Journal of Palaeogeography
2012, 1(2): 91-104
DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1261.2012.00008
Palaeogeography
Palaeogeography of China
Feng Zengzhao*, Zheng Xiujuan, Jin Zhenkui
China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
Abstract Palaeogeography is a science that studies the features and evolution of physical geography in geological history and human history. The palaeogeography of China has
multiple disciplines and multiple types of palaeogeographic map. These perfectly reflect “a
hundred flowers blossom and a hundred schools of thought content”. The palaeogeography of
China has three characteristics. The first is multiple disciplines flourishing simultaneously. The
second is that lithofacies palaeogeography is in a leading position. The third is that palaeogeography of China is closely connected with industrial practice. It is why palaeogeography,
especially lithofacies palaeogeography of China, can flourish continually. We have two journals of palaeogeography, i. e. Journal of Palaeogeography (Chinese Edition) and Journal of
Palaeogeography (English Edition). The former primarily publishes articles of Chinese authors
regarding Chinese palaeogeography and related disciplines and has a foothold in China. The
latter will publish the articles of both Chinese and international authors and caters to foreign
readers. These two journals will cooperate together and display their own expertise, which will
effectively make a great contribution to the development and innovation of Chinese palaeogeography and international palaeogeography.
Key words palaeogeography, palaeogeography of China, multiple disciplines, multiple
palaeogeographic maps, three characteristics, two journals
1 Palaeogeography*
What is palaeogeography?
According to the traditional definition, palaeogeog‑
raphy is a science that studies the physical geographical
characteristics and their evolution in geological history pe‑
riods (Feng, 1999a, 1999b). The geological history periods
include all the geological history periods before the Qua‑
ternary Holocene. The physical geographical characteris‑
tics are the features and distribution of lands and seas, and
those of their secondary units within the lands and seas.
The evolution refers to the evolutionay rule of lands and
seas as well as those secondary units in every geological
history period. Obviously, the traditional definition of pal‑
aeogeography fits in the category of geology.
* Corresponding author: Professor. Email: Jpalaeo2012@163. com.
Received: 2012-06-09 Accepted: 2012-06-30
However, in December 2002, during the 197th Sympo‑
sium of Xiangshan Science Conference “Reconstruction
of Palaeogeography by Multi‑information” supported by
the Chinese Academy of Sciences, both in the opening ad‑
dress and in the closing speech, I significantly modified the
definition of palaeogeography, i. e., “palaeogeography is a
science that studies the characteristics and their evolution
of physical geography in the geological history periods and
in the human history periods. The geological history peri‑
ods include all the geological history periods before the
Quaternary Holocene. The human history periods are as‑
signed to the historical periods of humankind activity after
the Quaternary Holocene. The Quaternary was the transi‑
tional time interval for the two historical periods. The two
historical periods are both “palaeo”. The characteristics of
physical geography are the features and distributions of
lands and seas, and those of their secondary units within
the lands and seas, for example, the characteristics and
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JOURNAL OF PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
distributions of the eroded areas and sedimentary areas of
rivers, lakes, and deserts in the lands and the sedimentary
areas of the littoral sea, the shallow sea, and the deep sea
in the seas. On the surface of the Earth, the characteristics
and distributions of the present physical geographical units
are the evolutionay results of the geological history and
the human history. In other words, the present geographi‑
cal environments have evolved from the palaeogeographic
environments of geological history periods and of human
history periods. This is the historical relationship of the
“past” and the “present”.
Through the open discussion, scientists who attended
the 197th Symposium of Xiangshan Science Conference
have reached an agreement on the modified definition of
palaeogeography (Feng, 2003).
This is a significant modification because the charac‑
teristics and evolution of physical geography in human
history periods are included in the study domain of palaeo‑
geography. This is an important expansion of palaeogeog‑
raphy. Palaeogeography not only belongs to geology, but
it also extends into the domain of physical geography. In
addition, it also involves the domain of social science (the
palaeogeography of human history periods).
Therefore, since 2003, some new columns appeared in
the Journal of Palaeogeography (Chinese Edition), such
as “the human history palaeogeography” and “past and
present geographic environments and human civilization”.
Utilizing the documents of human history, the archaeolog‑
ical materials, and the remote sensing data, the articles that
study the characteristics and evolution of physical geog‑
raphy (including palaeoclimatology), from the past few
millennia to the past few centuries, and even to the past
few decades, appeared in the Journal of Palaeogeography
(Chinese Edition) and have been increasing progressively.
This is the beginning of a significant expansion. We are
cheerfully and carefully guiding the occurrence and de‑
velopment of this new event to take place and to develop
within the domain of palaeogeography.
Palaeogeography interacts with numerous disciplines,
such as historical geology, stratigraphy, palaeontology,
tectonics, petrology, sedimentology, physical geography,
oceanography, biology, climatology, astronomy, geochem‑
istry, geophysics, palaeoanthropology, archaeology, history,
remote sensing, mineral deposits geology, petroleum geol‑
ogy, coal geology, environmental geology, and science of
natural disasters. It is a highly comprehensive discipline
in the Earth sciences. Palaeogeography mainly belongs to
geology, but it also concerns physical geography and hu‑
man historical geography. Palaeogeography not only has
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important scientific significance, but also has important
practical implication. In addition, it also closely relates to
the past and present physical geographic environments on
which the human beings and all organisms depend for a
living. Thus, palaeogeography is one of the most impor‑
tant branches of the Earth sciences.
2 Multiple sources and multiple disciplines of palaeogeography
The palaeogeography of China has multiple sources
and multiple disciplines. Since it primarily comes from
stratigraphy, historical geology, tectonics, palaeontology,
sedimentology, physical geography, and human historical
geography, therefore, the related disciplines of palaeoge‑
ography of China, such as stratigraphic palaeogeography,
tectonopalaeogeography, biopalaeogeography, lithofacies
palaeogeography, physiogeographic palaeogeography, and
human historical palaeogeography, are formed.
2.1 Stratigraphic palaeogeography
In Stratigraphy of China (Grabau, 1924-1928), five
palaeogeographic maps of the Carboniferous, the Permian,
and the Early Triassic were composed. All these palaeo‑
geographic maps were the distribution maps of lands and
seas. These were the first published maps of stratigraphic
palaeogeography in China.
In the historical geology textbooks edited by Wang
(1956), Wang and Liu (1980), and Liu (1986), the outline
of palaeogeography in the geologic periods was discussed
and mapped. In this way, the stratigraphic palaeogeogra‑
phy in China was formed and developed.
Distribution and Palaeogeography of Coal‑bearing
Stratigraphy of the Upper Paleozoic (Wang, 1959) was
the early monograph of stratigraphic palaeogeography in
China.
In the 1980s to 1990s, palaeogeographic maps and re‑
lated descriptions which were based on regional stratigra‑
phy, were available in the Regional Geology of provinces
and autonomous regions.
Recently, as a branch of stratigraphy, sequence stratig‑
raphy has developed rapidly. In fact, it is a joint discipline
of stratigraphy and sedimentology. The articles and mono‑
graphs that discussed the sedimentary facies and palaeo‑
geography from the sequence stratigraphic point of view
have been regularly published and gradually increased;
for example, Sequence Stratigraphy in Outcrop and the
Devonian Palaeogeography of the Huanan Basin (Xu et
al., 1993), Devonian Sequence Stratigraphy and Sea Level
Vol. 1 No. 2
Feng Zengzhao et al.: Palaeogeography of China
Change of South China (Wu et al., 1997), Sequence Strati‑
graphic Framework and Its Palaeogeographical Back‑
ground for the Sinian of Upper Yangtze Region (Mei et
al., 2006), Sequence Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography
of South China (Ma et al., 2009). These publications all
fall into the domain of stratigraphic palaeogeography.
2.2 Tectonopalaeogeography
In On Major Tectonic Forms of China (Huang, 1945),
T. K. Huang composed five palaeogeographic maps of the
Cambrian, the Caledonian Devonian, the Variscan Per‑
mian, the Yanshanian Cretaceous, and the Himalayan, to
illustrate the distribution of lands and seas of these tectonic
periods. These were the earliest tectonopalaeogeographic
maps in China.
The Atlas of the Paleogeography of China (Wang,
1985), which is guided by the plate tectonic theory and
based on the numerous data of regional geologic surveys,
is a representative work of the tectonopalaeogeography in
China.
The Physical Geography of China·Palaeogeography
(Part 2) (Cui, 1986), Evolution of the Tethys Sea of Chi‑
na and Adjacent Regions (Huang and Chen, 1987), Tec‑
tonopalaeogeography and Biopalaeogeography of China
and Adjacent Regions (Wang et al., 1990), Tectonic Pal‑
aeogeography Pattern of Tethys Archipelagic Ocean in
Western Yunnan (Liu et al., 1991a), Stratigraphy, Paleo‑
geography and Plate Tectonic in Northwest China (Zhou
and Lin, 1995), South China Defined as Part of Tethyan
Archipelagic Ocean System (Yin et al., 1999), Mobilistic
Tectono‑Paleogeography and Marine Hydrocarbon Ac‑
cumulation in Superimposed Basins in China (Li, 2006a),
Tectonic‑Lithofacies Palaeogeography of Pre‑Mesozoic in
China (Zheng and Hu, 2010), On Paleogeographic Recon‑
struction: An Example for Application in Tibetan Tethys
(Wang et al., 2010), and many other monographs and ar‑
ticles that discussed palaeogeography based on tectonic
data, theory and point of view, all belong to the domain of
tectonopalaeogeography.
Recently, some geologists dedicate more attention to
the study of palaeogeography in orogenic regions, and
attempt to reconstruct palaeogeography by restoring the
strata that were disarrayed in geochronology, displaced in
space, and distorted or even absent in sequences. A new
discipline, orogenic palaeogeography, has thus been cre‑
ated in the domain of tectonopalaeogeography (Wu, 2003,
2005, 2007).
Recently, the articles about the seismic records in strata
of geological periods (usually, they are called seismites)
93
gradually increased. The Journal of Palaeogeography
(Chinese Edition) (Vol. 13, 2011) collectively published
eight articles about palaeoearthquakes, which included Go
Ahead, Researches on Palaeoearthquake in China (Feng,
2011), in order to further promote palaeoearthquake studies
in China. By the end of 2011, no less than 123 palaeoearth‑
quake articles were published in Chinese journals. In tec‑
tonopalaeogeography, this domain not only has theoretical
significance, but also has important practical influence.
At present, the tectonopalaeogeography in China has
combined and interacted with many other disciplines, such
as sedimentology, stratigraphy, palaeontology, plate tecton‑
ics, palaeoseismology, and geophysics. The study mainly
focuses on the reconstruction of global palaeocontinents,
tectonopalaeogeography of the Tethys archipelagic ocean,
orogenic palaeogeography, and palaeoearthquakes. This is
a very active discipline of palaeogeography in China.
2.3 Biopalaeogeography
The Atlas of Paleogeography of China (Liu, 1955)
based on the palaeontology data (mainly locations of ma‑
rine fossils) is the formal starting point of palaeogeogra‑
phy in China. It created the discipline of biopalaeogeog‑
raphy in China.
The books about biotic–environment cybernetics (Lu,
1974, 1976, 1979), Biopalaeogeography of China (Yin,
1988), Coral System Evolution and Biopalaeogeography
of Paleozoic in China (Wang, 1989), Tectonopalaeoge‑
ography and Biopalaeogeography of China and Adjacent
Regions (Wang et al., 1990), and various palaeontologic
and palaeoecologic papers and monographs discussing
palaeogeographic environments,all belong to the domain
of biopalaeogeography. The biopalaeogeography is an im‑
portant discipline of palaeogeography in China. It is thriv‑
ing at all times.
Lately, the papers that utilized palaeontologic data and
trace fossils to study the sedimentary environments, sedi‑
mentary facies, palaeoclimatology, and palaeogeography
in present time, in human history periods, and in geologic
history periods, such as Yang (1999), Wu (1999), Yang et
al. (2001), Xu et al. (2001), Jin et al. (2003), Yang et al.
(2004), Yang et al. (2006), Deng (2007), Gao et al. (2007),
gradually increased. This is an energetic trend in the do‑
main of biopalaeogeography in China.
The monograph of the Rehe Biota (Ji et al., 2004; Zhang,
2001), the monograph of the Chengjiang Biota (Liu,
2000), and the monograph of the Guanling Biota (Wang
et al., 2004; Wang, 2005), are associated with the palaeo‑
geographic environments in which those organisms lived.
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JOURNAL OF PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
These studies promoted the development of biopalaeoge‑
ography in China.
In the monograph, Climatic Evolution of the Paleozoic
in China (Chen et al., 2001), the authors systematically
studied and restored the palaeoclimatology of geological
periods of the Paleozoic in China by utilizing Climatical‑
ly sensitive sedimentary rocks and sedimentary minerals
(such as coal, bauxite, evaporite minerals, tillite, oolitic
limestone, oolitic hematite, and reef) and the data of pal‑
aeontology. In another monograph, Phanerozoic Global
Climatic Reconstruction (Boucot et al., 2009), the authors
further developed the method of using climatically sensi‑
tive sediments to reconstruct the palaeoclimatology in the
geologic periods. It seems that the palaeontologists are
more “sensitive” than our sedimentologists about the study
of palaeoclimatology.
In the monograph, Geobiology of the Earth (Xie et
al., 2011), the authors systematically discussed how vari‑
ous living organisms and human activity influenced the
life system and the environmental system on the Earth
throughout the geological history and human history. This
book exploited new research ideas and new frontiers in the
study of biopalaeogeography.
At present, the biopalaeogeography in China is devel‑
oping for combining and integrating with palaeogeogra‑
phy, palaeontology, palaeoclimatology and tectonics. It is
an important discipline of palaeogeography in China.
2.4 Lithofacies palaeogeography
The detailed discussions and maps of sedimentary fa‑
cies and lithofacies palaeogeography were presented in
textbooks of Sedimentary Petrology edited by the Mineral‑
ogy and Petrology Section of Beijing Petroleum Institute
(1961), by the Mineralogy and Petrology Section of East
China Petroleum Institute (1982), and by Feng (1993). In
this fashion, the lithofacies palaeogeography or sedimen‑
tary palaeogeography was created and developed in China.
In China, the early published works regarding lithofa‑
cies palaeogeography were Lithofacies Palaeogeography
of Carboniferous in North China Platform (Wang, 1964)
and Cambrian Palaeogeography and Lithofacies of China
(Lu et al., 1965).
Additionally, many monographs came out one after
another, which greatly enriched and developed Chinese
lithofacies palaeogeography. These publications included
The Changes of Land and Sea, Marine Sedimentary Facies
and Hydrocarbon in China (Guan et al., 1984), Research
of Lithofacies Palaeogeography of Coal‑bearing Forma‑
tions of Junggar Coal Field (Liu et al., 1991b), Atlas of
Oct. 2012
Lithofacies Palaeogeography of Guizhou Province (Geol‑
ogy Survey Team of Bureau of Geology and Mineral Re‑
sources of Guizhou Province, 1992), Sedimentary Crust
Evolution and Mineralization of Palaeocontinent in South
China (Liu et al., 1993), Atlas of the Palaeogeography of
South China (Liu and Xu, 1994), Atlas of the Sedimentary
Facies and Palaeogeography of Yunnan (Geological Min‑
eral Bureau of Yunnan Province, 1995), Sedimentology of
Palaeocontinent and Continental Margin in China (Zeng
et al., 1996), and Sequence Stratigraphy and Palaeogeog‑
raphy of South China (Ma et al., 2009).
Feng Zengzhao and his research team sequentially pub‑
lished many monographs regarding lithofacies palaeoge‑
ography that included the geologic periods of the Cambri‑
an, Ordovician, Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic, and
that enclosed the areas of North China, South China, and
Northwest China (Feng et al., 1988, 1990, 1991a, 1991b,
1994a, 1994b, 1997a, 1997b, 1998a, 1998b, 2000, 2001,
and 2005). In addition, Feng Zengzhao and his research
team also published monographs of lithofacies palaeoge‑
ography of the whole China, i. e. the Lithofacies Palaeoge‑
ography of the Cambrian and Ordovician in China (Feng
et al., 2004). In these monographs, the lithofacies palaeo‑
geographic maps are quantitative. Quantity means that the
identification of every palaeogeographic unit is based on
accurate quantitative data. It indicated that the study of
lithofacies palaeogeography in China was advanced into
the stage of quantity. Hence, the quantitative lithofacies
palaeogeography was established. This was an important
and influential development in lithofacies palaeogeogra‑
phy and in palaeogeography.
In the last twelve years (2000-2011), the Journal of
Palaeogeography (Chinese Edition) published 230 articles
regarding lithofacies palaeogeography, which contained
more than 20 articles written by Feng Zengzhao et al. .
Also, the Journal of Palaeogeography (Chinese Edition)
published 114 articles regarding the prediction, explora‑
tion and development of mineral resources (such as petro‑
leum, natural gas, coal, uranium, and salt) from the view
of lithofacies palaeogeography.
In China, as a discipline of palaeogeography, the re‑
search of lithofacies palaeogeography not only contains
the largest group of scientists with plentiful research re‑
sults, numerous monographs and papers, but also benefits
the associated industry practice.
2.5 Physiogeographic palaeogeography
The articles of Zhou (1960, 1963, 1983) were the initial
studies of physiogeographic palaeogeography in China.
Vol. 1 No. 2
Feng Zengzhao et al.: Palaeogeography of China
These articles expressed the idea “ Past is the key to the
present and the future ”.
The Palaeogeography (Zhou, 1982), Physical Geography
of China·Palaeogeography (part I ) (Zhou and Ren, 1984)
and Physical Geography of China·Palaeogeography (Part
II ) (Cui, 1986) are the representative monographs of physi‑
ogeographic palaeogeography in China.
Since the 1980s, physiogeographic palaeogeography
has expanded into the research of environmental change,
which extended the study field from the modern physio‑
geographic environment into the human–earth system (or
human–environment system). The Physical Geography in
Time Perspective (Fang, 2007), The Climate and Environ‑
ments of Holocene Megathermal (Shi, 1992), and Study of
Environment Changes (Zhang, 1992) are the representa‑
tives of this subject.
The overlapping and integrating of physiogeographic
palaeogeography and Quaternary palaeogeography is an
important feature of physiogeographic palaeogeography
in China.
The Quaternary palaeogeography in China includes two
important study fields; one is the uplift of the Tibetan Pla‑
teau and the other is the loess sediments.
The uplift of the Tibetan Plateau is the critical factor
for the Quaternary environmental development in China.
Furthermore, it also imposes a significant influence on the
development of the Quaternary physiogeographic environ‑
ment in Asia and around the world. The Uplift and Envi‑
ronmental Changes of Tibetan Plateau in the Late Ceno‑
zoic (Shi et al., 1998) and the Uplift of Tibetan Plateau and
Environment Evolution of Asia (Li, 2006b) are the conclu‑
sions of the field of study.
The loess sediments are an important geologic event con‑
cerning the Quaternary palaeogeography and sedimentol‑
ogy in China. The Loess Accumulating in China, the Loess
and Environment, and the Loess and Arid Environment
(Liu et al., 1965, 1985, 2009) are the distinctive research
works in this field.
2.6 Human historical palaeogeography
The Primary Research on Climate Changes in Recent
5000 Years of China (Chu, 1972) has the initial research
work of human historical palaeogeography (mainly pal‑
aeoclimatology) in China.
The following monographs further developed the study
of human historical palaeoclimatology in China: Yearly
Charts of Dryness/Wetness in China for the Last 500‑Years
Period (Chinese Academy of Meteorological Science,
1981), Study of Historical Climate Change in China (Man,
95
2009), and Climate Changes Through Dynasties of China
(Ge et al., 2011).
Physical Geography of China·Historic Physical Ge‑
ography (Tan, 1982) was the representative work of human
historical physiogeographic palaeogeography in China.
In recent years, many researchers have published more
and more articles regarding the palaeoenvironment, pal‑
aeoclimatology, palaeoecology, and the past and present
geographic environment and human civilization in the
Chinese human historical period, from the past few mil‑
lenniums to the past few centuries, or even to the past few
decades. Since 2004, the Journal of Palaeogeography
(Chinese Edition) has published more than 50 articles in
this study field. Herein, we only select the following nine
articles as a brief introduction to the readers. These arti‑
cles are: Progress and prospect of researches on impacts
of environmental changes on Chinese civilization (Fang et
al., 2004), Impact of Eldgjά eruption of Iceland in tenth
century on palaeoclimate in China (Fei et al., 2004), His‑
torical natural landscape of Tongwancheng Area in North
Shaanxi Province and migration rate of Mau Us Desert
(Sun et al., 2004), Discussion on palaeoclimate of Jinsha
Site in Chengdu in 3000 a BP (Yao et al., 2005), Remote
sensing monitoring study for water area change and lake‑
shore evolution of Qinghai Lake in last 20 years (Feng and
Li, 2006), Climate, vegetation and geomorphology evolu‑
tion since 8 ka BP recorded by sediments from dish‑like
depression of Taihu Lake Plain (Zhao et al., 2007), His‑
torical changes of Yellow River and their impact on devel‑
opment of the Chinese Nation (Yang, 2008), Abrupt cli‑
mate change and decline of ancient civilization (Wu et al.,
2009), and Climate and environment of the Neolithic Age
in Haidai Region (Jin and Wang, 2010).
These articles actively promote the study of human his‑
torical palaeogeography in China. This new discipline of
palaeogeography not only has theoretical significance, but
also has practical implications.
Finally, we would like to mention The Historical Atlas
of China (Part 1 to Part 8) (Tan, 1984-1987). This atlas
collected a set of administrative territorial maps of each
dynasty in the Chinese history. It should belong to a broad
domain of palaeogeography and should fit into the field of
social science. It does not belong to the domain of palaeo‑
geography of natural science. However, it is definitely a
grand monograph in the broad sense of palaeogeography
with important significance.
The scientists who engaged in the study of physiogeo‑
graphic palaeogeography, Quaternary palaeogeography, and
human historical palaeogeography usually are geographers.
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JOURNAL OF PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
They study mainly the sediments, palaeoenvironments, pal‑
aeoclimatology, and palaeogeography of the Quaternary
and of the human historical period. These study fields form
a series of conjunctional points between geology and geog‑
raphy, between geologic historical palaeogeography and hu‑
man historical palaeogeography, between past and present.
These are important conjunctions. We should pay more at‑
tention to them and promote their development.
In general, the disciplines discussed above are only di‑
vided by their primary aspects or primary characteristics.
Actually, each palaeogeographic monograph and related
palaeogeographic maps have covered several research dis‑
ciplines, which could not be embraced by one or two dis‑
ciplines alone. The later the published palaeogeographic
monographs and maps, the more they contain various dis‑
ciplines. For example, the Atlas of the Palaeogeography of
China (Wang, 1985), not only used tectonics as the prima‑
ry theory, but also adopted many ideas and data from other
disciplines, such as stratigraphy, historical geology, palae‑
ontology, petrology and sedimentology. Another example,
The Changes of Land and Sea, Marine Sedimentary Facies
and Hydrocarbon in China (Guan et al., 1984), not only
used sedimentary facies as the principal hypothesis, but
also applied the opinions and data from tectonics, stratig‑
raphy, and petroleum geology. Furthermore, the hypothesis
of the Tethys archipelagic ocean in South China proposed
by Liu et al. (1991a) and by Yin et al. (1999), was primar‑
ily developed on the foundation of biopalaeogeography.
In the book Atlas of the Palaeogeography of South China
(Liu and Xu, 1994), tectonopalaeogeography was applied.
In the book Sequence Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography
of South China (Ma et al., 2009), tectonopalaeogeography
and sequence stratigraphy were utilized. These examples
confirm that palaeogeography is a highly comprehensive
branch in Earth sciences.
Over all, the palaeogeography of China has multi‑
ple sources, multiple disciplines and multiple research
domains. From different points of view, theories, and
methods, based on different purposes, and on different
data, various authors conducted scientific researches and
made palaeogeographic maps of different areas, of dif‑
ferent geologic periods and of human historical periods.
Furthermore, according to the study results and maps, the
authors wrote monographs and theses, which made great
contribution to the prediction and exploration of mineral
resources, and for protecting and improving the geograph‑
ic environments on which human beings and other organ‑
isms depend. Thus, the palaeogeography of China displays
an inspiring situation of fruitful research results with both
Oct. 2012
scientific and social effects. This situation of palaeogeog‑
raphy in China is unique in international palaeogeography.
3 Various palaeogeographic maps
In the study of palaeogeography, the palaeogeographic
map is the most important. It is the concentrated expres‑
sion of study results. It is the growing point of palaeoge‑
ography.
There are many types of palaeogeographic map, such
as the map of stratigraphic palaeogeography, the map of
tectonopalaeogeography, the map of biopalaeogeography,
the map of lithofacies palaeogeography, the palaeogeo‑
graphic map in small scale and large scale, the qualita‑
tive or schematic palaeogeographic map, the quantitative
palaeogeographic map, the palaeogeographic map of pre‑
sent boundary, the palaeogeographic map of non‑present
boundary, the palaeogeographic map of “fixism”, the pal‑
aeogeographic map of “mobilism”, the palaeogeographic
map of different periods, and the palaeogeographic map of
different areas.
In general, the map of stratigraphic palaeogeography,
the map of tectonopalaeogeography, and the map of bio‑
palaeogeography, especially the map made in the early
times, are the qualitative or schematic palaeogeographic
maps in small scale. The small scale map means that the
scale of map is less than 1:18,000,000 or even smaller. The
qualitative map means that the map lacks quantitative data
regarding the classification and boundary of each major
palaeogeographic unit. The schematic palaeogeographic
map is much plainer, which is no more than an outline dia‑
gram. Most of these palaeogeographic maps are the dis‑
tribution map of lands and seas or the distribution map of
palaeontologic division. The inadequacy of these palaeo‑
geographic maps is caused by the lower standard of entry
level during the early time of palaeogeography in China.
From the historical point of view, under the circumstance
of that time, it was not easy and even rather difficult for
geologists to compose these small scales, qualitative, or
schematic palaeogeographic maps.
Later, along with the progress of research work in
the field of palaeogeography and geology, and because
of the requirement from industry, especially the demand
from oil and gas exploration, some large scale palaeogeo‑
graphic maps and quantitative palaeogeographic maps be‑
gan to appear. Generally speaking, the map of lithofacies
palaeogeography has large scales, such as 1:5,000,000,
1:2,500,000, 1:1,000,000 and even larger scale.
The maps of lithofacies palaeogeography that were
Vol. 1 No. 2
Feng Zengzhao et al.: Palaeogeography of China
composed by Feng Zengzhao and his research team are in
large scale. These maps are quantitative maps with multi‑
ple ranks and multiple types. Quantity means that the clas‑
sification and identification of each palaeogeographic unit
are supported by reliable quantitative data and the quanti‑
tative single factor maps. Multiple ranks mean that in the
palaeogeographic map, the palaeogeographic units can be
classified into three ranks or more ranks. For instance, the
lands and seas are first defined and they are the first rank.
In the sea, the platforms, basins and slopes can be defined
and they are the second rank. In the platform, the flats,
banks, reefs and so on, can be defined and they are the
third rank. In some cases, in the flat, the lakes or lagoons
can be defined and they are the fourth rank. Multiple types
mean that according to the lithologic characteristics, the
platform can be classified into the clastic rock platform,
carbonate rock platform, etc. ; the basin can be classified
into the mudstone basin, the carbonate rock basin, the
chert basin, the volcanic clastic rock basin, etc. ; the flat
can be classified into the mudstone flat, the dolostone flat,
etc. ; the bank can be classified into the sand‑sized intra‑
clast bank (penebank, embryonic bank), the bioclast bank
(penebank, embryonic bank), the oolite bank (penebank,
embryonic bank). Compared with the small scale, qualita‑
tive or schematic distribution maps of lands and seas, the
lithofacies palaeogeographic maps with large scale quan‑
titative, multiple ranks and multiple types, are much more
detailed and much more fine, which have the guidable sig‑
nificance to the prediction and exploration for petroleum,
coal and other mineral resources. This is the basic reason
why lithofacies palaeogeography is exceptionally successful.
The palaeogeographic map of present boundary adopts
the coordinate system of present latitude and longitude,
and the boundary of the map is in accordance with the
present boundary of countries, provinces, some definite
areas, or even with the tectonic boundary. Most lithofacies
palaeogeographic maps are the palaeogeographic maps of
the present boundary. The palaeogeographic maps of the
present boundary are most useful for the prediction and
exploration of mineral resources.
The palaeogeographic map of non‑present boundary
represents the relative positions of old lands during the
certain geologic period based on the palaeolatitude data
of those old lands. The palaeolatitude information of old
lands are determined by the palaeomagnetic data. How‑
ever, it is impossible to determine the accurate positions of
old lands if only based on the palaeolatitude data without
the palaeolongitude data. Thus, in this kind of palaeogeo‑
graphic map, the positions of old lands are relative and the
97
old lands can be moved along the palaeolatitude randomly.
Most palaeogeographic maps of non‑present boundary
are the global maps, or at least, the maps of one or a few
plates. The scale of these maps is very small. They are all
schematic maps.
Some palaeogeographers called the palaeogeographic
map of non‑present boundary as the palaeogeographic
map of “mobilism”. On the other hand, they called the
palaeogeographic map of the present boundary as the pal‑
aeogeographic map of “fixism”. Moreover, they also fa‑
vor the palaeogeographic map of “mobilism” and belittle
the palaeogeographic map of “fixism”. Actually, the terms
“mobilism” and “fixism” are inadequate, and the inclina‑
tion of favor and belittle is inappropriate as well.
Mostly, the palaeogeographic map of “mobilism” dis‑
plays the moving path of some old lands or plates along the
geologic timeline, which is very visual and very imaginative,
which is praiseworthy. However, it certainly has problems,
the biggest problem is too “mobile” and too random.
All types of palaeogeographic maps emerged during
the establishment and development of the disciplines of
palaeogeography of China. Every type has its own char‑
acteristics. They are supplementary to each other. The oc‑
currence of multiple types of palaeogeographic maps per‑
fectly reflected the palaeogeography of China to adhere to
the principle “a hundred flowers blossom and a hundred
schools of thought content”. Therefore, the palaeogeogra‑
phy in China displays a flourishing scene.
4 Characteristics of the palaeogeography of China
The palaeogeography of China has three characteristics.
First, multiple disciplines flourish simultaneously. These
disciplines are stratigraphic palaeogeography, tectono‑
palaeogeography, biopalaeogeography, lithofacies palaeo‑
geography, physiogeography palaeogeography, and hu‑
man historical palaeogeography. After their establishment
and development, these disciplines have progressed to the
mature stage in their research fields with the representative
publications. They all contribute to the development and
innovation of palaeogeography of China from different as‑
pects. Now, they all proceed actively along their own path.
This is the flourishing of multiple disciplines.
Second, one discipline is in a leading position. Litho‑
facies palaeogeography, especially quantitative lithofacies
palaeogeography, is in a leading position among many dis‑
ciplines of palaeogeography in China. At present, quan‑
titative palaeogeographic maps and monographs of some
98
JOURNAL OF PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
geological periods of some regions and of all of China are
published. These maps and monographs were made and
compiled by Feng Zengzhao et al. . The quantitative meth‑
odology “single factor analysis and multifactor compre‑
hensive mapping method” has matured (Feng, 1977, 1979,
1987, 1989, 1992, 1994, 2004). Thus, quantitative palaeo‑
geography has been established, which has been applied
to the exploration and development of petroleum industry
with excellent study results. This is one leading discipline.
However, this is only an initial phase for the leading
position, because in the broad region of China, the maps of
quantitative lithofacies palaeogeography for the Cambrian
and the Ordovician are merely finished. It has a long way
to go and it requires more enormous investments in order
to compile the maps of quantitative lithofacies palaeoge‑
ography of major geologic periods for all of China. This is
“not half of my pioneering enterprise” (Feng, 2006).
Third, it is a guide to mineral resources exploration.
More than half a century ago, Xie Jiarong (a famous Chi‑
nese geologist) proposed the “palaeogeography as a guide
to mineral exploration” (Hsieh, 1948). The “mineral ex‑
ploration” is referred to the prediction and exploration of
mineral resources; the “guide” means to direct. At that
time, the mineral exploration examples that Mr. Xie point‑
ed out in his article are coal (the Huainan Coal Field was
discovered by Mr. Xie), bauxite, sedimentary phosphorite,
sedimentary iron deposits, and sedimentary copper depos‑
its. It was the first time that a Chinese geologist openly
proposed the directional proposition “palaeogeography as
a guide to mineral exploration”. At present, the mineral
resources explorations that are guided by palaeogeography
have spread to all kinds of mineral resources, especially to
the oil and gas. The Journal of Palaeogeography (Chinese
Edition) has a column on “palaeogeography and mineral
resources” and it publishes articles discussing how the
palaeogeography guides the prediction and exploration of
oil and gas and other mineral resources. Palaeogeography
closely connected to industrial practice is one of the most
important characteristics of Chinese palaeogeography (es‑
pecially lithofacies palaeogeography). It is the important
reason that the palaeogeography of China, especially the
lithofacies palaeogeography, can flourish continually.
5 Conferences of palaeogeography
In the October, 1985, the National Conference of Lithofa‑
cies Palaeogeography was in session in Guiyang, Guizhou
Province. This conference was sponsored by the Sedimen‑
tology Committee of the Chinese Society for Mineralogy,
Oct. 2012
Petrology and Geochemistry and the Sedimentary Geol‑
ogy Committee of Geological Society of China. This is the
first national palaeogeographic conference in China.
After that, the second to eleventh national conferences
were continually conducted. Table 1 shows the details of
these academic meetings.
The Twelfth National Conference of Palaeogeography
and Sedimentology will be carried out in Qingdao, Shan‑
dong Province, in October, 2012.
The second to fifth national conferences were spon‑
sored by the Sedimentology Committee of the Chinese
Society for Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry. The
sixth to eleventh national conferences were sponsored by
the Lithofacies Palaeogeography Committee of the Chi‑
nese Society for Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry.
The twelfth national conference will also be sponsored by
the Lithofacies Palaeogeography Committee of Mineral‑
ogy, Petrology and Geochemistry. In more than twenty
years, the sub‑units of the Chinese Society for Mineralogy,
Petrology and Geochemistry, i.e. the Sedimentology Com‑
mittee and the Lithofacies Palaeogeography Committee,
sponsored more than ten sessions of national conferences
and will sponsor the conferences continuously. In the field
of Earth sciences of China, this is unique.
In the more than twenty years, the conference name
was changed two times. The first conference name was
the National Conference of Lithofacies Palaeogeography.
The second conference continued to use the same name.
But in the third conference, its name was changed to the
National Conference of Sedimentology and Lithofacies
Palaeogeography. It is reasonable to add the sedimentol‑
ogy, because sedimentology has close relation with litho‑
facies palaeogeography. However, it is unsuitable to po‑
sition sedimentology before lithofacies palaeogeography,
because this arrangement doesn’t fit the original intention
to establish the National Conference of Lithofacies Palae‑
ogeography. Owing to some reason, this unsuitable name
was used in the fourth and fifth conferences continuously.
In the sixth conference, the Lithofacies Palaeogeography
Committee as the new first sponsor, changed the confer‑
ence name to the National Conference of Palaeogeog‑
raphy and Sedimentology. This was the second time to
change the conference name. This change is reasonable
and suitable. It is an important expansion and progress.
From this time on, the succeeded conferences all used this
name.
These national conferences of palaeogeography greatly
promoted the development and innovation of Chinese pal‑
aeogeography.
Feng Zengzhao et al.: Palaeogeography of China
Vol. 1 No. 2
99
Table 1 The National Conferences of Palaeogeography
Name of Conference
Time
Location
National Conference
of Lithofacies
Palaeogeography
October,
1985
2nd National
Conference
of Lithofacies
Palaeogeography
April, 1990 Xuzhou
Guiyang
Hosts
Number
Number of
of
Attendees
Articles
Chairmen
Field Trips
Geological Society of
288
Guizhou
181
Liao Shifan
6 field trips
in Guizhou
Province
China University
of Mining and
Technology
234
240
Feng Zengzhao,
Wang Yinghua,
Liu Huanjie
Lianyungang
3rd National Conference
of Sedimentology
October,
and Lithofacies
1992
Palaeogeography
Chengdu
Chengdu Institute of
Geology and Mineral 305
Resource
358
Liu Baojun
Jiuzhaigou
4th National Conference
of Sedimentology
August,
and Lithofacies
1995
Palaeogeography
Beijing
China University of
Petroleum (Beijing)
164
Feng Zengzhao
Shanhaiguan,
Luanhe
5th National Conference
of Sedimentology
August,
and Lithofacies
1997
Palaeogeography
Urumqi
Bureau of Petroleum
Management of
Xinjiang
158
134
Wang Yilin,
Feng Zengzhao
Karamay,
Turpan,
Tianshan
Mountain
6th National Conference
August,
of Palaeogeography and
2000
Sedimentology
Panjin
Liaohe Oilfield
103
94
Liu Junrong,
Feng Zengzhao
Dalian,
Jinshitan
7th National Conference
August,
of Palaeogeography and
2002
Sedimentology
Dunhuang Qinghai Oilfield
124
122
Huang Ligong,
Feng Zengzhao
Yumenguan,
Yangguan
8th National Conference
August,
of Palaeogeography and
2004
Sedimentology
Daqing
Daqing Oilfield
133
242
Hou Qijun,
Feng Zengzhao
Wudalianchi,
Miaohe
9th National Conference
August,
of Palaeogeography and
2006
Sedimentology
Xi′an
Northwest University
and Changqing
173
Oilfield
249
Zhu Kexiao,
Yang Hua,
Feng Zengzhao
Huangling,
Yichuan,
Yan’an
Southwest Oil and
193
Gas Field of Sinopec
185
Ma Yongsheng,
Bao Zhidong
Ganxi,
Emeishan,
Jiuzhaigou
10th National
Conference of
Palaeogeography and
Sedimentology
11th National
Conference of
Palaeogeography and
Sedimentology
September,
Chengdu
2008
October,
2010
Jingzhou
Yangtze University
and Jianghan Oilfield
228
312
326
Zhang Changmin, Zhangjiajie,
Yi Jizheng,
Shennongjia
Bao Zhidong
Notice: The first sponsor for 1st – 5th conferences was the Sedimentology Committee of the Chinese Society for Mineralogy Petrology and
Geochemistry. The first sponsor for 6th – 11th conferences was the Lithofacies Palaeogeography Committee of the Chinese Society for Min‑
eralogy Petrology and Geochemistry.
100
JOURNAL OF PALAEOGEOGRAPHY
6 Two journals of palaeogeography
We have two journals of palaeogeography, i. e. Journal
of Palaeogeography (Chinese Edition) and Journal of Pal‑
aeogeography (English Edition).
The Journal of Palaeogeography (Chinese Edition) was
launched in 1999 (Feng, 1999a). It was the only academic
periodical in the domain of palaeogeography of China.
Now it is one of the core journals in China and has made
great contribution to the development and innovation of
palaeogeography of China (Feng, 1996, 2003, 2009).
However, due to the language barrier, the scientific
communication with foreign countries was insufficient.
This shortage to some extent, hindered not only the devel‑
opment of palaeogeography in China, but also the contri‑
bution to international palaeogeography.
Now, the Journal of Palaeogeography (English Edi‑
tion) has been launched in 2012 (Feng and Bao, 2012).
It has three missions. The first mission is to encourage
articles of Chinese palaeogeography to go abroad by the
journal, and let foreign readers know more about Chinese
palaeogeography. The second mission is to encourage ar‑
ticles of foreign palaeogeography to come to China by the
journal, and let Chinese readers and foreign readers know
more about the palaeogeography of other countries and ar‑
eas. The third mission is to promote the communication,
cooperation and integration between these two sides, in
order to make a great contribution to the development and
innovation of Chinese and international palaeogeography.
The three missions are important and glorious but dif‑
ficult.
These two journals have different aims, emphases and
characteristics. The Journal of Palaeogeography (Chi‑
nese Edition) primarily publishes the articles of Chinese
authors regarding the Chinese palaeogeography and has a
foothold in China. The Journal of Palaeogeography (Eng‑
lish Edition) will publish the articles of both Chinese and
international authors and it mainly caters to foreign read‑
ers. These two journals will co‑operate together and will
display their own expertise, which will effectively make a
great contributions to the development and innovation of
Chinese palaeogeography and international palaeogeog‑
raphy. Naturally, one journal of a single language cannot
accomplish these tasks simultaneously.
Congratulations on the two journals of palaeogeography!
Congratulations on the launch of the Journal of Palaeo‑
geography (English Edition).
Congratulations on the development and innovation of
Oct. 2012
Chinese palaeogeography and international palaeogeogra‑
phy!
Acknowledgements
We sincerely thank Professor Liu Benpei, Professor
Yang Shouren and Professor Fang Xiuqi. They provided
some important data in tectonopalaeogeography, biopalae‑
ogeography, physiogeographic palaeogeography and hu‑
man historical palaeogeography. These data enriched and
improved this paper in those disciplines.
We also sincerely thank Professor Ian D. Somerville,
Professor Spencer G. Lucas, Professor A. J. (Tom) van
Loon and Ms. Dechin Wang. They made many contribu‑
tions to the English language.
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