The Degradation of the Coral Reefs by: Alex Kleiser for: Mr. Craig date: March 11, 2009 Preface The purpose of this report is to establish the wide range of effects that are causing the world’s coral reefs to become inhospitable to the marine life that is dependent upon them, and to expound the current situation that the coral reefs are in all across the globe. This report will narrow its focus on the variety of ways in which the coral reefs have become destroyed, what organizations are helping, and how they are attempting to offer protection for the reefs. The main purpose of this report is to emphasize that “coral reefs are an important asset to local communities‐serving as a source of seafood, providing materials for new medicines, generating income from tourism, and buffering coastal cities and settlements from storm damage”(Bryant 4). This report will further add detail to these valuable assets in relation to the world and emphasize the necessity for global protection. This report will discuss how pollution and climate change are responsible for causing coral bleaching all across the globe, and will analyze how modern fishing practices are leaving the reefs broken and dying due to trawling and cyanide fishing techniques. This paper will account for how tourism and human impact is putting pressure on the coral to reproduce faster than possible to repair the damages done by visitors to the reefs. In today’s society these factors are destroying the coral reefs at a very fast pace and on a global scale. It is imperative that the reader know what the coral reefs are, the history behind them, and how essential coral reefs are to our planet, for this is indispensable in the comprehension of this report. Coral reefs are among the richest ecosystems in the world and contain an amazing abundance of marine species and biomass. Many people are not aware of the fact that corals which make up the base of coral reefs are in fact defined as “simple, bottom‐
dwelling animals whose fundamental unit is the polyp” (Coral Reefs, and Rain Forests...). Coral begin their life as a product of sexual reproduction ‐ coral larvae. Once these coral larvae settle in an uninhabited spot a polyp (see Appendix I) develops and begins to multiply‐creating a coralline colony. A polyp forms a calcium carbonate (limestone) skeleton which the polyp then can grow upon. Corals contain a photosynthetic alga, referred as zooxanthellae; these algae live inside the tissue of the corals. The corals and zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship: The coral provides the algae with a protected environment and compounds they need for photosynthesis. In return, the algae produce oxygen and help the coral to remove wastes. Most importantly, zooxanthellae supply the coral with glucose, glycerol, and amino acids, which are the products of photosynthesis. The coral uses these products to make proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and produce calcium carbonate. (NOAA’s) As corals grow bigger they become aware of other corals close by. They are able to sense other corals using different chemical agents, which they give off. One of the coral polyps will extend its tubular‐like body and digest the other coral polyp leaving a calcium carbonate skeleton bare of flesh‐ creating an addition to the coralline structure (NOAA’s). These chemical agents secreted by the coral assist in: attracting prey, protecting themselves from predators and avoiding disease. However, scientists are now researching these complex chemicals looking for new medicinal opportunities. Most medicinal drugs are derived from flora and fauna removed from our planets rain forests ‐ ninety five percent of these forests have been examined and researched, leaving the potential of finding new chemical substances to use in medicinal drugs very low (Ferguson 7). The coral reefs are now viewed by scientists as a “virtual treasure chest of potential medicines, as only [five] percent of known ocean resources have been studied” (Ferguson 7). There are already chemical substances that are being explored for their medicinal capabilities. Kainic acid, a chemical found in reefs surrounding Japan, is now become a diagnostic chemical to examine Huntington’s chorea ‐ a nerve disease that causes muscles to move involuntarily, and is fatal (Kainic acid). Another chemical called eleutherobin, which is produced by a coral off the coast of Australia, is similar to the drug Taxol ‐ a chemotherapy drug. Eleutherobin could be a new hope in the development of a chemotherapy treatment for breast and ovarian cancer. Harvesting these chemicals from the corals is expensive, but many nongovernmental institutes have been offering funding, such as the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and Universities (Ferguson). The funding given by these organizations is not extensive, but does offer support to scientists. Currently, fifty percent of all new cancer drug research is coming out of the marine organisms that are dependent on the coral reefs (Ferguson). Such threats to the coral reefs are: overfishing, coral bleaching, runoff from coastal construction and tourism will leave us with a great loss to the biodiversity of the oceans and would impend devastating effects on further cultivating new life‐sustaining medicines. Cyanide fishing is a modern fishing form that the reader should be more familiarized with before proceeding with this paper, because of the heavy toll it has taken to the biodiversity of the coral reefs. Cyanide fishing is a fairly modern technique used to temporarily paralyze and capture reef fish; however it is also partially responsible for destroying the coral reefs. The cyanide toxins kill live coral and all the reef organisms that sustain it. This is because coral is a very simple creature that can easily be stressed through changes in its environment. Cyanide fishing is done by injecting an area of water with cyanide toxins, which have an almost immediate effect of temporary paralysis on the fish, and kills the coral by creating a very stressful environmental change. Unable to compensate for this change, the coral dies. The fish are then harvested and brought back to the coast where they are shipped across the globe to become domestic pets or used within the food industry. Cyanide fishing has spread worldwide because of the increasing demand in the market for live fish as both domestic pets and as a food source. Since 1960, there has been more than one million kilograms of cyanide dissolved into the waters surrounding the coral reefs in the Philippines (Ferguson). The results of cyanide fishing have resulted in scenarios similar to this one: “20, 000 tons of live reef food fish were imported into Hong Kong in 1997” (Ferguson 49). Cyanide fishing is a modern tactic that not only hurts the reef but the divers as well. Being submerged for long periods of time in water that has been exposed to chemicals can create physical and mental health issues for divers. “The lucrative and unregulated international trade in reef fishes drives the use of cyanide” (Ferguson 13) and will continue to do so until a global consensus is reached that an alternative fishing solution should be implemented. Another term that must be understood by the reader before continuing on in this report is the term “coral bleaching”. Coral bleaching is “caused by various anthropogenic and natural variations in the reef environment including sea temperature, solar irradiance, sedimentation, xenobiotics, subaerial exposure, inorganic nutrients, freshwater dilution, and epizootics” (Coral Reef Bleaching). Coral bleaching is the whitening of the coral, caused by reduced pigmentation (See Appendix II). This reduction in the pigmentation can be caused by a loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae plankton which can occur with too little sun light. The weather condition known as El Niño is also having a large effect on coral reefs, and is an important condition to be aware of. El Niño is defined as “a pattern of weather systems that creates a warm current flowing south along the coast of Ecuador” (Sayre 76). El Niño can also raise and lower the ocean levels by several feet, and it is often responsible for changes in ocean temperature. El Niño weather patterns occur every three to seven years, and last for nine to eighteen months (El Niño). Each reef is dependent on different conditions to survive; El Niño makes changes to the ideal conditions for these reefs, becoming a catalyst for coral bleaching and depriving algae ‐ imperative to corals existence ‐ of the sun’s ultraviolet rays due to high sea levels. Although El Niño is a natural activity of the earths oceans, its effects on coral has become more noticeable because of the lack of control of carbon dioxide emissions and sedimentation runoff into the oceans. The last El Niño that took place was in 1997 and lasted until 1998; this is the worse recorded case of El Niño seen in the last fifty years and left coral reefs in absolute turmoil (El Niño). Coral reefs are already estimated by the Global Reef Monitoring Network to be 25% gone or severely damaged. Another third of all reefs are considered degraded and threatened. It is estimated that $375 billion dollars comes out of coral reefs and into our economies through goods and services and if the reefs continue to become damaged and destroyed, much of this income will be lost (Ferguson). It is clear that: “Human activities have damaged coral reefs to the point of being the most threatened ecosystem on Earth; they are currently teetering on the edge of destruction. Fortunately, three major human impacts on reefs ‐ climate change, overfishing, and pollution ‐ are reversible if we act now”. (Villagomez). Our planet’s ecosystems are dependent upon the coral reefs all across the world, and the “reef systems provide economic and environmental services to millions of people as shoreline protection from waves and storms, as places for recreation and tourism, and as sources of food, pharmaceuticals, livelihoods, and revenues” (Ferguson 11). If these majestic coralline structures become completely extinct our economies will be severely hurt through: the loss of millions of jobs, medicinal opportunities wasted, and food shortages in smaller nations dependent on marine organisms. It is the global society’s responsibility to find more appropriate ways to treat the coral reefs. The coral reefs are an irreplaceable resource and are in serious trouble worldwide due to the powerful combination of anthropogenic and environmental stresses. Table of Contents Preface Pages 1‐6 Summary Page 8 Factual Material Pages 8‐44 Background Pages 8‐11 Expert: Prof. Wolf H. Hilbertz Pages 11‐14 Role of Control: A Walk on the Plank Pages 14‐18 Religious Aspect Pages 19‐21 Australia: The Great Barrier Reef Pages 22‐30 Maldives: The Coral Gardens Pages 30‐34 Jamaica: A Reef to Watch Pages 34‐37 International Organizations Pages 37‐38 Canada: Deep Sea Coral Pages 38‐41 Possible Solutions: The Ladder Approach Pages 41‐44 Conclusion Page 44 Bibliography Pages 45‐55 Appendices Pages 56‐64 Appendix I: Is a labelled diagram of a coral polyp which is important to view to receive a visual of the organisms in danger. Appendix II: A three staged diagram to illustrate the difference between healthy coral and coral that has been affected by coral bleaching. Appendix III: A “Biorock” that has been put in place and has began to see coral growth. Appendix IV: A diagram depicting the way that the “Biorock” works. Appendix V: An aerial view of the Great Barrier Reef. Appendix VI: An aerial view of the Maldivian Islands atolls. Appendix VII: A Picture of Coral from Canada’s diverse deep sea sanctions. Appendix IIX: Interview with Dr. Hoegh‐Guldberg‐ Australia’s Smart State Premier’s Fellow (2008‐2013), Director, Stanford Australia; Reviewing Editor at Science Magazine, and Deputy Director, ARC Centre for Excellence in Coral Reef Studies. Summary This report is designed to examine the degradation that the coral reefs are being put through because of both anthropogenic and natural stresses from the environment. It looks in detail at the background of the issue, and the structure of a coral reef. In addition, the history of the coral reefs across the globe will also be thoroughly identified. An expert who made significant headway in rejuvenating the coral reefs with his invention is present in this report because of his accomplishments. The role of control, as well as the religious aspect to the coral reefs destruction is also specified. Three case studies were chosen after deep research into the condition of their reefs, the type of reefs present on the countries coastline and the geographical area of the country all came into account. The three countries are: the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, the Coral Gardens of the Maldives, and the extensively endangered reefs of Jamaica. Possible solutions are present in an intellectual approach. An interview was sought out and conducted with one of the most well known experts on the coral reefs, to further the importance of Canada’s deep sea coral reefs. The information and all research carried out for this report was compiled through a variety of sources including books, encyclopedias, the internet sites, news articles, magazine articles, and through a documentary. The report will attempt to institute a sense of understanding and significance of the issue and further enlighten the reader’s mind of this topic. Background: Coral reefs are believed by marine biologists to have first appeared approximately 500 million years ago. Coral reefs are almost all within the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, with a few reefs hanging over the edges of both tropics. The coral reefs only occupying 600,000 square kilometres, which is less than .2 percent of the ocean surface while estimates of “fish productivity suggest that around 10 to 15 percent of the total worldwide catch come from these areas” (Coral Reefs, Rain Forests…) making the biodiversity of the coral reefs per unit area much greater than other marine eco‐systems. Cyanide fishing began in the 1960’s in the Philippines; it supplied the growing market for aquarium fish in Europe, and North America. More recently the coral reefs have gone through a period of coral bleaching that affected almost all of the world’s reefs (Ferguson). This happened during the El Niño of 1997‐
1998 (El‐Nino). The coral reefs will always be under some form of stress, but the human race should eliminate as much of this stress as possible. The stresses are taking a greater toll in the modern era because of mankind’s ignorance, and in some cases arrogance, towards the environment. Undersea explorer Dr. Sylvia Earle, who has spent more than a thousand research hours underwater, and lead an all female team of researchers on an expedition named Tektite II. On this expedition her team of researchers lived in an enclosed environment fifty feet below the ocean surface for three weeks. Dr. Earle gave a statement regarding the situation of the coral reefs future and how it coincides with mankind’s: “If reefs are in trouble, we are in trouble” (Villagomez). Dr. Sylvia Earle has put an emphasis on how dependent we are on the coral reefs as a resource ‐ even in this modern day and age where we tend to depend more strongly on technology than on nature. As years pass, the effects that the human race will have on the coral reefs becomes more prominent. Around the globe, tourism and other human activities are becoming a huge factor in the destruction of coral reefs. It is believed that “fifty‐eight percent of the world’s reefs are potentially threatened by human activity” (Ferguson 65) to date. Tourists diving in the countries they are visiting are often uneducated on the impact they may have by breaking off pieces of the coral reefs. Continued damage due to tourism can set back the progress of a reef up to five years. A coral reef only grows a few centimeters each year, but because of waves and storms only a millimeter or two of the new coral stays connected to the existing reef, and pieces being purposely broken off by tourists cause the progress of the reef to be basically non‐existent. Coral reefs have three different classifications based upon Charles Darwin’s studies in the 1830’s. Charles Darwin was the first well‐known and published scientist to bring the coral reefs ecosystems to the minds of educated peoples of the world, and his classifications are still used today. The first classification is best described as “a belt of corals parallel to the shore with an inner flat reef, facing the coast which may even emerge in parts and an outer reef fronting the sea” (Mojetta 14); these are referred to as fringed reefs. This coral looks as if it is fringing out from the land, which is what gave it its name. Most of the coastal reefs such as the Red Sea, Eastern Africa, Caribbean, and Persian Gulf belong to this category. The corals vertical growth is limited due to tides, however the coral can extend uninterrupted for several kilometres horizontally. Erosion from the inner front of the reef forms lagoons between the coast and the reef. Barrier reefs are a second classification used to describe reefs that are coralline compilations which run adjacent to the coast. The growth of the reef is remarkably superior to a fringing reef. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia, the reefs off of Papua‐New Guinea, the Fiji Islands, Belize, the Bahamas, the Atlantic, and off New Caledonia are all examples of barrier reefs. These reefs grow along the edge of the continental plates wherever it is close enough to the surface. The last classification is known as an atoll. An atoll, by definition, is a coralline formation encompassing a “ring‐shaped reef made up of calcareous algae and madrepores that enclose a lagoon and is surrounded by open sea” (Massa 50). The dimensions of an atoll can vary from a few kilometres to more than a hundred kilometres. Hawaii, the Maldives Islands, and the coast of Moorea in French Polynesia all show examples of atoll reefs. Coral reefs have been damaged extensively over the past century and have been put at risk for hundreds of years, taking abuse from pollution dating back to the Industrial Revolution. This pollution continues to this day with runoff from factories into the oceans. Explorers such as James Cooke and Christopher Columbus documented that the coral reefs were abundant with marine life and colour (One Last Chance). Sharks and manatees use to swim throughout the oceans in copious numbers, however at the beginning of the twentieth century these numbers diminished drastically and now both animals have been put on an endangered species list. Although the coral reefs have always been threatened, the coral reefs have never been in such danger as they are now. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) declared 2008 as “the international year of the reef” (International Year of the Reef…) in hopes to raise awareness of the current situation that the reefs are in, these efforts however seem to have had little effect on public awareness. Expert: Prof. Wolf H. Hilbertz: Professor Wolf Hilbertz pursued an education in architecture at the University of the Arts in Berlin; at the University of Michigan where he earned his Masters of Architecture; and at Louisiana State University where he earned a degree in landscape architecture. Hilbertz continued his academic affiliations as an environmental researcher and educator at establishments such as Southern University, McGill University, The Academy for Arts Bremen, and The University of Texas, where he also held a position as Senior Research Scientist in Marine Sciences. Later in his life, Hilbertz founded the Symbiotic Processes Laboratory and The Responsive Environment Laboratory where he, along with a team of scientists, carried out experiments regarding the coral reef eco‐systems and its vulnerability. Hilbertz was an important and active member of organizations that are in place to try and save the coral reefs ‐ he was the vice president of Global Coral Reef Alliance, and was president of Sun and Sea organizations which were created in order to help raise awareness and protect the coral reefs. He has given workshops and lectures all across the world on the responsibilities and duties we as a global population need to be aware of in order to protect our coral reefs (Wolf Hilbertz Home). What Hilbertz is most widely known for, and what is considered to be one of his biggest contributions to the extrication of the coral reefs is his artificial reef which is referred to as a “Biorock” (see Appendix III). Hilbertz co‐founded the company “Biorock” with Tom Goreau in the late 1970’s, after he was unsuccessful in finding governments and organizations willing to invest in his invention, which help to maintain reef biodiversity. Goreau was previously “Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development, in charge of global climate change and biodiversity issues” (Thomas J). Hilbertz’s “Biorock” (see Appendix IV) technology induces: a safe low‐voltage electrical current through seawater, causing dissolved minerals to precipitate onto cathodic surfaces growing into white limestone/brucite structures similar to those that make up coral reefs and nourish tropical white sand beaches. Biorock methods speed up coral growth even where excessive temperatures, pollution, sedimentation and other stress‐inducing factors have damaged reefs and other marine habitats. (Second Biorock) These artificial reefs could be the answer to the world’s problems with the depletion of the coral reefs. However if we start now, instead of waiting for there to be no coral left, we could kick‐start the ecosystem and give it an advantage in the years to come. This could be done by using Hilbertz’s “Biorock” strategically. By placing “Biorock” in high stress areas where natural coral have faltered, it is thought that these artificial reefs will help natural coral to hold up better against stress. For example, in the Maldives “less than 5 percent of corals survived the catastrophic bleaching of 1998... [with the] Biorock structures, more than 80 percent of corals not only survived, they flourished” (Ferguson 97). This is also a very inexpensive way to get the coral reefs back to their brilliant majestic wonder, as it only costs one thousand dollars for a dome‐shaped frame roughly twelve metres across. These dome‐shaped structures are what the coral grow upon, allowing them to grow into a strong limestone base. Wolf Hilbertz died of cancer in Munich, Germany on August 11, 2007. Tom Goreau is now the sole president of “Biorock”. To date Goreau and other supporters of “Biorock” are giving workshops all across the world, educating: dive shop operators, hotel and resort managers, conservation groups, coastal zone managers, fishing communities, marine scientists, mariculturists, tourism agencies, seascape and landscape architects, engineers, artists, government fisheries, environmental, and tourism policy makers, and others who seek the training necessary to design, construct and operate their own Biorock structures for reef restoration, erosion control, tourism, mariculture, remediation or marine science. (Third Biorock Workshop) Wolf Hilbertz has made a significant impact on the restoration of the reefs in his life, and his company has already “installed 22 structures” (Ferguson 97) on the Indonesian Island of Bali. His work on the “Biorock” will hopefully continue to be a part of the endangered reefs ecosystems. Role of Control: A Walk on the Plank Maintaining the biological diversity, condition, resources, and values of coral reefs and related ecosystems is a matter of global urgency. [The] majority of countries which have coral reefs are developing countries and should command the attention of the international community. Coral reef survival depends upon the world community acquiring and maintaining the knowledge and capacity to conserve and sustainably use coral reefs and related ecosystems. This requires that all uses and impact be brought within and maintained at levels which do not exceed these systems’ natural capacity for production and regeneration. (Bryant 41) Our generation holds the key to the coral reefs survival in the future. If our generation fails to recognize this fact and act now, when it is needed most, coral reefs will be lost. Past generations have made little attempts in protecting the coral, and we must be careful not to follow in their footsteps. It is clear that the loss of the coral reefs will lead to the demise of communities and cultures that are dependent upon the reefs. Our generation must take prominent and significant action to help in the preservation of the coral reefs. Our generation should leave this earth with a plan of action laid out for future generations to ensure that they do not have to “walk the plank” for our failure. Each person in this world has the ability and capacity to do something for our reefs. We live in an era of materialistic and consumerist tendencies; we want to have everything and we want to show off these materialistic belongings. Due to these learned patterns of consumerism, people have the tendency of breaking off pieces of coral and bringing it back home with them as proof of their experiences. However, while this might seem like a good idea at the time, it will ultimately damage the reef and delay the growth of coral. Many people do not understand that this is killing the coral reefs. It is this lack of understanding that is slowly causing us to kill our planet and its underwater ecosystems. Humans take more than what they need from the earth, and then proceed to pollute it with greenhouse gases and run‐off chemicals. As a population we all have to come to the realization that our lifestyles must change to ensure that our planet thrives in the future, and that the coral reefs thrive along with it. Without the coral reefs, economies would hit a new low; more than 50 million jobs would be lost. Ten percent of our fish supplied for consumption come from the reefs, and while these are not the only reasons we need the reefs to stay healthy and intact, they are very important ones (Ferguson). Without coral reefs, oceans would die and our planet would be missing a vital piece of its puzzle. Organizations like the Coral Reef Alliance, the Global Coral Reef Alliance (GCRA), and CEDAM International (Conservation, Education, Diving, Awareness and Marine‐research) are non‐profit organizations dedicated to growing, managing, and protecting coral reefs. These organizations offer great information about the depletion of the reefs and provide ways that people can make a difference. The Coral Reef Alliance is an organization that was founded in 1996. Recently it put up a webpage with recommendations to the Obama administration and the 111th Congress on how to prevent further damage to the coral reefs and the ecosystems they support. Within these recommendations it was stated that unless immediate action is taken, a loss “up to 70 percent of the world’s coral reefs by 2050” (Villagomez) is imminent. Hopefully with the support and sense of change that the Obama administration would bring forward towards the coral reefs, change will become more imminent‐ as a reflection from the past. The Obama administration is seen as an icon for other countries to follow because the United States is seen as a successfully developed country. The United States would by accepting the recommendations made by the Coral Reef Alliance start a new era for the coral reefs by acting as an exemplary role model. The Coral Reef Alliance works on three specific catalysts: marine protected areas (MPAs), marine recreation tourism, and with local communities. The Coral Reef Alliance believes “by engaging stakeholders from all three groups—MPA managers, marine tourism operators, and local residents” (Villagomez) they can “build partnerships that establish lasting change and promote coral reef health around the world” (Villagomez). ReefBase was established in 1993, “to consolidate and disseminate information useful in managing coral reefs” (Bryant 39). This database is the most comprehensive source of information on reefs; it includes digital maps of coral reefs provided by the World Conservation Monitoring. ReefBase gives people the knowledge of how to protect coral reefs when visiting them. It is an amazing tool for anyone to expand their knowledge on the coral reefs, and also includes a photo gallery where visitors can admire the beauty of the reefs and help them understand the importance of the reefs. It is not just organizations that are making a difference when it comes to the protection of the coral reefs. Governments around the globe are also contributing to the effort to protect the reefs. Australia is a role model for other countries, as it should be since it is home to the largest coral reef on the planet. In its 2008 federal budget, the government of Australia announced increased spending on environmental issues. This included 200 million dollars towards protecting the Great Barrier Reef. The package is being called “Reef Rescue” and its goals are to tackle climate change and improve water quality around the reef (Australian Government Spends…) Reef Rescue is divided up into 5 different parts:  Great Barrier Reef Water Quality Grants ($146 million)  Healthy Reef Partnerships program ($12 million)  Great Barrier Reef Water Quality Research and Development program ($10 million)  Water Quality Monitoring and Reporting program ($22 million)  Land and Sea Country Indigenous Partnerships program ($10 million) (Australian Government Spends...) Australia’s government should be considered a role model for proper care and funding of coral reefs for other countries. Even third world countries have to take into account that their reefs are essential to their economy. Reefs in third world countries like Indonesia, Jamaica, and Belize are in the poorest condition to date but it is not too late to save the remaining coral. Developed countries have sent inter‐governmental organisations across the oceans to under‐developed countries whose reefs are greatly threatened, some even close to extinction. People like Professor Wolf H. Hilbertz, who has created inventions to help re‐colonize coral growth with his “Biorock”, are contributing to this effort. Universities and companies have held seminars for locals to learn about the coral reefs. The Eastern Asian countries rely heavily on the surrounding oceans as a source of food. These people of Eastern Asia fish immorally to earn an income and place in society. Fish is sold in abundance throughout Indonesia, Japan, and the Philippines. The loss of the coral reefs would deprive these nations of two profitable industries ‐ tourism and fishing. The complete demise of the coral reefs surrounding these countries would have a drastic effect on the fish population and would result in these countries needing to import seafood and look for alternate food supplies. If the human race wants to continue living on this planet in the way we are now, we must all come to the unanimous conclusion that killing our reefs will result in a collapsed economy, a wide‐spread shortage of food, and very little hope for tomorrow. Religious Aspect: Al Gore, the forty‐fifth vice‐president of the United States and now an American environmental activist, explained the spiritual aspect of the environment extremely well in one of his writings: The more deeply I search for the root of the global environmental crisis, the more I am convinced that it is an outer manifestation of an inner crisis that is, for lack of a better word, spiritual... I have come to believe in the value of a kind of inner ecology that relies on the same principles of balance and holism that characterize a healthy environment. (Education and the Soul…) Religious facets affect every human being on this planet. Religion presents itself in many different forms, in many different places; from actions, words, and unexplained events which many describe as “miracles”. In Christianity it is widely believed that “Christ suffers not only when people are denied their rights and exploited, but also when seas, rivers and forests are desecrated” (Integrity of Creation). Christianity is the most popular form of religion practiced within North America; however there is still little respect shown towards the environment. Practices such as forests being burned to the ground, oil being carelessly spilt, runoff from coastal developments going straight into the oceans, and the privatization of water are destroying our earth and its ecosystems, and very little is being done by religious groups to address these issues. Many of the people participating in these actions are practicing Christians, a common excuse used for their treatment of the earth is Genesis 1:26 where God says “Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth” (BibleGateway). Christians have used this excerpt as a way of reasoning that they are the mirrors of God and that the organisms that have been placed on this earth by God are for their use. Christians however do believe that leaving the world a polluted place for future generations is unmoral. In the Hebrew Scriptures, man is viewed as predominant to the rest of creation, which merely exists for mankind’s use and exploitation. People of the Jewish descent “according to Midrash ‐ the method by which the ancient Jewish Rabbis investigated Scripture in order to make it yield laws and teachings not apparent in a surface reading‐God is reported as saying to man: ‘All that I have created has been for your sake; take care then not to spoil and destroy my world’” (Jewish Responses). Jewish men and women believe that God created animals for the people, but not to over exploit as a food source. An aspect to Buddhism is the flaw of self cherishing. Self cherishing is where one believes that the world was created for humankind and that problems they face are but always of another’s fault. Geshe Kelsang Gyatso a meditation master and an internationally renowned teacher of Buddhism states in his book how self cherishing is the cause to almost all world issues and if one finds inner peace and is able to cherish other’s world issues would begin to diminish. All the problems of human society, such as war, crime, pollution, drug addiction, poverty, injustice, and disharmony within families, are the result of self cherishing. Thinking that human beings alone matter, and that the natural world exists to serve human desires, we have wiped out thousands of animal species and polluted the planet to such an extent that there is great danger [our world] could soon be unfit even for human habitation. If everyone were to practice cherishing others, many of the major problems of the world would be solved in a few years. (Gyatso) Mankind self cherishes and uses nature to make their life better even when it destroys the coral reefs, rain forests, and mangroves. Humankind should begin to cherish the entire natural world and stop the self cherishing that we all do according to Gyatso. The Great Barrier Reef has been inhabited by the Australian Aborigines and the native people of the Torres Strait Islands for over 70 thousand years. The connection between the reef and these people is extremely close on a spiritual level to them. These people have long since “celebrated through song, dance, and art” (Hanson 16) the wonders of the reef and how it is so important to their lifestyle. The Aborigines use the reefs resources for hunting, and broken pieces of coral as tools. The reefs are not only an important part of their religion and culture, but are necessary for their survival. Religion is neither the cause nor solution to the depletion of the coral reefs. It will always be somehow connected to the destruction of the coral reefs as well as the colonization of new coral hopefully seen in the near future. This depends on how religion is approached by future generations, and by their interpretation of spiritual text. No God of any religion would allow mankind to bend the uses and abuses the environment upholds, or allow the rape of all its beauty and diversity for mankind’s own benefits. Case Studies Australia: The Great Barrier Reef Australia, just south of the equator and east of Madagascar, is home to over 3,000 individual coral reefs that help make up the extravagant Great Barrier Reef (Hanson). The Great Barrier Reef is located on the North East coast of Australia, extending to just south of the Tropic of Capricorn, north to the coastal waters of Papua New Guinea (see Appendix V). The Great Barrier Reef has been named one of the seven natural wonders of the world, and with good reason: it is the only living thing that can be seen from outer space and has just over 300 islands within its total area of 350,000 square kilometres (Hanson). “The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s single largest coral domain” (Chadwick 36) made up of not just barrier reefs, like the name suggests, but also of fringing reefs that stretch out to islands from the main shore that were once mountains. The reef is fairly young, being only around 500,000 years old, with the current reefs structure being much younger at only 8,000 years old (Coral Reef Fact). It is home to over 350 different types of coral out of the rough estimate of 450 species found in the Indo‐
Pacific region and at least ten of those coral are endemic to the Great Barrier Reef (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority). This vast area is home to more than 1,500 species of fish alone, and 4,000 types of mollusc (Hanson). This eco‐system attracts great scientific interest because it is one of the few remaining habitats for the dugong and the large green sea turtle, two species which are threatened by extinction. The reef is littered with many nooks, niches and sea caves which help provide marine life with safe places to hide from predators, keeping the reef’s eco‐system sustainable for its inhabitants. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recognized in 1981 that the Great Barrier Reef was unique and deserved acknowledgment as a World Heritage Site. UNESCO concluded that because of its status as Earth’s largest coral reef ecosystem, its history in the sacred cultural treasures of the Aborigines’ lives, and its prominence as a haven for endangered marine animals, it should be given the title of a World Heritage Site. “The history of the Great Barrier Reef is a long and diverse one, where many generations of coral have built a habitat that eventually was discovered and then later settled by humans” (History and Evolution). It is suspected that over 70 thousand years ago the Indigenous people of Australia were among the first humans to come into contact with the reef. The Aborigines of Australia hunted and navigated through the islands of the Great Barrier Reef, but left very little damage to the reef because they were a small civilization and did not have the tools to travel into the deeper waters. Historians have reason to accredit Cristovao de Mendonca, the Portuguese explorer, with the first European sighting of Australia in 1522. This is can only be hypothesized however because little documentation of his discovery was found and what is believed to be the remains of one of Medonca’s vessel to support this hypothesis. Medonca, however, was not the first to document the reef of Australia. It was documented by French explorer Louis de Bougainville. Bougainville approached Australia from the east on June 6, 1768, and encountered one of the many reefs that make up the Great Barrier Reef, near what is known today as Cooktown, Bougainville. Facing rough surf and being low on food ‐ Bougainville turned toward Asia just north of Australia were he proceeded to seek refuge. The early, fleeting glimpse of the Great Barrier Reef made by Bougainville was only minor to that made in 1970 by James Cook the British explorer. James Cook sailed his ship The Endeavour the length of the Great Barrier Reef, “[h]owever on 11 June, Cook's party became intimately acquainted with it when they struck Endeavour Reef, north of Cape Tribulation, and were forced to spend six weeks repairing the ship on shore at the site of modern Cooktown” (History and Evolution). Cook’s scientific team were unable to carry out the extent of documentation possible because they were stranded without necessary provisions. Although Cook’s team did little scientifically, they were able to provide evidence to the international scientific community that the reef existed. Many explorers afterwards travelled to Australia where they discovered and named safe passages through the majestic and colourful coralline structures. It was not until the 18th century that the prodigious task of surveying the entire Australian coastline was done by a man named Mathew Flinders. Twenty years afterwards, the hydrographer Phillip Parker King took on the daunting task of charting the northern parts of the reef in detail. Beginning in the late 1800’s and continuing through the mid‐1900’s, the Great Barrier Reef was thoroughly exploited by private businesses for commercial use. Shells and pearls were taken to manufacture buttons and fine jewellery. Limestone and guano were harvested to make fertilizer. Sea animals such as fish, shellfish, and turtles were caught and brought back to be sold as food. However, as explorers took parts of the reef away from Australia, the reef took away ships from the explorers. Over those years, 1,500 ships were sunk by the coralline structures. Although the reef posed a threat to explorers and tourists alike, it continued to draw large numbers of observers, and still does to this day. “Today, the Great Barrier Reef continues to be explored by adventurers, vacationers, and scientists. The colour and beauty of this marine paradise attract scuba divers, snorkelers, and tourists of all ages from all parts of the world” (Hanson 20), and there is no end to the satisfaction and intrigue that the reefs all along the coast of Australia have to offer tourists, scientists, and the Australians. The reefs all along Australia’s coast line are of monumental importance to the Australian economy both locally and internationally: in 2004 alone the reef brought in an estimated 5.8 billion dollars to the Australian economy through tourism. The reef also supplies more than 63,000 jobs for men and women in the tourism industry (The Great Barrier Reef – WWF – Australia) through day tours, cruise ships, overnight tours, passenger ferries, whale watching, motorised water sports, and diving and fishing charters. The Australian economy is strongly influenced by the constant income that the tourism sector brings in, as it should be with an average of more than two million visits per year (Hanson). The Australian government has publically announced: Tourism has both positive and negative effects on the Great Barrier Reef. The positive effects include: 
education of visitors. 
increased community understanding about the marine environment and its management for sustainable use; 
operator involvement in direct management of some Marine Park tourism sites; 
contribution to management of the Marine Park through payment of the Environmental Management Charge; and 
significant contribution to local and national economies. The negative effects can be ecological, social or cultural. (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority: Frequently Asked Questions) However, the increase in commercial developments within Australia to entertain the needs of tourists has augmented the chemical and sedimentation run‐off into the ocean that is harbouring these coralline structures. These additions are poisonous not only to the reefs inhabitants, but to the fragile coral reef eco‐system as well. The reefs surrounding Australia act as break‐walls for beaches, breaking the big waves that would be hitting the beaches. Without these coral break‐walls the beaches would be completely different; the sand would be pushed up much higher and there would be a drop off point soon after entering the water, making these beaches less desirable to tourists. Beaches do offer the tourism industry a great income, but Australia is known for its Great Barrier Reef and not its sandy beaches. Families on vacation will often rent a boat for the day to go touring amongst the coral reefs. Anchors are carelessly thrown into the ocean and can destroy the majestic coralline structure of the reef. Locals harvest coral to make necklaces to sell to tourists as souvenirs. Tourists have also been known to harm the coral by breaking pieces off to bring back home as keepsakes. Tourism has affected the coral reefs from the beginning of their discovery. Mankind is ignorant by nature and will continue to be so until they are properly educated on the direct results that their actions will have on coral reefs. Tourists need to learn about the problems that the Great Barrier Reef is dealing with and how to properly conduct themselves while they are visiting it. Within the last fifteen years, the coral reef eco‐systems along the coast line of Australia have been subjected to two major occurrences of coral bleaching: one in 1998, and the other in 2002. In 1998 the sea temperatures were one to two degrees centigrade higher than normal. An aerial survey showed that 87 percent of inshore reefs surveyed were bleached to some extent... [o]f the bleached reefs, the inshore reefs were the most severely affected, 67 percent with high levels of bleaching and 25 percent with extreme bleaching levels. In comparison... offshore reefs were less affected with only 14 percent highly bleached. (Coral Bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef) The 2002 coral bleaching has been the largest coral bleaching on record for the Great Barrier Reef. The two periods each consisted of several weeks of very hot weather, which cause the water temperature to raise several degrees centigrade higher. Again, aerial surveying revealed that 60 percent of the reefs studied had been bleached. Inshore reefs, just as in the 1998 bleaching, were once again the most affected and “scientists believe it may take many years for the most badly damaged reefs to fully recover” (Hanson 25). The coral bleaching that has occurred within this fragile eco‐system is the doing of man‐kinds failure to respect the planet, and the result of this failure is the global climate change that we are now facing. The Great Barrier Reef and other coral reefs around the coast of Australia have had to endure constant stress from both the environment and from mankind. However, Australia has taken on the challenge of rescuing and securing the fate of their coral reef through different governmental organizations, scientific research, and through education of tourists. In 1975, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) was introduced by the government of Australia. The GBRMPA was created “to regulate and protect much of the reef from limestone mining, oil drilling, guano harvesting, fishing, boating, and visitor overuse” (Hanson 22). The Marine Park covers 331,265 square kilometres, which is greater than 95 percent of the entire Great Barrier Reef. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has concluded that there are essential steps that should be taken in protecting the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP):  Maintaining a well funded, enforced and monitored network of marine sanctuaries throughout the GBRMP is essential to protect representative areas, as well as areas that are of special or unique biological value.  A reduction in fishing effort  Healthy levels of fishing effort in the marine park are needed to safeguard the Reef's biodiversity.  Improving water quality  The joint Australian and Queensland governments' Reef Water Quality Protection Plan confirms that effective action must be taken now to reduce land‐
based sources of sediment, nutrient and pesticide pollution further damaging in‐
shore reefs.  Global warming  The future impacts of global warming must be included in government plans regarding the Reef at a local level, and action must be taken at a national level to reduce CO2 emissions. (Great Barrier Reef – WWF – Australia) Although very few of Australia’s reefs are considered to be at high risk, there are small reefs along the coast and within the Great Barrier Reef eco‐system that are considered to be at high risk. Coral reefs surrounding these high risk reefs and the coral reefs closer to shore are almost all at what is considered to be medium risk. The coral reefs that are farther out are considered to be at low risk (Bryant). The reason that the coral reefs that encompass the Great Barrier Reef fluctuate in their at‐risk classifications is because the reefs farther out in the ocean are less subjected to tourists and sedimentation run‐off. The reefs farther off the coast were also less affected by the bleaching of 1998, and 2002. The rainforest of the sea and the final resting place of many a ship, the Great Barrier Reef is truly a natural wonder of incredible proportions. Yet despite its stunning size and beauty, it is clear that the human desire to visit, explore, and study this marine paradise is putting the reef at risk. (Hanson 24) Marine Biologist Professor and Doctor Ove Hoegh‐Guldberg, who is a professor, Deputy Director of ARC Centre for Excellence in Coral Reef Studies, Reviewing Editor at Science Magazine, Smart State Premier’s Fellow (2008‐2013), Director, Stantford Australia, and who received his doctorate from the University of California. Concluded a hypothesis: that by 2050 the Great Barrier Reef will be almost completely decimated. Dr. Hoegh‐Guldberg believes that on a geological scale, the Great Barrier Reef will recover due to stabilised temperatures by the end of this century. The reef would be recovering over the following century, with the possibility of it taking at least 500 years for the corals to re‐colonize and adapt to the warmer ocean waters‐expected due to our global warming crisis (Dr. Ove Hoegh‐Guldberg). Without the Great Barrier Reef, Australia will see its economy plummet due to a drastic decrease in tourists. With more than 63,000 jobs in the tourism sector and thousands of other jobs in the research sector of the Great Barrier Reef, Australia would have to find new ways to attract tourists and to keep its economy steady. This would have an effect on the world’s economy as well. The Great Barrier Reef is a symbolic stepping stone to mankind’s ability to protect our earth. With the loss of this stepping stone our planet would see a decrease in our global food supply, as the Great Barrier Reef offers a great deal of fish and other organisms. The future of the Great Barrier Reef is directly linked to our world’s food and economic crisis’. Maldives: The Coral Gardens The Maldives Islands seem to be sprinkled on top of the Indian Ocean, just south‐west of India and Sri Lanka. These archipelago islands are made up of 26 atolls “[e]ach of the 26 atolls that make up the Maldives is enclosed by a coral reef cut by several deep, natural channels and a lagoon” (The High Commission of Maldives, Singapore)(see Appendix VI). Approximately 1,200 coral islands are found within the waters making up the Maldives Islands – only 200 of which are inhabited, “the exact number depend[s] greatly on the tides and the storms that can easily sweep away existing islands and create new ones” (Lamberti 6) because the Maldivian islands highest part is no more than three metres above sea level. The formation of the Maldivian archipelago islands can be further explained through Charles Darwin’s theory that a geo‐thermal hot spot or volcano formed in the middle of the ocean where “some upthrust took place around the external rim and that layers of lava” (Browne 454), eventually creating a ridge of volcanic mountains that rise above the sea level. In the warm nutrient filled waters of the Indian Ocean, volcanic mountains were quickly colonized by coral polyps forming the coral atolls. “[I]n a country where 42% of the population still live below the poverty line, a country where the average salary is less than US$ 200 per month while the costs of food and basic living requirements are among the highest in the world” (Moosa), the Maldivian Islands are one‐of‐a‐kind, and the coral reef eco‐systems found on the islands have been compared to the Great Barrier Reef. The Maldivian Islands are thought to have been inhabited by humans since approximately 1500 B.C., according to the latest archaeological evidence. It is believed that Aryan immigrants were among the first permanent inhabitants of the Maldivian archipelago islands; the Aryan people most likely settled around the time that Sri Lanka was colonized. Recorded contact outside the Aryan’s lagoon oasis was first recorded in 947 A.D. Large groups of Persians and Arabs came to the Maldives for trades, because of the Maldives’ “abundance of pearls, spices, coconuts, dried fish and, in particular, cowry shells” (The High Commission of Maldives, Singapore). Cowry shells were at this time accepted as currency from Africa to China, making the Maldives an area of instant wealth. The Maldivian archipelago became independent from Britain in 1965 and opened its borders to tourism in 1972. The Maldives have been documented as being at low risk with very minimal parts being at medium risk. Over 90 percent of the Maldives’ coral reefs are considered to be at low risk (Bryant). The Maldivian government has a member named the “Atoll Chief”. He is in charge of documenting the condition of all reefs within the waters of the Maldives. Since the government keeps a close eye on the reefs, and the islands are so remote, they are less likely to be subjected from stress caused by man, unlike reefs in more urban environments. Until 1972, tourist activities in the Maldivian islands were restricted by government policies. Tourism has since “transformed the economy of the Maldives, moving rapidly from the dependence on the fisheries sector to the tourism sector. Just in three and a half decades, the industry has become the main source of income and livelihood of the people of the Maldives” (www.tourism.gov.mv). However, in 2004 the government made a point of allowing every atoll in the Maldives Islands to be open for tourists. In addition to this decision, the government designated eleven islands for resorts. Only one year later, in 2005, an additional thirty five resorts were added to the list. All of these resorts are now open to tourists from around the world. In 2007, at least 675 000 people visited the Maldivian islands. The Ministry of Tourism in the Maldivian government allowed islands to be auctioned off to companies and private investors for lease and private resort building. There will soon be more than 100 different resorts across the Maldivian Islands. The Maldivian government has been opening up more tourist opportunities in their islands, causing parts of the reef to be picked apart by tourists. However, because of strict government policies towards resorts and the size of land masses, this has had very little affect on the reefs. With the low population of only 396,334 locals living on the Maldivian islands it is no wonder that the coral reefs are in good shape and continue to be well protected. Natural disasters have been, and will continue to be, the biggest threat to the coral reefs in the Maldivian waters. In December of 2004, a tsunami originating from the coast of Indonesia struck the Maldives from the east. The tsunami struck mid‐day, flooding the streets and buildings with ocean water and breaking coralline structures on its way. The coral was most damaged in the southern atolls, but has already made a significant recovery and will continue to do so. Similar to almost every other coral reef, the Maldives have been subjected to coral bleaching. The 1996 coral bleaching had an effect in the Maldivian waters, but harmed very little of the coral reefs. The coral affected by coral bleaching was the lowest in its region at only 8 percent (McClanahan). Azeez Hakeem, a marine biologist who visited the Southern Maldives on a trip in 2005, said to a reporter that “he was amazed... to discover that perhaps 80 percent of the coral cover had already been restored” (Wheatley). The coral reefs of the Maldives will continue to be subjected to the harsh weather of the Indian Ocean because of their location, but marine biologists are finding that the reefs in this region seem to repair themselves faster then what is expected. The people of the Maldives are considered to be some of the most well educated people on the subject of the coral reefs. Ho Kwon Ping, group chairman of Banyan Tree Resort, funds a small marine laboratory that explores ways to conserve the natural coral reefs. Ping has said that the laboratory “is not just meant to salve the green conscience of well‐heeled guests. We must satisfy our customers, inspire our colleagues and improve the human and physical environment which we do business in. This is not just bleeding‐heart liberalism; it's simple, enlightened self‐interest” (Wheatley). The government, resorts, and private organizations have used Biorocks to further enhance their coral reefs in the Maldivian islands and to make up for the damage that was caused in the 1998 bleaching. The Maldives coral reefs are in some of the best condition in our world thanks to the respect that is given to it. The Maldivian islands are an exemplary example of how to maintain a coral reef eco‐
system at its pristine condition. Communities dealing with depletion in their coral reefs should look towards the steps that the Maldivian people have taken, and follow in their footsteps. Jamaica: A Reef to Watch Jamaica, situated in the center of the Caribbean Sea, is the third largest island in the Caribbean next to Cuba and Hispaniola. Jamaica’s coral reef eco‐system is made up of fringing reefs. These “[f]ringing reefs occur on a narrow 1‐ to 2‐km shelf along most of the north coast, and also grow sporadically on the south coast on a much broader shelf 20 km wide”(Reef at risk case studies). The reefs in Jamaica once stood out as breath‐taking, similar to those in the Maldives. However, over the past two to three decades virtually all of the coral reefs have been demolished to nothing more than broken pieces on the sea floor or have been reduced to white dying fragments of what was once a colourful city of coral. The history of Jamaica’s coral reefs is unlike any other. The islands were first inhabited by the Tainos ‐ cave dwelling people who made tools from their surroundings to reap the benefits of the coral reefs around them. They used the reefs for its abundant supply of fish at the time. Explorers like Christopher Columbus used the reefs food supply to feed their men, also taking pearls and other prized raw materials back to Europe for trade. However, the reef was not heavily affected by mankind until the 1970’s. In the late 1960’s and into the 1970’s, Jamaican coral was described as having low macroalgae with an abundance of coral all across the coast. There were noticeably large absences of predatory fish around the reef, but due to a very long history of over‐fishing this was to be expected. It was in the 1970’s that fishermen set out after new targets: the herbivorous fish. As the abundance of herbivorous fish began to diminish, the herbivorous sea‐urchin began to flourish in numbers, simply because they relied on the same food as the herbivorous fish and could now take advantage of the absence of the fish. The sea‐urchin then became the fundamental organism within the ecosystem, keeping the macroalgae from overgrowing and killing the coral. In 1980, Jamaica’s coralline structures were demolished by Hurricane Allen. Hurricane Allen left wide open areas along the coast of Jamaica free of coral, which were quickly colonized by macroalgae. Then, in 1983, a disease spread throughout the coral reef, killing all of the sea‐urchins. Only five years later Hurricane Gilbert struck the island, destroying the coral just as Hurricane Allen had. After Hurricane Gilbert the algae flourished because of the nutrient pollution in the water. The final outcome was the virtual replacement of the coral reefs by algal ecosystems in what has been described as a "phase shift". Live coral cover declined from 52 percent to 3 percent, and fleshy algae cover increased from 4 percent to 92 percent. The causes were the combined stresses of overfishing, disease, hurricanes and storms, as well as nutrient pollution. (Reefs at risk case studies) The Jamaican coral reefs are all at a high risk which is of no surprise because, “virtually all reef communities here have been affected by human and natural causes” (Bryant 33). The Jamaican reefs have been subjected to storm damage, over exploitation in the fishing industry, pollution from poor sewage disposal, and runoff from both the agricultural and industrial sectors. The “Caribbean has undergone the longest and most sustained impacts from human development since the colonization of the Americas” (Caribbean Corals in Danger of Extinction: Climate Change, Warmer Waters Cited As Leading Cause). Hopefully, with efforts from the Jamaican people, this coral eco‐system can still be rescued. Marine protected areas were initiated by the National Environmental Planning Agency (NEPA), which has the responsibility of taking the proper steps to ensure that the conservation of Jamaica’s natural resources are not overlooked and that they are protected and used appropriately. In 1997, coral reef conservation was given added urgency as the product of international initiatives to adverse the extensive destruction of the coral reef eco‐systems worldwide. The following policy is an adaptation from this time, created by the NEPA in order to improve the conservation of the coral reefs in Jamaica and by so doing to maintain their “ecological and socio‐economic functions.” The policy has the following goals: 
Reducing the quantity of pollutants being released to the coastal environment with special emphasis on nitrogen, phosphorus and sediment; 
Reversing the trend of overfishing by more stringent regulation of the fishing industry, particularly with respect to trap and net type and mesh specifications; 
Reducing the physical damage of reefs as a result of recreational boating, souvenir hunting, spear fishing, dynamiting and other human activities; 
Improving the response capability for dealing with oil and other chemical spills; 
Ensuring that Jamaica's public and private sectors avoid coastal zone development which contributes to coral reef destruction and/or degradation. (Policies and Descriptions Part 2 of 3) Unfortunately, the coral reefs surrounding Jamaica’s coast line continue to deteriorate from the lack of competent authority and administration and most of the alleged marine protected areas remain essentially just "paper parks”. International Organizations: The role played by international organizations in the protection of coral reefs is not as great as it appears to be. Upon first readings, one receives the impression that there are many active and effective organizations which are protecting and advocating the coral reefs. However, many of these organizations are not international but regional‐specific. Organizations are notorious for putting many plans onto paper, but providing very little follow‐through. There are very few intergovernmental organizations (IGO’s) that play a prominent role in salvaging the reef, however they still are noticeable. Many IGO’s roles and how through their countries government little organizations have been founded to create marine protected areas have been mentioned throughout this paper’s case studies. These IGO’s create plans to help further understand and salvage what is left of their coral reef eco‐systems. Non‐governmental organizations (NGO’s) however are leading the world in proper care. These NGO’s have been created by marine biologists to help promote awareness of the depletion of the coral reefs because of the global climate crisis. Green Peace is a well known NGO that is dedicated to protecting the planet, but has done very little in preserving or saving the worlds coral reefs. While they mention the destruction of the coral reefs through papers and conferences, Green Peace sees the destruction of the coral reefs as a subcategory to the global warming crisis (Global warming | Greenpeace International). This is not the case however; the depletion of the coral reefs is its own global issue. Without the coral reefs the geographical formations of land would be much different and economies would fail (Ferguson). Although the United Nations is putting a minimal effort towards the actual protection of the coral reefs, they have recognized the factual evidence that it is a global issue that we are facing in today’s society. However the United Nations have pulled up short in taking physical action in being a part of the solution. The United Nations have had several papers and articles published based on facts found in relation to coral reefs, and have a plethora of external resources available through their site. The United Nations is supposed to be a leader in society which takes action and prompts other organizations to act. The United Nations should have a more prominent role amongst bringing the coral reefs back to the superior state they were in only a short time ago. Canada: Deep Sea Coral Canada, to the surprise of many is home to coral reefs on both its East and West coasts. Very little was known about this deep sea coral until very recently. Deep sea coral can be found in depths anywhere between 200 to 1500 metres below the surface. These reefs are essential to the deep sea eco‐systems. Deep sea coral grows without sunlight and in waters with temperatures below zero degrees Celsius, yet these corals continue to flourish and create some of the largest coralline structures in the world. Deep sea coral eco‐systems are highly diverse, with thousands already discovered, but scientists estimate that more than 800 additional species of coral have yet to be discovered (North America | Oceana). In Pacific Canada, at least twenty‐one species of coral have been recorded off the coast of British Columbia. The majority of these findings were at depths of at least 200 hundred metres below sea level. However, taking in to account that almost all of these findings are based on coral brought up by fishing trawlers, the species and depths recorded are almost certainly incomplete. The wide range of coral known to inhabit “these waters include sea fans such as red tree and bubblegum corals, as well as soft, stony, and black corals. These waters are also home to massive sponge reefs a mile wide and 50 feet high. Thought to be over 9,000 years old, reefs of this type are found nowhere else in the world” (North America | Oceana), which makes Canada’s reefs very important (see Appendix VII). In Atlantic Canada, marine biologists have found over twenty‐seven species of coral in the waters of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Labrador. These corals live on the edge of the continental shelf, and have also been found in deep channels and canyons at depths greater than four hundred and fifty metres. The biggest threat to deep sea coral is trawling. "At present, scientists studying deep‐sea corals are in an unfortunate race with commercial fishermen, who are trawling these corals into oblivion," according to Dr. Martin Willison of Dalhousie University in Halifax Nova Scotia. Trawls are huge nets equipped with steel weights to pull them down to the sea floor. Deep sea fishing boats drag these nets along the sea floor to catch the species that are always readily available at grocery stores such as shrimp, cod, and sea bass. As the trawls are dragged across the sea floor, they smash and rip coral from the bottom. “As fishing has emptied coastal waters of fishes, trawlers are moving into seas as deep as 2 kilometres, and into the most remote seas on Earth” (1 136 Scientists Call For Protection Of Deep‐Sea Coral), because fishermen have over‐
fished these regions and need to bring in a higher quota of merchandise. In addition to the threat posed by trawling, there are two factors that have come out of our global climate change that are affecting the deep sea coral reefs. It is believed by Dr. Ove Hoegh‐Guldberg that in fifty years all of our coral reefs will be completely destroyed, unless decisive and immediate actions are taken. The first natural factor affecting the reefs is how ocean circulation is changing, “which is leading to reduced upwelling and turnover of the ocean water column. This is leading to reduced oxygen levels in the deep sea, which is likely to affect Canada’s coral reef” (Hoegh‐Guldberg). The second is how the ocean is becoming more acidic because of the greater amount of carbon dioxide from our atmosphere going into our oceans. This decreases “the amount of carbonate ions, which are crucial for deep‐water corals which need them to form their skeletons. Due to a series of physical and chemical parameters, the depth at which you get too little carbonate is decreasing as carbon dioxide is increasing in the atmosphere” (Hoegh‐Guldberg). The only way to avoid losing the deep sea coral is to take immediate action on the global level of carbon dioxide emissions. Deep sea corals provide a habitat for sea animals and augment the ocean’s eco‐system. Deep sea coral is incontrovertibly responsible for the success of future marine organisms in our ever‐changing planet. Deep sea coral, along with many deep sea sponges, contain chemicals that are being further researched to establish if they could be used in medicines to treat high blood pressure, chronic pain, and cancer (North America | Oceana). The advantages that these chemicals could bring to our society’s medicinal efforts in saving lives, solving the problems of pandemics, and making our lives generally easier is well worth the effort of changing our destructive habits in order to save the coral reefs (Ferguson). In 1970, the Parliament of Canada created the International Development Research Centre (IDRC). The IDRC was created to assist “developing countries use science and technology,” to discover feasible “long term solutions to the social, economic, and environmental problems they face.” (About IDRC: International Development Research Centre (IDRC) (4.1.3)) The IDRC has continued on to help the government of Thailand with the depletion of their coral reefs through educating locals and implementing a standard of care for the reefs. The IDRC has also assisted Heather Holden, a geography professor at the National University of Singapore. Holden has developed a revolutionary way to take the pulse of the world’s coral reefs, through harnessing the technology of satellite remote‐sensing. The loss of these deep sea corals is nearly impossible to imagine. It would limit mankind’s future in creating new medicinal drugs; it would dramatically change the bio‐
diversity of our oceans, and most likely destroy Canada’s fishing industry. Hopefully, as stated by Dr. Ove Hoegh‐Guldberg, this disaster can be avoided, but actions must begin to take place in order to assure an abundance of these resources for the future. Possible Solutions: The Ladder Approach The current demise of the coral reefs can be described as a hole that mankind has allowed to grow deeper by being thoughtless and destructive. As the coral reefs grow older, human civilization stands by; the hole deepens, and a bigger more complicated ladder is needed to escape this hole. The rungs on the ladder represent the many and different solutions that are already at the worlds disposal to escape the hole. It is up to the people of the world to take initiative and act to save the coral reefs (Hoegh‐Guldberg). Governments can easily be put at blame for the destruction of the coral reefs; many governments like Jamaica’s have sat by and let their reefs be demolished for the economies sake. The economy can only be as good as the resources contributing to it, therefore islands like Jamaica, Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles, and the Philippines ‐ whose economies are almost entirely held together through the fishing and tourist industry ‐ should be showing more respect towards the coral reefs and the ecosystems they maintain (Ferguson). Governments should continue to create new policies concerning the protection of coral reefs, and look into placing a moratorium on fishing during certain months of the year. Governments can look into buying artificial reefs, like the “Biorock” in order to strengthen the reefs already present in their oceans (Biorock). The government is responsible for a great deal of the blame that is to be given out for the destruction of the coral reefs, however the support of the government is only one rung of the ladder that is needed to escape this hole that surrounds the future of the world’s coral reefs. Organizations ‐ whether they are funded through governments or not ‐ have already taken small steps in building the ladder that will help us escape the future we have set up for our coral reefs. Due to how few steps these organizations have taken, they still have not met all their goals and are unable to keep their promises. These organizations need to follow through with their ideas and begin to offer the reefs of our world as much defence from tourists and fisheries as they can. Each person on this planet also has the responsibility to do their part, and to be a part of the solution with “half a billion people [estimated] to live within 100 kilometres of a coral reef and benefit from its production and protection” (Ferguson 11). Without a doubt, each man and woman on this planet should be doing their part. If humankind were to reduce its carbon footprint by relying on alternative power sources such as: solar energy, wind energy, and water turbines we could start to reduce our carbon dioxide emissions and begin to save our planet. These would add rungs to the ladder that would make a significant impact in the future of the coral reefs. The list below provides ideas of ways that we can try and rejuvenate the once beautiful eco‐system from its current dying, white, limestone state.  Follow the three R’s: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle,  Conserve energy,  Educate yourself about the coral reefs and creatures they support,  Choose tourism operators that care and respect the environment,  When diving, snorkelling, swimming, or playing near coral remember to keep your distance, and not to touch,  Keep the oceans clean  Make sure that the species you choose to eat come from sustainable fisheries,  Support NGO’s and IGO’s that contribute to the preservation of coral reefs and;  Spread the word to friends, and family. By participating in these exercises people can help the coral reefs in minor ways. As with all practices that effect our environment, the more people that contribute the greater the effect it will have. However, the best way to contribute to saving the coral reefs is to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions that are currently being put into the air. Conclusion This report has brought forth plausible solutions to the degradation of the coral reefs. It has looked at how country’s governments, IGOs, NGOs, and the United Nations have set forth efforts to sustain the life of coral on this planet. A change is inevitable if the world is to see the coral reefs alive and prosperous in the near future. It has been clearly demonstrated that the rejuvenation of coral is a reachable goal with the help of immediate and decisive actions from a united global front. The peoples of the world must be educated about this global issue for it is only to better the lives of our future generations. Economies are dependent upon the coral reefs capabilities of bringing in tourists and harbouring fish for fishermen’s livelihoods. The time of exploiting the natural resources of the coral reefs must cease. 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g,.ht m>. Warne, Kennedy. “An Uneasy Eden.” National Geographic. July, 2008. Welcome to the Columban Missionaries Website ‐ Ireland. 11 Mar. 2009 http://www.columban.com/ecotheoext.htm>. "What We Do | Coral Reef Alliance." Welcome | Coral Reef Alliance. 11 May 2009 <http://www.coral.org/what_we_do>. "What You Can Do | Coral Reef Alliance." Welcome | Coral Reef Alliance. 11 May 2009 <http://www.coral.org/what_you_can_do>. "Who We Are Helping." Liza's Reef ‐Coral Reef Art. 11 May 2009 <http://www.lizasreef.com/who_we_are_helping.htm>. Wolf Hilbertz Home. 11 May 2009 <http://www.wolfhilbertz.com/>. World Wildlife Fund ‐ Home ‐ Endangered Species, Wildlife Conservation, Animal Habitats. 11 Mar. 2009 <http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/wherewework/coraltriangle/WWFBinaryitem6218
.pdf>. "WWF ‐ Search Results." WWF ‐ Local to Global Environmental Conservation. 11 May 2009 <http://wwf.ca/search.cfm?uSearchTerm=coral>. Www.tourism.gov.mv. 13 Apr. 2009 <http://www.tourism.gov.mv/>. "Biorock: New Technology for Growing, Restoring, and Farming Coral Reefs. Appendices Appendix I:
(NOAA’s National Ocean Service)
The anatomy of a coral polyp.
Appendix II:
(Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority :: What is Coral Bleaching)
A diagram representing the phases in which coral goes through from being healthy to affected by coral bleaching. Appendix III: (Gaia Discovery) A Biorock that has been flourishing with corals. Appendix IV: (Similian Islands) A diagram illustrating how the Biorock works. Appendix V: (On The Go Blog By Rates To Go) An aerial view of a small section of the Great Barrier Reef. Appendix VI: (Panoramio..) An aerial view of the Maldivian Islands. Appendix VII: (The Nature Conservancy) A deep sea coralline structure off the coast of Canada. Appendix IIX: (Hoegh‐Gulberg) Interview with Dr. Hoegh‐Guldberg Alex: What affect has our planets global warming crisis had on deep sea coral, like Canada's coral reefs? Dr. Hoegh‐Guldberg: Deep sea coral reefs are being affected by two factors associated with global climate change. The first is that ocean circulation is changing, which is leading to reduced upwelling and turnover of the ocean water column. This is leading to reduced oxygen levels in the deep sea, which is likely to affect Canada's coral reefs. The second thing that is happening is that the ocean is becoming more acidic as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is increasingly going into the ocean. This is causing a decrease in the amount of carbonate ions, which are crucial for deep‐
water corals which need them to form their skeletons. Due to a series of physical and chemical parameters, the depth at which you get too little carbonate is decreasing as carbon dioxide is increasing in the atmosphere. Alex: What is the leading cause of destruction to both tropical coral reefs and the coral reefs found in Canada? Dr. Hoegh‐Guldberg: The most serious cause of damage to tropical coral reefs is global warming, which is causing mass coral bleaching and mortality. Ocean acidification is also a problem for tropical coral reefs. While global climate change represents a serious threat to deep‐water coral reefs off Canada, other factors such as damage from fishing trawlers represents a slightly more immediate threat to these reef systems. This said, if we don't get climate change under control, Canada's deep sea reefs will disappear, irrespective of whether we protect them from trawlers or not. Alex: Do you see the depletion of coral reefs becoming more prominent across the globe, or is the problem beginning to subside? Dr. Hoegh‐Guldberg: The problem is getting more serious as the concentration of carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere. Over the past 30 years we have lost about 40% of tropical coral reefs. The current rate of decline is 2% per annum. Most scientists believe that it is getting worse not better. Alex: What state do you believe our worlds coral reefs will be in fifty years from now? Dr. Hoegh‐Guldberg: If we don't act to immediately reduce carbon dioxide emissions, we will see the world's coral reefs disappear within the next 50 years. Sorry this is so gloomy but it is reality. The important thing to tell your classmates is that it is not all over and that there is a way that we can avoid this disaster. This will involve decisive and immediate action on carbon dioxide emissions, while at the same time reducing the pressure on coral reefs that is arising from other factors such as destructive fishing, overexploitation and pollution. Basically, I think we will avoid this disaster, but we must act now.