Abstract expressionism
1
Abstract expressionism
Abstract expressionism was an American post–World War II art
movement. It was the first specifically American movement to achieve
worldwide influence and put New York City at the center of the
western art world, a role formerly filled by Paris. Although the term
"abstract expressionism" was first applied to American art in 1946 by
the art critic Robert Coates, it had been first used in Germany in 1919
in the magazine Der Sturm, regarding German Expressionism. In the
USA, Alfred Barr was the first to use this term in 1929 in relation to
works by Wassily Kandinsky.[1]
The movement's name is derived from the combination of the
emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with
the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as
Futurism, the Bauhaus and Synthetic Cubism. Additionally, it has an
image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some
feel, nihilistic.[2]
Jackson Pollock, No. 5, 1948, oil on fiberboard,
244 x 122 cm. (96 x 48 in.), private collection.
Style
Technically, an important predecessor is surrealism, with its emphasis on
spontaneous, automatic or subconscious creation. Jackson Pollock's dripping
paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work
of André Masson, Max Ernst and David Alfaro Siqueiros. Another important
early manifestation of what came to be abstract expressionism is the work of
American Northwest artist Mark Tobey, especially his "white writing" canvases,
which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the "all-over" look of
Pollock's drip paintings.
The movement's name is derived from the combination of the emotional intensity
and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of
the European abstract schools such as Futurism, the Bauhaus and Synthetic
Cubism. Additionally, it has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly
idiosyncratic
and,
some
Cubi VI (1963), Israel Museum,
Jerusalem. David Smith was one of
the most influential American
sculptors of the 20th century.
Abstract expressionism
An abstract expressionist painting by Jane
Frank (1918-1986): Crags and Crevices, 1961
2
feel, nihilistic.[2] In practice, the term is applied to any number of
artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles
and even to work that is neither especially abstract nor expressionist.
Pollock's energetic "action paintings", with their "busy" feel, are
different, both technically and aesthetically, from the violent and
grotesque Women series of Willem de Kooning's figurative paintings)
and the rectangles of color in Mark Rothko's Color Field paintings
(which are not what would usually be called expressionist and which
Rothko denied were abstract). Yet all three artists are classified as
abstract expressionists.
Abstract expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian
artists of the early twentieth century such as Wassily Kandinsky. Although it is true that spontaneity or the
impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists works, most of these paintings involved
careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. With artists like Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky,
Emma Kunz, and later on Rothko, Barnett Newman, John McLaughlin, and Agnes Martin, abstract art clearly
implied expression of ideas concerning the spiritual, the unconscious and the mind.[3]
Why this style gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of debate. American social realism had been
the mainstream in the 1930s. It had been influenced not only by the Great Depression but also by the muralists of
Mexico such as David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera. The political climate after World War II did not long
tolerate the social protests of these painters. Abstract expressionism arose during World War II and began to be
showcased during the early forties at galleries in New York like The Art of This Century Gallery. The McCarthy era
after World War II was a time of artistic censorship in the United States, but if the subject matter were totally
abstract then it would be seen as apolitical, and therefore safe. Or if the art was political, the message was largely for
the insiders.[4]
While the movement is closely associated with painting, and painters like Arshile Gorky, Franz Kline, Clyfford Still,
Hans Hofmann, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock and others, collagist Anne Ryan and sculpture and certain
sculptors in particular were also integral to Abstract Expressionism.[5] David Smith, and his wife Dorothy Dehner,
Herbert Ferber, Isamu Noguchi, Ibram Lassaw, Theodore Roszak, Phillip Pavia, Mary Callery, Richard Stankiewicz,
Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson in particular were some of the sculptors considered as being important
members of the movement. In addition, the artists David Hare, John Chamberlain, James Rosati, Mark di Suvero,
and sculptors Richard Lippold, Herbert Ferber, Raoul Hague, George Rickey, Reuben Nakian, and even Tony Smith,
Seymour Lipton, Joseph Cornell, and several others [6] were integral parts of the Abstract expressionist movement.
Many of the sculptors listed participated in the Ninth Street Show[6] the famous exhibition curated by Leo Castelli on
East Ninth Street in New York City in 1951. Besides the painters and sculptors of the period the New York School
of Abstract expressionism also generated a number of supportive poets, like Frank O'Hara and photographers like
Aaron Siskind and Fred McDarrah, (whose book The Artist's World in Pictures documented the New York School
during the 1950s), and filmmakers — notably Robert Frank — as well.
Although the abstract expressionist school spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this
style were New York City and the San Francisco Bay area of California.
Abstract expressionism
3
Art critics of the post–World War II era
Willem De Kooning, Woman V,
1952–1953. De Kooning's series of
Woman paintings in the early 1950s
caused a stir in the New York City
avant-garde circle.
At a certain moment the canvas began to appear to one American painter after another as an arena in which to act. What was to go on the
canvas was not a picture but an event.
“
— Harold Rosenberg
”
[7]
In the 1940s there were not only few galleries (The Art of This Century, Pierre Matisse Gallery, Julien Levi Gallery
and a few others) but also few critics who were willing to follow the work of the New York Vanguard. There were
also a few artists with a literary background, among them Robert Motherwell and Barnett Newman who functioned
as critics as well.
While New York and the world were yet unfamiliar with the New York avant-garde by the late 1940s, most of the
artists who have become household names today had their well established patron critics: Clement Greenberg
advocated Jackson Pollock and the color field painters like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Barnett Newman, Adolph
Gottlieb and Hans Hofmann. Harold Rosenberg seemed to prefer the action painters like Willem de Kooning, and
Franz Kline, as well as the seminal paintings of Arshile Gorky. Thomas B. Hess, the managing editor of ARTnews,
championed Willem de Kooning.
The new critics elevated their proteges by casting other artists as "followers"[8] or ignoring those who did not serve
their promotional goal.
As an example, in 1958, Mark Tobey "became the first American painter since Whistler (1895) to win top prize at
the Venice Biennale. New York's two leading art magazines were not interested. Arts mentioned the historic event
only in a news column and ARTnews (Managing editor: Thomas B. Hess) ignored it completely. The New York
Times and Life printed feature articles."[9]
Abstract expressionism
4
Barnett Newman, a late member of the Uptown Group, wrote catalogue
forewords and reviews, and by the late 1940s became an exhibiting artist at Betty
Parsons Gallery. His first solo show was in 1948. Soon after his first exhibition,
Barnett Newman remarked in one of the Artists' Session at Studio 35: "We are in
the process of making the world, to a certain extent, in our own image."[10]
Utilizing his writing skills, Newman fought every step of the way to reinforce his
newly established image as an artist and to promote his work. An example is his
letter on April 9, 1955, "Letter to Sidney Janis: — it is true that Rothko talks the
fighter. He fights, however, to submit to the philistine world. My struggle against
bourgeois society has involved the total rejection of it."[11]
Barnett Newman, Onement 1, 1948.
During the 1940s Barnett Newman
wrote several important articles
about the new American painting.
Strangely the person thought to have had most to do with the promotion of this
style was a New York Trotskyite Clement Greenberg. As long time art critic for
the Partisan Review and The Nation, he became an early and literate proponent
of abstract expressionism. The well-heeled artist Robert Motherwell joined
Greenberg in promoting a style that fit the political climate and the intellectual
rebelliousness of the era.
Clement Greenberg proclaimed abstract expressionism and Jackson Pollock in
particular as the epitome of aesthetic value. It supported Pollock's work on
formalistic grounds as simply the best painting of its day and the culmination of an art tradition going back via
Cubism and Cézanne to Monet, in which painting became ever 'purer' and more concentrated in what was 'essential'
to it, the making of marks on a flat surface.[12]
Jackson Pollock's work has always polarised critics. Harold Rosenberg spoke of the transformation of painting into
an existential drama in Pollock's work, in which "what was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event". "The
big moment came when it was decided to paint 'just to paint'. The gesture on the canvas was a gesture of liberation
from value — political, aesthetic, moral."[13]
One of the most vocal critics of abstract expressionism at the time was New York Times art critic John Canaday.
Meyer Shapiro, and Leo Steinberg along with Clement Greenberg and Harold Rosenberg were important art
historians of the post-war era who voiced support for abstract expressionism. During the early to mid sixties younger
art critics Michael Fried, Rosalind Krauss and Robert Hughes added considerable insights into the critical dialectic
that continues to grow around abstract expressionism.
History
World War II and the Post-War period
During the period leading up to and during World War II modernist artists, writers, and poets, as well as important
collectors and dealers, fled Europe and the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those
who didn't flee perished. Among the artists and collectors who arrived in New York during the war (some with help
from Varian Fry) were Hans Namuth, Yves Tanguy, Kay Sage, Max Ernst, Jimmy Ernst, Peggy Guggenheim, Leo
Castelli, Marcel Duchamp, André Masson, Roberto Matta, André Breton, Marc Chagall, Jacques Lipchitz, Fernand
Léger and Piet Mondrian. A few artists, notably Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard remained in
France and survived. The post-war period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval with an urgency to economically
and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris, formerly the center of European culture and capital of the
art world, the climate for art was a disaster and New York replaced Paris as the new center of the art world. In
Europe after the war there was the continuation of Surrealism, Cubism, Dada and the works of Matisse. Also in
Europe, Art brut,[14] and Lyrical Abstraction or Tachisme (the European equivalent to Abstract expressionism) took
Abstract expressionism
hold of the newest generation. Serge Poliakoff, Nicolas de Staël, Georges Mathieu, Vieira da Silva, Jean Dubuffet,
Yves Klein and Pierre Soulages among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting. In the
United States a new generation of American artists began to emerge and to dominate the world stage and they were
called Abstract Expressionists.
Gorky, Hofmann and Graham
The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American
Abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons
learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Miró,
Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great teachers in America
like Hans Hofmann from Germany and John D. Graham from Russia.
Graham's influence on American art during the early 1940s was
particularly visible in the work of Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning
and Jackson Pollock. Gorky's contributions to American and world art
are difficult to overestimate. His work as lyrical abstraction[16] [17] [18]
Arshile Gorky, The Liver is the Cock's Comb
[19] [20]
was a "new language.[16] He "lit the way for two generations of
(1944), oil on canvas, 73 1/4 x 98" (186 x 249
American artists".[16] The painterly spontaneity of mature works like
cm). Gorky was an Armenian-born American
painter who had a seminal influence on Abstract
"The Liver is the Cock's Comb". "The Betrothal II", and "One Year the
Expressionism. De Kooning said: "I met a lot of
Milkweed" immediately prefigured Abstract expressionism, and
artists — but then I met Gorky... He had an
leaders in the New York School have acknowledged Gorky's
extraordinary gift for hitting the nail on the head;
considerable influence. American artists also benefited from the
remarkable. So I immediately attached myself to
[15]
him and we became very good friends."
presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André
Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's
gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors. Hans Hofmann in particular as teacher, mentor and artist
was both important and influential to the development and success of Abstract Expressionism in the United States.
Among Hofmann's protege's was Clement Greenberg who became an enormously influential voice for American
painting and among his students was Lee Krasner who introduced her teacher Hans Hofmann to Jackson Pollock her
husband.
5
Abstract expressionism
6
Pollock and Abstract influences
During the late 1940s Jackson Pollock's radical approach to painting
revolutionized the potential for all Contemporary art that followed him. To some
extent, Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as
important as the work of art itself. Like Pablo Picasso's innovative reinventions
of painting and sculpture near the turn of the century via Cubism and constructed
sculpture, Pollock redefined what it was to produce art. His move away from
easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era
and to all that came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—the
placing of unstretched raw canvas on the floor where it could be attacked from
all four sides using artist materials and industrial materials; linear skeins of paint
dripped and thrown; drawing, staining, brushing; imagery and
non-imagery—essentially blasted artmaking beyond any prior boundary.
Abstract expressionism in general expanded and developed the definitions and
possibilities that artists had available for the creation of new works of art.
Hans Hofmann The Gate,
1959–1960. Hofmann's presence in
New York City and Provincetown as
a teacher and as an artist was
influential to the development of
American painting in the 1930s and
1940s.
The other Abstract expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new
breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock,
Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Mark Rothko, Philip Guston, Hans Hofmann,
Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Richard Pousette-Dart, Robert
Motherwell, Peter Voulkos and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed
them. The new art movements of the 1960s essentially followed the lead of Abstract Expressionism and in particular
the innovations of Pollock, De Kooning, Rothko, Hofmann, Reinhardt and Newman. The radical Anti-Formalist
movements of the 1960s and 1970s including Fluxus, Neo-Dada, Conceptual art and the Feminist movement can be
traced to the innovations of Abstract Expressionism. Rereadings into abstract art, done by art historians such as
Linda Nochlin,[21] Griselda Pollock [22] and Catherine de Zegher [23] critically shows, however, that pioneer women
artists who have produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by the official accounts of its history,
but finally began to achieve long overdue recognition in the wake of the abstract expressionist movement of the
1940s and 1950s.
Action painting
The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early 1960s, and is
closely associated with abstract expressionism (some critics have used
the terms action painting and abstract expressionism interchangeably).
A comparison is often drawn between the American action painting
and the French tachisme.
The term was coined by the American critic Harold Rosenberg in
1952[24] and signaled a major shift in the aesthetic perspective of New
York School painters and critics. According to Rosenberg the canvas
was "an arena in which to act". While abstract expressionists such as
Franz Kline, Painting Number 2, 1954, The
Jackson Pollock, Franz Kline and Willem de Kooning had long been
Museum of Modern Art
outspoken in their view of a painting as an arena within which to come
to terms with the act of creation, earlier critics sympathetic to their cause, like Clement Greenberg, focused on their
works' "objectness." To Greenberg, it was the physicality of the paintings' clotted and oil-caked surfaces that was the
key to understanding them as documents of the artists' existential struggle.
Abstract expressionism
Rosenberg's critique shifted the emphasis from the object to the struggle itself, with the finished painting being only
the physical manifestation, a kind of residue, of the actual work of art, which was in the act or process of the
painting's creation. This spontaneous activity was the "action" of the painter, through arm and wrist movement,
painterly gestures, brushstrokes, thrown paint, splashed, stained, scumbled and dripped. The painter would
sometimes let the paint drip onto the canvas, while rhythmically dancing, or even standing in the canvas, sometimes
letting the paint fall according to the subconscious mind, thus letting the unconscious part of the psyche assert and
express itself. All this, however, is difficult to explain or interpret because it is a supposed unconscious manifestation
of the act of pure creation.[25]
Abstract expressionism has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, rather
nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite
different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist. Pollock's energetic
action paintings, with their "busy" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to the violent and grotesque
Women series of Willem de Kooning. (As seen below in the gallery) Woman V is one of a series of six paintings
made by de Kooning between 1950 and 1953 that depict a three-quarter-length female figure. He began the first of
these paintings, Woman I, collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, in June 1950, repeatedly
changing and painting out the image until January or February 1952, when the painting was abandoned unfinished.
The art historian Meyer Schapiro saw the painting in de Kooning's studio soon afterwards and encouraged the artist
to persist. De Kooning's response was to begin three other paintings on the same theme; Woman II, collection: The
Museum of Modern Art, New York City, Woman III, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Woman IV,
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri. During the summer of 1952, spent at East Hampton, de
Kooning further explored the theme through drawings and pastels. He may have finished work on Woman I by the
end of June, or possibly as late as November 1952, and probably the other three women pictures were concluded at
much the same time.[26] The Woman series are decidedly figurative paintings.
Another important artist is Franz Kline, as demonstrated by his painting Number 2, 1954 (see above) as with Jackson
Pollock and other Abstract Expressionists, was labelled an "action painter because of his seemingly spontaneous and
intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brush strokes and use of canvas.
Automatic writing was an important vehicle for action painters Franz Kline in his black and white paintings, Jackson
Pollock, Mark Tobey and Cy Twombly who used gesture, surface, and line to create calligraphic, linear symbols and
skeins that resemble language, and resonate as powerful manifestations from the collective unconscious.[27] Robert
Motherwell in his Elegy to the Spanish Republic series also painted powerful black and white paintings using
gesture, surface and symbol evoking powerful emotional charges.
While other action painters notably Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Norman Bluhm, Joan Mitchell, and James
Brooks (see gallery) used imagery via either abstract landscape or as expressionistic visions of the figure to articulate
their highly personal and powerful evocations. James Brooks' paintings were particularly poetic and highly prescient
in relationship to Lyrical Abstraction that became prominent in the late 1960s and the 1970s.[28]
7
Abstract expressionism
8
Color field
Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb (see gallery) and the
serenely shimmering blocks of color in Mark Rothko's work (which is
not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko
denied was abstract), are classified as abstract expressionists, albeit
from what Clement Greenberg termed the Color field direction of
abstract expressionism. Both Hans Hofmann (see gallery) and Robert
Motherwell (gallery) can be comfortably described as practitioners of
action painting and Color field painting. In the 1940s Richard
Pousette-Dart's tightly constructed imagery often depended upon
themes of mythology and mysticism; as did the paintings of Adolph
Gottlieb, and Jackson Pollock in that decade as well.
Clyfford Still, 1957-D No. 1. During the 1950s
Still's paintings were characterized as being
related to Color Fields
Color Field painting initially referred to a particular type of abstract
expressionism, especially the work of Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Robert Motherwell, Adolph
Gottlieb, Ad Reinhardt and several series of paintings by Joan Miró. Art critic Clement Greenberg perceived Color
Field painting as related to but different from Action painting. The Color Field painters sought to rid their art of
superfluous rhetoric. Artists like Robert Motherwell, Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Adolph Gottlieb, Hans Hofmann,
Helen Frankenthaler, Sam Francis, Mark Tobey (see gallery) and especially Barnett Newman whose masterpiece Vir
heroicus sublimis is in the collection of MoMA and Ad Reinhardt used greatly reduced references to nature, and they
painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable
imagery. In the case of Rothko and Gottlieb sometimes using symbol and sign as replacement of imagery. Certain
artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general color field painting presents abstraction as an end in
itself. In pursuing this direction of modern art, artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive,
monolithic image.
In distinction to the emotional energy and gestural surface marks of Abstract Expressionists such as Jackson Pollock
and Willem de Kooning, the Color Field painters initially appeared to be cool and austere, effacing the individual
mark in favor of large, flat areas of color, which these artists considered to be the essential nature of visual
abstraction, along with the actual shape of the canvas, which later in the 1960s Frank Stella in particular achieved in
unusual ways with combinations of curved and straight edges. However Color Field painting has proven to be both
sensual and deeply expressive albeit in a different way from gestural Abstract expressionism.
Although Abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were
New York City and California, especially in the New York School, and the San Francisco Bay area. Abstract
expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an "all-over" approach, in
which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the
edges). The canvas as the arena became a credo of Action painting, while the integrity of the picture plane became a
credo of the Color field painters.
Abstract expressionism
9
In the 1960s after abstract expressionism
In abstract painting during the 1950s and 1960s several new directions like
Hard-edge painting exemplified by John McLaughlin expland other forms of
Geometric abstraction, as a reaction against the subjectivism of Abstract
expressionism began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles.
Clement Greenberg became the voice of Post-painterly abstraction; by curating
an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums
throughout the United States in 1964. Color field painting, Hard-edge painting
and Lyrical Abstraction[29] emerged as radical new directions.
Abstract expressionism and the Cold War
Since the mid 1970s it has been argued by revisionist historians that the style
attracted the attention, in the early 1950s, of the CIA, who saw it as
representative of the USA as a haven of free thought and free markets, as well as
Barnett Newman, Who's Afraid of
Red, Yellow and Blue?, 1966.
a challenge to both the socialist realist styles prevalent in communist nations and
Typical of Newman's later work,
the dominance of the European art markets.[30] The book by Frances Stonor
with the use of pure and vibrant
Saunders,[31] The Cultural Cold War—The CIA and the World of Arts and
color.
Letters,[32] published in the UK as Who Paid the Piper?: CIA and the Cultural
Cold War, details how the CIA financed and organized the promotion of
American abstract expressionists as part of cultural imperialism via the Congress for Cultural Freedom from
1950–67. Against this revisionist tradition, an essay by Michael Kimmelman, chief art critic of The New York Times,
called Revisiting the Revisionists: The Modern, Its Critics and the Cold War, argue that much of this information (as
well as the revisionists' interpretation of it) concerning what was happening on the American art scene during the
1940s and 50s is flatly false, or at best (contrary to the revisionists' avowed historiographic principles)
decontextualized . Other books on the subject include Art in the Cold War by Christine Lindey, which also describes
the art of the Soviet Union at the same time; and Pollock and After edited by Francis Frascina, which reprinted the
Kimmelman article.
Consequences
Canadian artist Jean-Paul Riopelle (1923–2002) helped introduce abstract impressionism to Paris in the 1950s.
Michel Tapié's groundbreaking book, Un Art Autre (1952), was also enormously influential in this regard. Tapié was
also a curator and exhibition organizer who promoted the works of Pollock and Hans Hofmann in Europe. By the
1960s, the movement's initial affect had been assimilated, yet its methods and proponents remained highly influential
in art, affecting profoundly the work of many artists who followed. Abstract Expressionism preceded Tachisme,
Color Field painting, Lyrical Abstraction, Fluxus, Pop Art, Minimalism, Postminimalism, Neo-expressionism, and
the other movements of the sixties and seventies and it influenced all those later movements that evolved.
Movements which were direct responses to, and rebellions against abstract expressionism began with Hard-edge
painting (Frank Stella, Robert Indiana and others) and Pop artists, notably Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg and Roy
Lichtenstein who achieved prominence in the US, accompanied by Richard Hamilton in Britain. Robert
Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns in the US formed a bridge between abstract expressionism and Pop art. Minimalism
was exemplified by artists such as Donald Judd, Robert Mangold and Agnes Martin.
However, many painters, such as Jules Olitski, Jane Frank (a pupil of Hans Hofmann), and Antoni Tàpies continued
to work in the abstract expressionist style for many years, extending and expanding its visual and philosophical
implications, as many abstract artists continue to do today, in styles described as Lyrical Abstraction,
Neo-expressionist and others.
Abstract expressionism
10
Major paintings and sculpture
Richard Pousette-Dart,
Symphony No. 1, The
Transcendental, 1941-42
Mark Tobey,
Canticle,
1954. Tobey,
like Pollock,
was known
for his
calligraphic
style of
allover
compositions.
Helen Frankenthaler, Mountains
and Sea, 1952
Sam
Francis,
Black and
Red,
1950–1953
James Brooks, 1957,
Tate Gallery
Isamu
Noguchi,
Red
Untitled,
red Persian
travertine
sculpture,
1965-1966,
Honolulu
Academy
of Arts
Robert Motherwell, Elegy to the
Spanish Republic No. 110 1971
Mark di Suvero, Aurora,
1992-1993
Hans Burkhardt, Untitled, 1950
Abstract expressionism
11
List of abstract expressionists
Major artists
• Significant artists whose mature work defined American Abstract Expressionism:
•
Charles Alston
•
Edward Dugmore
•
Franz Kline
•
Fuller Potter
•
Mark Tobey
•
Alice Baber
•
Friedel Dzubas
•
Albert Kotin
•
Richard Pousette-Dart •
Bradley Walker Tomlin
•
William Baziotes
•
Jimmy Ernst
•
Lee Krasner
•
Ad Reinhardt
•
Cy Twombly
•
Norman Bluhm
•
Herbert Ferber
•
Ibram Lassaw
•
Milton Resnick
•
Jack Tworkov
•
Louise Bourgeois
•
Perle Fine
•
Norman Lewis
•
George Rickey
•
Esteban Vicente
•
Ernest Briggs
•
Sam Francis
•
Richard Lippold
•
Jean Paul Riopelle
•
Peter Voulkos
•
James Brooks
•
Jane Frank
•
Seymour Lipton
•
William Ronald
•
Hale Woodruff
•
Fritz Bultman
•
Helen Frankenthaler •
Morris Louis
•
Theodore Roszak
•
Emerson Woelffer
•
Hans Burkhardt
•
Michael Goldberg
•
Conrad Marca-Relli •
Mark Rothko
•
Taro Yamamoto
•
Jack Bush
•
Robert Goodnough
•
Nicholas Marsicano •
Anne Ryan
•
Manouchehr Yektai
•
Alexander Calder
•
Arshile Gorky
•
Mercedes Matter
•
Louis Schanker
•
Nicolas Carone
•
Adolph Gottlieb
•
Joan Mitchell
•
Jon Schueler
•
Giorgio Cavallon
•
Morris Graves
•
Robert Motherwell
•
Charles Seliger
•
John Chamberlain
•
Cleve Gray
•
Louise Nevelson
•
Harold Shapinsky
•
Elaine de Kooning
•
Philip Guston
•
Barnett Newman
•
David Smith
•
Willem de Kooning •
David Hare
•
Isamu Noguchi
•
Theodoros Stamos
•
Robert De Niro, Sr.
•
Grace Hartigan
•
Kenzo Okada
•
Joe Stefanelli
•
Richard Diebenkorn •
Hans Hofmann
•
Stephen Pace
•
Hedda Sterne
•
Mark di Suvero
•
Paul Jenkins
•
Ray Parker
•
Clyfford Still
•
Enrico Donati
•
Earl Kerkam
•
Jackson Pollock
•
Alma Thomas
Other artists
• Significant artists whose mature work relates to American Abstract Expressionism:
•
Karel Appel
•
Hans Hartung
•
Robert Rauschenberg
•
James Bohary
•
Gino Hollander
•
Larry Rivers
•
William Brice
•
Jasper Johns
•
Jack Roth
•
Charles Ragland Bunnell
•
Karl Kasten
•
Pablo Serrano
•
Mary Callery
•
Michael Loew
•
Aaron Siskind
•
Edward Clark
•
John Levee
•
Pierre Soulages
•
Donald Cole
•
Knox Martin
•
Nicolas de Staël
•
Alfred L. Copley aka (L. Alcopley) •
Georges Mathieu
•
Frank Stella
•
Jean Dubuffet
•
Herbert Matter
•
Stuart Sutcliffe
•
Lynne Drexler
•
Edward Meneeley •
Augustus Vincent Tack
•
Lucio Fontana
•
Ludwig Merwart
•
Antoni Tàpies
[33]
•
Herbert Gentry
•
Jan Müller
•
Nína Tryggvadóttir
•
Sam Gilliam
•
Robert Natkin
•
Don Van Vliet
•
John D. Graham
•
Jules Olitski
•
Ulfert Wilke
•
Elaine Hamilton
•
Irene Rice-Pereira •
Zao Wou Ki
Abstract expressionism
References
[1] Hess, Barbara; "Abstract Expressionism", 2005
[2] Shapiro, David/Cecile (2000): Abstract Expressionism. The politics of apolitical painting. p. 189-190 In: Frascina, Francis (2000): Pollock
and After. The critical debate. 2nd ed. London: Routledge
[3] Catherine de Zegher and Hendel Teicher (eds.). 3 X Abstraction. NY: The Drawing Center and /New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005.
[4] Serge Gibalt. How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art, University of Chicago Press, 1983.
[5] Marika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ oclc/
50253062& tab=holdings) (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4 pp12-13
[6] Marika Herskovic, New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists, (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ oclc/ 50666793&
tab=holdings) (New York School Press, 2000.) ISBN 0-9677994-0-6 p.11-12
[7] Abstract Expressionism, by Barbara Hess, Taschen, 2005, back cover
[8] Thomas B. Hess, "Willem de Kooning", George Braziller, Inc. New York, 1959 p.:13
[9] William C. Seitz, Mark Tobey by William C. Seitz, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1962. (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ oclc/
5750568& referer=brief_results)
[10] Barnett Newman Selected Writings and Interviews, (ed.) by John P. O'Neill, pgs.: 240-241, University of California Press, 1990
[11] Barnett Newman Selected Writings Interviews, (ed.) by John P. O'Neill, p.: 201, University of California Press, 1990.
[12] Clement Greenberg, "Art and Culture Critical essays", ("The Crisis of the Easel Picture"), Beacon Press, 1961 pp.:154-157
[13] Harold Rosenberg, The Tradition of the New, Chapter 2, "The American Action Painter", pp.:23-39
[14] Jean Dubuffet: L’Art brut préféré aux arts culturels [1949](=engl in: Art brut. Madness and Marginalia, special issue of Art & Text, No. 27,
1987, p. 31-33)
[15] Willem de Kooning (1969) by Thomas B. Hess
[16] Dorment, Richard. "Arshile Gorky: A Retrospective at Tate Modern, review" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ culture/ art/ art-reviews/
7190303/ Arshile-Gorky-A-Retrospective-at-Tate-Modern-review. html), The Daily Telegraph, 8 February 2010. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
[17] Art Daily (http:/ / www. artdaily. org/ section/ news/ index. asp?int_sec=11& int_new=36171& int_modo=1) retrieved May 24, 2010
[18] "L.A. Art Collector Caps Two Year Pursuit of Artist with Exhibition of New Work" (http:/ / artdaily. org/ index. asp?int_sec=2&
int_new=37112), ArtDaily. Retrieved 26 May 2010. "Lyrical Abstraction ... has been applied at times to the work of Arshile Gorky"
[19] "Arshile Gorky: A Retrospective" (http:/ / www. tate. org. uk/ about/ pressoffice/ pressreleases/ 2010/ 21322. htm), Tate, February 9, 2010.
Retrieved June 5, 2010.
[20] Van Siclen, Bill. "Art scene by Bill Van Siclen: Part-time faculty with full-time talent" (http:/ / www. projo. com/ art/ content/
projo_20030710_artwrap10. 5e2b3. html), The Providence Journal, July 10, 2003. Retrieved June 10, 2010.
[21] Nochlin, Linda, Ch.1 in: Women Artists at the Millennium (edited by C. Armstrong and C. de Zegher) MIT Press, 2006.
[22] Pollock, Griselda, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge, 2007.
[23] De Zegher, Catherine, and Teicher, Hendel (eds.), 3 X Abstraction. New Haven: Yale University Press. 2005.
[24] Rosenberg, Harold. "The American Action Painters" (http:/ / www. poetrymagazines. org. uk/ magazine/ record. asp?id=9798).
poetrymagazines.org.uk. . Retrieved 20 August 2006.
[25] based (very) loosely on a lecture by Fred Orton at the Uni of Leeds and H. Geldzahler, New York Painting and Sculpture: 1940-1970, NY
1969
[26] NGA.gov.au (http:/ / www. nga. gov. au/ International/ Catalogue/ Detail. cfm?IRN=47761& BioArtistIRN=25281& MnuID=2& GalID=1),
National Gallery of Australia
[27] Collective unconscious
[28] The Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art, Lyrical Abstraction, exhibition: April 5 through June 7, 1970, Statement of the exhibition
[29] Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America, v.57, n6, November–December 1969, pp.104-113.
[30] CIA and AbEx (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ world/ modern-art-was-cia-weapon-1578808. html) Retrieved November 7, 2010
[31] Ratical.org (http:/ / www. ratical. org/ ratville/ CAH/ CIAcultCW. html)
[32] Worldcatlibraries.org (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ wcpa/ oclc/ 43114251?loc=#tabs)
[33] Pattan, S. F. (1998) African American Art, New York: Oxford University Press
12
Abstract expressionism
Books
• Anfam, David. Abstract Expressionism (New York & London: Thames & Hudson, 1990). ISBN 0-500-20243-5
• Craven, David, Abstract expressionism as cultural critique: dissent during the McCarthy period (http://www.
worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/39523558&tab=holdings) (Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press,
1999.) ISBN 0-521-43415-7
• Marika Herskovic, American Abstract and Figurative Expressionism: Style Is Timely Art Is Timeless (http://
www.worldcat.org/search?qt=worldcat_org_bks&q=9780967799421&fq=dt:bks) (New York School Press,
2009.) ISBN 978-0-9677994-2-1
• Marika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, (http://www.
worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/50253062&tab=holdings) (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4
• Marika Herskovic, New York School Abstract Expressionists Artists Choice by Artists, (http://www.
worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/50666793&tab=holdings) (New York School Press, 2000.) ISBN 0-9677994-0-6
• Serge Guilbaut. How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art, University of Chicago Press, 1983.
Bibliography
• Saunders, Frances Stonor, The cultural cold war: the CIA and the world of arts and letters (http://www.
worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/43114251&referer=brief_results) (New York: New Press: Distributed by W.W.
Norton & Co., 2000) ISBN 1-56584-596-X
• O'Connor, Francis V. Jackson Pollock (http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/165852&referer=brief_results)
[exhibition catalogue] (New York, Museum of Modern Art, [1967]) OCLC 165852
• The Philosophy and Politics of Abstract Expressionism 1940-1960 Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom, 2000 ISBN 0-521-65154-9
• Tapié, Michel. Hans Hofmann: peintures 1962 : 23 avril-18 mai 1963. (http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/
62515192&referer=brief_results) (Paris: Galerie Anderson-Mayer, 1963.) [exhibition catalogue and
commentary] OCLC: 62515192
• Tapié, Michel. Pollock (http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/30601793?tab=details) (Paris, P. Facchetti,
1952) OCLC: 30601793
• Jeffrey Wechsler (2007). Pathways and Parallels: Roads to Abstract Expressionism. New York: Hollis Taggart
Galleries. ISBN 0-9759954-9-9.
• Anfam, David. Abstract Expressionism—A World Elsewhere. New York: Haunch of Venison, 2008,
Haunchofvenison.com (http://www.haunchofvenison.com/en/#page=home.shop.books.
abstract_expressionism)
Quotations about abstract expressionism
• Abstract Expressionist value expression over perfection, vitality over finish, fluctuation over repose, the unknown
over the known, the veiled over the clear, the individual over society and the inner over the outer.
• William C. Seitz,American artist and art historian
External links
•
•
•
•
Jackson Pollock (http://www.terraingallery.org/Jackson-Pollock-Ambition-DK.html)
Louis Schanker (http://www.louisschanker.info)
Philip Guston (http://www.aestheticrealism.org/Philip_Guston/Philip_Guston.html)
Perle Fine (http://www.perlefine.com)
• Perle Fine Abstract Expressionism-1950s New York action painter' (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=yqUORQW8lHQ)- video from youtube.com
13
Abstract expressionism
• Albert Kotin (http://www.albertkotin.com)
• Albert Kotin Abstract Expressionism 1950s-New York School 1950s action painting (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=iN_tQlGdLe8)— video from youtube.com
• James Brooks Abstract Expressionist painter 1906-1992 (http://www.jamesbrooks.org/)
• James Brooks Abstract Expressionsim-New York School 1950s (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=McBpuNIyOWM)-video from youtube.com
• American Abstract Artists (http://www.americanabstractartists.org)
• Beginning of the New York School 1950s-Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=yeUX9ICyLaQ)— video from youtube.com 13:06
• Clyfford Still Museum (http://www.clyffordstillmuseum.org/)
• Abstract expressionism 1950s-New York School Artists of the 9th St Show Reminisce (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=twshPjpOzzU)—video from youtube.com 13:34
• 9th Street Art Exhibition-abstract expressionist artists reminisce (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=9R6cnawfnCI)—video from youtube.com 9:27
• Nicolas Carone-Abstract Expressionism-Artist of the 9th St. Show (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=J-kMxtJ0GfA)—video from youtube.com
• Conrad Marca-Relli Abstract Expressionism 1950s-New York School collage-painter (http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=gGJergg0zvo)— video from youtube.com
• Robert Richenburg Abstract Expressionism 1950s-New York School 1950s (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=FkjUToTZAQM)— video from youtube.com
• Joe Stefanelli Abstract Expressionism 1950s-New York School 1950s (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=m-V3LqRMv1w)— video from youtube.com
14
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Abstract expressionism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426142392 Contributors: 1717, ALoveSupreme, Abstract8, Academic Challenger, Ae1.wiki, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias,
Akradecki, Akriasas, Alex contributing, Aliciapenelope, Allreet, Alp1776, Alpinwolf, Alsandro, Alt212, Anastrophe, Andrew28913, Andreworkney, Andrewsey, Anetode, Arterial, Artifactindex,
Artreseachart, Az1568, Baoutrust, Being & becoming, Betterusername, Bookgrrl, Bus stop, Caitosarts, Camembert, Cesca1910, Chuunen Baka, Cindamuse, Citicat, Cmdrjameson, Colonies
Chris, CommonsDelinker, Corvus cornix, Cowboy456, Cuchullain, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVD R W, DW, Danny, Danwalk, Darklilac, Darkwind, Darlingtonart, David Gale, David Shankbone,
Daydreamer6928, Defence321, Dekisugi, DerHexer, DigitalC, DivGirl78, Dk321, Drszucker, Dryman, Duncanssmith, Durham1984, Egmontaz, Er a wikipiki wiki wum, Eric Winesett,
Ethicoaestheticist, Everyking, Farras Octara, FayssalF, Flyty, Fontgirl, Fram, Fratrep, Freshacconci, Funandtrvl, GT5162, Gaius Cornelius, Genex1, Gimmetrow, Goethean, Grantbw, Gregbard,
Gökhan, Hephaestos, HisSpaceResearch, Hubertfarnsworth, Hyacinth, Ichthys58, Indopug, J Milburn, JHMM13, JNW, JSpung, James Ervin May, James Woodstuff, Jengod, JeremyA,
JoeStrange27, Joel Finsel, John Ellsworth, John of Reading, Jonathan.s.kt, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joyous!, Jpquist, Jusdafax, Justin Foote, Katieh5584, Katvaara, Ken Gallager, Knowledge4all,
Knulclunk, Kunstnetje, Kwamikagami, Kwork2, L Kensington, Leafs252, Leafyplant, Leonard G., Lestrade, Leszek Jańczuk, Levi69, Lidya, Lightmouse, Ling.Nut, Lotje, Lounflo, Lusitana,
MA3ARG, MNartist, Mafmafmaf, Magister109, Malick78, Man vyi, Mandarax, Mareino, Marika Herskovic, Marlengonzalez, Martarius, MarylandArtLover, Maslauskas, Mattisse, Mayfly may
fly, Mcdonal6, Mentifisto, Mettimeline, Mgpie, Mike Lawrence Turner, Minderbinder, Mloew, Modernist, Mr.Clicky, Mrdanielpartridge, Mrshaba, Nabla, Nagy, Natcheznme, Navstar, Nburden,
Nektai, Neurolysis, Nimish Gautam, Nlu, Nolomotm, Norcalal, Nuvainmealina, Nyeditor, OldakQuill, OnBeyondZebrax, Onegin1, Onionmon, Orlady, Paloma747, Parent5446, Philip Cross,
Photoart77, Pingveno, Pink!Teen, Planetneutral, Precious Roy, R'n'B, R.123, Range kingrj, Rasmus Faber, Raven in Orbit, RedWolf, Redthoreau, Research Method, RexNL, Riana, Rich
Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RobertG, Rocator, Rocknrollsnob, Rocksaid82, Rodney Boyd, Ronwebber, RoyBoy, Rumiton, SDC, Salmon1, Saposapo, Saravask, Sardanaphalus, Schwnj, ScottSteiner,
Sdlc, Seaphoto, Seidenstud, Setwisohi, Shannonshead, Shimgray, SimonP, Sionus, Sir Richardson, Skizzik, Slawojarek, Sluzzelin, Sparkit, Spinster, Stevage, Stevertigo, Storm Rider,
Stwalkerster, Suicidalhamster, Suicidalsos, Swortis, Taxisfolder, Teles, The Phantom Blot, TheKid, Thejewishmuseum, Tide rolls, Tjmayerinsf, Tobias Bergemann, Trusilver, Twotimes,
Tyrenius, Usability 3, VMS Mosaic, Val mond, Versus22, Vianello, Viriditas, VisualGent, Waldemar smolarek art, Warofdreams, Wbkelley, Westviler, Wik, WikiArchitect, Wocdocdingo,
Woohookitty, Wowmom1980, Xeno, Yasuimichael, Zsinj, 477 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
Image:No. 5, 1948.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:No._5,_1948.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Diannaa, Ethicoaestheticist, Gilliam, J Milburn, Mareino,
Mechamind90, Modernist, Reguiieee, Rettetast, Rizalninoynapoleon, The Master of Mayhem, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Tyrenius, 15 anonymous edits
Image:SMITH CUBI VI.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SMITH_CUBI_VI.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Gerardus, Gryffindor, J Milburn,
Look2See1, Talmoryair
Image:Jane Frank Crags And Crevices.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jane_Frank_Crags_And_Crevices.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Harmvandendorpel,
MarylandArtLover, Mechamind90, Modernist, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Kooning woman v.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kooning_woman_v.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Mechamind90, Melesse, Modernist,
Philosophistry, Sparkit, Stan Shebs, VegitaU, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Newman-Onement 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Newman-Onement_1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Cactus.man, Mechamind90, Modernist
File:Gorky-The-Liver.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gorky-The-Liver.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Mechamind90, Modernist, Tyrenius
Image:Hans Hofmann's painting 'The Gate', 1959–60.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hans_Hofmann's_painting_'The_Gate',_1959–60.jpg License: unknown
Contributors: Modernist, Wpearl, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Kline no2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kline_no2.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Araignee, Ethicoaestheticist, Modernist, Philosophistry, Ray
Chason, Sparkit, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Still 1957 D1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Still_1957_D1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Ethicoaestheticist, Knulclunk, Modernist, Sparkit
Image:Newman-Who's Afraid of Red, Yellow and Blue.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Newman-Who's_Afraid_of_Red,_Yellow_and_Blue.jpg License: unknown
Contributors: Cactus.man, Lithoderm, Modernist
Image:'Symphony No. 1, The Transcendental', oil on canvas painting by Richard Pousette-Dart, 1941-42, Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:'Symphony_No._1,_The_Transcendental',_oil_on_canvas_painting_by_Richard_Pousette-Dart,_1941-42,_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg
License: unknown Contributors: Melesse, Modernist, PhilKnight, Wmpearl
Image:'Canticle', casein on paper by Mark Tobey, 1954.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:'Canticle',_casein_on_paper_by_Mark_Tobey,_1954.jpg License:
unknown Contributors: Franamax, Modernist, Wmpearl, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Frankenthaler_Helen_Mountains and Sea_1952.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frankenthaler_Helen_Mountains_and_Sea_1952.jpg License: unknown
Contributors: Modernist, Sparkit, Stan Shebs
Image:Oil painting by Sam Francis.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oil_painting_by_Sam_Francis.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Modernist, Wmpearl
Image:'Boon' oil on canvas painting by James Brooks, 1957, Tate Gallery.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:'Boon'_oil_on_canvas_painting_by_James_Brooks,_1957,_Tate_Gallery.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Melesse, Modernist, PhilKnight,
Wmpearl
Image:'Red Untitled' red Persian travertine sculpture by --Isamu Noguchi--, 1965-1966, --Honolulu Academy of Arts--.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:'Red_Untitled'_red_Persian_travertine_sculpture_by_--Isamu_Noguchi--,_1965-1966,_--Honolulu_Academy_of_Arts--.jpg License: unknown
Contributors: Melesse, Modernist, Rjwilmsi, Seresin, Skier Dude, Voyaging, Wmpearl
Image:Robert Motherwell's 'Elegy to the Spanish Republic No. 110'.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_Motherwell's_'Elegy_to_the_Spanish_Republic_No._110'.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Modernist, Wpearl, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Aurora Mark di Suvero.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aurora_Mark_di_Suvero.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:AndyZ
Image:Hans Burkhardt's untitled, 1950.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hans_Burkhardt's_untitled,_1950.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors:
User:MA3ARG
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/
15