearly as liberal with women‘s
rights. Athenians insisted that their women stay at home. Nevertheless, these same
chauvinists were quick to admire the athletic shapes of the Spartan women.
Aristophanes includes a comment about their firm shapeliness in his comedy,
Lysistrata.
(An interesting note regarding the Lysistrata strategy:
A present-day Lysistrata played out in the town of Pereira, Colombia, in September
2006 when a group of gangsters' wives and girlfriends declared a sex strike to force
their partners to participate in a disarmament program.).
It is absolutely true that the main goal of the Spartan society was to be a perfect
fighting machine.
An explanation of the Spartan lifestyle is clearly given in the BBC documentary, The
Spartans. It is recommended that the class view a 3o minute portion of this film from
24 min. 30 sec. to 54 min. 20 sec. - Episode 1, Chapter 4: Society of Sheer Brutality to
Chapter 6: Leonidas‟s Last Stand. It is included with this package.
56
The Remainder of Greece
Initiating a discussion on modern MMA competitions such as the Ultimate
Fighting Championships and Pride fighting may surprise the students and catch their
attention. Find out who the fans are; who are their favourites and why; and which
techniques impress them. Also, ask if any one is familiar with their origins; when did
these competitions start and who devised them? Finally, introduce the discussion about
Greece as a matter of giving credit were credit is due.
Although the Spartans were the heralded as a magnificent warrior society, they
did not have a monopoly on warrior elements. The other city-states of Greece had
great respect for the virtues of the warrior. Much of their literature and esteemed
dramas revolved around warriors and heroes. Common Greek myths, as well as,
Homer‘s The Iliad and The Odyssey were epic tales of warriorship, praising such
heroes as Pericles, Hercules, Theseus, Jason, and Achilles. The great warrior king,
Alexander, who conquered most of the known world (second only to Genghis Khan)
claimed to be a descendent of both Hercules and Achilles.
Indeed, even the name Westerners have chosen to denote the arts and sciences
of combat stem from the Greek god, Aries - Martial Arts refer to his Roman name,
Mars. The Greek Martial Art is Pankration. It was a part of the original Olympic
Games. As an Olympic sport it was only ―watered-down‖ in that biting and eyegouging were prohibited. Otherwise, it was system which incorporated all manners of
technique. In fact, its name translates to ‗all-strengths (techniques)―. In this way the
sport derivative resembles the MMA competitions so popular today. There are few
techniques seen in these modern contests that were not present in Ancient Greece.
Despite the popularity of this sport among the warrior elite of Ancient Greece, it held a
more important status in Greek life. It was the training methodology of the Greek
armies. The troops of Alexander the Great were all trained in Pankration, and this
system evolved as they made contact with foreign warriors and adopted their
techniques.
At this point, the instructor should give a brief summary of the life of
Alexander the Great. Demonstrate Alexander‘s battle strategies which allowed him to
defeat armies of greater numbers. Then, compare Alexander‘s ideology to our concept
of honour. Next, do the same with the nobility (and-or lack thereof) portrayed in the
heroes of Greek mythology.
57
Alexander the Great
Emperor, general, diplomat, warrior, dreamer - Alexander of Macedonia was
all these. His legacy is told by the writings of the historians of his time; but also by
the footprints of his conquests: the blond hair and blue eyes of the descendents of his
soldiers in areas of the world were only dark features are indigenous and in the many
cities named Alexandria found in Europe, West Asia and Africa.
For your research, several books can be found with details of this chronology of
Alexander‘s life:
In 336 B.C. Philip is murdered and his son, Alexander ascends to the throne.
Alexander immediately gains support from the Greek states.
335 Alexander campaigns in the Balkans. Memonon counterattacks in Asia.
Fall of Thebes/
334
Alexander lands in Asia. Wins the Battle of Grancius River and captures
Miletu. The siege of Halicarnassus begins.
333
Alexnder conquers Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia and Phrygia. Memnon dies.
Later that year Alexander begins his campaign in West-Cilicia with the Battle
of Issus.
332
Alexander begins the seige of Tyre early that year. In the spring he destroys th
Persian fleet. By summer, Tyre is under his rule and he begins the seige of
Gaza. He moves on to Jeruselum and eventually Egypt, as well.
331
Alexander is impressed with Egyptian society and founds Alexandria there.
Alexander continues to conquer the neighbouring areas including all of
Mesopotamia and Susa.
Over the next 7 years Alexander conquers virtually all of the Middle East holding and
empire that stretches from Egypt through to the edge of India.
323
Alexander the Great dies. Only Genghis Khan has conquered more of the
world.
58
In Nick McNalty‘s book, Alexander The Great, he offers this respectful
epilogue:
As a leader of men Alexander of Macedon was able to take a force of
thousands of men on a journey the end of which he had only dreamed of. These
tough and experienced soldiers trusted their young king with their lives and their
futures and, as far as it was possible, he never betrayed that trust.
Alexander had the skill to know when it was the right time to make himself
available to the common soldier. He know when to go amongst the men after a
battle, when to talk to the wounded, when to let them talk and boast of their
exploits to him. He know, by instance, what they wanted from him. They wanted a
man, they wanted a brave man, but they also needed someone who touched them
and whom they could touch -- someone they could relate to. For when they grew
old they could tell their children and their grandchildren… “I once touched the
cloak of Alexander the Great” and they knew they would be honoured for it.
Alexander know his men.
He understood that people do not need to be threatened after they had been
defeated. It is better to coax defeated people into believing that what the
conqueror offers will be better than what went before.
Alexander tried to keep the political systems of the defeated in place and even
left in power the politicians who were there before he came. Like his father, he
know how to make his enemies respect him.
Alexander could be totally ruthless. He had no problem with the wholesale
killing of some garrisons, the sale of women into slavery, the sacking of some
cities from time to time, if it was warranted by the mores of the time. If men
betrayed his trust they could expect to die and not to die easily. In this he was a
man of his times.
Was he a great general? Alexander was without a doubt helped by the
military machine his father had created before his death, but his planning and
forethought, his skilful reading of the temper of the enemy and of his own warriors
made the decisions he made in the battlefield incomparable. He understood by
instinct when to attack and when to feint, where to probe and when to fall back.
He had honed his army to react in an instant in the confusion and terror of
battle and to turn events in a moment.
Was he brave? Alexander was unquestionably brave enough to lead from the
front of a battle into the terrible carnage of hand-to-hand fighting. Leaders were
expected to expose themselves to the danger that a common soldier might confront
59
but the fact that he was wounded four or five times, at least, attests to the fact that
he did not shirk that test.
Did he have a large vision? Absolutely. Alexander hoped that by his
conquests he could unite all the people he ruled as one nation. His hope was to
break down the perception of the nations and tribes he conquered as separate and
to rule them as a unified people without differences of race or state. He wanted
them to see themselves as one nation united by a supreme king.
He may never have achieved that vision, but even as he made the journey
towards home he was planning his next campaign into Arabia… If he had lived…
Who knows how the world might have looked now?
He had a dangerous temper when he had drunk too much. He favoured
friends perhaps more than was wise, he was single-minded, not to say arrogant, to
the point where, from time to time, he did not consult those around him. He listened
to those he trusted but in the end he went his own way. He could be cruel, arrogant
and dismissive of women.
He towered over the events of his life and everything and everyone who was a
part of it… the generals, the kings, the princes, the leaders, the people… were all in
his shadow. 2
The Remainder of Europe;
―Mine honour is my life; both grow in one;
Take honour from me, and my life is done.‖
-The Duke of Norfolk;
Richard II, Shakespeare 3
In his book, Chivalry, Maurice Keen, sites example of literature which inspired
the development of codes of honour among the knighthood. Early in Chivalry, Keen
sites Geoffroi de Charny‘s Livre de Chevalerie, as a case in point,
―[Charny] offers us a model of the chivalrous man which we ought to be able
to recognize from real life, without having to probe questions of internal motivation on
which historical sources throw inadequate light. We shall not be disappointed in the
historical quest for men of the right stamp, and we shall find that the artists who drew
word portraits of them were clearly conscious of the existence of a conventional model
of the preux chevalier to which the outlines of their picture should conform.‖ 4
60
Charny is perhaps the most suitable source for reference to the European
knights‘ code of honour. Charny‘s summation of chivalry is not simply a witness‘
account of scholarly observation. Charny was member of this noble order; a knight of
the order of the star. ―Charny is an important witness on all matters relating to
chivalry, in particular, because he lived the life of knighthood in a manner thought
ideal by his contemporaries. He played out this role in nearly two decades of AngloFrench warfare, dying appropriately in the swirl of battle at Poitiers (1356), one of the
most famous fields of the Hundred Years War. He was the bearer of the sacred banner
of the knights of France, the owner of the Shroud of Turin. His several books discuss
chivalry not from the perspective of a clerical outsider, but out of the experience of a
practicing knight of intense piety.‖ 5
Keen, Charny and others provide us with insight in to early European concepts
of warrior-ship. Let us review some examples form this canon of literature, which
proves the fore-mentioned traits are indeed imperative to the defining global concepts.
Obligation
Obligation or a willingness to fulfill one‘s duties refers to a repayment of
kindness or charity received. This includes an obligation to friends who have stood by
you and those who given the knights employment, such as a king or a lord. It will also
refer to recognizing a duty to the church as a representative of God, to whom they owe
their lives.
―From a very early stage we find the romantic authors habitually associating
together certain qualities which they clearly regarded as the classic virtues of good
knighthood: prouesse, loyaute, largesse (generosity), courtoisie, and franchise (the
free and frank bearing is visible testimony to the combination of good birth with
virtue).‖ 6
―The warrior class, whose martial function, according to medieval writers, was
to defend the patria and the Church. Sometimes it is used to encapsulate a code of
values apposite to this order or estate. Chivalry cannot be divorced from the martial
world of the mounted warrior: it cannot be divorced from aristocracy, because knights
commonly were men of high lineage: and from the middle of the twelfth century on it
very frequently carries or religious overtones.‖7
―… to wage war to assist in the defence of the honor and inheritance of their
kinsmen, or like those who stay to serve in the wars to defend the honor and
inheritance if their lord who maintains them, for the faith and loyalty which they owe
to their lord cannot be better demonstrated than by serving him and assisting him
loyally in such urgent need as that of war which is so grave as to put person, land and
resources all as risk.‖ 8
Justice
61
Early it was mentioned that justice refers to choosing right rather than wrong.
Texts discussing the ethics of knights make references to justice, such as this one from
Keen, ―much of his duty comes under the general heading of maintaining law and
justice…‖ 9 but there is little mention of how to determine the difference.
Nevertheless, even if instruction in the application of justice is lacking, the value of
justice is still realized through the various references to it.
Courage
Probably the easiest to define of the three tenets of honour, courage is often
positioned matter-of-factly within paragraphs describing the knightly duties and/or
lifestyle:
One man in every thousand (ex mille electus) ‗the most loyal, most strong and
of most noble courage‘, was chosen to be a knight (miles). This man was equipped
with a horse, ‗the most noble of beasts‘, and the best armour that could be had: he was
given a squire to serve him, and the common people were set under him to till the land
and sustain him and his beasts. From this beginning, Lull says, chivalry has endured
continually down to his own day, and it is the duty of every knight to train up his son
from childhood with a view to discharging those functions for which chivalry was
originally instituted. This should not just mean training in horsemanship and the
martial arts: there is more to chivalry than that. Indeed, its ethics and science ought to
be written in books, and there ought to be schools of instruction in chivalry just as
there are schools in which clerks learn their doctrine.‖ 10
―… no one can travel so far without being many times in physical danger. We
should for this reason honor such men-at-arms who at great expense, hardship, and
grave peril undertake to travel to and see distant countries and strange things,
although, to tell the truth, among all those who are intent on distant journeys, there are
some who make a habit of it and who always want to go and see new and strange
things and do not stay anywhere long and cannot find and take part in armed exploits
as often as others who do not seek out such very distant journeys and who stay longer
in one place and wait for the opportunity to perform great deeds of arms in war.‖ 11
―In this vacation one should therefore set one‘s heart and mind on winning
honour, which endures for ever, rather than on winning profit and booty, which one
can lose within one single hour. And yet one should praise and value those men-atarms who are able make war on, inflict damage on, and win profit from their enemies,
for they cannot do it without strenuous effort and great courage. But again I shall
repeat: he who does best is most worthy.‖ 12
―And while the cowards have a great desire to live and a great fear of dying, it
is quite the contrary for the men of worth who do not mind whether they live or die,
provided that their life be good enough for them to die with honour.‖ 13
62
Martial Training/Prowess
Prowess in the arts and sciences of warfare is not some natural gift, nor is it
acquired simply through proper upbringing with proper role models, as other virtues
may be acquired. It requires a considerable amount of discipline and dedication. Thus,
while its practical application to a warrior is obvious, it demonstrates other sound
qualities that can be considered admirable and even noble. Within the old texts of
chivalry proving one‘s martial skill seems to gain him considerable esteem.
―Gales went traveling, and was engaged in the wars of the French against the
English: it was on the day that he unhorsed in single combat an English captain who
had discomfited many Frenchmen that he was made a knight… The men whom
Geoffrey de Charny describes as going from strength to strength in joust and war,
loving loyally, and traveling to far countries in quest of martial experience.‖ 14
―William‘s achievements in these engagements steadily added to his rising
reputation as a knight of mark, as the horses and prisoners which he took at them
added his wealth. His prowess was so widely known that when in 1182 he fell out
simultaneously with young Henry and his father (rumour had been circulating of an
affair between William and Queen Margaret of France) both the Count of Flanders and
the Duke of Burgundy offered him lands and a pension if he would enter their
service.‖15 (Both of the fore-mentioned also speak of courage.)
―Hrabanus Maurus, back in the ninth century, tells of how young men in his
day were placed in noble households and brought up there to endure physical rigours
and to acquires the arts of horsemanship: we have seen how, later, William the
Marshal and Arnold of Ardres were placed in such household, to be instructed in good
manners and in the martial arts… The developments that we have been tracing, in
arms and fighting techniques were as would be bound to foster a sense of identity
among those who, by one or another could manage to fit themselves out as mounted
warriors. Their skills and their training set them apart from other men. Ties of
upbringing are always a potent social force, and these were easily forged where, as in
this case, training and fosterage were so closely linked. Upbringing in a household
helped also to develop a common sense of style in living among those who
experienced it. No doubt there were plenty of men who – by watching their masters,
by exercising their horses and by learning experience of service in an inferior rank –
managed by their initiative to edge a way into the cavalier‘s world when opportunity
offered.‖ 16
―… men-at-arms … worthy of praise in terms of the kind of pursuit of arms
they are willing to undertake. … physically strong and skilful (agile) and who conduct
themselves properly and pleasantly … courteous and well mannered toward others …
no desire to engage in any evil undertaking, but are so eager to perform deeds of arms
at jousts … all goes well for them they will usually win their contest or be in the
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running for the prize. … for all deeds of arms merit praise for all those perform well in
them. For I maintain that there are no small feats of arms, but only good and great
ones, although some feats of arms of greater worth than others. Therefore, I say that he
who does more is of greater worth.‖ 17
―… as they increase in years, so they increase in prowess and in skill in the art
of arms for peace and for war. … through their great zeal and determination, learn the
true way to practice the military arts until they, on every occasion, know how to strive
toward the most honourable course of action.‖ 18
Responsibility
―First Hugh dressed Saladin‘s beard and hair, and then he brought him to a
bath: this is a bath of courtesy and bounty, he said, and should recall to you the
baptism of the child, for you must come of it as clean of sin as the infant from the
front. Then he brought him to affair bed, to signify the repose of paradise, which is
what every knight must strive to win by his ‗chivalry‘. Raising him, he dressed him
first in a white robe, signifying the cleanness of the body; over that he threw a scarlet
cloak, to remind him of the knight‘s duty to be ready to shed his blood at need in
defence of God‘s church. Then he drew on brown stockings, to remind him of the
earth in which he must lie in the end, and to prepare in life for death. After that he
bound about Saladin‘s waist a belt of white, signifying virginity, and that he should
hold back lust in his loins. Then came the gold spurs, to show that the knight must be
as swift to follow God‘s commandments as the pricked charger. Last, he girded him
with the sword, whose two sharp edges are to remind the new knight that justice and
loyalty must go together, and that it is the knight‘s task to defend the poor from the
strong oppressor. There should have followed one thing more, the collee, a light blow
from the hand of him who had girded the new knight, but this Hugh, as Saladin‘s
prisoner, would not give: he could not strike his ‗master‘. But he did give him four
commandments to which a newly made knight must be bound for all his life following.
He must not be consenting to any false judgment, or be a party in any way to treason;
he must honour all women and damsels and be ready to aid them to the limit of his
power; he must hear, when possible, a mass every day, and must fast every Friday in
remembrance of Christ‘s passion.‖ 19
―Of the four commandments that Hugh gives him, the two first, that the knight
must eschew false judgment and treason and must honour and aid womankind, recall
two themes of romantic narrative. What we are hearing about, though, belongs to the
world of reality, not that of illusion: we know countless men did go through ritual
similar to that the poem describes in order to become knights, and its popularity attests
that its interpretation of the symbolism of the rite must have been widely understood.
It offers an excellent instruction to what men understood chivalry to mean.‖ 20
(Justice also seems to be a consideration in two fore-mentioned paragraphs.)
―He must also defend his temporal lord, and protect the weak, women, widows,
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and orphans. He should exercise his body continually, by hunting wild beasts — the
hart, the boar and the wolf – and by seeking jousts and tournaments.‖ 21
(This also speaks indirectly of courage.)
Of course, often reference is made to several of the martial virtues in one
passage, such as the following examples:
―Loyalty and prowess, hardiness and courtoisie, are all qualities as firmly
underlined by William‘s biographer as they are by later on chivalry: they are qualities
instinctively associated with living, not just with knightly fiction.‖ 22
―This Tortulfus is described as one skilled in war, proof against all its rigours, fearful
of nothing save the loss of his honour. ‗Thus‘, it is said, ‗he brought nobility upon
himself and all his race.‘ The connection between ancestral deeds and the standing in
dignity and honour of a lineage which is the special contribution of this kind of
literature to chivalrous ideology could not be more clearly expressed.‖23
The instructor can choose literary sources which tell of the exploits of warriors
who defined the fore mentioned characteristics. A personal favourite of mine is
Alexandre Dumas‘ The Three Musketeers. As well as presenting the nobility of the
champions of the story in the aforementioned terms, by examining the revisions to the
story made for more recent films we can gage how society has changed its thoughts on
ethical behaviour. For example; D‘Artagnon‘s deception which tricks Lady D‘Winter
into sharing her bed with him has been removed in the modern tellings as it is no
longer seen as a mere bit of mischief. Other literary topics can include the stories of
King Arthur, Sir Gawain and The Green Knight, King Richard, Finn MacHuil, El Cid,
etc.
It should be noted, warriorship in Europe did not necessarily disappear with the
end of the Romantic periods. It may be an appropriate time to remind the students of
the point made in unit 1 that some would argue that Fredric the Great of Prussia was a
modern example of a true warrior.
Scandinavia
The mention of Vikings usually conjures images of enormous, barbaric
plunderers pillaging every location through which they pass. There is some truth to
this Hollywood vision. The Vikings were indeed fierce when they had made
decisions to ransack a vessel, village or larger community. Mostly, however, the
Vikings were farmers in the earlier stages of their history. Vikings did engage in
trading, hunting and fishing, but they thought of themselves primarily as farmers.
Despite their agricultural lifestyle, they were known by other nations as being great
warriors and exceptional ship builders. An abundance of limber for the ships and iron
for the tools to build such vessels aided their superior carpentry skills.
It was not until late in the 8th century that Vikings sought territorial expansion.
65
The Northern and Western British Isles became frequent targets of attack. Danish
Vikings were just as likely to attack they eastern coast. Trading occurred in some
locations but more of often it was raiding and extortion that supplied the Vikings with
their needs. Some historians speculate that the bulk of Viking pillaging was done for
food. Scandinavia, it is suspected, was suffering a food shortage. An average Viking
needed three pounds of sustenance per day and, included with the amounts need to
feed their horses on their missions, at least 11 tonnes of food per day would have been
required to feed an army of one thousand.
In raiding they employed fear and chaos as part of their strategy. In and out
quickly with much noise and fire kept the people of less fortified villages so concerned
with keeping themselves and their families safe that they barely noticed the massive
theft until the terror was gone. Even their famous ships were designed to allow for port
entry and exit without the wasted time of turning the ships around.
Eventually, their raids and trading missions increased to include Spain and
parts of Northern Africa. In raiding they employed fear and chaos as part of their
strategy. Others moved into the region along the coast of France, south of the English
Channel. Homes were established there and this lead to the founding of Normandy
(Land of the Northern Men). In time the Normans became a people unto themselves
and there region became recognized as a Duchy. The Duke, William, son of Rollo, the
founder of Normandy, claimed he was appointed heir of the throne of England by
King Edward (the Confessor) after Edward‘s death. His only opposition was Harold
Godwinson, Earl of Wessex, whose army William devastated in the Battle of Hasting.
Godwinson was killed in the one day battle. A Viking descendent took the throne as
King William the Conqueror.
Other Viking tribes began to head West; first into Iceland, then Greenland and
eventually into Canada. Unlike the Normans, who became more and more European
with each generation, the westward travelers remained Vikings. They did not adopt
Christianity nor the knightly ways as did their kinsmen. They were brave adventurers
who handed down their understanding of honour through their stories rather than
through commandments nor documented oaths of the knights.
The mythological literature relates the legends of heroes and kings, as well
as supernatural creatures. These clan and kingdom founding figures possessed
great importance as illustrations of proper action or national origins. The heroic
literature may have fulfilled the same function as the national epic in other
European literatures, or it may have been more nearly related to tribal identity.
Many of the legendary figures probably existed, and generations of
Scandinavian scholars have tried to extract history from myth in the sagas.
Sometimes the same hero resurfaces in several forms depending on which part of
the Germanic world the epics survived such as Völund and Sigurd, and probably
Beowulf. Other notable heroes are Hagbard, Starkad, Ragnar Lodbrok, Sigurd
Ring, Ivar Vidfamne and Harald Hildetand. Notable are also the shieldmaidens
who were ordinary women who had chosen the path of the warrior. These
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women function both as heroines and as obstacles to the heroic journey.
24
Among these legends were the mythological tales of the Warrior-God, Odin,
and his son, Thor, the God of Thunder - the most important Gods in the Scandinavian
pantheon.
Human heroes included berserker warriors from which the Vikings have
acquired their stereotype. The Berserker was said to be one who fought with the
warrior madness. In battle a berserker lost all sense of time and space and flew into a
killing rage. His unpredictability made he lethal, not to a single opponent but to
numerous foes at one time. The term is still used today to describe someone who flies
onto a blinding violent rage.
There is evidence to suggest that berserkers were not just a mere folktale.
Certain historians believe that some Vikings may have consumed psychoactive
substances, such as certain herbs, mushrooms or toad skins (bufotenine is contained in
the skin of rare toads, which has a hallucinogenic affect). Bog myrtle was sometimes
used in the Scandinavian alcoholic beverages. It had psychedelic affects but had the
additional side-effect of a hangover.
The substances could have lead to a savage hysteria that could have been
perceived as spirit possession; especially that of animal spirits. The wolf and the bear
were commonly associated with the berserker warriors.
Certain parallels to such warriors exist in other cultures. Within the Bible is
mention of King David‘s bitter warriors who were said to fly into such rage. Old Irish
tales, such as The Tain, speak of crazed warriors foaming at the mouth. A comparsion
can also be made to Romanian legends of werewolves, as it was told that certain wolflike warriors actually became wolves at night. Kveld-Ulf, whose name means
―evening wolf‖ was one such character in the sage of Egil. Connections can still be
made today with comparison to our modern literature: a certain Canadian X-man is
known to exhibit this same behaviour… but that is a discussion for a latter unit.
* Note of interest: the U.S. government has been accused of having soldiers in Vietnam ingest
certain chemicals without their knowledge as an experiment which could lead procuring this
violent rage and using it against their enemies.
*
*
*
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The most famous human hero of ―Viking literature‖ is Beowulf. The oldest
copy of this yarn is written in Old English; but it is set in Scandinavia with detail of its
people. As such, many historians, but certainly not all, believe it to be a retelling of
Scandinavian legend passed down through oral tradition. For a full comprehension of
this epic poem, one should read one of the many fine translations; In the meantime this
brief summary is offered:
The Danes are plagued by a monster, Grendal, who attacks their great hall,
Heorot, frequently; maiming and killing many Danes over the course of a months.
Their King Hroogar sends word that his people are in need of help. This word travels
to Beowulf, hero of the Geats with whom Hroogar is familiar. When Beowulf arrives
the king welcomes him as family. The king‘s aid is not so welcoming, rather he
challenges Beowulf‘s ascertain of being a great warrior and hero, despite the presence
of Beowulf‘s many followers - warriors themselves who obviously respect and admire
him.
The aid tells of the story he had heard that Beowulf was unable to beat… in
swimming contest, as though made him less capable of being a hero. Beowulf admits
to the loss and tells the full account of his defeat which involves him detained by
several sea monsters until he is able to defeat them all.
Beowulf and his men agree to stay in Heorot for the night and await the attack
of Grendal. Upon the monster‘s horrifying arrival, Beowulf attacks without a weapon;
but nevertheless, manages to sever one of Grendal‘s arms from his body. Shortly after
the monster dies.
Informed next that the monster‘s mother will be enraged and undoubtedly
attack the Danes for this offence. Beowulf set of for her cavernous, underwater lair.
This battle lasts much longer and Beowulf must use his sword; but in the end he is
again victorious.
As a heralded hero, Beowulf eventually picks up the mantle of king from the
childless, Hroogar. Several years into his reign, the community is again attacked. This
time by a fire-breathing dragon. In this battle, Beowulf is again successful in defeating
his adversary, but Beowulf, too, is mortally wounded. In his breathes, Beowulf
declares his closest friend, Wiglaf to be the new king of the Danes. Wiglaf buries his
friend by the sea.
Compare Beowulf's first two battles with his last, what are the major differences?
What are the instances wherein advice is given on qualities and/or behaviour for
kings?
68
What are the instances wherein advice is given on qualities and/or behaviour for
heroes/warriors?
Give your impressions on boasting as it used in the story? How is it different from
today‘s perspective?
Discuss how the presence of monsters in the story may tell us about the perspectives
and attitudes toward life, death, and intense emotions such as fear, hatred and passion.
No description is given of the creature Grendal. What possible purpose could there be
for this?
In what way are their conflicting concepts of ethics, honour and /or spirituality within
the story?
European Martial Arts:
While it is no surprise to historians or scholars of European history, others may
be surprised to hear that martial arts are very nearly as prevalent in European heritage
as they are in Asian heritage. As well as Pankration, there are other ―all
encompassing‖ systems of defence. By ―all encompassing‘ I refer to systems that
include striking, kicking, grappling (both fine and grand grappling), weapons and
occasionally even pressure points. These include (but are not necessarily limited to
Buza, Savate(although it is primarily kicking), Sveborand, Systema and Zipota.
Styles which are primarily variations of wrestling are Scottish Back Hold,,
Lancashire Wrestling, Catch Wrestling, Cornish Wrestling, Lutta Corsa, Lucha
Canaria, Sambo, Glima, and Gouren. Although some of these styles vary in their
starting positions, differences in their techniques are rare.
Most styles which involve weapons can be broken down into those which
involve sticks: Quarterstaff, Bataireacht, Stav, Jogo Do Pau, Juego Del Palo and Baton
Francais; and those which are different styles of sword fencing: Italian (La Scuola
della Spada Italiana), German (Deutsche Fechtschule ); and the English style of
Fencing which derives its name from ―defence―. Just as in wrestling the various styles
of stick-fighting and the various styles of fencing differ only a little. For example;
Italian fencing is much more circular as it was influenced by the influx of Moore‘s in
Sicily who had circluar stick fighting techniques. Western archery and Jousting are, of
course, other weapons-based European systems with a proud heritage.
It should be noted that the two Wrestling styles of the Olympics, Greco-Roman
and Freestyle, developed in Europe, adopting the most scientifically, biomechanical
sound techniques from the other wrestling styles. Similarly, Irish Boxing is what has
developed into the Olympic and professional sports of Boxing.
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A Hands-On Seminar:
Chapters of The Society for Creative Anachronism (S.C.A.) and/or similar
groups can be found in most major cities around Canada. The can be contacted to do
brief hands-on seminars for the class displaying the various types of European
weaponry and teaching the proper use of each. In the Windsor area, I recommend
contacting Laurie MacNevin (nee Gibson), M.A. whose graduate thesis involved a
detailed study of ancient European fighting manuals. Also, Ms. MacNevin‘s husband,
John MacNevin is a champion of medieval-style fencing and has expressed and
willingness to include a workshop in his wife‗s seminar.
Unit 4 -Endnotes:
1 Wikipedia
2 McMarty, Nick; Alexander the Great: The Real-Life Story of the World‘s Greatest Warrior King,
Gramercy Books, New York, 2004
3 Shakespeare, William, King Richard II from The Globe Illustrated Shakespeare, (1986) New York,
Crown Publishers, Inc. p.450 (act I, scene I)
4 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. P.18
5 Charny, Geoffroi de, The Book of Chivalry (Le Livre de Chevalrie). (1996) trans.: Kaeuper, Richard
W., Kennedy, Elspeth, Philadelphia, Penn. p. vii
6 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. p. 2
7 Ibid
8 Charny, Geoffroi de, The Book of Chivalry (Le Livre de Chevalrie). (1996) trans.: Kaeuper, Richard
W., Kennedy, Elspeth, Philadelphia, Penn. p. 89
9 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. p. 11
10 Ibid p. 9
11 Charny, Geoffroi de, The Book of Chivalry (Le Livre de Chevalrie). (1996) trans.: Kaeuper, Richard
W., Kennedy, Elspeth, Philadelphia, Penn. p. 91
12 Ibid p. 99
13 Ibid p. 127
14 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. p.19
15 Ibid p. 21
16 Ibid p. 26
70
17 Charny, Geoffroi de, The Book of Chivalry (Le Livre de Chevalrie). (1996) trans.: Kaeuper, Richard
W., Kennedy, Elspeth, Philadelphia, Penn. p. 85, 87
18 Ibid p.101
19 Lull, Ramon, Ordene to Chevalier. Lines 106-303
20 Keen, Maurice, Chivalry. (1984). New Haven, London, Yale University Press. p. 8
21 Ibid p. 9
22 Ibid p. 21
23 Ibid p. 33
24 Wikipedia
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Unit 5:
North and South
American
Concepts of
Warriorship
72
Unit 5:
North and South American Concepts of Warriorship
Today, Native North Americans often identify themselves as a united group of
related heritage. In truth, under the heading of Native North Americans falls numerous
nations or tribes. It should not be assumed that any examination of a cultural aspect of
one nation is representative of all native peoples. Certainly there are shared
characteristics between all the groups, in particular, each is noted for its spiritual
connection to nature; however, a cultural examination of early native lifestyles is an
enormous study carrying vast diversity. An introductory course, such as this, cannot
begin to have a grand enough scope to properly address the warrior concepts of each
nation. Hopefully, the student will be temporarily satisfied with the author‘s
selections. In this unit, we begin our study with the Plains Indians since much of their
warrior heritage has been recorded and, or, at least restored. The Plains Indians include
several nations: Arapaho, Assiniboine, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Gros
Ventre, Kiowa, Lakota, Lipan, Pawnee Plains Apache (or Kiowa Apache), Plains
Cree, Sarsi, Sioux, Shoshone, and Tonkawa. This may appear to be highly inclusive,
but consider the number of Native North American groups neglected in this
introductory examination. Among them: Apache (non-plains), Huron, Inuit, Iroquois,
Navajo, Maliseet, Mic-Mac, Mohawk, Ojibwa, Seminole, Shawnee, etc.
The course designer has chosen the Plains Native nations based on his own
research. Should the instructor be more familiar with a different nation or tribe,
she/he is welcome to replace portions of this lesson with information regarding
that nation.
Boys ten or more years of age compelled to take long runs, to go without food
and water for long periods of time, to roll in the snow, to dive icy water, and to stay
awake and alert for hours on end. As they grew older they took their runs at noon,
when the sun was boiling hot. Later still, they were given sacred sweat baths and
made to purify themselves in preparation for war. They learned how to throw the
lance, and to dodge arrows by spinning or dropping down, to take advantage of any
cover, to shoot rapidly from a crouched position, to be able to ride with only their
knees guiding the horse, and to swing the shield so as to give the least possible target
to an enemy. Among the Sioux, the eyes of the young men were always fixed on the
tribe‟s sacred water bag stick which would be carried by them when they were invited
to go on their first raiding party.
The aspiring warrior was trained never to show cowardice, and any such
indication gave him a name others never let him forget. No coward ever became a
warrior leader. So young men were placed in situations which would test their
courage and alertness to the limit. Once in a “rare” while there was a failure, a boy
who didn‟t have the stuff in him for was and hunting. For him there was no middle
ground; he had to put on women‟s clothing and live his life as a woman. He was not,
however, totally scorned, and now and then one of the failures would become the
finest in his village. 1
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The lifestyle and child rearing practices of the Plains Indians offers an
interesting paradox. As the aforementioned excerpt expresses, children of the plains
began their warrior training in their infancy. This may seem to imply a harshness in
contrast to the childhood experienced by most descendents of other cultures. On the
contrary, native children of this region were allowed to be children. By some
perspectives, this may be in contrast to the mainstream western culture. Children were
rarely disciplined. Instead, they were permitted to run about freely and many of their
wants were indulged. How different from mainstream culture wherein children are
often told ―stop running around,‖ and ―behave yourself,‖ as well as encouraged to
grow up by parents who soon after remark despairingly, ―they grow up so fast.‖
Children were expected to learn proper behaviour. Lessons came in the form of fables
at an early age and entertaining lectures shortly thereafter. Children were more often
asked to behave rather than being told. They played games, naturally; and those
games were actually rudimentary methods of training.
As early as four years old, children were given responsibility over their own
possessions (with some guidance); this even included a bow and arrows for the boys.
The father began to teach his son how to use the weapons, both as a matter of survival
and as a matter of tribal pride. Devotion to one‘s heritage was one of the staples of
their ethical code.
Parents encouraged the qualities of spirituality, pride, respect for elders,
conformance to the tribal code of ethics and to the standard rules of etiquette.
Every mother sang instructive lullabies which included lessons in morals and
bravery. Tribal historians taught history, and other elders gave instructions in
national loyalty. 2
Prior to the European arrival battles between various tribes were infrequent.
The irresponsible annihilation of the buffalo by the settlers lead to shortages which
increased the frequency of battles between tribes and settlers. Even before this period,
the Plains Indians had organized rituals of warfare. Warriors adorned both themselves
and their horses with war paint. As well as denote the symbols of one‘s tribes to be
recognized in battle, there were spiritual beliefs attached to this practice. Certain
symbols evoked spirits who would make a warrior less vulnerable and make his horse
faster. The warriors were very connected to their horses and became exceptional
riders. One tactic was to lower oneself down one side of the horse so that the horse
appeared riderless. This allowed a rider to slip by or get close to an enemy. To get
close enough to touch an enemy was considered a brave act worthy of merit; a ‗coup‘.
Acts of bravery added up to many coups giving the warrior a greater status
demonstrated by the feathers in a head dress.
As Native North Americans had an oral tradition prior to the invasion of
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European settlers, we know little of how society evolved; rather what we know of the
Plains Indians‘ society is based on the state of their society at about the time of the
arrival of Europeans, and the dramatic ways their society changed as a result of this
interloping.
Consider that we have discussed those attributes which Native North
Americans of the early 1700‘s deemed admirable warrior qualities - heroes built
reputations based on deeds which exemplified these attributes. Yet, unless you happen
to be of Indian descent, it is unlikely that you can name native warrior-heroes that
lived prior to the arrival of Europeans. Most famous Native Warriors became famous
for their conflicts with the White man.
The instructor is encouraged to ask the students to list those Native warriors
(not exclusive to the Plains Indian nations). Probable answers include Tecumseh,
Geronimo, Cochise, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse and Red Cloud. There are other famous
Natives who may be mentioned, although they may not exactly fit our definition of a
warrior: examples include Pocahontas, Black Elk and the Sundance Kid (part Native).
The instructor is further encouraged to share the history of two or more of the
famed warriors first mentioned: Tecumseh, Geronimo, Cochise, Sitting Bull, Crazy
Horse and/or Red Cloud. Chief Tecumseh of the Shawnee is an unusual case because,
while he is known for battling with the U.S. troops, he did so in conjunction with other
foreign forces; namely the British troops and the Canadian colonial farmers. If this
course is being presented in the Southern Ontario region, particularly about the
Windsor and Essex County area where Chief Tecumseh has heralded fame, a
discussion of his history is imperative.
Oki Chi Taw
Unlike many other martial systems, the techniques of the Plains Indians did not
exist as a systemized curriculum. In recent years, however, Chief Master Instructor
George Lepine, has taken the martial system, Oki Chi Taw, of his ancestors, and
structured it into a highly organized, digestible curriculum. The style is predominately
that of the Cree, but most of the martial applications were common to all of the Plain
Indian nations. Master Lepine teaches Oki Chi Taw at the Native Canadian Centre of
Toronto. The name Oki Chi Taw stems from the Cree language for ―Worthy Young
Men‖; that is, those deemed worthy to learn the way. If such men proved themselves
in battle and acquired a number of horses, hides and other such material possessions,
the elders of the tribe may have upgraded their status to Warrior, known in Cree as
‗Okichitawk‘. Interestingly, the name Okichitawk translates more directly as ‗one who
is foolhardy‘ which denotes the ideal of reckless bravery so esteemed by the Cree.
This martial art employees various weapons such as the knife, gun-bolt club and
tomahawks. The description of one of the underlying principles of Oki Chi Taw,
―meet force with force‖ at first sounds contradictory to most martial arts. However;
witnessing the martial applications first hand one recognizes the employment of
circular force which destroys straight line attacks. In an interview with this author,
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Master Lepine explained that Oki Chi Taw is a very aggressive, hard style whose
applications require a high level of commitment from the students. [Oki Chi Taw]
allows the martial artist to take their opponent down to the ground and finish out their
adversary as quickly as possible and move on to the next attacker.‖ Herein
commitment to the martial application and courage are necessary.―Due to this fact,
unless a student embraces tolerance (humility- ‗Tapah-ti-mowin‖) the student will not
recover well from their mistakes.‖ * The system also encourages students to make use
of their surroundings and be prepared for an inconsistent environment as their
ancestors would have been. These concepts are, of course, more difficult to relay in a
limited space, but Master Lepine is optimistic that he may have outdoor training
facilities, or at the very least, a much larger training hall in the near future. A current
project of Master Lepine‘s is the publication of a book on the subject of Oki Chi Taw.
Although he is has yet to complete the book, an examination of considerable scope, he
was gracious enough to offer exerts from his initial draft to offer in this course. They
contain, not only technical explanations of the style, but philosophical and spiritual
underpinnings of the Plains Indians‘ warrior code. Rather than paraphrasing the
information which Master Lepine offers so articulately, the course designer has opted
to included these outtakes verbatim:
Historically, our warriors protected our communities and watched over us. They were
truly respected by their respective tribes because they possessed physical, mental, and
spiritual strength. One primary condition in being a warrior was that they had to be
prepared to overpower the enemy and face death head-on. Native warriors have
always been devoted to the survival of their people and their homeland. It was also
understood that if required, a warrior would lay down their life for the preservation of
their culture, for death to the native warrior was but another step in the advancement
of life.
"Life is not separate from death. It only looks that way." - Blackfoot
Indigenous warriors do not fear death, but rather regard it as the ultimate sacrifice
for their own and their people's continued survival. Indigenous families and
communities have always honoured their warriors. Although some of events and
ceremonies may vary from tribe to tribe, recognition of their accomplishments may
have taken place through private family gatherings, or through public ceremonies.
The warrior seeks a path of wisdom and wisdom is the total sum of all of their
personal experiences. In times of conflict, warriors had to learn how to survive, often
using skills that were handed down through generations by their fathers, brothers,
uncles, mothers, sisters, other family members as well as the warrior society. We
thank you for your teachings and skills, for without it, we would be off our paths of
success and enlightenment.
"We will be known forever by the tracks we leave." - Dakota
Historically, Aboriginal Warriors employed a very direct approach in the area of
combat, thus achieving lethal results. Here are the four main objectives of Oki Chi
Taw's. Keep in mind that they are also based on the 4 directions and what each
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direction represents in an indigenous culture for a warrior.
East Represents - Balance, Confidence, Creativity
South Represents - Strength, Focus, Success
North Represents - Courage, Energy, Knowledge
West Represents - Change, Choice, Proof
1. EAST: Locate, set up and develop a solid attack position
2. SOUTH: Challenge your opponent aggressively and bravely
3. NORTH: Control your opponent with surprise or overwhelming force
4. WEST: Takedown, finish out and move on to the next adversary
OKI CHI TAW The Seven Teachings
Oki Chi Taw has incorporated the 7 teachings honouring the traditional
applications of our Grandfathers, which include Respect, Honesty, Love, Bravery,
Truth, Humility and Wisdom. The purpose of the 7 Grandfather Teachings as well as
embracing the structure and gift that comes with each ancestral teaching is an
important one for Oki Chi Taw. As humans, we must maintain the emphasis of the
importance of spirituality. By doing this, we allow the spirit to motivate us and keep us
in balance of our body, mind and spirit. As we receive these traditional teachings on
our journey, they will only help us discover our purpose as we learn from each one of
these experiences and the challenge that may be before us.
By following and living these Seven Grandfather teachings of Respect, Honesty,
Love, Bravery, Truth, Humility and Wisdom, only then will we be able to obtain the
nourishment for strength, passion and the indomitable spirit of our ancestors.
Respect - / Meyo tota'wew to honour all of creation is to have respect. Showing
regards for the value of persons or things through courteous consideration and
appreciation. Honour our traditional roles and teachings. Honour our families,
others, and ourselves. Don't hurt anything or anyone on the outside or the inside.
Honesty - / Kwuyusk wait siwin to walk through life with integrity is to know honesty.
Being truthful and trustworthy. Tell the truth. Accept and act on
truths through straightforward and appropriate communication.
Love - / Sake-hi-towin to know love is to know peace. Strong affection for another
forming out of kinship or personal ties; attachments based upon
devotion, admiration, tenderness, unselfish loyalty, benevolent concern. Feel and give
absolute kindness for all things around you. To love yourself is to live at peace with
the creator and in harmony with all creation.
Bravery - / Napeh Kasowin to face life with courage is to know bravery. The personal
strength to face difficulties, obstacles and challenges. Have
courage, make positive choices. Stand up for your convictions--show courage in
communicating and decision-making.
Truth - / Tapwe'win to know of these things is to know the truth. Faithfully apply the
teachings of our seven grandfathers and trust in the creator. Sincerity in action,
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character, and utterance. Be faithful to fact and reality.
Humility - / Tapah-ti-mowin to accept yourself as a sacred part of creation is to know
humility. Reflecting, expressing or offering in a spirit of
deference or submission. Balance of equality with all of life. Recognize the human
need for balance in life.
Wisdom - / Ayinese'win to cherish knowledge is to know wisdom: Sound judgment,
ability to discern inner qualities and relationships. Use good
sense and form a good attitude and course of action. Listen and use the wisdom of
elders, tribal leadership and spiritual leaders.
Once the student warrior adorns these Seven Teachings, they will have acquired
an abundance of knowledge and commitment to being warriors of peace. As a warrior
of peace, you will not be afraid to step into darkness for you have come to know true
success and personal victory.
Some quotes from various traditional and indigenous warriors of the Plains on how
they saw themselves in times of conflict many years ago:
· Make my enemy strong; courageous and brave, for if I defeat him, I will not be
ashamed.
· There is no death, only a change of worlds.
· When you are in doubt, be still, and wait; when doubt no longer exists for you, then
go forward with courage.
· Sing your death song, and die like a hero going home.
· I have seen that in any great undertaking it is not enough for a man to
depend simply upon himself.
· The ground on which we stand is sacred ground. It is the
blood of our ancestors.
· It is easy to be brave from a distance.
*
Oki Chi Taw has been recognized as an official martial art by the World
Martial Arts Union. Master Lepine, who is now one of the Vice-presidents of
the union, is often asked to demonstrate this art at their international
exhibitions.
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Should the instructor which delve more deeply into the spiritual
applications of the Plains Indian Warriors or give more detail into their martial
tactics, here are additional exerts provided by Master Lepine:
Spiritual Applications:
General Explanations of Aboriginal Spirituality
In this section, we will provide the reader with a general understanding of Native
Spirituality, Sacred Items and Medicines that still pose great significance throughout
indigenous communities. Most indigenous belief systems rest upon many traditions
that are thousands of years old. These traditions have developed gradually throughout
time along side of a growing Aboriginal community.
Most of these teachings that are apart of this spirituality has been preserved for many
generations. Despite the challenges Aboriginal spirituality has had, it has proven itself
to be strong and vibrant and able to adapt to the new world while maintaining its
essential beliefs and traditions.
We have included very general observations and descriptions pertaining to significant
ceremonial and cultural items that are significant to Native Peoples. This information
provides the reader with only a general explanation of what these traditional objects
represent to Aboriginal People and the impact they have on their lives.
The FOUR Sacred Medicines; Tobacco - Sage - Cedar - Sweetgrass;
The four sacred medicines are used in everyday life as well as in ceremony.
Tobacco
Traditional people say that tobacco is always first. It is used as an offering for
everything and in every ceremony. Traditional tobacco was given to us so that we can
communicate with the spirit world. It opens up the door to allow that communication
to take place. When we make an offering of tobacco, we communicate our thoughts
and feelings through the tobacco as we pray for ourselves, our family, relatives and
others. Tobacco has a special relationship to other plants: it is said to be the main
activator of all the plant spirits. When you use it, all things begin to happen. When you
seek the help and advice of an Elder, Healer or Medicine Person, and give your
offering of tobacco, they know that a request may be made, as tobacco is so sacred.
We express our gratitude for the help the spirits give us through our offering of
tobacco.
Sage
Sage is used to prepare people for ceremonies and teachings. Because it is more
medicinal and stronger than sweetgrass, it tends to be used more often in ceremonies.
Sage is used for releasing what is troubling the mind and for removing negative
energy. It is also used for cleansing homes and sacred items.
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Cedar
Like sage and sweetgrass, cedar is used to purify the home. It also has many
restorative medicinal uses. Cedar baths are healing. When cedar is put in the fire with
tobacco, it crackles. When it does this, it is calling the attention of the spirits to the
offering that is being made. Cedar is used in fasting and sweat lodge ceremonies as a
form of protection: cedar branches cover the floor of the sweat lodge and a circle of
cedar surrounds the faster's lodge.
Sweetgrass
Sweetgrass is the sacred hair of Mother Earth. Its sweet aroma reminds people of the
gentleness, love and kindness she has for the people. When sweetgrass is used in a
healing circle it has a calming effect. Like sage and cedar, sweetgrass is used for
smudging and purification.
Smudging Ceremony
The smudging ceremony is a purification ceremony. Any one of the four sacred
medicines can be used. Sometimes all of the sacred medicines are used. The smudging
ceremony can take place anytime, usually before a meeting or Grand Entry.
Sometimes pipe carriers and elders recommend that this ceremony should be done if
things get out of hand at the workplace or at home. The sacred medicine is lit, and
some use matches instead of a lighter. Some actually use wood from a sacred fire. The
smoke from the sacred medicine purifies the mind, body and spirit. Most people who
smudge use a shell as a container, and usually eagle feathers are used to fan the
medicines. If a person does not have eagle feathers, then other feathers are used, such
as hawk feathers. The ashes that are left should not be thrown away, but scattered by
the entrance at the door to symbolize that any negative thoughts, words and feelings
should be left on the exterior and are not welcome inside.
Traditional and Sacred Items
Bundles
When Aboriginal people carry sacred items, they carry them with recognition that
everything in Creation has spirit, including the animals and plants, the rocks, the
water, the moon and the stars. Even one feather of a bird has spirit. When a feather is
within the bundle and used for personal prayers and ceremony, they are calling on the
spirit of that bird for help and guidance. Many Aboriginal people who follow their
Traditional Teachings will have sacred items to help and guide them. A sacred bundle
can consist of one or many sacred items. It can be the little tobacco pouch that
someone wears around their neck or it can be the items that the spirits have given to a
person to carry for the people. A personal bundle may have been built with items the
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person has gathered and that they take care of them. This bundle is sacred to them. It
contains items that help them in your personal development; it contains items that
have given them a teaching and that they use in ceremonies.
Maybe the person's parents or grandparents or an Elder may have given them
something to help them on their path. All the contents of the bundle relates directly to
that person. A large personal bundle may include medicines, their drum, a bowl, a
rock, their spiritual colours, a feather, a staff, a rattle, or their pipe. They may also
carry a clan marker, something that represents the person's clan, such as a bear claw
if for example they were a part of the Bear Clan. The bundles for the people are used
for healing and ceremonies. It is said that these bundles contain things that the
Nations need to survive. The Healers who carry the medicine bundles say they do not
own these bundles. They say that our people's understanding is that we do not own
anything, not even or physical body which is given back to the earth when we die.
They carry these items as gifts for the people. The Healers who take care of these
bundles have been chosen by the spirits to carry on the teachings, the work and the
responsibilities that come with these bundles.
Pipe
A pipe can be a grandmother or a Grandfather. Usually when women carry it, it is
referred to as a Grandmother; when men carry it, it is called a Grandfather. The pipe
itself represents the woman and man, the bowl representing the woman and the stem
represents the man. The pipe was given to Native people as a way of communicating
with the Creator; a direct link is formed. When the pipe is smoked or touched, people
are putting their thoughts and prayers into it.
Drum
The drum is the heartbeat of our people; it's the heartbeat of life. We live the first nine
months of our lives within our mothers and we listen to the heartbeat; it sets the
pattern of our existence. There are various types of drumsticks. Some people refer to
the drumstick as being part of the Thunderbirds. Other teachings say that the
drumstick is the arm of the Great Spirit who gives us a heartbeat.
Rattle
It is said that before the Creator made everyone, the universe was in darkness and the
only sound was the sound that a shaker makes, the shaking of seeds in a gourd. The
spirits are drawn in when many people use their shakers as they sing a song.
Eagle Feather
The eagle represents the one that is closest to the Creator because he can fly so high
and that he speaks for the people. If you have done something remarkable for your
people you may be presented with an eagle feather. Historically, if a warrior proved
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himself in battle, facing an enemy, he received a feather. Eagle feathers are
considered infinitely sacred to Aboriginal people who make use of the feathers for a
variety of purposes including ceremonial healing and purification. Eagle Medicine
represents a state of presence achieved through diligence, understanding, awareness,
and completion of "test of initiation" such as the vision quest or other demanding life
experiences. Elder status is associated with Eagle Medicine and the power of
connectedness and truth; it is through the wisdom of experience that this Medicine is
earned. The Eagle feather, which represents duality, tells the story of life. It tells of the
many duality's that exist in life, such as light and dark, male and female, substance
and shadow, summer and winter, peace and war, life and death. It reminds us of the
teachings that opposites are extensions of themselves like two opposing hands of the
same body. Native traditionalists look upon the Eagle feather as a sacred symbol of
the balance necessary for the Circle of life to continue.
Traditionally, a person earns the Eagle feather through enormous acts of courage,
understanding, or generosity. It is the highest honour to receive an eagle feather. Very
often, it is through such acts that this recognition "oneness" to truth occurs, and it is
here that universal learning takes place. You earn an eagle feather and you have to
live by it.
Elders
A Traditional Elder is someone who follows the teachings of our ancestors. It is said
the Traditional Elders walk and talk the good way of life. Traditional Elders teach and
share the wisdom they have gained of the culture, history and the language. The
sharing of their wisdom is healing. An Elder does not have to be a senior but could be
someone younger who has many teachings and who has earned the respect of their
community by contributing to its spiritual development. When a person goes to a
Healer, Elder or Medicine Person, they are required to be her or himself, and to be
respectful to them and to themselves. A tobacco gift is always given to the Elder as an
offering. Tobacco is meant for that communication between the person, the Healer and
the Creator. The tobacco can be in any form. For example, it can be one cigarette
from a pack, a pack of cigarettes, it can be a pouch of tobacco or it can be loose
tobacco wrapped in a small square of cloth (called a tobacco tie).
Other gifts can also be given to express a person's gratitude for the help they have
received. This may be in the form of a basket or blanket or it could be money. There
are certain protocols specific to each Healer, Elder of Medicine Person. Many
Healers will have helpers that will convey these protocols to a person so that they
know what to expect.
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Martial Tactics and Application:
Historically, many warriors that proceeded into battle conducted what was commonly
known as a "war cry", "battle cry", and/or "war whoop". This attacking yell is also
taught during current times through various martial arts and is commonly now known
as releasing internal Ki or Chi. This action also has a good application in basic
physiology not only affecting the adversary psychologically.
Today as well in history, this action serves to not only demoralize the opponent, but it
also serves to tighten the entire body and muscles (especially lower abdominal
muscles) to harden oneself and to prevent injury in the event of unexpected counterattack.
It can be seen that the study of the Martial Arts is recommended for men, women and
children. It may provide benefits in perceptual-motor organization, concentration,
vision, body development, aerobic conditioning of the heart and lungs and provides
training in body control which is valuable in the pursuit of any other sport or physical
activity.
OKI CHI TAW Ground Tactics
Tehi ' Pêw / Pâhki ' Tin
In many other martial arts, the use of tumbling, rolling, break falling and jumps are
utilized for defensive purposes. There are subtleties in the different types of rolls for
example, but the principle is that when a person is being thrown forwards, they should
be able to roll out of danger preventing themselves from sustaining an injury.
Although Okichitaw does employ this similar concept for it's technique and safety, our
tumbling and jumps are more directly used for attack purposes by catching the
opponent "off-guard" using a very unorthodox engaging process. The following are
simple descriptions of some of the ground techniques; however, one must not forget
that the basics of learning these attacks require one to practice executing all types of
rolls with a flexible body, a sharp mind, and an accurate judgment of the environment.
In Okichitaw training, one must continue to refine their own technique as well as the
technique of their partner. However, always remember that at the same time one must
maintain to be serious and strict as if facing an enemy. This concept is the basis for a
relationship that moves to a higher level of technique and mutual commitment to the
system of Okichitaw.
Okichitaw Miche che Kiske (Hand Fighting)
Okichitaw employs a variety of hand techniques although it should be clearly
understood that most hand attacks in Okichitaw are a derivative of weapon
applications. This is noted when these weapons are being yielded by a student.
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Therefore as earlier noted, the hand positions and movements are very similar, if not
identical to that of a student holding their weapons (tomahawk, gunstock war club,
knife, etc.) in one or both hands.
In comparison to other martial arts, Okichitaw would be considered a "hard style"
martial art being that it tends to direct energy outward and meet energy with energy.
At times, Okichitaw also utilizes discreet and covert applications to meet it's objective
of defeating an enemy. This will be further explained within this manual in the section
"Guerrilla Tactics". Okichitaw tends to strike hard and more if necessary, and will
deliver more force with each strike. Okichitaw students will often damage their
adversary with their blocks by turning them into physical attacks. Due to the fact that
Okichitaw delivers much power, it makes it very difficult to turn aside or defend from
an aggressive attack.
It's important to understand that due to this aggressive direction of force, Okichitaw
ends up requiring a higher commitment from the student. Due to this fact, unless the
student embraces tolerance (Humility - "Tapah-ti-mowin") they will not recover well
from their mistakes. The style of Okichitaw has a tendency to emphasize body
mechanics, leverage, and applied force. In Okichitaw we tend to use weight, strength,
positioning, and anatomy to our optimal advantage. *
If the Oki Chi Taw class is available then a brief seminar or demonstration
is recommended. A video demonstration is, of course, a recommended substitute.
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Central and South America
Prior to the completion of the Spanish conquest which developed into the
modern images of Central and South America with which we are familiar, the region
had a series of rise and falls of civilizations, the 6 major dynasties being the Olmec,
the Teotihuacan, the Toltec, the Maya, the Inca and the Aztec. Little is know about
the early civilizations. It is certainly impressive that archaeologists and historians have
been able to deduce as much as they have from the few remains that exist. It has only
been in recent decades that they have been able to put together a sketchy account of
the Mayan civilization.
For their time periods, the Mayans, as well as the Incas and Aztecs, showed
much sophistication in some facets of their empires, particularly in architecture. Yet in
other ways the Mayans and later the Aztecs had tendencies which would be notably
barbaric by today`s standards. Both groups were heavily involved in human sacrifices.
It was once believed the Mayans had a relatively peaceful society. In recent decades
evidence has been discovered which contradicts this belief. Mayan leader acquired
material wealth and land through warfare; however, it seems that the acquisition of
people for the sake of sacrifice was the most prominent reason for battle. The Mayans
and the Aztecs, who came later, both believed human blood was need to nourish the
their Gods or the Earth, herself. It is thought the excessive violence mat have played a
role in the fall of the Mayan empire, along with problems of overpopulation, foreign
invasion and drought. It is not conclusive. We do know that there were two classes of
soldier. Nobles who lead and the drafted commoners who followed. The soldiers
primarily used obsidian weapons: spears (both long-range throwing and short range
thrusting), other bladed weapons and arrows.
The empire in between the Maya and the Aztec, did not participate in human
sacrifice. The empire was situated south west of the other to dynasties; thus may have
had little influence from the same forces. This is not say that the Incas were not
bloodthirsty. Warfare was a common part of their existence, as well. Only their
motivation was similar to that of governments today: acquisition. The Incas
preferences for material for their weapons were bronze, copper and stone. Weapons
included bronze or bone-tipped spears or lances, knobbed or spiked clubs, two-handed
wooden swords with serrated edges, Wooden slings and bolas, and stones or copper
headed battle-axes.
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More closely resembling their Mayan predecessors were the Aztecs. The
Aztecs had a philosophy that appears to have embraced death. This evoked bravery
when faced with war. Much like the Navajo Braves of North America who
proclaimed, `Today is a good day to die! The Aztec soldiers proceeded into battle
singing:
Bells clamour
The chieftain is resplendent
He who makes the world is full of delight
The shield flowers are opening their pedals
Glory spreads
Revolves about the Earth
Here is the intoxication of death in the heart of the plain
Here as war bursts upon the plain,
The chieftain shines, spins, whirls,
In the flowery death of war
Oh princes!
Oh, Aztec Chieftains!
Fear not my heart:
On the plain
I covet death by the obsidian knife
All that our hearts desire
Is death in war! 3
Education by the chieftains and priests carried with it this idea that death in
battle was glorious. ―All that our hearts desire is death in war,‖ certainly demonstrates
the effectiveness of this early propaganda.
One way that the Aztecs differed from their predecessors is the potential for
equality in society. Those born of nobility had the greatest chance of maintain their
status; however, every one was given the same mandatory education and citizens who
excelled in certain areas, especially warfare, had upward mobility within the ranks of
society. Soldiers of exceptional talents could even be called upon to join the elite
warrior castes: the Eagle Warriors or the Jaguar Warriors. Comparable to African
warrior castes who emulated animals, these warriors costumed themselves as their
namesakes. There is no evidence that they trained in the fighting styles nor lifestyles of
these animals. When boys began their educations as teenagers and were taught history,
civics, the arts, religion and martial arts (girls were taught healing arts in place of
martial arts), the became aware of the high status and wealth held by the Knights of
the Eagle and the Knights of Jaguar. Women aspired to become the wives or
concubines of these men. These knights, however primitive in their reasoning, appear
to the first evidence of any higher calling to warriorship present in that region of the
world. Collections of poetry and records of that era have denoted the bravery of these
knights; and, they were loyal to their country and their gods to whom the felt obliged,
but the concept of human sacrifice is a notable flaw in their sense of justice.
Can we consider these knights true warriors by the definitions discussed in our
earlier units?
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The African Involvement
In the mid 1500‘s the slave trade began in Brazil. In an attempt to limit the
success of revolts by the African slaves, the government outlawed martial training for
all slaves. Making music and dancing, of course, was still perfectly legal. As such,
they slave community began to evolve their dancing techniques to include erratic foot
and hand movements and very acrobatic displays. In truth, they were hiding their
martial training within their dance. One significant difference between these Brazilian
invention and its African forerunners is that the higher kicking techniques in African
arts were meant to develop coordination, leg strength, dynamic flexibility and other
physical capabilities rather than for actual martial application (an idea they shared
with the Northern Chinese martial artists). The practitioners of this Brazilian style,
eventually dubbed Capoeira, on the other hand, believe these high flying techniques to
be applicable in actual combat. Capoeira‘s history is mirrored by the history of
Calinda: African slaves disguising their martial art in dance. Calinda developed for the
same reason, but in the Caribbean Islands and in New Orleans.
It is not necessary to end the examinations of warrior
concepts in the North and/or South America with the
indigenous people. Should the instructor have time, he/she
may supplement the given material on North America with
research, examination, and discussion of historical figures
from the old west (1800‘s). Regarding the central and
southern countries, another figure worthy of examination is
Ernesto ―Che‖ Guevara.
Unit 5 - Endnotes
1 Mails, Thomas E,; The Mystic Warriors of the Plains, Marlowe & Company, New York, 1972. P.156
2 Ibid p.154
* This information was provided by George Lepine in his book on Oki Chi Taw which has yet to be
titled and published.
3 Coe, Michael D.; The Maya, Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, 1966.
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Unit 6:
Oceanic Concepts
Of
Warriorship
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Unit 6: Oceanic Concepts of Warriorship
I strike, you strike!
My weapon is strong in battle,
Where does it come from? From ancient times!
My club moves swiftly, it’s called Poroku!
Its thong was tied in darkness,
So my eyes would be like stars!
Oh! It is day, ah!
-Maori War Chant 1
The tattooed face of the Maori made them instantly recognizable to
foreigners; and, within the Maori society, a warrior could be as readily recognized
due to the design of his tattoos (or moko). Tattoos was adopted from the
Polynesian culture, although their legends tell that the art of tattooing was gift
from the underworld. The story tells of a young warrior, Mataora, who fell in love
with the princess of the underworld, Niwareka. The two were married and shared
a life together on Earth, until Mataora, grew unappreciative and mistreated
Niwareka. At this point, she left him, returning to her father‘s realm. Mataora,
ashamed and regretful, climbed down to the underworld and declared his guilt and
his love for her. As well as winning back the heart of Niwareka, he was taught the
art of tattoing, Ta Moko, by her father. He brought this art back with hium to the
Maori people.
Maori tattoos first had to be approved by tribal elders. This took months of
discussion of design and determination of worth. The design process would begin by
taking into account the tribal history; Tribal and family lineage were demonstrated in
the circular and swirling patterns designs; as well, symbols representing moments of
honourable achievement ornamented a man‘s face.
Achievements of honour were correlated to an individual‘s ―mana―. A direct
translation of mana is difficult but is has reference overall, to prestige, honour,
authority and spiritual force. Lie karma, a person is born with it, but her/his actions
cultivate or diminish mana. Heroic deeds add to a warrior‘s mana - in this way it is
comparable to the Native North American concept of coup. The period of tattooing
was a spiritual ritual full of festivities and acknowledgments towards their numerous
gods.
Spirituality could be complex in the era of Maori mythology. For warriors
respect was paid to Tu, the god of warfare, who was one of the sons of one of Rangi,
the sky-father and Papa, the earth-mother.
In Māori mythology, Tū or Tūmatauenga (Māori: 'Tū of the angry face') is
one of the great gods, and the origin of war. All war-parties were dedicated
to him, and he was treated with the greatest respect and awe. He is usually a
son of the primordial parent, sky and earth (see Rangi and Papa). In a Te
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Arawa version, Tūmatauenga advises his brothers to kill their parents Rangi
and Papa in order to allow light and space into the world, but the kinder
proposal of Tāne is accepted and instead the primordial pair are forced
apart. Tūmatauenga thinks about the actions of Tāne in separating their
parents, and makes snares to catch the birds, the children of Tāne, who can
no longer fly free. He then makes nets, and traps the children of Tangaroa.
He makes hoes to dig the ground, capturing his brothers Rongo and Haumiatiketike, heaping them into baskets to be eaten. The only brother that
Tūmatauenga cannot subdue completely is Tāwhirimātea, whose storms and
hurricanes attack humankind to this day because of his indignation at the
actions of his brothers (Grey 1971:7-10).
Although Rangi and Papa were not human in form, Tūmatauenga and his
brothers were. Humankind - the descendants of Tū - increased upon the earth,
until the generation of Māui and his brothers (Grey 1956:8-11, Tregear
1891:540).
Tūmatauenga's actions provide a pattern for human activities. Because
Tūmatauenga defeated his brothers, people can now, if they perform the
appropriate rituals, kill and eat birds (the children of Tāne), fish (the children
of Tangaroa), cultivate and harvest food plants (the children of Rongo and
Haumia-tiketike), and generally harness the resources of the natural world.
Tūmatauenga is also the originator of warfare, and people make war now
because Tūmatauenga provided the example. When rituals were performed
over warriors before a battle, or when an infant was dedicated to a future
role as a fighter, Tūmatauenga was invoked as the source of their duty. The
body of the first warrior to fall in a battle was often offered up to
Tūmatauenga. While Tūmatauenga is the origin of war, powerful local deities
such as Kahukura, Maru or Uenuku were also called upon in time of war
(Orbell 1998:185-186). 2
Although Tu was the war god whom was most held in esteem, there were
numerous other gods of war. Most of the deities of the Maori religion were adopted
from Polynesian pantheon. They are shared with the cultures of most of the islands of
the Pacific Rim, including Hawaii. Tu‘s brother was Tane, god of agriculture and
peace. The pair were held in the highest regard.
The ethics behind what determined the validity for a fight amongst
individuals; a battle skirmish; or a full out war were equally complex- at least, from
our modern perspective. Many of the cause of inter-tribal conflicts seem trivial by
today‘s standards. But war was serious matter; peace was preferred, but war was
expected and not significantly avoided.
A warrior is called ‗Toa‘. Some books declare that becoming a toa was the
aspiration of every boy. Their childhood games were mimicry of later training
methods. Ti Rakau was such a game designed to enhance their agility and acuity. To
mentions warriorship as an aspiration is to imply that not every became a warrior.
Other books, such as The Old-Time Maori by Makereti, however, state that every man
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in Maori culture was to be warrior and raised to fight.
Women were also considered warriors, but in a different light; for men the
battlefield was the land, for women it was their own bodies - the agony of childbirth
was considered an inner-battle. Women were praised for facing this pain bravely and
for their willingness to do so over again to fulfill the desire for family.
War dances were held before going into battle. This served two purposes: it
satisfied the gods of war and it worked the warriors up into an enthusiastic frenzy. It
was important the dance went smoothly. Trip ups were a bad omen and fluidity was a
good omen. Should get so stirred up by the emotion of the ritual that they too chose to
jump in the dancing (they were never forced or even asked) this was seen as great
omen of victory. Omens were taken very seriously. Even a display of lightening on a
far hill could result in the delay of an attack.
The martial art of the Maori is Mau Rakau. It employed various staffs, spears
and staff-like weapons composed of wood , bone and stone. Old warriors taught
apprentices the techniques which demanded agility as one was never to remain still
when fighting. Visual awareness of the positioning and movement of an opponent‘s
feet was emphasized. By watching for tension of the front toe an attack became
predictable. Many of the techniques are the same as those expressed in the English art
of the quarterstaff.
Death in combat was considered the noblest way to die.
As with the unit on North and South America, study can continue which
involves non-indigenous people of Oceania. The rebel outlaw, Ned Kelly is famous in
Australia. His struggle against a corrupt system inspired the nation‘s citizens. The
instructor and students may find, he too is a worthwhile subject for study.
Unit 6- Endnotes:
1 Makereti; The Old-Time Maori, New Women‘s Press Ltd, Auckland, 1986
2 Wikipedia.
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Note to the Instructor:
It is suggested that the first test be scheduled for week eight of
the 14 week program. At this time, all the geographical regions
that are to be discussed in this course have been examined. Thus,
one test can contain elements of defining warriorship and
honour, as well as, recognizing facets of warrior castes from
various cultures. The last unit, Oceanic Concepts of Warriorship,
was not as long as the previous units. This allows the instructor
some class time for review. The next unit, Women Warriors, is
also short; thereby allowing time for a test to be given during
this week‘s lecture. An example test is provided. It may be used
as is, or may be modified by the instructor.
The test should be based on those course objectives identified in
the course outline. A test is offered in this package. It can be
borrowed from or used in its entirety.
It would also be a good time to be certain the students are
properly preparing for their presentations due weeks 11 and 12.
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Unit 7:
Women Warriors
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Unit 7: Women Warriors
Present this riddle to the class:
A boy and his father are in a car accident and rushed to the hospital emergency
room. Both father and son are unconscious when they arrive. The doctor enters the
room wherein lies the boy, becomes very upset and announces, ―I cannot operate on
this boy; he is my son.‖ How can this be?
Come, friends, let us to in our hearts conceive
A martial spirit such as now inflames
Our warriors fighting for their native walls;
For not in strength are we inferior much to men;
the same our eyes, our limbs the same;
one common light we see, one air we breathe;
nor different is the food we eat.
What then denied to us hath heaven on man bestowed?
Oh, let us hasten to this glorious war!
-Hippodamia 1
(calling the women of Troy to battle)
Initiate a discussion regarding women warriors. This may be done by asking
for examples from history or the instructor may take the approach of looking at
contemporary literature, cinema or television programs. For example, enquire about
their opinions as to the whether or not they felt that the film G.I. Jane was realistic.
―Could a woman perform as shown in the film?‖ ―Was Demi Moore‘s character an
example of a warrior or merely a soldier?‖ Another film to consider is Courage Under
Fire, in which Meg Ryan‘s character may be the first women to receive the
Congressional Medal of Honour. (It should be pointed out that the film is inaccurate,
in that Dr. Mary Edwards Walker was awarded the medal in January of 1866 for her
outstanding service in the civil war.)
There was some hesitation in developing this unit. To have a separate unit for
women warriors might imply that women, themselves, are not inherently included in
the earlier discussions; it implies that women are an obscure rarity in the halls of
warriors. This is false. While undeniably a separate unit marginalizes women, it is
naive to suggest that women are not already marginalized in the context of our
discussions. While there has been no deliberate attempt to use gender-biased language
within this text, certain language, still, carries masculine connotations within the
psyche of most people. Think back to your first day of class, or earlier, to when you
first noted this course in your school‘s program calendar - what was the image
conjured in your mind when you read the word ‗warrior‗? Was that warrior pictured in
your mind male or female? It is likely that for most of you the word ‗warrior‘ evokes
a masculine image; as do such words as police officer, lumberjack, and construction
worker.
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It does us some good to question why this occurs. History and legend provide
numerous examples of women who have heeded the call of warriorship. Despite this
fact, often women involved in warrior missions or vocations sacrificed much of their
femininity to do so. Consider the classic case of Mulan, who disguises herself as man
in order to enlist in the military, and note that her case is not so rare. Like Robin Hood,
Mulan is a legend that may or may not have a basis in truth. But there are recorded
accounts of genuine cases wherein women have hidden their gender from their
colleagues in arms. Others may not have disguised themselves; nevertheless, they are
often described in terms of asexuality, taking on mannish personality traits.
Among the antiquated literature exist stories of women well-versed in the
warrior arts; yet even here there is often a not-so-subtle indication that these women
are to be subdued. Within The Nibelungenlied, the `hero`, Siegfried agrees in assist his
brother-in-law in winning the hand of Brunhild, a woman warrior only willing to
surrender herself to a man that can best her in battle. Many men died in their attempts
to become the husband of this beauty. As the wanting man cannot defeat Brunhild, he
is assisted, unbeknownst to Brunhild, by Siegfried who dons a helmet of invisibility.
After the man defeats Brunhild and marries her, she refuses to give herself over to him
sexually. Again, Siegfried dons his helmet. He sneaks into their bedroom and holds
the woman down so that his brother-in-law may consummate their marriage. After
being raped Brunhild sheds her warrior ways and becomes a happy subservient
homemaker for her husband.
What does this account tell us, not only about the author, but about his
audience amongst whom this story so popular? Has the abhorrence towards women
warriors been universal? Does this account differ from the interpretations of the
legends of the Amazons?
Ask the students about their knowledge of the Amazons of Greek mythology.
Furthermore, ask them if they see any socio-cultural and/or psychological reasons why
this myth would have developed; pointing out the Greeks were not the only people to
have such legends. Finally, reveal to them, if it is was previously unknown, that there
is much evidence to suggest that the legend of the Amazons may in fact be, at least
partially, true. Play for the PBS documentary, Amazon Warrior Women from the
Secrets of the Dead series which explains this statement (60 minutes).
Hosted: Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball.
The blurb for the film describes it thusly:
The myth of the Amazons, a tribe of bloodthirsty blond women thundering
across arid battlefields to the horror of their male foes, has lingered for
centuries. Their exploits seized the imagination of the Greek scribes Homer,
Hippocrates, and Herodotus. But proof of their existence had always been
lacking. Now, a 2,500-year-old mystery may have been solved, cracked by an
American scientist whose ten-year odyssey led her tens of thousands of miles
in pursuit of the truth. After unearthing evidence of a culture of ancient
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warrior women in the Russian steppes, Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball followed
a trail of artifacts to a remote village in Western Mongolia, where her quest
for a living link to a long-imagined tribe ended with a startling discovery.
There, among the black-eyed Mongols, Davis-Kimball found a blond child, a
9-year-old girl named Meiramgul. Through DNA testing, Davis-Kimball finds
that the DNA sequences of the warrior women and those from the girl of
Mongolia are identical. 2
Provided here are some accounts of women who have heeded their calling to
this noble caste:
Mulan
木蘭詩
唧唧復唧唧，木蘭當戶織，不聞機杼聲，惟聞女嘆息。
問女何所思，問女何所憶，女亦無所思，女亦無所憶。
昨夜見軍帖，可汗大點兵。軍書十二卷，卷卷有爺名。
阿爺無大兒，木蘭無長兄，願為市鞍馬，從此替爺徵。
東市買駿馬，西市買鞍貉，南市買轡頭，北市買長鞭。
旦辭爺娘去，暮至黃河邊。不聞爺娘喚女聲，但聞黃河流水鳴濺濺。
但辭黃河去，暮宿黑山頭。不聞爺娘喚女聲，但聞燕山胡騎鳴啾啾。
萬裡赴戎機，關山度若飛。朔氣傳金析，寒光照鐵衣。
將軍百戰死，壯士十年歸。歸來見天子，天子坐明堂。
策勛十二轉，賞賜百千強。可汗問所欲，木蘭不用尚書郎。
願馳千里足，送兒還故鄉。爺娘聞女來，出郭相扶將。
阿姊聞妹來，當戶理紅妝。小弟聞姊來，磨刀霍霍曏豬羊。
開我東閣門，坐我西閣床。脫我戰時袍，著我舊時裳。
當窗理雲鬢，對鏡貼花黃。出門看伙伴，伙伴皆驚惶。
同行十二年，不知木蘭是女郎！雄兔腳撲朔，雌兔眼迷離。
雙兔傍地走，安能辨我是雄雌。3
For those less familiar with traditional Chinese writing, this rough English
translation of the poem may prove helpful:
The insects chirping happily outside,
Mulan sat opposite the door weaving;
No sound of the shuttle was heard,
Only sighs of the girl.
When asked what she was pondering over,
When asked what she had called to mind,
Nothing special the girl was pondering over,
Nothing special had the girl called to mind.
Last night she saw the military announcement,
The Emperor was conscripting,
There were twelve announcements of conscription,
And Father's name was in every one of them.
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Father had no grown son,
Nor Mulan an older brother;
She wanted to buy a saddle and horse,
And from now on fought in place of her Father.
In the eastern market she bought a fine steed,
In the western market a saddle and a pad,
In the southern market a bridle,
In the northern market a long whip.
At daybreak she bid farewell to her parents,
At sunset she bivouacked by the Yellow River;
What met her ears was no longer her parents' call,
But the gurgles and splashes of the rushing waters.
At daybreak she left the Yellow River,
At sunset she arrived at the top of the Black Hill;
What met hers ears was no longer her parents' call,
But barbarians' horses neighing in the Yanshan Mountains.
On the expedition of thousands of miles to the war,
She dashed across mountains and passes as if in flight;
In the chilly northern air night watches clanged,
In the frosty moonlight armour and helmet glistened,
Generals laid down their lives in a hundred battles,
And valiant soldiers returned after ten years' service.
When she returned to an audience with the Son of Heaven,
The Son of Heaven sat in the Hall of Brightness.
A promotion of many ranks was granted for her merits,
With a reward than amounted to thousands of strings of cash.
The Khan asked Mulan what she desired to do.
'I don't need any high official position,
Please lend me a sturdy mount that is fleet of foot,
And send me back to my hometown.'
When her parents heard their daughter was coming,
They walked out of the town, each helping the other;
When the elder sister heard the younger sister was coming,
She decked herself out in her best by the door;
When her younger brother heard his sister was coming,
He whetted a knife and aimed it at a pig and a sheep.
Opened the door of my east chamber,
And then sat down on the bed in my west chamber;
Taking off the armour worn in wartime,
Attired myself in apparel of former times;
By the window I combed and coiffed my cloudy hair,
Before the mirror I adorned my forehead with a yellow pattern.
When Mulan came out to meet her battle companions,
They were all astounded and thrown into bewilderment.
Together they had been in the army for a dozen years or so,
Yet none had known that Mulan was actually a girl.
The male rabbit kicks its fluffy feet as it scampers,
The eyes of female rabbit are blurred by fluffy tufts of hair,
But when they run side by side in the field,
You can hardly tell the doe from the buck! 4
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The Ballad of Hua Mulan, wherein the young lady disguises herself as man so
that she may take the place of her lame, elderly father in the emperor‘s army, was first
seen in the Sui dynasty of the 6th century. Over the centuries other poems, songs and
folklore regarding Mulan appeared. According to the original ballad, in contrast to the
Disney version, Mulan spent twelve years in the military disguised as a man. Her
deception was undiscovered until she voluntarily revealed her true self to her
comrades when they came to visit her in her home town after her retirement from the
service.
Several scholars suspect she may have been an actual person, although there is
some argumentation as to whether or not ‗Hua Mulan‘ was her actual name. Her
hometown, too, is a matter of conjecture. It is uncertain whether it was Hebai, Henan
or Liang, but it is generally agreed upon that she was from the Central Plains region.
Allegedly, Mulan fought in over 100 battles bravely and was highly praised by
the emperor. He offered her a position of high office but instead she chose to return to
her family.
Joan of Arc
Jeanne d‘Arc was born a French peasant girl in the village of Domremy during
the Hundred Years War between France and England. King Charles was an ineffective
leader and France has been subjected to a number of military defeats. That would
change after Charles was some how convinced to give audience to a mere teenage girl
who claimed to be on a mission from God. She arrived on horseback, clad in armour
with a boyish cropped haircut. She told of tale of being visited in a field by Micheal,
the Warrior Angel, who ,despite her protests, insisted that she would lead armies and
be the saviour of France. Likely, the king doubted her words and possibly her sanity;
nevertheless, Jeanne d‘Arc has gained her armour and horse through donations of
coins from her fellow peasants. She was accompanied through hostile battle ridden
areas by soldiers believing in her. It is doubtful that Charles believed she could be an
effective military leader, but he did believe that with the right propaganda she could be
great for the morale of France. He sent her into war.
D‘Arc had no education, but spoke with great passion and eloquence which
inspired troops. Whether she had significant input into the battle plans or was merely a
symbol of bravery whose input was exaggerated is uncertain. We do know that she
was involved in numerous successful military campaigns and did not do so from the
sidelines, as she was wounded on three occasions.
In 1430, she was captured at the battle of Rouen. She was put on trial for
heresy and witchcraft. The conviction which would finally lead to her execution was
for refusing to stop wearing men‘s clothes. Though she was executed as a witch she
died a hero. Even the English, try as they may, could not deny what was obvious during her trial, judgement and punishment she acted bravely, patriotically, and at
times, even witty. In 1456 the ruling was overturned by the church. In 1920 she was
canonized.
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Ng Mui
The instructor may have already provided you this story in your unit on Asian
Concepts of Warriorship. Here is a recapitulation:
A shaolin monk expertly versed in White Crane Kung Fu wandering the
countryside following the destruction of the Temple in the early 1700‘s encountered a
farmer and his daughter with a difficult problem. One of the princes who had seen the
farmer‘s daughter admired her beauty, and for that reason alone announced that he
intended to marry her. The daughter, however; had no interest in marrying the prince.
In a manner that must have been rare in that era, the farmer was sympathetic to his
daughter‘s plight. Besides which the idea that she would leave him to live in the royal
city disparaged him. In an effort to stall for time, he convinced the prince that his
daughter was still too young for marriage and the prince agreed to return in a year to
take the girl as his wife.
The monk‘s plan involved convincing the prince that in order to take the girl he
should agree to fight her. She would only wed a man who could defeat her in hand to
hand combat. The prince agreed as to do otherwise might appear cowardly; as well, it
the idea that he could be defeated by this petite woman was laughable to him. The
prince was unaware that during his yearlong absence the teenage girl had been trained
by the monk in Kung Fu. At the onset of the training the monk knew that one year
would not be enough teach the young lady enough of the traditional shaolin style of
White Crane, so the monk designed a new system that was an abbreviation of other
Shaolin techniques that could be learned efficiently within a year‘s time. With this
short range, centre-line, easily learned system, the young lady was able to beat the
prince. True to his word, the prince said, farewell and left the young lady to live her
life without him.
The shaolin monk, Ng Mui did not the system after herself, despite being the
founder. Instead, she humbly chose to name the system after the first student of this
new art, Wing Chun.
Deborah Sampson
In 1781, Robert Shirtleff enlisted to fight in the War of Independence. And
why not? Though only 5 feet 7 inches, Shirtleff was robust, athletic and accurate with
a rifle. But there was one other factor, Robert Shirtleff was actually Deborah Sampson.
She had taken the name of her late half-brother and bound her breasts tightly to
disguise herself as a man.
For a year and half, Sampson fought in many battles. Much like Joan of Arc
(one of her childhood heroes), Sampson was wounded three times. Each time she
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attended to her own wound, thereby avoiding detection. It was a fever that eventually
caused her to be discovered by a doctor. Rather than announce her secret, the doctor
arranged for Sampson to deliver a letter to General George Washington. Apparently,
her secret was inside. Washington offered no reprimand for a woman he deemed a
war hero and did not make a spectacle of her. Rather he provided her with an
honourable discharge.
In 1792, the General Court of Massachusetts gave her the back-pay she was
due, declaring that she, ―did actually perform the duty of a soldier… and exhibited an
extraordinary instance of female heroism, by discharging the duties of a faithful,
gallant soldier, and at the same time preserving the virtue and chastity of her sex
unsuspected and unblemished, and was discharged from the service with a fair and
honourable character.‖5
There are many other exemplary stories of female warriors, both factual and
mythical. Among my favourites are: The Trung Sisters (Vietnam), Nadezhda Durova
(Russia), and Tamara (Georgia). Also, Andree de Jongh; Little Cyclone (Belgium)
and Laura Secord (Canada) may be included for their bravery and warrior spirits
despite not being true warriors.
Unit 7 - Endnotes:
1 Miles, Rosalind and Cross, Robin; Hell Hath Nu Fury: True Stories of Women at War From Antiquity
to Iraq, Three Rivers Press, New York, 2008.
2 Amazon Warrior Women; (Secrets of The Dead series);Producers and Director: Carsten Obelander and
Jens Afflerbach, PBS, 2004. (cover blurb)
3 Wikipedia - Chinese - 維基百科：令生活更便利。
4 Wikipedia.
5 Evans, Elizabeth; Weathering the storm; Women of the American Revolution; Scribner, New York,
1975.
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Unit 8:
The Metaphysical
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Unit 8:
The Metaphysical
In many cultures there are metaphysical properties attached to warrior training
and prowess. The belief is that there is a an energy that exist within us and often
connecting us to the rest of the natural world. Different cultures refer to this innerenergy by different names: A thorough discussion of this energy will involve the
concept of yin/yang. Paradox seems to be a common undercurrent in many of the
world‘s philosophies.
The common definition of Yin/Yang is two complete opposites balanced
harmoniously in nature; such as light and dark, hard and soft, male and female, etc.
While this is true it is only a very basic explanation. It has deeper connotations. What
we see as opposites in balance, do not, in fact, exist as opposites at all. They are one in
the same, appearing as opposing qualities.
Scientists have not yet solved all of the world's mysteries. However, it would
be wrong not to acknowledge the vast number of answers they have brought to light.
Most of us tend to think that gravity and electro-magnetism are rudimentary concepts
to scientists, but there are still questions regarding these forces. Still, scientists know
enough to create magic of their own. For example, using the power of electromagnetism they can cause an object to levitate.
Suppose that there are energies within our bodies that scientist know less about
than they do gravity and electro-magnetism. Now, suppose there are people in this
world with such supreme control over these energies they can use them to oppose
gravity or bend light.
There are two widely accepted theories regarding all existence:
1) The general theory of relativity, which affirms the concept of an expanding
universe, where the curvature of space and time are affected by all events.
2) Quantum mechanics, which are properties regarding things smaller than a molecule.
Unlike the general theory of relativity, this branch of reasoning seems to preclude
gravity.
The great mission for today's scientist is to unify these two theories.
Scientific procedure involves breaking down things into their smallest
components. For a long time, we believed the tiniest of these building blocks were
electrons, protons and neutrons, which compose atoms. Since, then quarks have been
discovered. Thus far, there appears to be a half a dozen different types of quarks.
Energies have been categorized into only four different forces: gravity,
electro-magnetism, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force. It has been speculated
that these forces are in fact, just one force that appears different under different
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circumstances. Since, both external and intrinsic energies are a part of nature, this
hypothesis can be extended to include them both.
Yin/yang as it relates to health, involves maintaining balance within our
bodies, thereby allowing this bio-energy to flow smoothly through our systems,
healing and protecting.
The inner-strength or bio-energy is the life force within all living things. It is referred
to as ‗the zero point field‖ by risk-taking scientists. To the Chinese it is called Chi. It is
known as Ki to the Japanese; Prana to the Indians; and Pneuma to the Greeks.
Our concern today is chi as it applies to living things, but we should understand
that it applies to the air, circulation in our homes as well as in our bodies. There are
several kinds of chi‘ the three main categories (which can be subdivided) are Heavenly
chi, Earthly chi and Human chi.
Human chi travels through channels in our bodies called meridians. It brings
balance to our bodies when it has proper, unblocked access to all the regions of our
body, so that it may circulate freely. Proper circulation which maintains a balance of
our yin organs (such as the lungs) and our Yang organs (such as the stomach) makes
us function at our highest efficiencies. It is also believed by many that at a higher level
of chi cultivation, we can control our bodies and its energies to a point wherein hypernatural abilities can be performed.
Chi is not the only vital substance. According to the Chinese practitioners there
is a trinity of treasures. Of course, blood and other vital fluids of the body are
essential. But aside from those there are three less visible life energies. Chi, along with
Jing and Shen, form a trinity of treasures for our well-being:
Jing: This genetic life force (or essence) is not cultivated. It is inherited from our
parents. It determines the initial strength our constitutions and is responsible for
growth in our bodies from conception to old age and all phases in between.
Shen: Chinese philosophies differentiate between different aspects of the spirit. Shen
is that spirit responsible for mental awareness. It works within the mind to develop the
personality.
Chi: Of all the vital substances, Chi is undoubtedly the most celebrated. Proper
flow of this energy regains and sustains health, rejuvenates, it slows the aging process
and it helps you find the fullest capabilities of your body. But this is only the
beginning of the powers Chi is reputed to possess.
When chi, which remains internal, affects the outside of the body or the aura,
which surrounds it most closely, we call this external kung. The body may become
impervious to injury, to varying degrees depending on the proficiency of the
cultivator. A practitioner may develop bag kung to protect his abdomen, iron broom
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kung to protect his shins, fore arm kung or head kung to protect their namesakes.
Even groin kung can be developed.
At the highest level of external kung, the aura becomes a tangible force field
protecting the entire body, even from blades. Can this protect from bullets? If you
could travel back 100 years and ask the rebel warriors of the Boxer rebellion, they
wouldn't be able to answer. They were already dead from bullet wounds inflicted 101
years ago. They learned the hard way, everything has a limit.
Chi cultivation can lead to abilities where strength and power are increased.
Iron palm and Iron fist are examples of this. With them, a person can use the fore
mentioned parts of the hand to smash solid rock. Note, I'm not referring to boards or
bricks, but actual stone produced by the earth. Some cultivators can manipulate air or
the energies therein, to create channels of wind. A humble example of this is snuffing
a candle from as many as ten metres away.
To be immovable as a rhino, or light as a squirrel, able to run on treetops are
techniques of chi development. Levitation and invisibility? Well, I let you decide for
yourself.
Despite how unbelievable these feats are, no one educated in Chi cultivation
claims they are magic. It is considered an advanced science. Consider the affects of
adrenaline. When the medulla portion of the brain senses fear or other equally
powerful emotions, it sends a signal to the adrenal glands, which are positioned above
the kidneys. The glands release adrenaline into the system. Adrenaline allows us to
perform outside our normal range of physical adeptness.
I believe through chi cultivation one can create a state of consciousness, which
is not fear, but nevertheless informs the medulla to trigger, the adrenal glands. Thus,
producing the same hyper-natural abilities to manifest. This has not been proven, it is
merely one theory. Other attributes for which chi is reportedly responsible are not
explainable through science. That is to say, not yet.
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Methods of chi development:
Sport, artistic endeavours: very low level
Hard style linear martial arts may be a little higher, but on their own not
really much different than sport
These fore-mentioned connect body and mind.
Kung Fu is likely to be at least twice as beneficial.
Tai Chi Chuan maybe a little more so.
Kung Fu and Tai Chi connect body, mind and spirit
Chi cultivation practices such as chi kung or falun dafa may be twice as
beneficial.
Meditation is very helpful (connects spirit and mind).
A combination of Kung Fu and or Tai Chi Chuan along with chi
cultivation and meditation is supreme (particularly if these practices are
supplemented with a proper lifestyle a knowledge of what herbs to use,
proper feng shui, and healthy relationships.
Eastern medicine more often allows for the body to rediscover its natural
healing abilities, which are void of nasty side-effects. The human body is miraculous
in its ability to heal itself. Most people have lost confidence in the human body‘s
ability to do so, but Chinese medicine can restore your faith in this fabulous
mechanism. Western medicine should not be dismissed. It has made remarkable
advancements, such as penicillin and cat scans. Too often, though, western medicine is
a first choice rather than as a last choice.
At this point, it would be appropriate to have the students participate in a
seminar regarding energy cultivation; Chi Kung, Falun Gong, Tai Chi Chuan, and
Reflexology are some options to consider.
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The previous units required a cultural studies
background which most undergraduate students are unlikely
to have. As such, it has been the instructor’s responsibility to
provide a considerable amount of information and guidance
in the discussions. Units 8 and 9 deal with contemporary
themes. Hopefully, much less coaxing from the instructor
will be required to provoke thoughtful discussion from the
students.
Students should be asked to read two chapters from
Living the Martial Way: Chapter 3 -Train as Warriors Train
and Chapter 4 -The Warrior’s Way of Strategy, before the next
class.
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Unit 9:
Warriorship
in
Contemporary
Vocations
107
Unit 9:
Warriorship in Contemporary Vocations
The instructor should begin class with a discussion on the students‘ thoughts
and feelings regarding the previous week‘s readings. Morgan makes compelling points
on the need for training and the need for a solid education of strategies and tactics. Ask
the students for ideas about which professions would most require putting these ideas
into practice.
Military and Law Enforcement
Two of the professions which most obviously should concern themselves with
study of warriorship are law enforcement and the military. One would expect people in
occupations which wield such power and have such potential to find themselves in life
or death situations would need to be educated in strategies and tactical applications.
Indeed, the Royal Military College, the RCMP Training Academy and the Ontario
Police College, which trains municipal, county and provincial police, all provide
mandatory courses in both, the technical requirements of the job and tactical training.
Oddly, of the three institutes, training in strategy is only included in the curriculum at
the RMC. The RMC in its advanced courses teaches military strategies some which
involve reading of classic texts of Sun-Tzu, Musashi, Thucydides and others. Of
course, historical examinations of military strategies are also included. The program
seems to be very thorough in this regard.
To what extant do you suspect recognition and employment of honour is
included in the curriculum‘s of these institutes?
Nowhere in the curriculum offered by either of the police agencies can courses
be found which discuss honour. There is some reference to honourable behaviour in
the official mottos and mission statements of these organizations.
RCMP:
The RCMP ensign reads simply ―Maintens la droit.‖ Their mission statement includes,

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
CORE VALUES OF THE RCMP - Recognizing the dedication of all
employees, we will create and maintain an environment of individual safety,
well-being and development. We are guided by:
integrity
honesty
professionalism
compassion
respect
accountability
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COMMITMENT TO OUR COMMUNITIES - The employees of the RCMP are
committed to our communities through:









unbiased and respectful treatment of all people
accountability
mutual problem solving
cultural sensitivity
enhancement of public safety
partnerships and consultation
open and honest communication
effective and efficient use of resources
quality and time service 1
The Ontario Police College professes ―Integrity, Knowledge, Courage,‖ on its
coat of arms. Within its mission statement is the collection of supporting values:
PROFESSIONALISM
We are committed to upholding high standards of professional integrity.
ACCOUNTABILITY
We are committed to responsibly managing the public resources entrusted to
us and
acknowledge full accountability for our stewardship.
SERVICE
We are committed to meeting the highest standards of program delivery.
INNOVATION
We encourage innovation, learning, research, and risk-management.
EMPOWERMENT
We value staff as our most important resource. We encourage the
contributions of
all in a climate of openness, trust, mutual respect, and shared decisionmaking.
PARTNERSHIP
We achieve our mission through strategic interaction with all our client
groups. 2
However, neither of the law enforcement training academies offer training to
validate these claims. The RMC, on the other hand offers some courses which seem to
relate to honour; although the course descriptions do not mention honour directly:
WS582 The Profession of Arms
This course will examine the military profession from a multidisciplinary
perspective. Students will study relevant theory
and research from the disciplines of philosophy, psychology,
sociology, politics and history. A significant portion of the
course will be devoted to the study of ethics in the military
profession. Specific topics will include: ethical decision processes,
the professional military ethic, just war theory,
moral development, ethical failure, military culture and ethos.
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WS552 Leadership
This course examines leadership and related concepts,
primarily from a psychological perspective, but topics may be
explored from a broader, social science approach where the
literature permits such integration. The first part of the course
will examine employee motivation and then focus on
leadership topics such as problems in defining and measuring
leadership, different theoretical approaches to leadership,
transformational leadership, substitutes for leadership, gender
and leadership, leadership training, command and control.
HIE332A/B War in Classical Age
This course aims to provide students with an introduction to war and diplomacy, as they
evolved in the era of Ancient Greece and both Republican and Imperial Rome. Beginning with
the foundation of powerful city states in Greece, it studies the first elements of Greek
diplomacy and warfare. It then looks at the evolution of the military systems of the Greeks, as
well as the diplomacy behind it, in the rivalry between the principal city states, the rise of Philip
and Alexander of Macedon, and the wars of the Alexandrian succession. It would then move
to a study of the diplomacy and war making of Republican Rome, its army and navy and its
expansion into Italy, and wider conquests, especially in the Punic Wars, and the diplomacy,
military control, and other factors behind the 'Pax Romana.' The evolution of the Roman Army
over these key centuries will receive particular attention.
Special Focus Courses
These courses focus on a particular genre or are designed for a specific group of students.
Examples of genre-focussed courses include: The Literature of War, Literature and Ethics,
3
and Gender and Literature.
If the instructor has informed the students of the fore mentioned information
regarding the academies, she/he may want to have the students discuss their opinions
on whether or not here is a need for revision in the curriculum. (Why or why not?)
This discussion may extend to a military‘s standard boot camp training (Canada‘s or
otherwise) and/or the U.S.A.‘s West Point Academy; the former of which offers no
strategic nor honour training while the latter offers many courses regarding strategy,
and exploring honour which the claim to encourage so strongly. If the instructor
wishes to be better informed on how the honour system has come into place at West
Point , she/he is encouraged to read Duty, Honour, Country: A History of West Point
by Stephen E. Ambrose. West Point has always prided itself as an institution based in
honour. This, however, is far from the truth. The origin and development of West Point
is a series of disappointments in terms of duty and obligation. The book continues
with descriptions of the falls this institution and its members, which are actually
pathetic. Not until the end of the book, late into West Point history, does its
curriculum achieve the goal, its facility members claim it has always they have always
pursued.
The first principle the academy teaches the cadet is, take responsibility for your
actions... The soldier... is highly motivated, ready to dedicate his life to his
country...He is a well-dressed, well behaved gentleman. He enthusiastically performs
the duties required of him and regards lethargy or indifference as a sign of weakness...
his sense of honour compels him to strive for truthfulness, sincerity, and
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straightforwardness in all things. He abhors deceit, quibbling, or evasiveness. He
respects the privileges and responsibilities of rank and takes pride in his profession. In
short, he develops character." (p.330) and
An honour concept was developed, one that went beyond the traditional
prohibitions for "lying, cheating, stealing and tolerating those who do" to positive
precepts: making good on promises, knowing what you stand for, standing up for what
is right. Increased time and effort went into honour education..."(p.344) 5
The curriculum would imply that this not mere idle propaganda of the academy
as its curriculum provides courses, such as Moral Awareness and Ethics in Military
Professionalism, which instil honourable ideals.
Offer the students two or more police-related or military scenarios (real or
imagined) which may illicit discussions regarding the right course of action.
The shooting of the man and child in Stop-Loss, Samuel L. Jackson‘s character‘s
action in Rules of Engagement; Casey Affleck‘s character‘s action in Gone, Baby,
Gone, and the Rodney King incident. It may also be interesting to examine and discuss
the case of the four policeman in New York who shot the unarmed man. This was
obviously a dishonourable action. Was it based on fear or racism or both? In what
should the officers have been dealt? What could be done to prevent this in the future?
Commercial Warrior
In recent years much has been said about the connection between battlefields
and boardrooms. The writings of Sun-Tzu, Myamoto Musashi, and the unknown
writer of Beowulf have been employed by business professors in numerous universities
for decades. As a result many articles and books a have been written taking the words
of these warrior-poets and applying them to business practices, quite often, in a trite
and cheaply conceived manner. The inclusion of warriorship within business
strategies, is indeed a wise choice- many companies and individuals have benefited
financially from it. More importantly, by adhering the concepts of honour which most
often are imbedded in the classic manuals of warfare, many have prospered in their
careers, while still being able to sleep at night. However; to presume that one can
simply pull a quote from The Art of War and build an amazing, profitable business
strategies from it is comparable to believing you can fix your life from the reading of a
fortune cookie.
The Art of War is probably the most famous strategy manual in history. A
surface examination of the text may leaving confused as to how such a brief piece of
work can be considered so profound. It does not offer step-by-step, ready-made
instructions to deal with every conflict. Any text claiming to do so should not be
respected. Sun Tzu offers a different paradigm from which to perceive your
circumstances. Thus, its methodology can be significant, not only in terms of war, but
within a civilian career. Predominant in the text are the acquisition of intelligence; the
use of deception; and the acceptance of uncertainty.
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From The Rules of Victory; Strategies From the Art of War, are anecdotal
references to people who have applied Sun-Tzu‘s principles to their career.
SHAPING THE GROUND
“One skilled at moving the enemy
Forms and the enemy must follow,
Offers and the enemy must take.” [chapter 5]
Commentary:
Do not fight the enemy head-on. Instead, shape their ground. This narrows the enemy‟s
course of action, leading them where you want. They have no alternative. If you offer is made
from the perspective of victory, they choose it as if it were their own idea. This is skill.


From a woman who started a bakery-caféAfter a number of years as a foodie, I finally decided to open my first business, a bakerycafé in a hip town known to have many excellent cafes and espresso bars. I found an ideal space
in the perfect neighborhood. During our construction phase, I noticed that there weren‟t many
power outlets along the wall where the customer tables were to go, but I didn‟t assume that we‟d
need any more and I didn‟t want to spend more money than I had to, so I didn‟t ask the
electrician to put in additional outlets.
I was so happy when we became popular right from the start. Everyone liked the décor and
the baked goods especially, which was great because I was the baker and that was the way we
were trying to make our café different from all the others. As the place got busier, we noticed
that customers with laptops were plugged-in, which was great, but these tables were always full,
and often the tables were used by only one person working on a computer. It became a problem,
one that all the other cafes had, too, I soon learned. I didn‟t know how to deal with it, and I
didn‟t want to waste valuable staff time trying to keep track of how long people were on their
computers or ask customers to respect a time limit as some other places did. It got to be a real
battleground, creating friction between staff and our patrons, and ruining the ambience of the
place. I had to find a solution, but one that didn‟t make things worse.
During this same time I was also struggling with what to do about part of the kitchen that had
never really worked in the way I‟d planned. No one wanted to use it and I didn‟t know what to
do with it. Then I realized I could convert this uncontested space into a solution for my
problem with the laptops users. Even though it was an expense I hadn‟t budgeted for, I brought
in the carpenters to remodel this area into a twenty-foot section of bar seating. Then I had the
electricians install lots of extra electrical outlets along that boar, sort of like the Xanadu of
electrical outlets. So now I had tons of plugs available to customers with laptops but they were
all concentrated in one area, which was a bar where each laptop user would only take up one
stool, not an entire table.
After the work was done, when customers asked if there was a place for them to plug in their
laptops, we showed them to the back bar area, and they felt as if there was a special place
created for them. They told all their laptop-using friends, and they were happy and we were
happy. Every once in a while, the laptop users overflow to the tables, but it‟s nothing like the
problem it used to be. The increased turnover in the main seating area made the remodel
expense a good investment. And we did it all without having to say anything to our customers
about “the problem” with the laptop users.
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TAKE THEM BY THE HAND
“And so one skilled at employing the military takes them by the hand as if leading a single
person.
They cannot hold back. “[chapter 11]
Commentary:
Your command is so intimate, the troops hear you as if you were speaking singly to each of
them. United in this kinship, they cannot but follow you.
 From a naval commander
To lead large groups of people and to be able to count on them in a crisis, I learned over time
to focus a lot of my effort on empowering the middle-level and junior people on the ship by
paying attention to what they do, asking them about their work, and generally showing
appreciation for their efforts. There is a risk that such attention might be seen as violating the
chain of command, so I had to be very careful not to give orders or criticize what each
person‟s boss nay have told him or her. If such intervention appears necessary, it has to be
taken up within the chain of command.
It‟s acceptable to offer personal experience to junior people in such a situation to educate
or advise, but again, there‟s a fine line there. I found if I practiced this “management by
walking around” with a light touch, having influence in small ways, everyone felt empowered
rather than diminished by my coming around. It is also important, I found, to pay a lot of
attention to the environment and how that influences the way people perform: having a clean
place to live, good food, being paid on time, all the aspects that make up a sailor‟s daily ways,
more than just going around telling people what to do.
When I took command of my first ship, it was in dry dock for overhaul. As the overhaul
neared completion, we know that there were going to be a lot of loose ends and potential
glitches and machinery problems and that we‟d be tempted to try to extend our time in port so
the shipyard could work out all the kinks. I could see that if we let the crew wait around while
somebody else took care of the ship, it would change their perception of the ship and of the
importance of time. I told the crew that as soon as we could get the basics checked out - steam
up, engines and steering working, lights on - we would steam out of port and over the horizon.
And that‟s what we did. The whole purpose was to let the crew know that the ship was ours to
use and make work, and not the responsibility of the shipyard. Because I had cultivated the
trust and respect of the crew, they were willing to give up the leisure time in port and make the
remaining repairs at sea. 6
A good enquiry of the students could be, ―Why did the course author choose to
include the naval commander‘s story in the business section of this unit rather than
under the heading of military?
Of course, the Asian warrior-poets are not the only source of inspiration for
successful entrepreneurs or executives. Many other military commanders and strategic
operations can inspire strategic proficiency. The following are examples from an essay
composed by Erik K. Clemens and Jason A. Santamaria, which offers a comparison
between military campaigns and commercial initiatives which used the same strategies
as the premise of their tactics. The essay, Manoeuvre Warfare: Can Modern Military
Strategy Lead You To Victory? uses the term manoeuvre warfare as it was coined by a
German military officer, Erwin Rommel in 1937. It is the embracement of uncertainty;
rather than being disoriented by disorder, couple it with your fluidity to confuse your
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opponent. Rommel did not create this method but articulated well. In truth many
great commanders before him executed plans with this concept in mind. Clemens and
Santamaria mention opposition to this methodology in favour of attrition warfare,
―which is based on overpowering rather than confounding the enemy.‖7 Oddly, the
proponents of attrition come from within the ranks of the U.S. military. Perhaps this is
due to the obviousness of U.S. military might. If that nation had opposition with
comparable or superior firepower those attrition warfare advocates may reconsider
their stance. However; the advantages of confusing one‘s enemy are exemplified in
countless military engagements throughout history. In fact, anyone who has seen a
person successfully defend her/himself against a larger, stronger opponent recognizes
the benefits of this mentality. Although attrition has had its success, as well; for
example; during WW II, the American and British shifts of ―Flying Fortresses‖- B17
bombers which hammered Germany both day and night, were a major factor in the
Allied victory. Any clinging to the purely direct approach to combat may explain the
U.S. military‘s lack of success in ending the war in Iraq.
The tenants of this doctrine are as follows:
Maneuver warfare, a military strategy that has taken a prominent
place in modern military thought, offers useful lessons to business
executives, who face many of the same challenges as today’s military
commanders. The concepts of manoeuvre warfare, while valuable individually,
are most powerful when applied in an integrated fashion.
Targeting critical vulnerabilities Analyze and probe
competitors with the aim of identifying and rapidly exploiting those
weaknesses that will do the greatest damage to their competitive
position.
Boldness Take calculated risks that have the potential to achieve
major, market-shifting results.
Surprise Use stealth, ambiguity, and deception to degrade the
quality of information available to competitors and impair their ability
to deploy resources efficiently.
Focus Concentrate resources at critical points and times to capitalize
on key market opportunities.
Decentralized decision making Give authority to those
who are closest to the point of decision and who possess superior
local information. Align these individual decisions by communicating
“commander’s intent”– the desired final result – throughout the
organization.
Rapid tempo Identify opportunities, make decisions, and implement
plans more quickly than competitors do in order to seize the
initiative and force them into a constant state of reaction.
Combined arms Look for ways to combine resources so that
the returns generated by the whole are greater than those generated
by the individual parts. 8
Note the comparisons between military savvy and business expertise within
Clemens and Santamaria‘s essay. Your instructor will provide you with the article.
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Sport
Athletes are often referred to as warriors by the media. However; in their
attempts to be more theatrical and inspire awe, people involved in the media toss this
almost-sacred term around far too easily. Still, at its highest levels, certain aspects of
being an athlete can be equated with aspects of being a warrior. Consider what both
require:
 intense physical training
 specialized mental training
 emotional stamina
 successful strategic planning
 practice of effective tactics
For these reasons, it is easy to draw comparisons between the two, but even
when looking at combat sports, which are a direct derivative of warrior arts and
sciences, one should not confuse the two. Strategic planning and tactical development
are similarly regarded.
Mentioned earlier in our discussion of the military was manoeuvre warfare vs.
attrition warfare. As an example of attrition was the relentless bombing of Germany
day and night by allied forces. Similarly, Jack Dempsey, the famous heavyweight
boxer did not dance with his opponents, and seldom used feints. Dempsey pounded his
opponents into defeat. But Dempsey does not carry the mantle of ―The Greatest‖. Most
often, that title is reserved for Mohammed Ali, who once defeated the immensely
powerful ―Big George‖ Foreman with his manoeuvrability.
Appear weak when you are strong - choose your battleground and make your opponent
believe that is where he wants to be - use both orthodox and the unexpected methods.
Similar tactics are employed in all the combat sports; but a careful examination
of any sport will reveal planning of this sort. Strategy is more obvious for a fan of any
given sport; but even a layman can uncover these techniques if she/he is somewhat
versed in strategic thinking.
Are their any games of football, baseball, hockey, soccer, etc. wherein you
have seen great strategy at work? Be sure not confuse strategy with tactics or one great
play.
The question remains, is honour a requirement in sport? Of course, this author
believes honourably is the best to live. This does not necessarily mean it is a quality of
great athletes. Or does it?
Rather than feed the students one‘s own impressions on honourable and
dishonourable activities in sports, the instructor should illicit their stories. As well,
questions should be raised as to how these actions reflect on the athletes and how that
impact society.
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Should the instructor choose to offer the students some insight into the warrior
mindset of some great athletes and coaches. Here are some of their inspiring words:
Obligation, commitment, and responsibility:
There are only two options regarding commitment. You're either IN or you‟re OUT. There is no
such thing as life in-between. -Pat Riley
Each Warrior wants to leave the mark of his will, his signature, on important acts he touches. This
is not the voice of ego but of the human spirit, rising up and declaring that it has something to
contribute to the solution of the hardest problems, no matter how vexing! -Pat Riley
One man can be a crucial ingredient on a team, but one man cannot make a team. - Kareem AbdulJabbar
My responsibility is getting all my players playing for the name on the front of the jersey, not the
one on the back.
- Source Unknown
Sometimes a player's greatest challenge is coming to grips with his role on the team. - Scottie
Pippen
Justice:
To describe some of these substances as performance-enhancing is pushing at the boundaries of
credibility. How much coffee do you have to drink to shave a hundredth of a second off your 100
metres time? The drugs they legitimately hunt down should not be those that enhance
performance but those that endanger health. That should be the only criterion because, in one
small way or another, legal supplements, new training tricks and a scientifically rigorous diet all
enhance performance. What, really, is the difference. - Kevin Mitchell
Sport is dead when citius, altius, fortius is replaced by fixius, drugius, corruptius. We have
reached the logical end of sport…. We watch sport not for the victory, but for the struggle. In
other words, those that seek victory at all costs are destroying sport. They are creating a
spectacle in which we, the punters, have no interest. People are far less interested in track and
field athletics than they once were because there has been too much drugging... Professionalism
will be the death of sport; or it will, if we carry on believing in it. But at last, we are beginning to
see the price of winning at all costs. - Simon Barnes
Placing first is not the same as winning. - Roger Ebert, "Chicago Sun Times"
Well, when I think of steroids I think of an image. You have the advantage over someone, which is a
form of cheating. I guess it wouldn't be right unless it was legal for everybody. Reason it's not
legal for everybody is because it can hurt people seriously. -Evander Holyfield
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Courage (and perseverance):
It's not the size of the dog in the fight, but the size of the fight in the dog.
-Archie Griffen, two-time Heisman winner ( 5ft 9)
There's no substitute for guts. -Paul Bear Bryant
It's lack of faith that makes people afraid of meeting challenges, and I believed in myself. Muhammad Ali
It's a little like wrestling a gorilla. You don't quit when you're tired you quit when the gorilla is
tired. -Robert Strauss
The game isn't over till it's over. -Yogi Berra
You learn you can do your best even when its hard, even when you're tired and maybe hurting a
little bit. It feels good to show some courage.
-Joe Namath
Always remember Goliath was a 40 point favourite over David.-- Shug Jordan
Martial Training and Prowess:
Sweat plus sacrifice equals success. -Charlie Finley
The will to win is important, but the will to prepare is vital.
-Joe Paterno
Power is not revealed by striking hard or often, but by striking true. -Honore de Balzac
If you don't do what‟s best for your body, you're the one who comes up on the short end.
-Julius Erving
Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity. -Coach Darrel Royal
If you sacrifice early, you'll win late.-- Charles Haley
You can't make a great play unless you do it first in practice. - Chuck Noll
Success isn't something that just happens - success is learned, success is practiced and then it is
shared. - Sparky Anderson
Winning isn‟t a sometime thing; it‟s an all the time thing.- Vince Lomabardi
Honour in general
Adversity cause some men to break; others to break records.
-William A. Ward
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Besides pride, loyalty, discipline, heart, and mind, confidence is the key to all the locks.
-Joe Paterno
When you're are playing for the national championship, it's not a matter of life or death. Its more
important than that.
-Duffy Daugherty
To succeed...You need to find something to hold on to, something to motivate you, something to
inspire you. -Tony Dorsett
The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength, not a lack of
knowledge, but rather a lack of will. -Vincent T. Lombardi
The difference between failure and success is doing a thing nearly right and doing it exactly right.
-Edward C. Simmons
The harder you work, the harder it is to surrender. -Vince Lombardi
Never let your head hang down. Never give up and sit down and grieve. Find another way.
-Satchel Paige
It isn't hard to be good from time to time in sports. What is tough, is being good every day.
-Willie Mays
The only way to maximize potential for performance is to be calm in the mind.
-Brian Sipe
One man practicing sportsmanship is far better than fifty preaching it. -Knute Rockne
Losers quit when they're tired. Winners quit when they've won. -Author Unknown
Be strong in body, clean in mind, lofty in ideals. -James Naismith
Sports do not build character. They reveal it. -John Wooden
The price of success is hard work, dedication to the job at hand, and the determination that
whether we win or lose, we have applied the best of ourselves to the task at hand.
-Vince Lombardi
Lombardi‟s statement seems to contradict his earlier comment, “Winning isn‟t the most
important thing -it‟s the only thing.” Lombardi received some criticism for this and other
seemingly unsportsmanlike remarks. Certainly, it may have been a bit over the top for a discussion
on sports. In the context of warriorship, however, it would be appropriate. In defence of one‟s life,
the life of loved ones, one‟s community or country, indeed, winning is the only thing. As General
Douglas MaCarthur said, “In war there is no substitute for victory.” In light of both of his
comments, perhaps Lombardi feels the paradox with which warriors are familiar. A man in the heat
of battle is not the same celebrating his victories.
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As an example of an athlete with a sense of honour, professional golfer, Wendy
Ward is offered. In 2000, Ward was competing at the McDonald‘s LPGA
Championship. She was neck and neck with Juli Inkster for first place during the last
round of play. On the 13th hole, Ward landed her ball on the green roughly ten feet
from the hole. A ten foot putt (generally no trouble for Ward) would make par. With
putter in hand, Ward positioned herself above the ball and was prepared to putt.
Looking down on the ball, she was suddenly witness to something surprising and
terrible - the ball moved. In very rare cases the appears to be stationary but the for
reasons unknown it moves. It could be a slight a factor a blade of grass finally giving
out under the weight of the ball that makes it roll another half an inch; but it doesn‘t
matter.
One of the obscure rules of golf is that if the ball moves after you‘ve
addressed, regardless of having no contact with it, it counts as a stroke on your score.
Ward saw that golf ball move half an inch. No one else saw it. If she had said nothing
it would have been as though it never happened. Furthermore, it is an often
disregarded rule in the amateur ranks of golf; some deem it unfair. A group of friends
playing for fun on a Sunday afternoon would certainly ignore it. Nevertheless, it is still
an official rule. Ward knew that. And despite the cost she stood back from the ball and
announced to her rival and playing partner, Juli Inkster. Inkster said she had not seen
it, but that did not stop Ward from notifying the official and adding a stroke to her own
score.
Play resumed after that with Ward continuing to trail by one point to the finish.
The final score: Juli Inkster and Stephania Croce, who had caught up, each with 281
and Wendy Ward in third place with 282. Ward lost the first place finish and
$210,000. She has no regrets though, as she did not lose her integrity. Inkster said of
Ward after the game, ―She is the real champion today.‖
One idea for the instructor to consider is a viewing of a sports-themed film
wherein the athletes portrayed demonstrate warrior attributes. By showing half of a
film on this week and the other half the following week, the two units, contemporary
vocations (sports section) and pop culture, are connected. One choice is Best of the
Best, a 1989 film depicting the training, competing and bonding of a team of combat
sport athletes. Admittedly, the film is rather cliché in many aspects; however, its
ending is far from cliché, in fact it is somewhat surprising, and demonstrates honour
amongst the competitors on both teams.
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Unit 9 - Endnotes:
1 http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/clet/mission_e.htm official RCMP Academy information website.
2. Ontario Police College resident Handbook, self-published, 2008.
3 http://www.rmc.ca/index-eng.asp official website for the Royal Military College of Canada.
4 Ambrose, Stephen E., Duty, Honour, Country: A History of West Point. Baltimore, London: The John
Hopkins University Press, 1966, 1999. p. 330.
5 Ibid p. 344.
6 Gimian, James and Boyce, Barry; The Rules of Victory: How to Transform Chaos and Conflict:
Strategies from The Art of War, Shambhala, Boston, 2008.
7 Erik K. Clemens, Eric K. and Santamaria, Jason A., Manoeuvre Warfare: Can Modern Military
Strategy Lead You To Victory? in Harvard Business Review, April 2002.
8 Ibid.
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Unit 10: Warriorship in
Contemporary Media
and Pop Culture
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Unit 10:
Warriorship Represented in Contemporary Media
and Pop Culture
Passing the messages and philosophies of the warrior through entertainment is
not a novel invention. Song, poetry, visual art and stories have been laden with such
messages from our earliest recorded histories. Though this method is nothing new, we
now have wondrous new vehicles to include in our array of delivery. This is not to say
that the industrial revolution abolished old methods of passing on warrior legends.
Regarding Music - The earlier rock-n‘-roll era gave us songs such as ―Along Came
John‖ and ―The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance.‖ Regarding Art - Visual art now
couples itself with literature and poetry in the form of comic books and graphic novels,
which often depict warrior ideals. Regarding Poetry - There is modern poetry which
accentuates the warrior philosophies, as it did with Beowulf, Achilles and the Monkey
King. Case is point, from Sifu David Carradine‘s book we can read:
Reaching to heaven. Creative, strong, the leader.
The Earth power: devoted, receptive, soothing, selfless.
The arousing thunder. Always moving. Sudden and quick. Ambitious.
As soft, as vital and as powerful as water: the artist
Striving to give shape to the wood and the world with his hands.
Humbly capable of anything. Unfathomable.
A dangerous man.
Standing perfectly still, strongly based like a mountain.
the wind in his ears, the sun in his eyes, wisdom comes to him
and stays.
Gentle, penetrating, the entire sweet and terrible of Creation can be heard
whispering and roaring in the wind, rustling in the leaves.
All held in place and bursting forth from his fingers on the lute.
Clinging to thoughts and words, giving light to the darkness,
Shining like the sun, crackling with fire. The poet. The bard.
Filled with the joy of life , pure pleasure,
spreading himself across pain and sorrow like a lake of gladness,
the clown reigns supreme. 1
Of course, today, we also have television and cinema.
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T.V.
In the early days of television, along side family shows such as Leave It To
Beaver and Father Knows Best, westerns were quite popular. In the 1950‘s,
―Gunsmoke‖ and ―The Lone Ranger‖ were widely enjoyed. Filling their shoes in the
60‘s were ―Bonanza‖ and ―Rawhide―, among other shorter-lived serials. These
programs, much like many of the early Western films connected to people to the
romantic adventure of the old west (1980‘s) while denying much of its ugliness. The
term cowboy, which once disrespectfully referred to men who drove with cattle,
became synonymous with an adventurous western hero. The Lone Ranger had a huge
following of young fans, whom likely absorbed morals from his exploits. An
examination of The Lone Ranger, from his creation by western novelist Zane Grey
through his radio series years and on to his television and film adventuress suggest that
he may fit our billing as a western warrior.
The following decades gave us new heroes; and as cynicism in our society
grew, perhaps deservedly, our heroes changed. Consider the heroes on television in
the 1970‘s: The Fonz, Gabe Kotter, Andy Travis, J.J. Walker, Maude, and Buck
Rogers; The 80‘s: the Duke Boys, Thomas Magnum, Sam Malone, Dr. Huxtable ,
MacGyver, Hannibal, B.A., Face, Murdock; and Alf; and the 90‘s; Hercules, Xena;
Buffy, the 3 sisters of Charmed; Dawson, Felicity, Beavis and Butthead, Brandon,
Steve, Brenda, Kelly, and Dillon.
How many of these could we justifiable call warriors? Certainly, arguments
exist to defend Hercules and Xena; Buck and Buffy; maybe Magnum and MacGyver;
at least one of the sisters of witchcraft; and perhaps even The Fonz makes your list.
And it would seem wrong to leave out The A-team; after all, they were a crack
commando unit sent to prison by a military court for a crime they didn't commit. These
men promptly escaped from a maximum security stockade to the Los Angeles
underground. Still wanted by the government, they survived as soldiers of fortune. If
you have a problem, if no one else can help, and if you can find them, maybe you can
hire... But I digress.
Since the 60‘s has the number of warrior-like characters been growing or
declining from decade to decade? In the most recent decade, have television viewers
embraced characters of a more warrior-like nature? Another question worth examining
is how well recent characters and the fore mentioned characters of earlier television
encapsulate warrior ideals.
There are a plethora of directions this discussion can lead. The
recommendation to the instructor is allow the students to determine the direction of the
discussion; whether they wish to discuss the relation of Klingon culture to Vikings and
Samurai of Earth or perhaps whether or not the Fonz could have been appointed
knighthood.
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Cinema
An entire course dedicated to the consideration of the depiction of warriors in
the movies would not be enough for a fully comprehensive investigation. Historical
and semi-historical films have brought to life such magnificent warriors as William
Wallace, Genghis Khan, Leonidas, Wong Fei Hong, King Arthur, Mas Oyama,
Alexander, Ho Yuan Jia and George Patton, just to skim the surface. Of course, many
fictitious tales have been inspiring as well. They range in genre including war movies,
action/adventure and martial arts, of course; but also western, drama, fantasy,
romance, comedy, musical, suspense, even horror. The best of these movies are not
limited to their genre, instead the genre is merely a vehicle to drive the theme and
characters of the story. In this way, the nobility of certain characters and the integrity
of their actions can be examples of warriorship to which we should aspire. Let us take
an example from science -fiction.
The most famous hexilogy of all time, the Star Wars series is far and away the
most successful sci-fi series of all time. Even Star Trek is distant second. This is a
story told in epic proportions both in its plot line and its brilliant state of the art effects.
Its exciting visual display; however is not what engrosses the audience. Star Wars
plays to human condition; our need for a sense of purpose and our desire to represent
something noble. Star Wars is a film about warriorship.
The order of the Jedi is a warrior-monk caste that could easily exist on earth, if
not for all the warp speed travel. Certainly there is martial prowess being displayed in
the films - almost entirely based in swordsmanship and the use of the staff (as in the
case of Darth Maul). The Jedi philosophy is a synthesis of Taoism and Buddhism with
a peppering of other spiritual paths which have been associated with warrior monks.
Balance, harmony with nature and non-attachment are all expressed as ideals of the
Jedi.
As well, the chivalric codes of knights of Europe and Asian are evident, though
slightly reconfigured. The Jedi code of the old republic era, in place during the earliest
chronological chapters, focused considerable on acquisition of a sense of
enlightenment through peaceful mediations
 There is no emotion, there is peace.
 There is no ignorance, there is knowledge.
 There is no passion, there is serenity.
 There is no chaos, there is harmony.*
 There is no death, there is the Force.
*This fifth line was added by one of the official Star Wars role playing games.
In later books which pick up after the conclusion of the films, Luke Skywalker,
now Grandmaster, adds tenets to the code. He believes the tents necessary to rebuild
the order, as he is the only remaining master.
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




Jedi are the guardians of peace in the Galaxy.
Jedi use their powers to defend and protect, never to attack others.
Jedi respect all life, in any form.
Jedi serve others rather than rule over them, for the good of the Galaxy.
Jedi seek to improve themselves through knowledge and training. 3
The force, too, is not without an earthly origin. Its description as energy
which surrounds and permeates and which is manipulated by masters of its secrets
is akin to the notion of chi mentioned in an earlier chapter. Training in the force
can be seen as Chi kung training. Cultivating its use for wicked purposes is the
stuff of kung Fu novels. Read the Chinese legends of Pei Mei, the shaolin monk
turned villain and you will find the origins of Darth Vadar.
This example was chosen because despite its enormous popularity its warrior
theme may not be evident to those who are not die hard fans of Star Wars or scholars
of warriorship. Hopefully, it is obvious to students who have progressed this far in the
course.
Open the floor to discussion of other movies wherein a warrior theme exists,
but may not be obvious. Also, what movies have successfully capture the spirit of
warriorship and which have tried but failed?
Comic Books and Graphic Novels
Mystery Men; they were called before they wore costumes and had
powers beyond those achievable by any human (hypnosis, knowledge of Native
healing herbs and Olympian level athleticism being pretty standard). In the earliest
form of comic books appeared Doc Savage, Zorro, Flash Gordon, and Tarzan - and,
yes, The Lone Ranger rode again. Warriors? Indubiously. But what of their spandex
wearing successors?
The term ―super-hero‖ is not concrete in its classification, but by its most
popular definition which includes a costume and special abilities used to fight crime,
Superman was the first of his kind. However, even in 1938, when Joe Shuster and
Jerry Siegel first unveiled the man of steel, the concept of a super human hero was not
new. Ancient history is inundated with such marvels. Superman and his colleagues,
who soon followed, are archetypal figures appearing once again in our age of
storytelling as they have done in the past.
Some are taken from mankind‘s library quite blatantly: Marvel Comic‘s
Hercules and Thor are gods of Greek and Norse legends respectively; Wonder Woman
is an Amazon; from Egyptian mythology we have Hawkman. Though he is not said to
be Horus, he is the spitting image of the hawk-headed god; and his Nth metal which
enables him to fly, comes from an Egyptian tomb. Namor and Aquaman are implied
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descendents from the god Neptune.
Many of the god and heroes of ancient mythologies have loaned their powers.
Incredible strength was common to Guan Yu, Ajax, Atlas, Sampson and others.
Speed is a gift from Mercury. Flight, as mentioned, Hawkman borrows from Horus,
and less obviously, so do The Falcon and La Peregrine. Perhaps they could be said to
be borrowing from Icarus; however, we know he flew to close to sun and his melted
wings failed him. These heroes‘ wings are only for show; technology has given them
their powers their flight. They differ from Angel (a.k.a. Archangel), whose wings are a
part of him. His name leaves no guessing as to the source of the writer‘s inspiration.
The Monkey King of Chinese folklore loans his agility to many heroes. Furthermore,
he is one of many legends pertaining to humanoid, yet animalistic beings. Such a
concept pitting man against is animal nature is universal. Consider the world wide
tales of werewolves, yetis and sasquatch. Then, look to the comic pages to find
Nightcrawler, the Changeling, the Beast and a hero named Sasquatch who resembles
the old legends, but with an orange hue and professorial I.Q.
Like an upper ranking god, Superman possesses many of these traits and more.
In fact, Superman‘s description can be closely equated with, not only with the gods of
Greek, Egyptian and Norse mythology, but with beliefs in existence today. He carries
hints of Christianity. He has, for example, x-ray vision . You may think,―surely, this
was a new idea‘ but in fact, St. Xavier had x-ray vision with which he was able to see
the bodies of dead soldiers at the bottom of a bog. Cal-El‘s connections to religion do
not end there. Dare we compare him to the messiah? Like Jesus Christ, or Mithra
before him, Cal-El was sent to earth by his father to save humanity, despite its faults;
for as Jor -El states, ―For this reason above all, their capacity for good, I am sending
them you, my only son.”
Ben Grimm, the brick of the Fantastic Four, also known as The Thing, could
very well be derived from Jewish Kabbalah mysticism wherein the teachings inform
rabbi how to create a golem from the earth. A mud-born, rock-like super strong
creature that does the bidding of its creator. The Hulk fits a similar description, but he
seems more likely adapted from more modern literature. Some compare the Hulk to
Frankenstein‘s monster; but more so, he is like Jekyll and Hyde. He may also be
somewhat like the Viking‘s berserkers. The angrier he gets the more powerful he
becomes. Lobo, Wolverine and Punisher even more closely fit this description.
Clearly, the resemblance to fantastical beings of centuries past connotes an
archetypal quality in today‘s superheroes. Still, this does not demand that they behave
as warriors. Only highly informed fans could answer that question with 100%
accuracy; nevertheless, it could be amusing to address the idea on a surface level.
Let‘s begin with the ―Big 3‖ of DC comics: Superman, Wonder Woman and
Batman. Even Green Lantern, Green Arrow, Aquaman and Flash, who are not secondstringers, take a back seat to these three. In his early career Superman was said to fight
for ―truth, justice and the American way‖, back when the words ―the American way‖
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carried more weight. One of purest characters of this genre, Clark Kent possesses
those qualities that fit our description. Still, it terms of his training and his courage he
cannot measure up to Batman, can he? Batman has no superpowers, yet has trained so
gruellingly for so long that he is now a formidable force - a mere human able to wear
the banner ―super-hero‖. Also, since he has no superpowers he is much more
vulnerable to attack than the man of steel. Wonder Woman is bit of both, superpowered and intensely trained, and of the three, is probably the easiest to clearly label
as a warrior. She has trained in the ancient warrior arts of the Amazon since she was a
girl. She demonstrates strong moral conviction, loyalty, and a sense of justice.
However, of the three, she is the only one ever to kill a foe- something Superman and
Batman were quick to condemn.
Let‘s have a look at the other major player of the comic and graphic novel
industry, Marvel Comics. They too have an original ―Big 3‖. The Hulk, Spiderman,
and Captain America seemed to be their usual icons for many decades; although more
recently Wolverine seems to have replaced Cap on centre stage. The Hulk, however
noble, certainly could not be said to be a true warrior- he lacks the intellectual
capacity. Spider-man with his trademark expression, ―with great power comes great
responsibility‖ seems to fit comfortably in the role. Of course, Captain America was
designed to be a soldier of the warrior class. How about Wolverine? He has trained as
a warrior, but does he embrace the code?
Wolverine‘s immense popularity lead to other creations of anti-heroes within
both companies and smaller players, as well: Punisher, Lobo, Cable, Magog, Spawn,
etc. Similar in attitude, some former villains now walk the line between right and
wrong, namely Electra and Catwoman - making them perfectly intriguing romantic
interests for Daredevil and Batman, who are also more dark and brooding characters.
This was not a recent development for the dark knight, but a return to his original
formula. Batman‘s first two books portrayed him as a solemn vindicator. The comic
code authority nipped that in the bud and the writers were forced, at least for awhile, to
soften his rough edges. When more gothic artistry became fashionable in the 90‘s he
returned to his grimmer self.
This phase of the industry almost ruined comics. Grotesquely muscular heroes
with veins bulging from their flesh, carried grimaced faces as they handed out verdicts
on the villains. In fact, it was difficult to tell villain from hero in many cases as the
‘anti-hero‘ was all the rage. Younger fans without any emotional attachment to the
classic icons lapped up the amoral heroes who were at home in shadowy, gothic and
down-right messy style of artwork. The once noble superhero - our caped and
costumed warriors - were being threatened with extinction. One man decided to do
something about it. In his book, Our Gods Wear Spandex, Christopher Knowles
describes the mini-series revolution of Alex Ross.
Ross declared war on the Chromium Age. His 1996 epic mini-series Kingdom Come is
nothing than an apocalyptic tract, awash in fiery Biblical wrath. The story presents a world in
which the old-school superheroes (Superman, Batman, Flash, Wonder Woman, and others) are
either in forced retirement or operating underground. In their place, a new generation of heroes
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arises -- violent maniacs who spend most of their time engaging in pointless battles with each
other. Foremost among these is Magog, a none-too-subtle parody of Rob Liefeld‟s most
successful creation, Cable. During one of their melees, this new breed of heroes causes a nuclear
accident that irradiates the Midwestern farm belt and reduces it to a wasteland. Savvy readers
recognized this as a metaphor for what the new breed of superhero comic was doing to the
medium and the market.
Alarmed by this, Superman emerges from retirement and reassembles DC‟s Justice League.
In an eye-grabbing series of battles, Superman and the League descend from the heavens like
archangels and smash the new breed of super powered lunatics, finally placing them in an
enormous gulag in the radioactive wasteland of Kansas. Superman‟s arch-foe. Lex Luthor, has
other plans, however. Luthor assembles his own band of heroes (led by a mind-controlled
Captain Marvel) to fight the League. The climax comes when Superman and the more powerful
Captain engage in battle, while nuclear missiles meant to destroy all super-powered beings rain
down from the heavens. At the very last moment, Captain Marvel tears himself free from the
influence of the mind control and summons lightning from the heavens to destroy the missiles in
mid-flight. He dies in the act. The story ends with peace on Earth and Wonder Woman pregnant
with Superman‟s child. Kingdom Come marked the end of the Chromium Age, even though it
would be several years before the comics market recovered from the damage it had wrought. The
book is remarkable, however, for another reason. Kingdom Come -- perhaps more than any
other comic book in history -- delineates what superheroes are to their most devoted fans. They
are nothing less than gods. 4
Thus, our ink and pencilled warriors were victorious in real life as well as on
the comic pages. Of these characters, who is most recognizable as warriors? Is it those
characters whose origins involve a traditional study in the ancient warrior arts and
codes of honour or simply those maintaining their ―boy scout‖ temperaments?
With the growing popularity of graphic novels among university students, there
will no doubt be some die hard fans within the class. They will be better equipped to
discuss the origins and histories of the superheroes and those characters which are a
little more obscure. Nevertheless, many people will have a favourite(s) they may be
willing to discuss. More potential points of discussion: According to their writers,
Captain America, Batman and Karate Kid (of DC Comics not Daniel-san) have a
great deal of training in martial styles, but none has a sole mentor (sensei or sifu).
They studied a variety of systems. do they appear just as worthy of the title as
characters with formal, traditional, ancient warrior training? Those being: Black
Knight, Black Panther, Iron Fist, Shang Chi, Wonder Woman, etc. Where does Electra
fit in? Does not Batman seem too morally ambiguous (possibly psychotic) to be
considered a warrior? Has the nobility of the characters been fully restored, or has the
modern writers‘ efforts to humanize these heroes tarnished them?
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Unit 10 – Endnotes
1 Carradine, David; Spirit of Shaolin: A Kung Fu Philosophy, Charles E. Tuttle Company Inc, Tokyo,
1991.
2 Superman; The Movie; director: Richard Donner, Warner Brothers, 1978.
3 http://www.starwars.com/databank/organization/thejediorder/ the official Star Wars jedi website.
4 Linsner, Joseph Michael; Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Heroes, Red
Wheel/Weiser LLC, San Francisco, 2007.
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Conclusion
Your course guide ends here; but if you are truly an
aspiring warrior-scholar your study of this noble way of life will
continue. Choose one aspect, event, or role model and study it,
her, or him in absolute detail. And then move on to another.
Study the way. Train in the way. Absorb the way. Abide in the
way. Never dismiss your calling.
It is recommended that the next two weeks of the course
(presuming 3 hour lessons) be used for students‘ presentations.
The final week can be used for the final exam. Should the
professor feel otherwise, Military Strategy is a reasonable
inclusion to the course curriculum. Masters of the Battlefield:
The World‘s Greatest Military Commanders and Their Battles
from Alexander The Great to Norman Schwarzkopf is one
recommended source.
130
Bibliography (and suggested readings/viewings)
In General
Bolelli, Daniele; On the Warrior‘s Path: Philosophy, Fighting, and Martial Arts Mythology, Blue Snake
Books, Berkeley, 2003.
Chu, F. J.; The Martial Way and Its Virtues : Tao De Gung, YMAA Publication Center, Boston, 2003.
Crudelli, Chris; The Way of the Warrior: Martial Arts and Fighting Styles From Around the World,
Dorling Kindersley Limited, New York, 2008.
Coggins, Jack; the Fighting Man: An Illustrated History of the World`s Great Fighting Forces Through
the Ages, Doubleday & Company INC, Garden City, 1966.
Grossman, Dave; On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Back Bay
Books, New York, 1995.
Hobeart, Peter; Kishido: The Way of the Western Warrior, Hohm Press, Prescott, 1969.
Hughs-Hallett, Lucy, Heroes: Savious, Traitors, and Supermen, Penguin Group, Toronto, 2004.
Jones, Steve; The Intelligent Warrior: Command Personal Power with Martial Arts Strategies,
Thorsons, London, 2004.
Lewis, Peter; The Martial Arts: Origins, Philosophy, Practice, Prion Books Ltd, London, 1996.
McTaggart, Lynne; The Field: The Quest for the Secret Force of the Universe, Harper Perennial, New
York, 2002.
Mersey, Daniel; Legendary Warriors: Great Heroes in Myth and Reality, Brassey‘s, London, 2002.
Morgan, Forrest E. and USAF, Maj; Living the Martial Way: A Manual for the Way a Modern Warrior
Should Think, Barricade Books Inc, Fort Lee, 1992. - (The other text for this course).
Reid, Howard and Croucher, Nichael; The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts, The
Overlook Press, Woodstock, 1983.
Ronson, Jon; The Men Who Stare at Goats, Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, New York, 2004.
Shi, Ming and Siao, Weijia; Mind Over Matter: Higher Martial Arts, Frog Ltd, Berkeley, 1988.
Smith, Evans Lansing and Brown, Nathan Robert; The Complete Idiot‘s Guide to World Mythology,
Alpha Books, New York, 2007.
Sun Tzu; The Art of War, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1994.
Thompson, Julian; Masters of the Battlefield: the World‘s Greatest Military Commanders and Their
Battles, from Alexander the Great to Norman Schwarzkopf, Barnes & Noble, new York, 2007.
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page : (This resource was used to help initiate
investigations in numerous topics).
131
African and Middle Eastern
Ali, Abdullah Yusuf; The Holy Quran, Goodword Books, New Delhi, 2003.
Bentsen, Cheryl; Maasai Days, Summit Books, New York, 1989.
Cheney, Patricia; The Land and People of Zimbabwe, J. B. Lippincott, new York, 1990
Dodds, Glen Lyndon; the Zulus and Matabele: Warrior Nation, Arms and Armours Press, London,
1998.
Edgerton, Robert B.; Mau Mau: An Agrican Crucible, The Free Press, New York, 1989.
Gilbert, Elizabeth L.; Broken Spears: A Maasai Journey, Atlantic Books, London, 2003.
ICNA; Islam Is…: Introduction of Islam and Its Principles, ICNA, Oakville.
McConville, Gordon; The Old Testament, Hodder Headline PLC, London, 1996.
Schaffer, David; The History of Nation: Iraq, Thomson Gale, San Diego, 2004.
Asian
Carradine, David; Spirit of Shaolin: A Kung Fu Philosophy, Charles E. Tuttle Company Inc, Tokyo,
1991.
Choi, Hong Hi, Taekwondo, (1972). Cedar Knolls, N.J. Wehman Brothers Inc.
Chow, David and Spangler, Richard; Kung Fu: History, Philosophy and Technique, Unique
Publications, Burbank, 1982.
Chuang Tzu, The Way of Chuang Tzu. trans.: Merton, Thomas, (1992) Boston & London, Shambhala.
Confucius, The Analects of Confucius, Trans. Leys, Simon, (1997), New York, London, W.W. Norton
& Company.
Coogan, Michael D.; Eastern Religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, Duncan
Baird Publishers, London, 2005.
Danaos, Kosta; Nei Kung: The Secret Teachings of the Warrior Sages, Inner Traditions International,
Rochester, 2002.
Danaos, Kosta; The Magus of Java Teachings of an Authentic Taoist Immortal, Inner Traditions
International, Rochester, 2000.
De Mente, Boye Lafayette; Samurai Strategies: 42 Martial Secrets From Musashi`s Book of Five Rings,
Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2005.
Frantzis, Bruce; The Power of Internal Martial Arts and Chi: Combat and Energy Secrets of Ba Gua,
Tai Chi and Hsing-I, Energy Arts Inc, Fairfax, 1998.
Gach, Gary, The Complete Idiot‘s Guide to Understanding Buddhism, (2004) New York, Alpha.
Hyams, Byjoe; Zen in the Martial Arts, Bantam Books, New York, 1979.
132
Kennedy, Brian and Guo Elizabeth; Chinese Martial Arts Training Manuals: A Historical Survey, Blue
Snake Books, Berkeley, 2005.
Keown, Damien; Buddhist Ethics: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005.
Lamb, Harold; Genghis Khan: The Emperor of All Men, Garden City Publishing Company Inc, Garden
City, 1927.
Lao Tzu; Tao Te Ching: The Definitive Edition, Penguin Inc, New York, 2001.
Luo, Guan Zhong; Three Kingdoms: A History Novel, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1999.
Order of Shaolin Ch‘an; The Shaolin Grandmasters‘ Text: History, Philosophy, and Gung Fu of Shaolin
Ch‘an, The Order of Shaolin Ch‘an, Beaverton, 2004.
Purcell, Victor; The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study, Cambridge University Press, London, 1963.
Rinpoche, Sogyal; The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, Harper, San Francisco, New York, 2002.
Ross, Nancy Wilson; Three Ways of Asian Wisdom: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zen and Their
Significance for the West, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1966.
Samuel Robert T.; The Samurai: The Philosophy of Victory, Barnes & Noble, New York, 2004.
Shan, Lin; Dragon Tales: Beginning to Three Kingdoms, Asiapac Books PTE Ltd., Singapore, 2000.
Shane, C.J.; The History of Nations: China, Greenhaven Press, Farmington Hills, 2003.
Wong, Kiew Kit; The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health, and
Enlightenment , Tuttle Publishing, Boston, 2001.
Yang, Jwing-ming; Ancient Chinese Weapons: A Martial Artist‘s Guide, YMAA Publication Center,
Boston, 1946.
Yang, Jwing-ming; The Root of Chinese Qigong: Secrets for Health, Longevity, and Enlightenment,
YMAA Publication Center, Roslindale, 1989.
European
Brooks, Polly Schoyer; Beyond the Myth: the Story of Joan of Arc, J. B. Lippincott, New York, 1990.
Byock, Jesse; Viking Age Iceland, Penguin Books, London, 2001.
Dumas, Alexandre; The Three Musketeers, Random House Inc, New York, 1950.
Duncan, Anthony; Celtic Mysticism: Walking With the Gods: A Spiritual Guide, Anness Publishing
Ltd, London, 2000.
Fitzhugh, William W. and Ward, Elisabeth I.; Vikings: The North Altantic Saga, Smithsonian
Institution Press, Washington, 2000.
Goodman, Jennifer R.; Chivalry and Exploration 1298-1630, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge, 1998.
Gravett, Christopher and Nicolle, David; The Normans: Warrior Knights and Their castles, Osprey
Publishing Ltd., Oxford, 2006.
133
Homer, The Odyssey; Trans. Negri, Paul; Dover Publication Inc, Toronto, 1999.
Hodges, Margaret; Joan of arc: the Lily Maid, Holiday House, New York, 1999.
Keen, Maurice; Chivalry, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1984.
Kaeuper, Richard W. and Kennedy, Elspeth; The Book of Chivalry of Geoffroi De Charny: Text,
Context, and Translation, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1996.
McDowall, Mark; Legends of Chivalry, Metro Books, New York, 2000.
McMarty, Nick; Alexander the Great: The Real-Life Story of the World‘s Greatest Warrior King,
Gramercy Books, New York, 2004.
Powell, Barry B.; Blackwell Introductions to the Classical World: Homer, Blackwell Publishing,
Oxford, 2004.
Rebsamen, Frederick; Beowulf, HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 1991.
Snyder, Louis L., Fredrick the Great. Prentice-Hall, 1971.
Spartans, The; Director: Melanie Archer, BBC , A Lion Television, 2003.
North and South America
Audlin, James David; Circle of Life: Traditional Teachings of Native American Elders, Clear Light
Publishers, Santa Fe, 2006.
Boyd, Doug; Rolling Thunder, Dell Publishing, New York, 1974.
Coe, Michael D.; The Maya, Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, 1966.
Collier, James Lincoln; The Tecumseh You Never Knew, Children‘s Press, New York, 2004.
Crompton, Samuel Willard; Illustrated Atlas Native of American History, Saraband Inc, Rowayton,
1999.
Edmunds, R. David; The Shawnee Prophet, University of Nebraska Press, USA, 1983.
Foster, Lynn V.; Handbook ot Life in the Ancient Maya World, Oxford University Press, New York,
2002.
Frideres, James S.; Native Peoples in Canada: Contemporary Conflicts, Prentice-Hall, Scarborough,
1983.
Hollihan, Tony; Crazy Horse: Warrior Spirit of the Sioux, Folklore Publishing, Edmonton, 2003.
Hollihan, Tony; Great Chiefs Volume II, Folklore Publishing, Edmonton, 1964.
Karen, Ruth; Feathered Serpent: the Rise and fall of the Aztecs, Four winds Press, New York, 1979.
Lake, Medicine Grizzlybear; Native Healer; Intiation into an Ancient Art, Quest Books, Wheton, 1994.
Mails, Thomas E,; The Mystic Warriors of the Plains, Marlowe & Company, New York, 1972.
McIntyre, Loren; The Incredible Incas and Their Timeless Land, National Geographic Society,
Washington, 1975.
134
Oceania
Makereti; The Old-Time Maori, New Women‘s Press Ltd, Auckland, 1986
Nile, Richard and Clerk Christian; Cultural Atlas of Australia New Zealand & the South Pacific,
Andromeda Oxford Ltd., England 1996.
Reed, A. W.; An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Maori Life, A.H. & A.W. Reed Ltd, Wellington, 1963.
Women Warriors
Amazon Warrior Women; (Secrets of The Dead series);Producers and Director: Carsten Obelander and
Jens Afflerbach, PBS, 2004.
Evans, Elizabeth; Weathering the storm; Women of the American Revolution; Scribner, New York,
1975.
Miles, Rosalind and Cross, Robin; Hell Hath Nu Fury: True Stories of Women at War From Antiquity
to Iraq, Three Rivers Press, New York, 2008.
Valasca, Merina; The Amazons: The Mysterious World of the Warrior Women, Astrolog Publishing
House Ltd, Israel, 2005.
In Contemporary Vocations
Ambrose, Stephen E., Duty, Honour, Country: A History of West Point. Baltimore, London: The John
Hopkins University Press, 1966, 1999.
Gimian, James and Boyce, Barry; The Rules of Victory: How to Transform Chaos and Conflict:
Strategies from The Art of War, Shambhala, Boston, 2008.
Krause, Donald G.; The Way of the Leader: Applying the Principles of Sun Tzu and Confucius –
Ancient Strategies for the Modern Business World, Perigee Book, New York, 1997.
Millman, Dan; Way of the Peaceful Warrior: A Book That Change Lives, H J Kramer Book, Tiburon,
1980.
Millman, Dan; Sacred Journey of the Peaceful Warrior, H J Kramer Book, Tiburon, 1991.
Bing, Stanley; Sun Tzu Was a Sissy: Conquer Your Enemies, Promote Your Friends, and Wage War,
HarperCollins Publishers, New York, 2004.
Branon, Dave; Undefeated: Catching Inspiration and Hope Thrown by Athletes of Integrity, Bethany
House, Minneapolis, 2006.
O‘Brien, Michael; Vince: A Personal Biography of Vince Lombardi, William Morrow and Company
Inc, New York, 1987.
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In Contemporary Media and Pop Culture
Best of the Best; Director: Bob Radler, Columbia and Tristar, 1989.
Rosenberg, Robin S.; The Psychology of Superheroes, Benbella, Dallas, 2008.
Linsner, Joseph Michael; Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Heroes, Red
Wheel/Weiser LLC, San Francisco, 2007.
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Appendix
137
Introduction to Warrior Studies
Test #1
Name:_________________
1. Define ―warrior‖:_______________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
(3)
2. List the three tenets of honour: _____________________,
_________________________,
______________________. (3)
3. List warriors (historical or literary) and name the country of the origin:
Warrior
country
_______________________ - _________________________
_______________________ - _________________________
_______________________ - _________________________
_______________________ - _________________________
_______________________ - _________________________
4.
“The art of war is of vital importance to the state. It is a matter of
life and death; a road to either safety or to ruin. Hence, under no
circumstances can it be neglected.”
Who said it? ______________________________ (2)
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5. Choose two cultures and explain one way in which their concepts of
warriorship are the same and one way in which they differ: (4)
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
6. List 3 different countries or regions and name on martial art/system
originating from each: (3)
Country/region
art/system
__________________ - ______________________
__________________ - ______________________
__________________ - ______________________
139
7. Compare and contrast any two martial arts: (5)
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
8. Give one historical (true account) example of a true warrior and explain
your answer: (5)
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
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Introduction to Warrior Studies
Test #2
Name:_________________
1(a)
Explain Courage:
__________________________________________________________________ (2)
1(b)
Explain Justice:
__________________________________________________________________(2)
1(c)
Explain Obligation:
__________________________________________________________________(2)
1(d)
Explain Responsibility:
__________________________________________________________________(2)
2.
List and explain an example of honour in politics, commerce, social issues and/or local
or global issues.
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________(3)
3.
List and explain two examples of dishonour in politics, commerce, social issues and/or
local or global issues.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________ (6)
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4.
Describe a method of combat strategy and then explain how it might be used in a
contemporary vocation:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________(4)
5.
Take two fictional characters from any pop culture source and compare and contrast
them to show why one should be considered a warrior and why one should not:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ (4)
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6.
Compose a strategy for victory or betterment in any aspect of your
life.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________(20)
143
Maneuver Warfare: Can Modern Military Strategy Lead You to Victory?
by Eric K. Clemons and Jason A. Santamaria
Business has gone through a dramatic transformation in recent years. So has warfare.
Every executive knows firsthand the daunting challenges of the twenty-first-century
business environment: rapid and disruptive change, fleeting opportunities, incomplete
information, an overall sense of uncertainty and disorder. While military commanders
have long faced such challenges on the battlefield, meeting them has become even
more difficult in today‘s world of electronic weaponry, blurred battle lines, and
amorphous enemies. Military strategy, like business strategy, has had to evolve in
response to the changing environment. This has led to the growing focus on an
approach to armed conflict called maneuver warfare. Recognized as a viable combat
philosophy for the past 65 years, maneuver warfare has risen to prominence in the past
decade because it is so well suited to today‘s combat environment. Although designed
for the battlefield, the approach offers a novel and useful way to think about business
strategy, allowing executives to capitalize on – rather than succumb to – the
formidable challenges they now face.
Maneuver warfare represents – in the words of the United States Marine Corps
doctrinal manual, Warfighting –―a state of mind bent on shattering the enemy morally
and physically by paralyzing and confounding him, by avoiding his strength, by
quickly and aggressively exploiting his vulnerabilities, and by striking him in a way
that will hurt him most.‖ Its ultimate aim is not to destroy the adversary‘s forces but to
render them unable to fight as an effective, coordinated whole. For example, instead of
attacking enemy defense positions, maneuver warfare practitioners bypass those
positions, capture the enemy‘s command-and-control center in the rear, and cut off
supply lines. Moreover, maneuver warfare doesn‘t aim to avoid or resist the
uncertainty and disorder that inevitably shape armed conflict; it embraces them as
keys to vanquishing the foe. Despite the oft-cited analogy between warfare and
business, military principles clearly can‘t be applied wholesale in a business
environment. The marketplace is not, after all, a battlefield, if only because lives aren‘t
at stake. That said, companies do compete aggressively – even viciously –for strategic
advantage in a chaotic arena that is increasingly similar to the modern theater of war.
Consequently, while the battle metaphor in some settings may seem facile or ill
considered, we believe the concept of maneuver warfare is directly relevant to
business strategy, precisely because it has been developed to address conditions that in
many ways mirror those faced by modern executives. Furthermore, the approach –with
its focus not on overpowering a rival but on outflanking him, targeting his weaknesses,
and rendering him unable to analyze the situation – can help a company to achieve a
decisive advantage with a minimal deployment of resources. This is of particular
interest in today‘s business environment, when many companies are hesitant to overcommit their resources.
The Nature of War
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Warfare, in general, takes place on multiple levels. On the physical level, it is a test of
firepower, weapons technology, troop strength, and logistics. At the psychological
level, it involves intangibles such as morale, leadership, and courage. At the analytical
level, it challenges the ability of commanders to assess complex battlefield situations,
make effective decisions, and formulate tactically superior plans to carry out those
decisions.
If these dimensions seem familiar to most business executives, so too will the four
human and environmental factors that, according to Warfighting, shape military
conflict. Friction is the phenomenon that, in the words of the manual, ―makes the
simple difficult and the difficult seemingly impossible.‖ The most obvious source of
friction is the enemy, but it can also result from natural forces such as the terrain or the
weather, internal forces such as a lack of planning or coordination, or even mere
chance. Uncertainty is the atmosphere in which ―all actions in war take place‖ – the
so-called fog of war. Uncertainty about environmental factors and about the
opponent‘s intentions and capabilities clouds decision makers‘ judgment, prohibiting
the optimal deployment of resources. Fluidity describes the battlefield situation in
which each event ―merges with those that precede and follow it – shaped by the former
and shaping the conditions of the latter – creating a continuous, fluctuating flow of
activity replete with fleeting opportunities and unforeseen
events.‖ Combatants must constantly adapt to these changing conditions and seek to
actively shape emerging events. There are few breaks in the action or opportunities
for decisions to be made sequentially. Combined, these three factors constitute the
final key attribute of military conflict, the state toward which warfare naturally
gravitates: disorder. ―In an environment of friction, uncertainty, and fluidity,‖
according to the
Marines‘ manual, ―plans will go awry, instructions and information will be unclear
and misinterpreted, communications will fail, and mistakes and unforeseen events will
be commonplace.‖ Quite simply, disorder implies a competitive situation that
deteriorates as time progresses. Functioning – or even surviving – in such an
environment is a major challenge. But military commanders, as well as business
executives, must be sure that their troops do more than survive: They must prevail.
Because these four factors can rarely be controlled, successful commanders will opt
for the only viable alternative – using them to their own advantage. That is the notion
at the core of maneuver warfare: instead of being undermined by disorder, military
commanders turn friction, uncertainty,
and fluidity against the enemy to generate disorder in his ranks, ideally creating a
situation in which the opposition simply can‘t cope. This idea isn‘t completely new.
Elements of maneuver warfare theory first appeared in the writings of Sun Tzu and
were practiced at the Battle of Leuctra in ancient Greece. More sophisticated
applications of maneuver warfare principles generated successes for Napoléon and
Confederate General Stonewall Jackson. But the 1937 publication of Infantry Attacks
by well-known German
military officer Erwin Rommel was the first broadly disseminated articulation of
maneuver warfare‘s modern conceptual foundation – which was validated shortly
thereafter by the success of German blitzkrieg tactics during World War II. Since then,
maneuver warfare has resulted in decisive victories for the Israeli Defense Force in the
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Arab–Israeli Wars of 1967 and 1973 and for the Coalition Forces in Operation Desert
Storm in 1991.
With the publication of Warfighting in 1989,the U.S. Marine Corps – once a devil-bedamned, charge-up-the-middle outfit formally adopted maneuver warfare as its
doctrinal philosophy. Although the philosophy is tailor-made for the Marines – a
small, light force with relatively few resources–maneuver warfare in recent years has
also
achieved a prominent place in U.S. military thought in general.
The Elements of Maneuver Warfare
Maneuver warfare, as we have distilled it from Warfighting, has seven guiding
concepts. Taken as a whole, they provide a useful framework for thinking about
business
strategy. For each concept – described in part using the actual language of Warfighting
– we‘ll give examples of how it has been successfully executed in both military and
business contexts.
Targeting Critical Vulnerabilities. A practitioner of maneuver warfare continually
analyzes a rival with the aim of discovering those fundamental weaknesses that,
―if exploited, will do the most significant damage to the enemy‘s ability to resist.‖
Once the opponent‘s Achilles‘ heel is identified, resources must be marshalled rapidly
and decisively to capitalize on the opportunity. Minimizing the lag time between the
identification of the weakness and its exploitation maximizes the effectiveness of
the resources deployed in this effort.
At the Battle of Isonzo in World War I, then-Lieutenant Rommel, commanding a small
detachment of three companies of light infantry, targeted a key mountain pass used
as a main supply route by the Italian opposition. The capture of this pass,the Italians‘
critical vulnerability, caused the collapse of the northern part of their entire front,
which consisted of thousands of well-positioned troops. To reach the pass, Rommel
identified gaps in each of three defensive lines, bypassed enemy strong points, and
attacked Italian defenders from the rear. In just 52 hours, his force captured 150 Italian
officers,9, 000 soldiers, and 81 heavy guns while incurring casualties of only six dead
and 30 wounded. Rommel applied such tactics again during World War II as a field
marshal in North Africa, earning himself the nickname ―Desert Fox.‖
In a similar fashion, upstart MCI identified a critical vulnerability of AT&T‘s in the
long-distance market in the early 1980s – the then-regulated incumbent‘s reliance on
copper cable. MCI quickly exploited this reliance by deploying a wireless microwave
technology that eliminated the expenses–labor in particular–associated with laying
copper cable. It also laid higher-capacity fiber-optic lines. And it launched and won
litigation that required AT&T to grant other carriers access to its circuits, thereby
enabling
MCI to pick off the incumbent‘s customers. These developments afforded MCI a
fundamental advantage in the costs of building and operating telecommunications
networks. MCI also attacked AT&T in less-defended geographical markets, where
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initial successes provided a growing revenue base that supported further expansion of
MCI networks.
Boldness. One key to battlefield success is having the daring to seek breakthrough
results rather than incremental ones. This requires shifting resources to endeavors with
uncertain – sometimes highly uncertain – outcomes. Informed estimates of the
resources needed to capture, maintain, and defend a position, and of the potential
benefits of doing so, can often reduce the risk of such a move. But sometimes there are
not enough data to make an estimate. Or the information that does exist may suggest a
cautious approach. Maneuver warfare calls for a commander, on occasion, to take
action despite data that are inconclusive or downright discouraging. While risk taking
―must be tempered with judgment lest it border on recklessness,‖ it is sometimes
needed to achieve a major
victory.
General Douglas MacArthur‘s amphibious assault at Inchon in 1950 during the Korean
War is considered one of the boldest attacks in modern military history. Because
of the challenges posed by tides, mudflats, the narrowness of the channel, and steep
embankments on the shore, both sides considered Inchon to be the worst possible
location for an amphibious landing. Consequently, the North Koreans devoted few
resources to defending it. MacArthur was well rewarded for his risky assault there:
His forces moved from Inchon to capture Seoul and isolate North Korean forces in the
south of the country, dramatically altering the momentum of the war in favor of
the United States.
In 1993,Lou Gerstner assumed the formidable challenge of turning around declining
computer maker IBM. Four years later, he had succeeded – by boldly refocusing the
massive company. His decision to do so was based not on compelling analytical data–
indeed, he defied the general industry consensus – but on anecdotal evidence. When he
took over IBM, technology players and pundits alike dismissed the mainframe as
irrelevant in the disaggregated world of networked computing. When talking
with customers, though, Gerstner kept hearing that large corporations still wanted a
specialized outsider to formulate their technology strategies and build and operate
their complex networked systems. Accordingly ,he halted existing reorganization plans
and bet IBM‘s future viability on its mainframes and services businesses. Under
Gerstner‘s watch, IBM invested heavily to overhaul and revive its line of mainframes,
which he believed would still be necessary to tie networks together in much the same
manner that servers did. And he leveraged IBM‘s customer relationships and wellrecognized brand to expand the company‘s presence in higher-margin, value-added
services. Although both decisions were widely perceived as ill advised, by late
1996,mainframe sales were booming, computer services had become IBM‘s biggest
growth business, and Gerstner was heralded as Big Blue‘s savior.
Surprise. Striking a foe in an unexpected manner can disorient him and ensure that his
response comes too late to be effective. To accomplish this, a commander must take
steps to degrade the quality of information available to the enemy, thereby impairing
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his ability to prepare for the attack. Surprise can be achieved by using one of three
approaches:
stealth, ambiguity, or deception. Stealth is used to ―deny the enemy any knowledge of
impending action.‖ It keeps rivals in a state of unawareness until sudden, unexpected
action is taken. Denying critical information to the enemy minimizes or even
eliminates the threat of retaliation.
The first blow of the 1967 Arab–Israeli War, in which the Israeli air force launched a
devastating air attack against all of the Egyptian air force bases, was based on stealth.
Careful planning of departure times and approaches ensured that the attacks occurred
simultaneously; consequently, none of the bases was able to alert the others to the
strike. The Egyptians were not aware of the attack until some 300 of their aircraft,
almost their
entire air force, had been destroyed on the ground.
In the mid-1990s, commercial airlines established Websites to provide general
information to customers. As the functionality of these sites expanded, customers
could reserve and purchase tickets directly from them. Once the number of on-line
orders reached a critical mass, Delta Airlines, in a move quickly emulated by other
airlines,
surprised unsuspecting travel agents by slashing commissions, from 10% of the value
of each ticket sold to a flat $50 (and later $35) per ticket. While the threat to agents of
travelers buying directly from the airlines had been evident all along, the greater threat
of declining commissions had not. Because travel agents weren‘t aware of the power
shift that the Internet enabled, they were unprepared to launch effective
countermeasures.
Ambiguity - ―to act in such a way that the enemy does not know what to expect,
‖represents an effort to confuse a rival and make him commit his resources to a
number
of potential combat scenarios. Doing this spreads those resources so thin that the
enemy becomes vulnerable on any number of fronts. In Operation Desert Storm, the
direction
of the Coalition Forces‘ attack was so unclear to the Iraqis that their defenses became
too widely dispersed to be effective. The Iraqis were forced to allocate combat
resources to three potential lines of advance, all of which seemed, based on the
Coalition Forces‘ activity, possible avenues of attack. Although Iraq maintained the
fifth largest land army in the world at the time, preparing for every eventuality
inevitably exposed a weakness, the lightly defended western end of the Iraqi line,
around which the coalition ultimately attacked.
Microsoft relies on ambiguity when it announces plans for across-the-board upgrades
to its software or operating systems. Challengers to Microsoft‘s dominance, whose
software products must offer an array of features that at the least matches those offered
by Microsoft, have no choice but to respond to every potential change. Microsoft‘s
caginess about the ultimate configuration of its upgrade gives it a tremendous cost
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advantage over competitors: Because it never implements all of the announced
changes, Microsoft incurs costs only for those features that it actually upgrades.
Deception - ―to convince the enemy that we are going to do something other than
what we are really going to do, ‖is designed to cause a rival to deploy resources
erroneously.
Such a signal can take the form of a deliberate release of misinformation or the more
subtle form of distorted information left ―on display,‖ with the anticipation that the
opposition will observe it. Deception is the most difficult of the three means of
surprise to implement, but it is also the most effective. During World War II, the
Allies used deception to prevent the Germans from determining when and where the
D-day invasion would occur. To reinforce the German High Command‘s belief that
Pas de Calais, France, was the most likely location for an Allied amphibious landing,
General George S. Patton was placed ―in charge‖ of a fictitious landing force
consisting of dummy tanks, oil storage depots, air fields, landing craft–all visible to
both air-based and human intelligence agents. The Allies also bombed the Calais
region more severely than the Normandy area, used double agents to convey
misinformation, and created false radio traffic to create the illusion of a large invasion
force being marshalled in the south eastern
corner of England. These measures were so effective that the Germans waited to
respond until after the invasion at Normandy began, and even then, they only partially
committed troops to the area.
Anecdotal evidence indicates that Merrill Lynch employed deceptive measures to
deter competition from other securities firms when it introduced the cash management
account in the late 1970s. The CMA was an all purpose brokerage account for
securities that, by offering a money market fund, a checkbook, and a credit-debit card,
infringed on activities traditionally reserved for commercial banks. And because it
offered an interest rate of 12.5%, compared with the banks‘ 5.5%,it seized market
share from the banks, which retaliated with numerous lawsuits alleging violation of the
Glass-Steagall Act. Although Merrill Lynch never lost one of those suits, it drew
media attention to the suits
to deter rival brokerage houses from offering a similar product, essentially giving
the company a five-year lead in the lucrative CMA market.
Focus. In order to seize key opportunities, a commander must often deploy resources
in a concentrated manner. This ―generation of superior combat power at a particular
time and place‖ enables a smaller force ―to achieve decisive local superiority,‖
providing an advantage when and where it matters most. In carrying out this aim,
commanders are hindered by two factors. First, a scarcity of resources means that
concentrating them in one area requires reducing them – and increasing the risk of
vulnerability – elsewhere. Second, a variation in the fungibles of resources means that
shifting them is more difficult in some cases than in others.
Despite being outnumbered by almost 1 million soldiers and by a ratio of 3:2 in
artillery pieces and tanks in France in 1940,the German army smashed through the
149
center of the French line, its weakest point, and brought the French army to its knees.
The Germans achieved this overwhelming victory by focusing 510 bombers, 200
fighter aircraft, and 45 divisions against nine French divisions in the lightly defended
Ardennes forest. Although successful, this focused attack was not without risk. The
scarcity of the Germans‘ combat assets left their positions in the north thinly held and
thus, vulnerable to counterattack.
In the late 1980s,Toyota focused $500 million and its engineering might on an
emerging U.S. market segment of young, affluent ,but price-sensitive luxury-car
buyers. These customers wanted the quality and performance of a European
automobile but were not willing to pay a substantial premium. Toyota‘s flagship
model for its new luxury car line, the Lexus LS 400, combined a sleek design, high
performance, and the most advanced automation in manufacturing to date. To
maximize efficiency in manufacturing and responsiveness to customer tastes and
preferences, Toyota kept the less fungible manufacturing function in Japan and moved
design specialists to California,
the heart of the target market. U.S. luxury brands could not compete with the Lexus‘s
exceptional quality, reliability, and performance; European automakers, such as
Jaguar, Mercedes, and BMW, could not hope to match its $35,000 base price. In its
first year, the Lexus quickly gained market share and established itself as a premier
marque among luxury automobiles.
Decentralized Decision Making. Pushing significant decision-making authority down
through the ranks allows a military force ―to best cope with the uncertainty, disorder,
and fluidity of combat. ‖The decisions of subordinate leaders, however, must be
consistent with and further the ―commander‘s intent‖– that is, the desired final
objective. The aim is to give those closest to the action the latitude to take advantage
of on-the-spot information unavailable to their superiors while carrying out their broad
strategic aims.
Giving frontline personnel the freedom to exercise initiative can increase the
likelihood of both nonlinear accomplishments and ―reconnaissance pull.‖ The former
refers to situations in which an extraordinary act by an individual disproportionately
determines the course of large-scale competitive encounters. The latter refers to a
situation in which an individual identifies an opportunity, pulls the organization
toward it, and then leads the
organization in its exploitation.
General Patton once said, ―Never tell people how to do things. Tell them what to do,
and they will surprise you with their ingenuity.‖ During the Normandy Breakout of
1944, Patton led his Third Army with a series of half-page operations orders, pushing
the German front from the Normandy beachhead east through France. Most
commanders
communicated tactical plans to such a large force through a lengthy and detailed
document.
Shortly after assuming the role of CEO at Continental Airlines in 1994,Gor don
150
Bethune symbolically burned the company‘s oppressive, inflexible, and unpopular
customer
service manual. He gave employees considerable latitude to make impromptu
decisions regarding customer service. But to ensure that employees‘ actions were
consistent with the organization‘s strategic objectives, Bethune repeatedly emphasized
the need to improve in the airline industry‘s three most important metrics: customer
satisfaction, lost baggage, and on-time arrivals. Employees often responded to this
greater responsibility
with nonlinear decisions. For example, a flight attendant on a full flight short of meals
might decide to close the doors, making an on-time departure possible. By giving free
drinks to business-class passengers in lieu of a meal, the attendant ensures that an
entire planeload of people is happy, no one misses a connection–and no one stays in
a hotel at the airline‘s expense. Collectively, such frontline decisions were the driving
force behind Continental‘s widely heralded turnaround.
Rapid Tempo. Speed is clearly crucial to maneuver warfare, but the relevant measure
is not absolute speed. Rather, success is based on relative speed – that is, identifying
opportunities and making decisions more quickly than one‘s opponent, thereby forcing
him into a constant state of reaction. Ideally, in a multi-period encounter, he will fall
increasingly behind ―until eventually he is overcome by events.‖ Alternatively, in a
multiple-arena encounter, the practitioner of maneuver warfare can move among the
arenas so rapidly that the enemy is never sure where he is being engaged. To achieve
this advantage, a commander need not actively undermine his rival‘s ability to
maintain a certain pace of action; he may simply exploit fundamental differences
between his rival‘s
speed and his own.
In the Battle of Britain, use of coastal radar by the British meant that their senior
aviation officers could assess threats and transfer combat-ready squadrons into crucial
engagement areas to meet each incoming German bombing raid more quickly than the
Germans could reconstitute and redistribute attack squadrons. Heavy losses of German
aircraft and pilots, resulting from the fact that they were constantly facing fresh British
pilots in well functioning planes, eventually forced the Germans to cease daylight
bombing raids and conduct less effective night attacks.
Jenny Craig, the chain of weight-management centers, set a rapid tempo to deliver a
decisive blow to rival Nutrisystem in the 1980s. In this market, where diet centers
were deriving almost all of their profits from the sales of portion- and caloriecontrolled food products, Nutrisystem achieved an initial advantage by introducing a
series
of product improvements: freeze-dried food ,boil-in pouches, and later, microwavable
pouches. Because Nutrisystem was primarily a chain of franchises, each product
improvement required the franchisees to invest in new food storage capacity and
accompanying advertising campaigns. Further introductions required the approval
once again of countless franchise owners. Jenny Craig, a tightly controlled hierarchy
(most of the diet centers were owned by Craig and her immediate family), saw that it
151
could leapfrog its rival by exploiting Nutrisystem‘s cumbersome decision-making
process. Almost immediately after identifying an opportunity to sell a new line of
frozen foods, Jenny Craig invested heavily in that product line and its requisite storage
capacity. Nutrisystem, which struggled to gain consensus among its hundreds of
independently owned franchisees to invest in yet another product improvement, could
not respond to Jenny Craig‘s move, lost considerable market share, cancelled its IPO,
and was eventually acquired.
Combined Arms. By creatively combining complementary weapons, the practitioner
of maneuver warfare can create a situation in which ―to counteract one [attack], the
enemy must become more vulnerable to another.‖ This makes the effectiveness of a
commander‘s arsenal greater than if the weapons were deployed individually. As is the
case with the concept of focus, however, the problems of scarcity and a lack of
fungibles can limit the degree to which resources can be combined. On the front lines,
combined arms implies the integration of weapons – allocating, coordinating, and
targeting as evolving conditions and tactical objectives require.
In Operation Desert Storm, for instance, the U.S. Marine Corps relied heavily on
simultaneous direct fire, artillery, and air attacks, synchronized by frontline observers
and pilots, to create shock, terror, and chaos among more heavily equipped Iraqi
forces. At a higher level, combined arms involves selecting and arranging various
combat assets to provide the commander with a fighting force tailored to the mission
at hand. For example, Napoléon invented the army corps to enable greater dispersion
and speed among his forces. Consisting of infantry, artillery, and cavalry, the corps
operated as a coordinated, self -sufficient entity that could move more rapidly with
less logistical support requirements than conventional force configurations and deliver
more combat power because of the complementary nature of its assets.
Duke Energy‘s asset-backed approach to the trading of electric power exemplifies the
merits of combining complementary assets and capabilities – in Duke‘s case, the
power-generation plants it owns, the hydrocarbon-based fuels they consume, and its
energy-trading operations. Duke‘s physical assets provide its traders with insights into
supply conditions and a competitive advantage over rivals. Those assets also confer on
the traders a tactical advantage – opacity of intent – because competitors can never be
certain whether Duke‘s traders are simply bidding up prices or purchasing power for
the company‘s plants in order to meet demand. Conversely, Duke‘s
traders are a useful source of market intelligence to those managing the company‘s
physical assets. For example, its traders can identify opportunities for the company to
sell certain fuels on the open market at a higher return than could be realized from
burning those fuels in Duke‘s generation plants. And when traders identify arbitrage
opportunities across regional power grids or across time, Duke can sell the output of
its plants to areas where electric power prices are highest or sell guarantees of future
output in derivatives markets.
152
An Integrated Attack
While each of the preceding elements of maneuver warfare represents a valuable
concept on its own, the benefits of this combat philosophy are most fully realized
when the elements work together. Capital One‘s emergence as a leading credit card
issuer in the 1990s is an excellent example of the power that the full integration of
maneuver warfare concepts can have. The credit card operation of Signet Bank until it
was spun off in a public offering in 1994, Capital One has enjoyed explosive growth.
From 1992 to 1996,its customer base grew fivefold, receivable card balances increased
from $1.7 billion to $12.8 billion, and its bad-loan write offs were among the lowest in
the industry. Since Capital One went public, its revenue has grown at a nearly 40%
compounded annual rate,earnings have grown at more than a 20% rate,and return on
equity has remained above 20%–a record of double-digit performance in these three
areas unmatched by any company in the S&P 500.
Capital One‘s success was based on targeted marketing and differential pricing
campaigns, which were made possible by the systematic gathering of detailed
customer information. Employing sophisticated data-mining techniques and simple
screening mechanisms, the company identified the most profitable customers and
determined which combination of price and characteristics would make a product
desirable to each one of them.
Capital One began by targeting critical vulnerabilities of commercial banks that
offered credit cards: their obliviousness to the significant differences in profitability
among customers and the potential of exploiting these differences. Absent this insight,
banks offered uniform prices based on average costs. Having identified this opening,
Capital One weighed the risks of its unproven concept–high start-up costs with
a small customer base and the considerable lag time between market testing and
payback (if any) – against the potential benefit of redefining the credit card market.
Despite the rejection of its idea by 16 of America‘s largest
banks, Capital One made the massive investments in information
technology the new approach required. The boldness of the move was highlighted by
the company‘s initial difficulties: From 1989 to 1991, for example, Capital One‘s
losses from its credit card portfolio doubled. To carve out its place in the industry, the
company relied heavily on stealth to surprise its competitors. For example,
it used a difficult-to-detect direct mail campaign to poach customers from unwitting
banks. And it hired consultants on a limited basis so that none ever saw enough of a
product to reverse-engineer it. In addition, it avoided industries where regulation
would have required it to reveal its pricing models.
Capital One initially adopted a narrow focus on a small yet highly profitable segment
of the market: cardholders who carried a high recurring balance, presented a relatively
low risk of default, and displayed a willingness to pay high finance charges. Although
the company has since broadened its customer profile–for example, it now issues
secured cards to people not deemed creditworthy– it still uses sophisticated customer
analyses to create the most enticing offers.
Even in its early days as part of Signet Bank –when it was a nearly autonomous
subsidiary – Capital One embraced decentralized decision making. It has continued to
rely heavily on the judgment of talented problem solvers who, at the point of decision,
interprettrial data and identify profitable market opportunities.
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It has also maintained a rapid tempo, refining its offerings so frequently that
established players have found themselves in a constant state of reaction – often to one
of Capital One‘s earlier moves. For example, when AT&T‘s
Universal Card finally responded with a differential pricing technique of its own,
Capital One had 300 such offerings to AT&T‘s 30. And when AT&T matched Capital
One‘s 300, Capital One had more than 1,000.
Finally, Capital One deployed in an unprecedented manner what were essentially
combined arms: risk management and marketing. Aligning its data-mining, targeted
marketing,and differential-pricing techniques helped the company maximize sales
volume as well as minimize exposure to bad loans by selecting desirable customers
and balancing risk with adjusted expected return.
More interesting than the fact that Capital One applied all these elements is the way in
which these concepts complemented and reinforced one another. For example, Capital
One‘s use of surprise to stealthily pick off competitors‘ customers was reinforced by
both the boldness and the focus of its initial attack. The audacity and long odds of the
company‘s offensive meant that competitors dismissed the threat at first; the attack‘s
narrowness and precision made it less immediately noticeable.Capital One‘s efforts to
maintain a rapid tempo in order to keep competitors off balance were reinforced by the
company‘s decentralized decision making. Because frontline managers could quickly
refine or add product offerings without having to wait for approval from superiors
once removed from the action,c ompetitors were constantly forced to play catch-up.
But the full potential of decentralized decision making wouldn‘t have been realized if
it was used just to maintain a blistering pace. The freedom of frontline managers to
continually fine-tune their product offerings ensured that Capital One maintained its
razor-sharp focus on attracting and retaining only the most profitable customers. In
addition, these managers were encouraged to identify and attack the critical
vulnerabilities of companies in new markets–such as automobile leasing and cell
phone bandwidth reselling. In doing so, the individual frontline managers exercised
reconnaissance pull, effectively moving the organization as a whole to a position of
new strategic advantage.
Turning the Tables
We wouldn‘t be honest if we didn‘t note that maneuver warfare has its detractors.
Over the past 20 years, competing schools of thought within the U.S. military have
debated its merits against those of attrition warfare, which is based on overpowering
rather than confounding the enemy. Some well-respected military figures have voiced
skepticism about maneuver warfare, saying that it represents little more than common
sense and is backed by selective historical examples of victors defeating inept
opponents. We would argue, however, that history has proven maneuver warfare
extremely effective in varying and adverse conditions. Accordingly, it is a useful guide
for strategic business thinking, particularly in the fast-paced, complex, fluid, and
uncertain business environment of the twenty-first century. Companies that can
effectively shape the conditions governing competitive encounters will flourish; those
that cannot will fail. Perhaps more significant, companies that ―win‖ using outdated
strategies–for example, through lengthy wars of attrition, such as protracted price wars
– may find themselves so exhausted that their executives, their share holders, and their
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market valuations do not recover for some time.
Employing maneuver warfare concepts requires the same things of business executives
as it does of military commanders: ―the temperament to cope with uncertainty…
flexibility of mind to deal with fluid and disorderly situations…a certain independence
of mind, a willingness to act with initiative and boldness, an exploitative mindset that
takes full advantage of every opportunity, and the moral courage to accept
responsibility for this type of behavior.‖ The importance of this last point cannot be
overstated. Maneuver warfare is not a prescription for ―fighting dirty.‖ Rather, it is a
prescription for ―fighting smart‖– one that recognizes the ethical implications of each
action you take. In business, as in war, the line between these two should never be
crossed. Integrity and self-discipline on the part of both the military and the business
practitioner of maneuver warfare are paramount.
Finally, given the fact that for every move there is a countermove, maneuver warfare
practitioners must constantly be aware that rivals could be employing the very same
concepts to shape the conditions of the competitive encounter in their favor. One need
only recall how the Germans, the modern progenitors of maneuver warfare, were
deceived about the location of the D-day invasion. Indeed, two decades after Merrill
Lynch stole a march on rivals with the introduction – and deceptive downplaying– of
the cash management account, eTrade and Charles Schwab employed the concept of
rapid tempo to attack the brokerage giant. The upstarts used their relative speed
advantage to enter the on-line trading market more quickly than Merrill Lynch, with
its large brokerage force, was able to do. As a result, Merrill Lynch was put on
the defensive and had to scramble to catch up. Thus, identifying one‘s own
vulnerabilities from a maneuver warfare perspective is absolutely essential to a
company‘s survival in the short term. Over the long term, the practitioner of maneuver
warfare must ensure that his mastery of its principles evolves ahead of competitors‘
– or risk an unexpected and humiliating defeat.
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