International Advanced Journal of Teaching and Learning
ISSN: 2488-9059 (Online); ISSN: 2505-029X (Print)
Vol. 2. N0.9. 2016. Pp 172-180
Review of Sacrifice in the Book of Leviticus Chapters 1 – 7
John Chukwuemeka Adubasim
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Abstract
Thus in the book of Leviticus chapters 1 – 7, much emphasis was made on sacrificial rites.
With personal observation and available primary and secondary sources, the concept
(sacrifice) has been critically examined in order to find out the impact on the life of an
average Israelite and possibly all Christians at large. This paper observed that among the
Israelite; sacrifice provided a graphic symbol of the removal of the disruption or pollution
that unfaithfulness to God had introduced. That removal served to affirm the continued
relationship between the worshipper and his/her community and God. The Mercy of God was
also portrayed not in the cleansing of sin alone but in making provision for the poor. If a
person could not afford an animal, there were provisions made for substitution of a grain
offering as seen in Lev. 5: 11 – 13. This suggests that it was not just the killing of an animal
and the shedding of blood that was important, but the act of worship itself.
Keywords: Sacrifice, Religion, Christianity
Introduction
This emphasis on sacrifice is not at all surprising since it is the most important activity of
formal worship during the Old Testament period in the holy Bible. The examination of
individual sacrifices that follows leads to a covenantal interpretation of sacrifice in Israel.
This covenant relationship is related to sacrifice in three ways. First of all, we will see that
sacrifice is a gift on the part of the worshipper to his covenant Lord. Second, a number of
sacrifices include a notion of communion or fellowship between covenant partners. Last, and
perhaps most important, sacrifice plays a major role in healing rifts in the covenant
relationship. This function is frequently described by the technical theological term expiation.
When the covenant relationship was broken through certain types of offences, repentant
Israelites could seek God's forgiveness by offering a substitute to take the penalty of their sin.
In this way, sacrifice served as the divinely sanctioned means for restoring covenant
relationship.
The Origin of Sacrifice in Leviticus
The origin of Israelite sacrifice is dated from pre-exilic times till the post exilic sacrifices of
Israelites religion. With the passage of time one predominated over another, with a
subsequent shift in emphasis as the ritual developed. Without going into an extended
discussion of the sacrificial system of Mesopotamia, we can say that the evidence at our
disposal does not warrant looking to that area for the source of Israel's rites. Contacts with
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Mesopotamia ritual are rare and superficial. The differences are fundamental. Blood played
little or no part in the Mesopotamian sacrifices, and the two basic forms of Israelite sacrifice,
the holocaust and the communion sacrifice, were not in use in Mesopotamia (Castelot, 1271).
The Biblical information about Canaanite ritual shows it to be similar to Israelite ritual, at
least materially. When all the available evidence is assembled, however, there is a definite
similarity between Canaanite and Israelite ritual. There were holocausts communion
sacrifices, a cereal and perfume offering in Canaanite ritual, but no particular importance
seems to have been attached to blood in the animal sacrifices. Given the similarities between
these two systems, what historical relationship existed between them. Sacrifices in which
were wholly or partially burnt on the altar were common in Canaan before the coming of the
Israelites. However, the Israelites do not seem to have offered such sacrifices in the desert
days. Rather, something similar to the Passover ritual would have been normal during that
pastoral, semi nomadic period: The victim was not burnt, even in part, but its blood had ritual
significance and the flesh was shared by the participants (this was precisely the type of
sacrifice practiced by nomads in indent Arabia). Then when the Israelites came into Canaan,
they took over their Canaanite practice of burnt offering and integrated it gradually into their
own system. From that point on the two rituals, Canaanite and Israelites followed their own
lines of development (Castelot, 1271).
The Meaning of Sacrificei Leviticus
The meaning of Levitical sacrifice centers on the Hebrew verb 'kipper' usually translated
"atone" or "cover" (Lev. 1:4). The basic meaning could be “to cover" or "to wipe away". The
verb may indicate the process of reasoning or atoning by payment of a sum or gift, reflecting
the meaning of the Hebrew noun "Koper" ("ransom price"). Given the full Biblical context
(especially Lev. 17:11), this latter meaning best expresses the Hebrew concept (Thompson,
1120). Leon Morris suggests that in the Bible the atonement obtained is far greater in value
than the ransom paid. Here we see that "There is always an element of grace in atonement"
(Morris, 162, 167) (Hartman, 1965). We have to note that both the subjective and objective
aspects of sin are dealt with in the concept of atonement. Basic to the sacrificial system are
two elements. First, there is humiliation of the worshipper, symbolized by the laying of his
hands on the victim. Moreover, the worshipper makes reparation to the offended party,
usually God, so that the integrity of the personal relationship is maintained. Second, there is
a transfer from a state of defilement to a state of purity. Here the emphasis is on the objective
wrong and the standards of God's justice on the one hand, and the process of becoming
qualified for approach to him on the other. The first stresses what is brought near and offered
to God, which can be symbolized by prayer. The second speaks of God's part in making man
qualified to come to Him, which can be thought of as the answer to prayer (Dyrness,
153,154).
Types of Sacrifice in Leviticus
In Leviticus chapters 1 - 7, we find the various types of sacrifice as they were carried out in
the postexilic temple. Sporadically we find other texts, which differ in detail. According to
Gerry Berard, who argued that, there were two classes of sacrifice in Leviticus, the first class
was those sacrifices offered to enable a person to enter into communion (fellowship) with
God. These are known as propitiatory offerings and included the sin and trespass offerings.
The second class according to Berard was intended to be offering made by believers in
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ISSN: 2488-9059 (Online); ISSN: 2505-029X (Print)
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fellowship; and these included the burnt offerings, peace offerings, thank offerings, votive
offerings, freewill offerings, and meal and drink offering (Berard, 2).
Burnt Offering or Holocaust (Lev. 1)
The most solemn of the Israelite sacrifices was the Burnt offering or Holocaust. In it, the
victim was completely burnt, as holocaust indicates. The common English name for this
sacrifice comes directly from the Greek translation; the Hebrew term means, "ascending"
(‘ola’) and derives from the fact it the fragrant aroma of the sacrifice rises up to heaven in the
form of smoke. According to the prescriptions of Leviticus, the victim of a holocaust had to
be an unblemished male animal or bird (turtledove or pigeon). The one making the offering
laid his hand on the victim's head to signify that the sacrifice was to be offered in his name
for his benefit. The gesture did not signify that the victim was a substitute for the offerer or
that the sins of the offerer were transferred to it for expiation. The offerer then slit the throat
of the victim, and the priest poured its blood around the altar, considered as the seat of life
and belonged to God in a special way. After the animal had been skinned and quartered, the
pieces were washed and placed on the altar to be consumed in the flames. If the victim was a
bird, the one making the offering simply handed it over to the priest, who performed the ritual
directly on the altar. The poor, who could not afford to offer animals, usually made such kind
of offering (Lev. 5:7; 12:8). In the latest development of the Burnt offering or holocaust
ritual, the law called for an accompanying gift (minha) of flour mixed with oil and a libation
of wine. The flour was burnt and the wine poured out at the base of the altar. According to
Lev. 23:18, this requirement had to be satisfied only during the feast of weeks, Exodus 29:3842, extends it to the daily holocaust and Numbers 15 further extends it to all holocausts.
Grain Offering (Lev. 2; 6:14-23)
The grain offering gets its name from its main ingredient, fine flour. Two other components
are oil and incense. Only a small portion of the flour and the oil were combined with the
incense and burnt as a gift to the Lord. The incense provided a pleasant smell to the sacrifice,
but it was withheld from the root of the flour or and oil that was given to the priests for their
sustenance (Dillard, 78). This sacrifice emphasizes the gift function mentioned above.
Indeed, as is often pointed out, the term "grain offering" (minha) may be and often is
translated "tribute". The offering was a gift made to the sovereign Lord of the covenant. It
was most often performed in accompaniment with the whole burnt offering that preceded it
(Ex. 29:40-41; Num. 15:1-10; 28:5-8). The description of the sacrifice is divided in three
sub-categories: uncooked grain offering (Lev. 2:1-3) cooked grain offering (Lev. 4:10) and
other types of grain offering (Lev. 11:16)
Communion Sacrifice or Peace Offering (Lev. 3)
The Hebrew term for this sacrifice (selamin) comes from common word that means 'peace'
(salom). Thus many English transactions refer to this as the "peace offering". The alternate
rending, "fellowship offering or communion sacrifice", is based on the fact that this sacrifice
is predominately for fellowship between both the worshipper and God and among the
worshippers. The term 'peace' has definite covenant significance in the Scriptures, denoting
the "whole" relationship that exists between covenant partners. The corporate meal that is the
outcome of this sacrifice is a celebration of that relationship. Everyone gets a piece of this
offering; the Lord (3:3-4), the priest (7: 28) and the worshippers (Dillard, 79). According to
John Castelot, this sacrifice has frequently been called, under the influence of the LXX, a
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"peace offering" or "welcome offering", but ‘communion Sacrifice" best describes its
essential nature. There were three types of communion sacrifice: The 'toda' or sacrifice of
praise (Lev. 7:12-15; 22:29-i); the nedaba or freewill sacrifice, made out of pure devotion
and not in fulfillment of a precept or a vow (Lev. 7:16-17; 22:18-23); and the neder or votive
offering made in fulfillment of a vow (Lev. 7:16-16; 22:18-23; (Castelot, 1268).
The ritual of communion sacrifice is described in Leviticus chapter 3, and it’s characteristic
feature is that the victim is shared (as I had earlier stated) with portions going to God, to the
priest and to the offerer. The laws about the victims are slightly different from those
governing the victims for holocaust; birds are not allowed. The animal may be male or
female; and, according to Lev. 22:23, the animal may be slightly blemished when the offering
is of the freewill type. The imposition of hands, the slaughtering and the pouring out of
blood take just as in the holocaust. The Lord's portion was burnt on the altar. It consisted of
the fat surrounding the intestines, the kidneys, the liver, and the fat of the sheep's tail. The
priest received two parts; the breast and the right leg (Lev. 7:28-34; 10:14-). The remaining
portion went to the one making the offering, who shared it with family and guests. The victim
of a 'toda' had to be eaten the same day it was offered (Lev. 77:15), and this sacrifice had to
include also an offering of unleavened cakes and wafers and of leavened loaves. One of the
cakes was offered to the Lord and constituted part of the priest's share. The victim of freewill
or a votive sacrifice could be eaten on the morrow of the offering. If any of it was left, it had
to be burnt on the third day (Lev. 7:16-17).
Expiation Sacrifices (Sin offering and Guilt offering)
These receive a major share of the attention given to sacrifices in the ritual code of the
postexilic Temple. Sin offering is not the only sacrifice that has an expiatory function. The
distinction here has to do with the fact that it is effctive for those who have sinned
unintentionally. Some instances of unintentional sins may be found in Lev. 5:1-6 and a
distinction between unintentional and high-handed sins may be found in Numbers 15:22-31
Sin Offering
The Hebrew noun hata't means 'sin', and so, when used to designate a particular type of
sacrifice, it is usually translated "sin offering". Yet just as the piel of the corresponding
denominative verb has the sense of "to free from sin" (GKC 52h), the noun may signify a
sacrifice freeing or purifying from sin (Milgrom, 250). The dignity of the one making the
offering determined the victim to be sacrificed. The high priest was required to offer a bull;
similarly, a bull had to be sacrificed when there was question of a collective sin of the whole
people. The sin of a prince (nasi) could be expiated only by the sacrifice of a he-goat, but a
private person could offer a she-goat or a sheep. If one was very poor, two turtledoves or
pigeons sufficed, one of them was offered as a sacrifice for sin, the other as a holocaust. As
an alternative, the poor could offer some flour (Castelot, 1269), the distinguishing
characteristics of these sacrifices were the use made of the blood and the disposal of the
victim's flesh. When expiation was made for the high priest or for the people as a whole, the
sacrificing priest first gathered the blood, went into the sanctuary, and sprinkled the blood
seven times on the veil before the Holy of Holies, and then he rubbed blood on the horns of
the altar of holocausts. If a prince or private individual was making atonement, the priest did
not enter the sanctuary, but rubbed blood on the horns of the altar of holocausts and poured
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out the rest at its base. The importance of the blood of the victim in these sacrifices is obvious
(Lev. 17:11; Heb. 9:22).
Guilt Offering
The guilt offering has much in common with the sin offering. The examples given for the
former, however, are restricted to offences against the "things of the Lord". This sacrifice
requires an additional payment of 20 percent, which makes up for the offense (Dillard, 79).
The noun, asam designates several related things: offence, the means of repairing an offense,
and the type of sacrifice with which we are dealing with here, (v. 12) the "guilt offering" or
'sacrifice of reparation'. The ritual texts governing this sacrifice are found in Leviticus 5:1426; 7:1-10.
The Place and Occasion of Sacrifice
The commonest place of sacrifice in Leviticus is the altar. Usually, the altar is regarded as the
center of the image of the universe. Altars and sacrifice in Leviticus are correlative terms; the
mention of the one immediately suggests the other. Indeed, the Hebrew word for altar,
'Mizbeah', includes in its connotation the very notion of sacrifice, for it is derived from a verb
meaning to slaughter". Apparently, victims were originally slaughtered on the altar although
in a later period the altar was used only for the act of offering. Consequently, Mizbeah
assumed the general meaning of a place where sacrifice was offered, whether the victim an
already slaughtered animal, cereals or incense (Cody, 1266). Archaeological investigation of
ancient Palestine and its neighbouring regions has revealed altars built of earth or unbaked
brick, or of uncut stone; it has also revealed natural outcropping of rock with cuttings, which
have led some to suspect that they were used as altars, although that is very difficult to
establish (Metuh, 1987; 60).
The Bible shows that in early Israelite society a natural outcropping of rock or a large stone
did serve as an altar. Gideon was ordered to place his offering on a rock (Judges 6:19 ff).
When the Philistines sent the Ark back to Israel, the cows, along with the cart they drew,
were burnt as sacrifice on a large stone (l Samuel 6:14). The altar could be in the Tent of
meeting, Tabernacle or the Temple. There are different types of altars for different types of
sacrifice, for instance the Bronze altar, the altar of incense. The clearest illustration of
occasion for sacrifice is the Day of /atonement in Leviticus 16. This day was observed after
the New Year celebration in the fall to confess the people's sins of the past year. After the
proper preparations, a bull was sacrificed and its blood sprinkled before the Mercy Seat, the
symbolic throne of God in the Temple. Besides this annual atonement, sacrifices could be
made periodically for various sins committed by individuals or the community as a whole,
while the specific rituals varied in occasion and time, the aim of each sacrifice remains
unchanged.
Motives or Purpose of Sacrifice in Leviticus
The motive or purpose of sacrifice in Israel depended so much on their notion of God. To the
Israelites God was unique, transcendent, all-powerful, supremely self-sufficient, personal,
and because he was personal, he called for a response on the part of his people. This response
had to be correspondingly personal and rational- Sacrifice, then, was the external expression
of a personal response to a personal God. It was not a mechanical, magic gesture with an
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efficacy unrelated to the interior dispositions of the one offering it. If sacrifice was not
motivated by sincere interior dispositions, it was empty formalism, a mocking of true divinehuman relationship. It is true that some elements of Israelite ritual and sacrificial vocabulary
are rooted in customs antedating the formation of Israel as a nation. However, material
similarity is not an induction of real identity with these customs (Castelot, 1272). The essence
of sacrifice to the Israelite did not consist in the destructions of the victim. In fact, in the case
of animal sacrifices, the slaughter of the victim was only a preparatory rite and was
performed by the offerer, not by the priest. One reason for the destruction of the offering
whether animal or vegetable, was that it made the gift irrevocably definitive and withdrew it
completely from ordinary use. Also, it rendered the victim invisible and thereby symbolically
sent it into the invisible sphere of the divine.
Sacrifice served as a gift expressing the Israelite sense of dependence on God, but it also
indicated the desire for union with God. The Israelites never entertained a crassly physical
notion of this union in harmony with the sublime spiritual transcends of Yahweh. When God
had received his share of the victim, the ones who had presented it ate the remainder in the
sacrificial meal, the fact that the one victim had both been offered to God and eaten by the
worshippers brought the two parties together in a spiritual communion, establishing and
consolidating the covenant bond between the two. This was a joyful occasion and in the early
days the communion sacrifice was the most popular in the ritual (Cody, 1273). Every
sacrifice implied at least some notion of expiation. The making of the offering necessarily
entailed self-denial, and the reestablishment or maintenance of amicable relations with God
implied that these relations had been disturbed. According to David Hinson, sacrifices
enabled the Israelites to express their relationship within three main ways:
a.
b.
c.
When the Israelites wished to thank God for His goodness to them as a nation and as
individuals, sacrifices could express this thanksgiving; especially the thank offerings
(Lev. 7:12) and the burnt offerings (Lev. 1:10-13).
When they wished to share fellowship with God, sacrifices in which the worshippers
ate part of the sacrificial animal provided for this need through a communal meal, for
example the peace offering (Lev. 3:1-5).
When the people were moved to make atonement for their sins both as individuals and
as a nation, sacrifice gave ritual expression to their desire for healing of broken
relationships and went alongside confession and restitution, e.g. the sin offering (Lev.
4), the guilt offering (Lev. 5) and the animal Day of Atonement (Lev. 16).
Method of Sacrifice
The sacrificial acts were in five categories;
1. Presentation of the sacrifice at the door of the sanctuary by the offerer himself as his
personal act.
2. Laying on of hands. The offerer placed his hand on the victims head thereby I
dedicating it to God and making it his own representative and substitute (Lev.1:4;
16:21); in the case of the scapegoat Aaron laid his hands upon the head of the animal,
thus placing upon it the sins of the people (Gehman 553).
3. Slaying the animal by the offerer himself, who thus symbolically accepted the
punishment due for his sin. In later times, the priests slew the animal.
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4.
5.
Symbolic application of the blood. The priest sprinkled or smeared it on the altar and
poured it out at the base. In specified cases a part was put on the offerer, or it was
sprinkled before the veil of the sanctuary (Lev. 4:6), or carried ±e Holy place (Lev.
6:30), or even into the Holy of Hollies (Lev. 16:14).
Burning the sacrifice, the whole of it or its fat only, on the altar of burnt lifting,
whereby its essence and flavour ascended to God (Gehman, 679).
Another method of sacrifice was the rite of waving, which was regularly performed in
connection with:
1. Peace Offerings: The right thigh or shoulder of the animal sacrificed was heaved and
the breast was waved before the Lord and, after having been thus consecrated the
priest ate them.
2. The sheaf of first-ripe grain on the second day of the Passover, whereby the harvest
was consecrated to the Lord (Lev. 23:10-11).
3. The two loaves made from the new grain and the two lambs for a peace offering at
Pentecost, 50 days from the waving of the sheaf at the Pentecost (Lev. 23:15,21).
4. The guilt offering of the leper (Lev. 14:12, 21), whereby the offerer represented by it
was consecrated again to the service of God.
5. The cereal offering of jealousy (Num. 5:25). When the peace offering was private, the
wave breast and the heave shoulder or thigh went to the priest, and the rest of the flesh
was eaten by the offerer and his friends before the Lord at the sanctuary. Of the peace
offering brought by the Nazirite, the boiled shoulder of the ram went to the priest, in
addition to his regular perquisites. At Pentecost, the whole of the two lambs of the
peace offering and loaves went to the priests (Gehman, 987).
Materials for Sacrifice
Material for any sacrifice in Leviticus is dependent on the type of sacrifice and also the
economic status of the sacrificer. For convenience sake, the variety of materials for sacrifice
are, blood offerings (animals), bloodless offerings (grains/vegetables).
Blood Offerings (Animal)
The following are used, a clean-male-quadrupled beast. A ram, a he or she-goat or a bullock.
A yearling female lamb or a yearling he-lamb Bovines, cattle Ox-bull heifer, young of the
herd fatling Ovines, sheep, suckling lamb, caprina - kid, delves - buffalos, young or hart calf
age ranging from one to three years old. In case of a poor person he/she is required to bring
birds; pigeon, turtle dove.
Bloodless Offering (vegetable)
The materials for vegetable offerings consisted in a tithe of the produce and in the first fruits
of the crops. Bread parched ears of corn, oil habitation of wine, date wine milk and cakes of
unleavened bread. It must be noted that the material for any sacrifice within Leviticus must
be according to prescription and appropriate. The Materials must be blemish or else God will
reject it. Leonard also observed that, every animal is found on any part of its body, .or limb is
seen to be bruised or broken, it is instantly classed as unclean and unfit (Leonard 453).
Recipient of Sacrifice
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In most religions of the world, sacrifices are directed to their object of worship or veneration.
Fundamental to the Israelite worldview was the understanding that God is the source of
everything. Their view of God as the sole creator of the universe and everything in it was
visible in their worship life. Thus, all sacrifice is directed to Yahweh who is the Lord of all.
The Israelites see God as the one and only Holy God. He simply speaks and the world exists.
It is He alone who brings order and stability into His creation, not just as a one-time act, but
also as sustainer of creation (Awolalu & Dopamu, 1979). Sacrifice is directed to Him in order
to maintain and sustain a cordial relationship with him.
The Sacrificer of Sacrifice
This is the person for whom or in whose behalf the sacrifice is being red, the owner of the
sacrificial materials. Generally, it could be said that it man who makes sacrifices, either as
individuals or a collective group - a family, a clan, a tribe, a nation etc. Frequently, the
sacrificer must perform special acts (rituals) before and sometimes after the sacrifice. In the
book of Leviticus, the categories of persons are the offerers, the priest who makes atonement
for himself first before the congregation. The congregation, Leviticus 4:13-14 And if the whole congregation of Israel sin through
ignorance, and the things be hid from the eyes of
the assembly,... then the congregation shall offer
a young bullock for the sin, and bring him before
the tabernacle of the congregation (13:14).
This refers to the public community sin, not just a few individuals. "The ruler or prince, when
a ruler hath sinned, and done somewhat through ignorance against any of the commandments
of the Lord his God... he shall bring his offering, a kid of the goats, a male without blemish"
(Lev, 4:22, 23). The common people; 'And if any one of the common people sin through
ignorance while he doeth somewhat against any of the commandments of the Lord
concerning things which ought not to be done and be guilty... then he shall bring his
offering.., (Lev. 4:27, 28). This refers to people in contrast with priests, rulers, or elders. It
may denote the very lowest of the people. The sacrificer in the book of Leviticus includes
different categories of person (s) of different status: the priest (s), the princes or rulers, the
entire congregation, and the common persons.
The Officiant of Sacrifice in Leviticus
Generally, as in the case of the sacrificer, the officiant must be a human being, either a man
or woman. In most cases the officiant must be a specific religious functionary. In earlier part
of the Old Testament, individual sacrifices and family sacrifices did not need to be made at a
sanctuary, and as long as they were not made at a sanctuary there was nothing priestly about
them. The patriarchs (Gen. 4:3-5; 8:20; 22:12; 31:34), Gideon (Judges 6:25-26) and Manoah
(Judges 13:16-23) who were not priests, sacrificed (Castelot, 1256). The sacrificial character
of priests increased during the royal period, as the sense of the holiness of God's house was
extended to the altar of holocaust in the courtyard outside the house. Contact with the altar
came to be reserved to priests, by their office endowed with a degree of ritual holiness greater
than the rest of the people. As a consequence of this development, the sacrificial prescriptions
in Leviticus still allow a non-priestly Israelite to slaughter his victim (Lev. 1:5; 3:2, 8, 13);
but the blood rites and all the other sacrificial actions have to be performed by a priest,
because they entail contact with the altar or close approach to it. In the actual division
between priests and Levites, the priests did all that required contact with the altars and with
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the offerings after they had passed from the common, secular sphere to that of the holy, the
burning of offerings on the altars, the slaughter of birds on the altar of holocaust, the
libations, and sacrificial blood rites. In sacrificial rites, the Levites proffered to the priests the
blood, which was to be sprinkled and they could help priests prepare a holocaust by flaying
the victim.
Conclusion
The paper have observed that in the worship rituals of the Israelites, especially in blood
sacrifice., there is recognition of magnitude of sin and the enormity of the disruption human
beings have deliberately into their world- Sin was very real to the people of the Israel. The
average Israeli or Christian recognizes that he is not in charge of the world. There are
superior powers, invisible spirits, the Supreme Being, the ancestors and other human spirits
of wicked deceased people. The ancient worshippers believed that it is up to him to propitiate
these forces and to treat them with courtesy and deference (Akama, 1990). That was the
fundamental reason why he had such a penchant for sacrifice in all its many forms. It must be
noted that the material for any sacrifice must be according to prescription and appropriate.
The materials must be without blemish or else God will reject it. We have observed that
consistent elements of sacrifice have been incorporated into the particular religions and
cultures of the world in various and often-complex ways. It is worthy of note that sacrifice is
never practiced in simply political, economic, and/or emotional terms. There is a concomitant
intellectual aspect within every sacrificial institution. That aspect may or may not appear
mythological from a modern point of view, but it is one of the features of consciousness
involved in sacrifice, which is usually accessible to us.
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Hartman, L.F. (1965). Encyclopedia Dictionary of the Bible, New York; McGraw- Hill,
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Metuh, E. L. (1987). Comparative Studies of African Traditional Religions, Onitsha,
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